diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-8.txt | 5078 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 102229 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 2629388 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/15417-h.htm | 5182 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/11a.png | bin | 0 -> 4840 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/11b.png | bin | 0 -> 6818 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/11c.png | bin | 0 -> 9101 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/11d.png | bin | 0 -> 6710 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/13a.png | bin | 0 -> 228216 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/13a_th.png | bin | 0 -> 55246 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/13b.png | bin | 0 -> 37586 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/14a.png | bin | 0 -> 222465 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/14a_th.png | bin | 0 -> 32377 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/14b-1.png | bin | 0 -> 14538 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/14b-2.png | bin | 0 -> 8934 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/14c.png | bin | 0 -> 10984 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/14d.png | bin | 0 -> 11564 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/15a.png | bin | 0 -> 174208 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/15a_th.png | bin | 0 -> 46140 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/1a.png | bin | 0 -> 205807 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/1a_th.png | bin | 0 -> 41537 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/3a.png | bin | 0 -> 227733 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/3a_th.png | bin | 0 -> 61014 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/4a.png | bin | 0 -> 7213 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/4b.png | bin | 0 -> 54312 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/4b_th.png | bin | 0 -> 10992 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/4c.png | bin | 0 -> 288017 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/4c_th.png | bin | 0 -> 105142 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/6a.png | bin | 0 -> 156295 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/6a_th.png | bin | 0 -> 34914 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/6b.png | bin | 0 -> 14810 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/6c.png | bin | 0 -> 16567 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/7a.png | bin | 0 -> 14475 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/7b.png | bin | 0 -> 6550 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/7c.png | bin | 0 -> 6083 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/8a.png | bin | 0 -> 50017 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/8b.png | bin | 0 -> 207959 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/8b_th.png | bin | 0 -> 38775 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/title.png | bin | 0 -> 61003 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417-h/images/title_th.png | bin | 0 -> 38463 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417.txt | 5080 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15417.zip | bin | 0 -> 102194 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
45 files changed, 15356 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/15417-8.txt b/15417-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e63c2b --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5078 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XV., +No. 388, June 9, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XV., No. 388, June 9, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 20, 2005 [EBook #15417] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 388 + + + + +NEW YORK, June 9, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XV., No. 388. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ENGINEERING.--Farcot's Improved Woolf Compound Engine.--4 + figures. + + The "Swallow," a New Vehicle. + + Boring an Oil Well. + + A Cement Reservoir.--2 figures. + + "Flying." + + +II. TECHNOLOGY.--Iron and Steel.--By BARNARD SAMUELSON. + The world's production of pig iron.--Wonderful uses and demands + for iron and steel.--Progress of Bessemer steel.--Latest + improvements in iron making.--Honors and rewards to inventors. + --Growth of the Siemens-Martin process.--The future of iron and + steel.--Relations between employers and workmen. + + Machine for Grinding Lithographic Inks and Colors.--1 figure. + + A new Evaporating apparatus.--2 figures. + + Photo Plates.--Wet and Dry. + + Gelatino Bromide Emulsion with Bromide of Zinc. + + The Removal of Ammonia from Crude Gas. + +III. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Hair, its Uses and its Care. + The Influence of Effective Breathing in Delaying the Physical + Changes Incident to the Decline of Life, and in the Prevention + of Pneumonia. Consumption, and Diseases of Women.--By DAVID + WARK. M.D.--Pneumonia.--The true first stage of Consumption. The + development of tubercular matter in the blood.--The value of + cod-liver oil in the prevention of consumption.--The influence + of normal breathing on the female generative organs--Showing how + the breathing powers may be developed.--The effects of adequate + respiration in special cases. + + Vital Discoveries in Obstructed Air and Ventilation. + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--The Portrush Electric Railway, Ireland.--By Dr. + EDWARD HOPKINSON. + + The Thomson-Houston Electric Lighting System.--4 figures. + + A Modification of the Vibrating Bell.--2 figures. + +V. CHEMISTRY.--Acetate of Lime. + + Reconversion of Nitroglycerine into Glycerine. By C.L. BLOXAM. + + Carbonic Acid and Bisulphide of Carbon. By JOHN TYNDALL. + +VI. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.--Propagation of Maple Trees. + + Dioscorea Retusa.--Illustration. + + Ravages of a Rare Scolytid Beetle in the Sugar Maples of + Northeastern New York.--Several figures. + + The Red Spider. 4 figures. + + Japanese Peppermint. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Recent Eruption of Etna. + + The Heloderma Horridum.--Illustration. + + The Kangaroo. + +VIII. ARCHITECTURE.--Design for a Villa.--Illustration. + +IX. BIOGRAPHY.--William Spottiswoode.--Portrait. + +X. MISCELLANEOUS.--Physics without Apparatus.--Illustration. + + The Travels of the Sun. + + + + +FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE. + + +In a preceding article, we have described a ventilator which is in use +at the Decazeville coal mines, and which is capable of furnishing, per +second, 20 cubic meters of air whose pressure must be able to vary +between 30 and 80 millimeters. + +In order to actuate such an apparatus, it was necessary to have a +motor that was possessed of great elasticity, and that nevertheless +presented no complications incompatible with the application that was +to be made of it. + +In the ventilation of mines it has been demonstrated that the +theoretic power in kilogrammes necessary to displace a certain number +of cubic meters of air, at a pressure expressed in millimeters of +water, is obtained by multiplying one number by the other. Applying +this rule to the case of 20 cubic meters under a hydrostatic pressure +of 30 millimeters, we find: + + 20 × 30 = 600 kilogrammeters. + +In the case of a pressure of 80 millimeters, we have: + + 20 × 80 = 1,600 kilogrammeters. + +If we admit a product of 50 per cent., we shall have in the two cases, +for the power actually necessary: + + 600 + ---- = 1,200 kilogrammeters, or 16 H.P. + 0.05 + + 1,600 + ----- = 3,200 kilogrammeters, or 43 H.P. + 0.05 + +Such are the limits within which the power of the motor should be able +to vary. + +After successively examining all the different systems of engines now +in existence, and finding none which, in a plain form, was capable of +fulfilling the conditions imposed, Mr. E.D. Farcot decided to study +out one for himself. Almost from the very beginning of his researches +in this direction, he adopted the Woolf system, which is one that +permits of great variation in the expansion, and one in which the +steam under full pressure acts only upon the small piston. There are +many types of this engine in use, all of which present marked defects. +In one of them, the large cylinder is arranged directly over the small +one so as to have but a single rod for the two pistons; and the two +cylinders have then one bottom in common, which is furnished with a +stuffing-box in which the rod moves. With this arrangement we have but +a single connecting rod and a single crank for the shaft; but, the +stuffing-box not being accessible so that it can be kept in a clean +state, there occur after a time both leakages of steam and entrances +of air. + +Mr. Farcot has further simplified this last named type by suppressing +the intermediate partition, and consequently the stuffing-box. The +engine thus becomes direct acting, that is to say, the steam acts +first upon the lower surface of the small piston during its ascent, +and afterward expands in the large cylinder and exerts its pressure +upon the upper surface of the large piston during its descent. +Moreover, the expansion may be begun in the small cylinder, thanks to +the use of a slide plate distributing valve, devised by the elder +Farcot and slightly modified by the son. + +As the volume comprised between the two pistons varies with the +position of the latter, annoying counter-pressures might result +therefrom had not care been taken to put the chamber in communication +with a reservoir of ten times greater capacity, and which is formed by +the interior of the frame. This brings about an almost constant +counter-pressure. + +The type of motor under consideration, which we represent in the +accompanying plate, is possessed of remarkable simplicity. The number +of parts is reduced to the extremest limits; it works at high speed +without perceptible wear; it does not require those frequent repairs +that many other cheap engines do; and the expansion of the steam is +utilized without occasioning violent shocks in the parts which +transmit motion. Finally, the plainness of the whole apparatus is +perfectly in accordance with the uses for which it was devised. + +[Illustration: FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE.] + +_Details of Construction._--Figs. 1 and 2 represent the motor in +vertical section made in the direction of two planes at right angles. +Figs. 3 and 4 are horizontal sections made respectively in the +direction of the lines 1-2 and 3-4. + +The frame, which is of cast iron and entirely hollow, consists of two +uprights, B, connected at their upper part by a sort of cap, B¹, which +is cast in a piece with the two cylinders, C and _c_. The whole rests +upon a base, B², which is itself bolted to the masonry foundation. + +Each of the uprights is provided internally with projecting pieces for +receiving the guides between which slides the cross-head, _g_, of the +piston rod. The slides terminate in two lubricating cups designed for +oiling the surfaces submitted to friction. + +The cross-head carries two bearings, _g¹_, to which is jointed the +forked extremity, D, of the connecting rod, whose opposite extremity +receives a strap that embraces the cranked end of the driving shaft, +A. It will be remarked that the crank, A¹, and the bearings, _g¹_, +are very long. The end the inventor had in view in constructing them +thus was to diminish friction. + +To the shaft, A, are keyed the coupling disks, Q, which are cast solid +at a portion of their circumference situated at 180° with respect to +the parts, A², of the cranked shaft, the object of this being to +balance the latter as well as a portion of the connecting rod, D. + +The shaft, A, also receives the eccentric, E, of the slide valve, the +rod, _e_, of which is jointed to the slide valve rod through the +intermedium of a cross-head, _e¹_, analogous to that of the pistons, +and which, like the latter, runs on guides held by the support, b. + +The two pistons, _p_ and P, are mounted very simply on the rod, T, as +shown in Fig. 1, and slide in cylinders, _c_ and C, whose diameters +are respectively equal to 270 and 470 millimeters. + +The slide valve box, F, is bolted to the cap-piece, B¹, as seen in +Fig. 4. As for the slide valve, _t_, its arrangement may be +distinguished in section in Fig. 2. Its eccentric is keyed at 170° so +as to admit steam into the small cylinder during the entire travel, +which latter is 470 mm. + +To permit of the expansion beginning in the small cylinder, Mr. Farcot +has added a sliding plate, _t¹_, which abuts at every stroke against +the stops, _s_. These latter are affixed to the rod, S, whose lower +extremity is threaded, and which may be moved vertically, as slightly +as may be desired, through the medium of the pinions, S¹, when the +hand-wheel, V, is revolved. A datum point, _v_, and a graduated +socket, _v¹_, allow the position of the stops, _s_, and consequently +the degree of expansion, to be known. + +Steam is introduced into the small cylinder through the conduit, _i_, +and its passage into the large one is effected through the conduit, +_f_. The escape into the interior of the frame is effected, after +expansion, through the horizontal conduit, _h_. The pipe, H, leads +this exhaust steam to the open air. + +The pipe, I, leads steam into the jacket, C¹, of the large cylinder, +this latter being provided in addition with a casing of wood, C², so +as to completely prevent chilling. + +The regulator, R, is after the Büss pattern, and is set in motion by a +belt which runs over the pulleys, _a_ and _a¹_. It is mounted upon a +distributing box, R¹, to which steam is led from the boiler by the +pipe, _r¹_. After traversing this box, the steam enters the slide +valve box through the pipe, _r²_, its admission thereto being +regulated by the hand-wheel, R², which likewise serves for stopping +the engine. + +The cocks, _x_, are fixed at the base of the uprights, B, for drawing +from the frame the condensed water that has accumulated therein. + +The lubricating apparatus, V, which communicates, through the tube, +_u_, with the steam port, _r¹_, permits oil to be sent to the large +and small cylinders through the tubes, _u¹_ and _u²_. + +Mr. Farcot has recently adapted this type of motor to the direct +running of electric machines that are required to make 400 revolutions +per minute.--_Publication Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IRON AND STEEL. + + +At the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, London, the +president-elect (Mr. Bernard Samuelson, M.P.), delivered the following +inaugural address: + + +THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON. + +He showed that the world's production of pig iron has increased in +round numbers from 10,500,000 tons in 1869 to 20,500,000 tons in 1882. +The blast furnaces of 1869 produced on the average a little over 180 +tons per week, with a temperature of blast scarcely exceeding 800° +Fahr. The consumption of coke per ton of iron varied from 25 to 30 +cwt. To-day our blast furnaces produce on the average upward of 300 +tons per week. + +The Consett Company have reached a production of 3,400 tons in four +weeks, or 850 tons per week, and of 134 tons in one day from a single +furnace. + +From the United States we have authentic accounts of an average +production of 1,120 tons per furnace per week having been attained, +and that even this great output has lately been considerably exceeded +there. Both as to consumption of fuel and wear and tear, per ton of +iron produced, these enormous outputs are attended with economy. + + +HEAT OF THE BLAST. + +In the case of the Consett furnace they were obtained although the +heat of the blast was under 1,100° Fahr., while heats of 1,500° to +1,600° are not uncommon at the present day in brick stoves, thanks to +the application of the regenerating principle of ex-president Sir W. +Siemens. + +But an economy which promises to be of great importance is now sought +in the recovery and useful application of those constituents of coal +which, in the coking process, have hitherto been lost; or, as an +alternative, in a similar recovery in those cases in which the coal is +charged in a raw state into the blast furnace, as is the practice in +Scotland and elsewhere. This recovery of the hydrocarbons and the +nitrogen contained in the coal, and their collection as tar and +ammoniacal liquors, and subsequent conversion into sulphate of ammonia +as to the latter, and into the various light and heavy paraffin oils +and the residual pitch as to the former, have now been carried on for +a considerable time at two of the Gartsherrie furnaces; and they are +already engaged in applying the necessary apparatus to eight more +furnaces. In the coke oven the recovery of these by-products--if that +name can be properly applied to substances which yield the most +brilliant colors, the purest illuminants, and the flesh-forming +constituents supplied by the vegetable world--would appear at first +sight to be simpler; but it has presented its own peculiar +difficulties; the chief of which was, or was believed to be, a +deterioration in the quality of what has hitherto been the principal, +but what may, perhaps, come to be regarded hereafter as the residual +product, namely, the coke. But the more recent experience of Messrs. +Pease, at Crook, appears not to justify this opinion. You will see on +our table specimens of the coke produced in the Carves-Simon oven, +yielding 75 to 77 per cent. of coke from the Pease's West coal, which +they have now had at work for several months. Twenty-five of these +ovens are at work, and the average yield of ammoniacal liquor per ton +of coal has been 30 gallons of a strength of 7° Twaddell, valued at +1d. per gallon at the ovens; the quantity of tar per ton has been 7 +gallons, valued at 3d. per gallon. These products would therefore +realize 4s. 3d. per ton of coal. Of course the profit on the ton of +coke is considerably more, and to this has to be added the value of +the additional weight of coke, which in the ordinary beehive ovens +from coal of the same quality is only 60 per cent. or in beehive ovens +having bottom flues about 66 per cent., while in the Carves ovens it +is, as I have said, upward of 75 per cent. Against these figures there +is a charge of 1s. 4d. per ton of coke for additional labor, including +all the labor in collecting the by-products; the interest on the first +cost of the plant, which is considerable, and probably some outlay for +repairs in excess of that in the case of ordinary ovens, has also to +be charged. Mr. Jameson takes credit for the combustible gas, which is +used up in the Carves ovens, but which remains over in his process, +and is available, though not nearly all consumed, in raising steam for +the various purposes of a colliery, including, no doubt, before long, +the generation of electricity for its illumination. It is right to +state that prior to 1879 Mr. Henry Aitken had applied bottom flues for +taking off the oil and ammoniacal water to beehive ovens at the Almond +Ironworks, near Falkirk. He states that the largest quantity of oil +obtained was eleven gallons, the specific gravity varying from 0.925 +to 1.000, and that the water contained a quantity of ammonia fully +equal to 5½ lb. of sulphate of ammonia to the ton of coal coked. The +residual permanent or non-condensed gases were allowed to issue from +the end of the condenser pipe, and were burnt for light in the +engine-houses, but it was intended to force them into the oven again +above the level of the coke. Owing to the works being closed, nothing +has been done with these ovens for some years. I may mention, by the +way, that it is proposed to apply the principle of Mr. Jameson's +process to the recovery of oil and ammonia from the smouldering waste +heaps at the pit-bank, by the introduction into these of conduits +resembling those which he applies to the bottom of the beehive oven. +There is every reason to expect that one or more of these various +methods of utilizing valuable products which are at present lost will +be carried to perfection, and will tend to cheapen the cost at which +iron can be produced, and still further to increase its consumption +for all the multifarious purposes to which it is applied. + + +WONDERFUL USES AND DEMAND FOR IRON AND STEEL. + +But the world's annual production of 20,000,000 tons of pig iron is +itself sufficiently startling, and without attempting to present to +you the statistics of all its various uses--for which, in fact, we do +not possess the necessary materials--the increased consumption of more +than 9,000,000 tons since 1869 becomes conceivable when we consider +how some of the great works in which it is employed have been +extending during that or even a shorter interval. And of these I need +only speak of the world's railways, of which there were in 1872 +155,000 miles, and in 1882 not less than 260,000, but probably more +nearly 265,000 miles. In the United States alone about 60,000 miles +of railway have been built since 1869--the year, I may remind you in +passing, in which the Atlantic and Pacific States of the Union were +first united by a railway; while in our Indian Empire the +communication between Calcutta and Bombay was not completed till the +following year. + +The substitution of iron and steel for wood in the construction of +ships, and the enormous increase in the tonnage of the world, in spite +of the economy arising from the employment of steamers in place of +sailing ships, is perhaps the element of increased consumption next in +importance to that of railways. I do not think that the materials are +available for estimating with any accuracy the amount of this +increase, but I believe I am rather understating it if I take the +consumption of iron and steel used last year throughout the world in +shipbuilding as having required considerably more than 1,000,000 tons +of pig iron for its production, and that this is not far short of four +times the quantity used for the same purpose before 1870. And so all +the other great works in which iron and steel are employed have +increased throughout the world. It would be tedious to indicate them +all. + +Among those which rank next in importance to the preceding, I will +only name the works for the distribution of water and gas, which in +this country and in the United States have been extended in a ratio +far greater than that of the increase of the population, and which, +since the conclusion of the Franco-German war, and the consolidation +of the German and Italian States, are now to be found in almost every +European town of even secondary importance; and bridges and piers, in +the construction of which iron has almost entirely superseded every +other material. + +It is difficult to imagine what would have been the state of the iron +industry in this country if we had been called upon to supply our full +proportion of the enormously increased demand for iron. To meet that +proportion, the British production of pig iron should have been close +on 11,000,000 tons in 1882, a drain on our mineral resources which +cannot be replaced, and which, especially if continued in the same +ratio, would have been anything but desirable. Fortunately, as I am +disposed to think, other countries have contributed more than a +proportionate amount to the increase in the world's demand; and, +paradoxical as it may appear, it is possible that, to this country at +least, the encouragement given by protective duties to the production +of iron abroad may have been a blessing in disguise. + + +PROGRESS OF BESSEMER STEEL. + +To speak of the enormous increase in the production of steel by the +introduction of the Bessemer process has become a commonplace on +occasions like the present, and yet I doubt whether its real +dimensions are generally known or remembered. In 1869 the manufacture +of Bessemer steel had already acquired what was then looked upon as a +considerable development in all the principal centers of metallurgical +industry, except the United States, but including our own country, +Germany, France, and Austria, and the world's production in that year +was 400,000 tons. Last year it was over 5,000,000 tons, and it has +doubled in every steel-producing country during the last four years, +except in France, where, during this latter period, the increase has +not been much more than one-fourth. What is almost as remarkable as +the enormous increase in the production of Bessemer steel is the great +diminution in its cost. In the years preceding 1875, the price of +rails manufactured from Bessemer ingots fluctuated between £10 and £18 +per ton, and I remember Lord George Hamilton when he was +Under-Secretary for India of Lord Beaconsfield's administration in +1875 or 1876, congratulating himself on his good fortune in having +been able to secure a quantity of steel rails for the Indian +government at £13 per ton. Within the last three years we have seen +them sold under £4 10s. in this country, and £5 10s. in Germany and +Belgium. + + +LATEST IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MAKING. + +This great reduction is the cumulative result of a number of +concurrent improvements, partly in the conversion of the iron, and +partly in the subsequent treatment of the ingot steel. In most of the +great steelworks the iron is no longer remelted, but is transferred +direct from the blast furnace to the converter, a practice which +originated at Terre-Noire, and was long considered in this country to +be incompatible with uniformity in the quality of the steel produced. +The turn-out of the converter plant has been gradually increased in +this country to more than four times that of fourteen years ago, while +the practice of the United States is stated by a recent visitor to +have reached such an astounding figure that I am afraid to quote it +without confirmation; but the greatest economy arises no doubt in the +labor and fuel employed in the mill. + +Cogging has taken the place of hammering. Even wash-heating will be, +if it is not already, generally dispensed with by the soaking process +of our colleague, Mr. Gjers, which permits of the ingot, as it leaves +the pit, being directly converted into a rail. + + +STEEL RAILS 150 FEET LONG. + +An extract from a letter addressed to me by our colleague, Mr. E.W. +Richards, will describe better than any words of mine the perfection +at which steel rail mills have arrived. He says, "Our cogging rolls +are 48 in. diameter, and the roughing and finishing rolls are 30 in. +diameter. We roll rails 150 feet long as easily as they used to roll +21 feet. Our ingots are 15½ inches square, and weigh from 25 to 30 +cwts. according to the weight of rail we have to roll. These heavy +ingots are all handled by machinery. We convey them by small +locomotives from the Bessemer shop to the heating furnaces, and by the +same means from the heating furnaces to the cogging rolls. + +So quickly are these ingots now handled that we have given up second +heating altogether, so that after one heat the ingot is cogged from +15½ inches square down to 8 inches square, then at once passed on to +the roughing and finishing rolls, and finished in lengths, as I have +said before, of 150 ft., then cut at the hot saws to the lengths given +in the specifications, and varying from 38 ft. to about 21 ft. The 38 +ft. lengths are used by the Italian 'Meridionali' Railway Company, and +found to give very satisfactory results." I need scarcely say that in +a mill like this, the expenditure of fuel and labor and the loss by +waste caused by crop ends are reduced to a minimum. + + +BASIC STEEL. + +The enormous production of steel has required the importation of large +quantities of iron ore of pure quality from Spain, Algeria, and +elsewhere, into this country, France, Belgium, Germany, and the United +States; and these supplies have contributed greatly to the reduction +in the price of steel to which I have referred, and what is, perhaps, +of equal importance, they have prevented the great fluctuations of +price which formerly prevailed. In 1869 this trade was in its infancy, +and almost confined to the importation of the Algerian ores of Mokta +el Hadid into France, while in 1882 Bilbao alone exported 3,700,000 +tons of hematite ores to various countries to which the exports from +the south of Spain, Algeria, Elba, Greece, and other countries have to +be added. Great Britain alone imported 3,000,000 tons of high class, +including manganiferous iron ores last year. + +It is questionable whether the mines of pure iron existing in Europe +would long bear a drain so great and still increasing; but happily the +question no longer presses for an answer, because the problem of +obtaining first-class steel from inferior ores has been solved by the +genius of our colleagues, Mr. Snelus and Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist, +and by the practical skill and indomitable resolution of Mr. Windsor +Richards. It is no part of the duty of the Institute to assign to each +of these gentlemen his precise share in the development of the basic +process. Whatever those shares may be, I feel sure you will agree with +your council as to the propriety of their having awarded a Bessemer +medal to two of these gentlemen--Messrs. Snelus and Thomas--to Mr. +Snelus as the first who made pure steel from impure iron in a Bessemer +converter lined with basic materials; to Mr. Thomas, who solved the +same problem independently, and so clearly demonstrated its +practicability to Mr. Richards by the trials at Blaenavon, as to have +led that gentleman to devote all his energies and the great resources +of the Eston Works to the task of making it what it now is, a great +commercial success. All difficulties connected with the lining of the +converter and in insuring a durability of the bottom, nearly, if not +quite, equal to that in the acid process, appear now to have been +successfully surmounted, and I am informed by Mr. Gilchrist that the +present production of basic steel in this country and on the Continent +is already at the rate of considerably more than 500,000 tons per +annum, and that works are now in course of construction which will +increase this quantity to more than a million tons. + +Our members will have the opportunity of seeing the process at work +during their visit to Middlesbrough, at the Eston Works of Messrs. +Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., which are now producing 150,000 tons per annum +of steel of the highest quality from the phosphoretic Cleveland ores; +and also at the North-Eastern Steel Company's Works. I believe it is +the intention of the latter company to make a pure, soft steel +suitable for plates, for which, according to the testimony of Mons. +Delafond, of Creuzot, and others, the basic steel is peculiarly +suitable on account of its remarkable regularity. I shall have the +pleasure of presenting to Mr. Snelus the medal which he has so well +deserved. + + +HONORS AND REWARDS TO INVENTORS. + +The presentation to Mr. Thomas is deferred. His arduous labors having +affected his health, he is at present in Australia, after having, I am +happy to say, received great advantage from the voyage; and his +mother, justly proud of his merits, and appreciating fully the value +of their recognition by the award which we have made, has requested us +not to present the medal by proxy, but to await the return of her son, +in order that it may be handed to him in person. But honors, whether +conferred by the Crown, by learned bodies, or, as in this case, by the +colleagues of the recipient, though they stimulate invention, are by +themselves not always sufficient to encourage inventors to devote +their labor to the improvements of manufactures or to induce +capitalists to assist inventors in the prosecution of costly +experiments; and it is on this account that the protection of +inventions by patent is a public advantage. The members of our +profession, unlike some others, have not been eager to apply for +patents in the case of minor inventions; on the contrary, they have +freely communicated to each other the experience as to improvement in +detail which have resulted from their daily practice. It has been well +said that all the world is wiser than any one man in it, and this free +interchange of our various experiences has tended greatly to the +advancement of our trade. But new departures, like the great invention +of Sir H. Bessemer, and important improvements like the basic process, +require the protection of patents for their development. + + +THE PATENT LAWS. + +The subject of the patent laws is, therefore, of interest to us, as it +is to other manufacturers. You are aware that the Government has +introduced a bill for amending these laws. If that bill should pass, +it will effect several important changes. It will, in the first place, +enable a poor man to obtain protection for an invention at a small +cost; secondly, it will make it more difficult than at present for a +merely pretended invention to obtain the protection and prestige of a +patent; thirdly, it will promote the amalgamation of mutually +interdependent inventions by the clause which compels patentees to +grant licenses; and, lastly, it will enable the Government to enter +into treaties with other powers for the international protection of +inventions. If you should be of opinion that these are objects +deserving of your support, I hope that you will induce your +representatives in the House of Commons to do all that is in their +power to assist the Government in passing them into law. + + +GROWTH OF THE SIEMENS-MARTIN PROCESS. + +The growth of the open hearth or what is known as the Siemens-Martin +process of making steel, during the interval from 1869 to the present +time, has been no less remarkable than that of the Bessemer process; +for though it has not attained the enormous dimensions of the latter, +it has risen from smaller beginnings. Mr. Ramsbottom started a small +open-hearth plant at the Crewe Works of the London and North-Western +Railway, in 1868, for making railway tires, and the Landore Works were +begun by Sir W. Siemens in the same year. On the Continent there were +a few furnaces at the works of M. Emile Martin, at the Firming Works, +and at Le Creuzot. None of these works, I believe, possessed furnaces +before 1870, capable of containing more than four-ton charges, +ordinarily worked off twice in twenty-four hours. The ingots weighed +about 6 cwt., and the largest steel casting made by this process, of +which I can find any account, did not exceed 10 cwt. At the present +day, we have furnaces of a capacity of from 15 to 25 tons, and by +combining several furnaces, single ingots weighing from 120 to 125 +tons have been produced at Le Creuzot. The world's production of +open-hearth steel ingots for ship and boiler plates, propeller shafts, +ordnance, wheels and axles, wire billets, armor plates, castings of +various kinds, and a multiplicity of other articles, cannot have been +less than from 800,000 to 850,000 tons in 1882. + +The process itself has followed two somewhat dissimilar lines. In this +country, iron ores of a pure quality are dissolved in a bath of pig +iron, with the addition of only small quantities of scrap steel and +iron. At Le Creuzot large quantities of wrought iron are melted in +the bath. This iron is puddled in modified rotating Danks furnaces +containing a charge of a ton each. The furnaces have a mid-rib +dividing the product into two balls of 10 cwt., which are shingled +under a 10-ton hammer. The iron is of exceptional purity, containing +less than 0.01 per cent. of phosphorus and sulphur. I should add that +the two rotating furnaces produce 50 tons of billets in twenty-four +hours. + + +PRESENT PRODUCTION OF WROUGHT IRON. + +Meanwhile, the world's production of wrought iron has not been +stationary. I cannot give very accurate figures, as the statistics of +some countries are incomplete, while in others the output of puddled +bar only, and not that of finished iron, has been ascertained. The +nearest estimate which I can arrive at is a production increased from +about 5,000,000 tons in 1869 to somewhat over 8,000,000 tons of +finished iron in 1882; an increase all the more remarkable when it is +considered that at the present time iron rails have been almost +entirely superseded by steel. It is due, no doubt, in part to the +extensive use of iron plates and angles in shipbuilding; but, apart +from these, and from bars for the manufacture of tin-plates, the +consumption has increased for the numberless purposes to which it is +applied in the world's economy. + + +PROGRESS OF PUDDLING. + +There has been no striking improvement in the manufacture of puddled +iron, partly on account of the impression that it is doomed to be +superseded by steel. Mechanical puddling has made but little progress, +and few of the attempts to economize fuel in the puddling furnace, by +the use of gas or otherwise, have been successful. I would, however, +draw attention to the remarkable success which has attended the use of +the Bicheroux gas puddling and heating furnaces at the works of +Ougrée, near Liege. The works produce 20,000 tons of puddled bars per +annum, in fifteen double furnaces. The consumption of coal per ton of +ordinary puddled bar is under 11 cwt., and per ton of "fer à fin +grain" (puddled steel, etc.) 16 cwt. The gas is produced from slack, +and the waste heat raises as much steam as that from an ordinary +double furnace. The consumption of pig iron per ton of puddled bar was +rather less than 21½ cwts. for the year 1882; and that of "mine" for +fettling was 33 lb. The repairs are said to be considerably less than +in the ordinary furnaces, and the puddlers earn from 25 to 30 per +cent. more at the same tonnage rate. I have already mentioned the +large consumption, reckoned in tons of pig iron, of the materials for +shipbuilding. + + +GROSS OF IRON AND STEEL SHIP BUILDING. + +It may be useful to add that the gross tonnage of iron vessels classed +during 1882 by the three societies of Lloyd's, the Liverpool Registry, +and the Bureau Veritas was 1,142,000, and of steel 143,000 tons, and +that the proportion of steel to iron vessels is increasing from year +to year. I am informed by our colleague, Mr. Pearce, of Messrs. +Elder's firm, that the largest vessel built by them in 1869 was an +iron steamer, of 3,063 tons gross, with compound engines of 3,000 +horse power, working at 60 lb. pressure; speed, 14 knots. + + +A GIGANTIC STEAMER. + +The largest vessel now on the ways is the Oregon, of 7,400 tons gross, +and 13,000 horse power; estimated speed, 18 knots. The superficial +area of the largest plates in the former was 22½ square feet; that of +the largest plate in the latter is 206 square feet. The Oregon is an +iron vessel, but some of the largest vessels now being built by Mr. +Pearce's firm are of steel. + +The information which I have obtained from Messrs. Thomson, of +Glasgow, is especially emphatic as to the supersession of iron by +steel in the construction of ships. They say that large steel plates +are as cheap as iron ones, and that they have never had one bad plate +or angle in steel. This is confirmed by Mr. Denny, who says: "Whenever +our shipwrights or smiths have to turn out anything particularly +difficult in shape, and on which much 'work' has to be put, they will +get hold of a piece of steel if they can." + + +REMARKABLE MACHINERY AND TOOLS. + +It will be readily understood that the rolls, the hammers, the +machinery for punching, drilling, planing, etc., used in the +manufacture and preparation of plates and angles for shipbuilding and +armor plates are on a scale far different at the present date from +what they were in 1869. Perhaps the most striking examples of powerful +machinery for these purposes are the great Creuzot hammer, the falling +mass of which has recently been increased to 100 tons, and the new +planing machines at the Cyclops Works, which weigh upward of 140 tons +each, for planing compound armor plates 19 in. thick and weighing 57 +tons. + + +THE FUTURE OF IRON AND STEEL. + +Some of the eminent men who have preceded me in this chair have made +their inaugural address the occasion for a forecast of the +improvements in practice and the developments in area of the great +industry in which we are engaged. Several of these forecasts have been +verified by the results; in other cases they have proved to be +mistaken; nor need this excite surprise. I believe that few would have +predicted, when the consideration of the subject was somewhat +unfortunately deferred through want of time at our Paris meeting of +1878, that the basic process would so speedily prove itself to be of +such paramount value as we now know it to possess. On the other hand, +the extinction of the old puddling process has long been the favorite +topic of one of our most practical ex-presidents, and I have shown you +by figures that the process is not only not yet dead, but that the +manufacture of wrought iron is actually flourishing side by side with +that of its younger brother, steel. How much longer this may continue +to be the case it would not be easy to foretell, but there can be +little doubt that, just as for rails steel has superseded iron as +being cheaper and vastly more durable, so it will be in regard to +plates for constructive purposes, and especially for shipbuilding. It +is now an ascertained fact that steel ships are as cheap, ton for ton +of carrying capacity, as iron ones, and it is probable that as the +demand for, and consequently the production of, steel plates +increases, steel ships will become cheaper than those built of iron; +but, what is more important, they have been proved to be safer, and no +time can long elapse before this will tell on the premiums of +insurance. Steel forgings also are superseding, and must to an +increasing extent, supersede iron; while it is probable that the +former will in their turn be replaced for many purposes by the +beautiful solid steel castings which are now being produced by the +Terre-Noire Company in France, the Steel Company of Scotland, and +other manufacturers, by the Siemens-Martin process. On this subject I +believe Mr. Parker can give us valuable information; and on a cognate +branch, namely, the production of steel castings from the Bessemer +converter, an interesting paper will be submitted to us by Mr. Allen +at our present meeting. + +I may here mention incidentally, that I have of late had occasion to +make trials on a considerable scale of edge tools made from Bessemer +steel, which show that, except perhaps in the case of the finest +cutlery, there is no longer any occasion to resort to the crucible for +the production of this quality of steel. + + +RAILWAY DEMAND FOR IRON AND STEEL. + +But it is in the further development of the world's railways that we +must mainly look in the future, as in the past, for the support of our +trade. In India the railway between Calcutta and Bombay was only +completed in 1870, and at the present time, with a population of +250,000,000, it has less than 10,000 miles of railway, while the +United States, with only 50,000,000, possesses more than 100,000 +miles. In other words, the United States have fifty times as many +miles of railway in relation to the population as India. Even Russia +in Europe has 14,000 miles, or, in relation to its population, nearly +five times as great a mileage as our Indian Empire; and the existing +Indian railways are so successful pecuniarily, and give such promise +of contributing to the wealth of the Indian people--or perhaps it +would be more just to say, of rescuing them from their present state +of poverty and depression--that it should be the aim of those who are +responsible for the well-being of our great dependency to give to its +railways the utmost and most rapid development. + +As to the United States themselves, I look upon their railways as a +little more than the main arteries from which an indefinitely large +circulating system will branch out. Besides these countries I need +only allude to the Dominion of Canada, whose vast territory bids fair +to rival that of the United States in agricultural importance, to our +Australian colonies, to Brazil, and other countries in which railways +are still comparatively in their infancy, to show that, quite apart +from the renewal of existing lines, the world's manufacture of rails +has an enormous future before it. + + +RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN. + +I look on the excellent feeling which happily prevails between the +employers and the workmen in our great industry as another of the most +important elements of its future prosperity. It confers honor on all +concerned that by our Boards of Conciliation and Arbitration, ruinous +strikes, and even momentary suspensions of labor, are avoided; and +still more that masters like our esteemed Treasurer, Mr. David Dale, +should deserve, and that large bodies of workmen should have the +manliness and discernment to bestow on him, the confidence implied in +choosing him so frequently as an arbitrator. I believe that similar +friendly relations exist in some, at any rate, of the other great +centers of the iron and steel industries, and that although our +methods may not be adapted to the habits of all, there is no country +in which some way does not exist, or may not be found, to avoid those +contests which were so fatal to our prosperity in former days. Lastly +I regard as one of the most hopeful signs of the future the increased +estimate of the value of science entertained by our practical men. In +this respect we may claim with pride that the Iron and Steel Institute +has been the pioneer, at any rate, so far as this country is +concerned. But the conviction that the elements of science should be +placed within the reach of those who occupy a humbler position in the +industrial hierarchy than we do who are assembled here is rapidly +spreading among us. The iron manufacturers of Westphalia have been the +first to found an institution in which the intelligent and ambitious +ironworker can qualify himself by study for a higher position, and I +hope when this Institute visits Middlesbrough in the autumn, some +progress will have been made in that locality toward the establishment +of a similar school. Other districts will doubtless follow, and the +result will be, to quote the words of Sir W. Siemens on a late +occasion, that "by the dissemination of science a higher spirit will +take possession of our artisans; that they will work with the object +of obtaining higher results, instead of only discussing questions of +wages." It is on the mutual co-operation in this spirit of all the +workers of every grade in our great craft that we may build the +hope--nay, that we may even cherish the certain expectation--of +placing it on even a higher eminence than that which it has already +attained. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "SWALLOW," A NEW VEHICLE. + + +The graceful vehicle shown in the accompanying cut is much used in +Poland and Russia, and we believe that it has already made its +appearance at Paris. The builder is Mr. Henri Barycki, of Warsaw, who +has very skillfully utilized a few very curious mechanical principles +in it. + +[Illustration: THE SWALLOW.] + +The driver's seat is fixed in the interior of a wide ring to which are +fastened the shafts. This ring revolves, by the aid of three pulleys +or small wheels, within the large ring resting on the ground. It will +be seen that when the horse is drawing the vehicle, the friction of +this large wheel against the ground being greater than that of the +concentric one within it, the latter will revolve until the center of +gravity of the whole is situated anew in a line vertical to the point +at which it bears on the ground. The result of such an arrangement is +that the driver rolls on the large wheel just as he would do on the +surface of an endless rail. As may be conceived, the tractive stress +is, as a consequence, considerably diminished. + +There are two side wheels which are connected by a flexible axle to +the seat of the carriage, but these have no other purpose than that of +preventing the affair from turning to one side or the other. + +The "swallow," for so it is named, is made entirely of steel and +wrought iron. It is very easily kept clean; the horse can be harnessed +to it in three minutes; and, aside from its uses for pleasure, it is +capable of being utilized in numerous ways.--_La Nature_. + +[Our excellent contemporary, _La Nature_, is mistaken in its account +of the above vehicle. It is an American invention and was first +published, with engraving, in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, December 16, +1882.] + + * * * * * + + + + +BORING AN OIL WELL. + +HOW THE HOLE WAS MADE AND THE OIL BROUGHT UP. + + +A letter from Bradford, Pa., says: The machinery used in boring one of +these deep oil wells, while simple enough in itself, requires nice +adjustment and skill in operating. First comes the derrick, sixty feet +high, crowned by a massive pulley. + +The derrick is a most essential part of the mechanism, and its shape +and height are needed in handling the long rods, piping, casting, and +other fittings which have to be inserted perpendicularly. The borer or +drill used is not much different from the ordinary hand arm of the +stone cutters, and the blade is exactly the same, but is of massive +size, three or four inches across, about four feet long, and weighing +100 or 200 pounds. A long solid rod, some thirty feet long, three +inches in diameter, and called the "stem," is screwed on the drill. +This stem weighs almost a ton, and its weight is the hammer relied on +for driving the drill through dirt and rock. Next come the "jars," two +long loose links of hardened iron playing along each other about a +foot. + +The object of the jars is to raise the drill with a shock, so as to +detach it when so tightly fixed that a steady pull would break the +machinery. The upper part of the two jars is solidly welded to another +long rod called the sinker bar, to the upper end of which, in turn, is +attached the rope leading up to the derrick pulley, and thence to a +stationary steam engine. In boring, the stem and drill are raised a +foot or two, dropped, then raised with a shock by the jars, and the +operation repeated. + +If I may hazard a further illustration of the internal boring +machinery of the well, let the reader link loosely together the thumbs +and forefingers of his two hands, then bring his forearms into a +straight line. Conceiving this line to be a perpendicular one, the +point of one elbow would represent the drill blade, the adjacent +forearm and hand the stem, the linked finger the jars, and the other +hand and forearm the sinker bar, with the derrick cord attached at a +point represented by the second elbow. By remembering the immense and +concentrated weight of the upright drill and stem, the tremendous +force of even a short fall may be conceived. The drill will bore many +feet in a single day through solid rock, and a few hours sometimes +suffices to force it fifty feet through dirt or gravel. When the +debris accumulates too thickly around the drill, the latter is drawn +up rapidly. The debris has previously been reduced to mud by keeping +the drill surrounded by water. A sand pump, not unlike an ordinary +syringe, is then let down, the mud sucked up, lifted, and then the +drill sent down to begin its pounding anew. Great deftness and +experience are needed to work the drill without breaking the jars or +connected machinery, and, in case of accident, there are grapples, +hooks, knives, and other devices without number, to be used in +recovering lost drills, cutting the rope, and other emergencies, the +briefest explanation of which would exceed the limits of this letter. + +The exciting moment in boring a well is when a drill is penetrating +the upper covering of sand rock which overlies the oil. The force with +which the compressed gas and petroleum rushes upward almost surpasses +belief. Drill, jars, and sinker bar are sometimes shot out along with +debris, oil, and hissing gas. Sometimes this gas and oil take fire, +and last summer one of the wells thus ignited burned so fiercely that +a number of days elapsed before the flames could be extinguished. More +often the tankage provided is insufficient, and thousands of barrels +escape. Two or three years ago, at the height of the oil production of +the Bradford region, 8,000 barrels a day were thus running to waste. +But those halcyon days of Bradford have gone forever. Although +nineteen-twentieths of the wells sunk in this region "struck" oil and +flowed freely, most of them now flow sluggishly or have to be "pumped" +two or three times a week. + +"Piping" and "casing," terms substantially identical, and meaning the +lining of the well with iron pipe several inches in the interior +diameter, complete the labor of boring. The well, if a good flowing +one, does all the rest of the work itself, forcing the fluid into the +local tanks, whence it is distributed into the tanks of the pipe-line +companies, and is carried from them to the refineries. The pipe lines +now reach from the oil regions to the seaboard, carrying the petroleum +over hill and valley, hundreds of miles to tide-water. + + * * * * * + + + + +A CEMENT RESERVOIR. + + +The annexed figures represent, on a scale of 1 to 50, a plan and +vertical section of a reservoir of beton, 11 cubic meters in capacity, +designed for the storage of drinking water and for collecting the +overflow of a canal. The volume of beton employed in its construction +was 0.9 cubic meter per cubic meter of water to be stored. The inner +walls were covered with a layer of cement to insure of tightness. + +[Illustration: A CEMENT RESERVOIR.] + +T is the inlet pipe, with a diameter of 0.08 m. + +T' is the distributing pipe, and T" is the waste pipe.--_Annales des +Travaux Publics_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS AND COLORS. + + +The grinding of the inks and colors that are employed in lithographing +is a long and delicate operation, which it has scarcely been possible +up to the present time to perform satisfactorily otherwise than by +hand, because of the perfect mixture that it is necessary to obtain in +the materials employed. + +Per contra, this manual work, while it has the advantage of giving a +very homogeneous product, offers the inconvenience of taking a long +time and being costly. The Alauzet machine, shown in the accompanying +cut, is designed to perform this work mechanically. + +[Illustration: ALAUZET'S MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS.] + +The apparatus consists of a flat, cast iron, rectangular frame, +resting upon a wooden base which forms a closet. In a longitudinal +direction there is mounted on the machine a rectangular guide, along +which travel two iron slides in the shape of a reversed U, which make +part of two smaller carriers that are loaded with weights, and to +which are fixed cast-steel mullers. + +At the center of the frame there is fixed a support which carries a +train of gear wheels which is set in motion by a pulley and belt. +These wheels serve to communicate a backward and forward motion, +longitudinally, to the mullers through the intermedium of a winch, and +a backward and forward motion transversely to two granite tables on +which is placed the ink or color to be ground. This last-named motion +is effected by means of a bevel pinion which is keyed to the same axle +as the large gear wheel, and which actuates a heart wheel--this latter +being adjusted in a horizontal frame which is itself connected to the +cast iron plate into which the tables are set. + +This machine, which is 2 meters in length by 1 meter in width, +requires a one-third horse power to actuate it. It weighs altogether +about 800 kilogrammes.--_Annales Industrielles._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW EVAPORATING APPARATUS. + + +At a recent meeting of the _Société Industrielle_ of Elbeuf, Mr. L. +Quidet described an apparatus that he had, with the aid of Mr. Perré, +invented for evaporating juices. + +In this new apparatus a happy application is made of those pipes with +radiating disks that have for some time been advantageously employed +for heating purposes. In addition to this it is so constructed as to +give the best of results as regards evaporation, thanks to the lengthy +travel that the current of steam makes in it. + +[Illustration: PERRE & QUIDET'S EVAPORATING APPARATUS.] + +It may be seen from an examination of the annexed cuts, the apparatus +consists essentially of a cylindrical reservoir, in the interior of +which revolves a system formed of seven pipes, with radiating disks, +affixed to plate iron disks, EE. The reservoir is mounted upon a +cast-iron frame, and is provided at its lower part with a cock, B, +which permits of the liquid being drawn off when it has been +sufficiently concentrated. It is surmounted with a cover, which is +bolted to lateral flanges, so that the two parts as a whole constitute +a complete cylinder. This shape, however, is not essential, and the +inventors reserve the right of giving it the arrangement that may be +best adapted to the application that is to be made of it. + +In the center of the apparatus there is a conduit whose diameter is +greater than that of the pipes provided with radiators, and which +serves to cross-brace the two ends, EE, which latter consist of iron +boxes cast in a piece with the hollow shaft of the rotary system. + +The steam enters through the pipe, F, traverses the first evaporating +pipe, then the second, then the third, and so on, and continues to +circulate in this manner till it finally reaches the last one, which +communicates with the exit, G. + +Motion is transmitted to the evaporator by a gearing, H, which is +keyed on the shaft, and is actuated by a pinion, L, connected with an +intermediate shaft which is provided with fast and loose pulleys. + +The apparatus is very efficient in its action, and this is due, in the +first place, to the use of radiators, which greatly increase the +heating surface, and second, to the motion communicated to the +evaporating parts. In fact, each of the pipes, on issuing from the +liquid to be concentrated, carries upon its entire surface a pellicle +which evaporates immediately. + +The arrangement devised by Messrs. Perré and Quidet realizes, then, +the best theoretic conditions for this sort of work, to wit: + + 1. A large evaporating surface. + 2. A very slight thickness of liquid. + 3. A constant temperature of about from 100° to 120°, according + to the internal pressure of the steam. + +Owing to such advantages, this apparatus will find an application in +numerous industries, and will render them many services.--_Revue +Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +"FLYING." + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American:_ + +Your correspondent on this subject in the issue of April 14 cites an +array of facts from which it would seem the proper conclusions should +be inferred. I think the whole difficulty arises from a confusion of +terms, and by this I mean a want of care to explain the unknown +strictly in terms of the known; and I think underlying this error is a +misconception as to what an animal is, and what animal strength is, +only of course with reference to this particular discussion, i.e., +in so far only as they may be considered physical organisms having no +reference to the intellectual or moral development, all of which lies +beyond the sphere of our discussion. + +Purely with reference to the development of physical strength, which +alone is under consideration, any animal organism whatsoever must be +considered simply in the light of a machine. + +A compound machine having two parts, first an arrangement of levers +and points of application of power, all of which is purely mechanical, +together with an arrangement of parts, designed, first, to convert +fuel or food into heat, and, secondly, to transform heat into force, +which is purely a chemical change in the first instance, and a +transformation of energy in the second. So much for the animal--man or +beast--as a machine physically considered. + +What then is animal strength considered in the same light? The animal +is not creative. It can make nothing--it can only transform. Does it +create any strength or force? No. The strength it puts forth or exerts +is merely the outcome of this transformation, which it is the office +of the machine to perform. + +What do we find transformed? Simply the energy, or potential, +contained in the fuel or food we put into the machine. Its exact +equivalent we find transformed to another form of energy, known as +animal strength, which is simply heat within the system available for +the working of its mechanical parts. How, then, is this energy which +exists in the shape of animal strength used and distributed? This is +the question the answer of which underlies this whole discussion as a +principle. It is distributed to the different parts of the machine in +proportion to the relative amount of physical work that nature has +made it the office of any particular part to perform. + +Let us see how it is with the bird machine. In course of flight he is +called upon to remain in the air, which means that should he cease to +make an effort to do this, i.e., should he cease to expend energy in +doing it, he would fall during the first second of time after ceasing +to make the effort some sixteen feet toward the center of the earth. +But he remains in the air for hours and days at a time. What is he, +then, doing every second of that time? He is overcoming the force of +gravitation, which is incessantly pulling him down. That is, every +second he is doing an amount of work equal to his weight--say 10 lb. +multiplied by 16--say 160 lb. approximately; all this by beating the +air with his wings. Now let us institute a slight comparison--and the +work shall be performed by a man, who climbs a mountain 10,000 feet +high in 10 hours. The man weighs 150 lb.; he climbs 10,000 feet; +1,500,000 foot pounds is, then, the work done. He does it in 10 hours, +or 36,000 seconds, which gives an amount of work of only 42 foot +pounds per second performed by his muscles of locomotion. + +At the end of the ten hours the man is exhausted, while the bird +delights in further flight. To what is this difference of condition +due? _It is due simply to the difference in the machine;_ but this, +you say, is not explaining the unknown in terms of the known. Let us +see, then, if we cannot do this. In the two accounts of work done as +above cited in the case of the man and the bird, an amount of energy, +i.e., heat of the system, has been expended just proportional to the +work done. + +Now while the bird has expended more energy in this particular work of +locomotion than has the man, we find the bird machine has done little +else; he has consumed but little of his available heat force in +exercising his brain or the other functions of his system, or in +preserving the temperature of the body, and but little of his animal +heat, which is his strength, has been radiated into space. In short, +we find the bird machine so devised by nature that a very large +proportion of the available energy of the system can be used in +working those parts contrived for locomotion, and resist the force of +gravity, or, what is the same thing, nature has placed a greater +relative portion of the whole furnace at the disposal of these parts +than she has in man. The breast muscles of the bird are so constructed +as to burn a far greater proportional amount of the fuel from which +all energy is derived than do the muscles of the rest of the body +combined. + +Let us see how it is with the man who has climbed the mountain. In +this machine we find affairs in a very different state. During his +climbing he has been doing a vast amount of other work, both internal +and external. His arms, his whole muscular system, in fact, has been +vigorously at work, all drawing upon his total available energy. His +brain has been in constant and unremitted action, as well as the other +internal organs, which require a greater proportional amount of energy +than they did in the bird. Besides this, he has been radiating his +animal heat into space in a far greater amount. All these parts must +be supplied; they cannot be neglected while the accumulated surplus is +given to the machinery for locomotion or lifting. This then is what +constitutes what I call the difference in the machine, which is purely +one of organic development depending upon the functions nature has +determined that the different organs shall perform. As for the +pterodactyl quoted in the last article, I have only to remark that +this discussion arose purely from a consideration of what was the best +type of flying apparatus nature had given man to study, and I claim +that this prehistoric bird of geology does not come within this class. +For if it is not fully established that this species had become +extinct long before the appearance of man on the globe, it is at least +certain that the man of that early day had not dreamt of flying and +was presumably content if he could find other means to evade the +pterodactyl's claw. + +F.J.P., U.S. Army. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PORTRUSH ELECTRIC RAILWAY, IRELAND.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A paper recently read before the Society of Arts, +London.] + +By DR. EDWARD HOPKINSON. + + +In the summer of 1881, Mr. W.A. Traill, late of H.M. Geological +Survey, suggested to Dr. Siemens that the line between Portrush and +Bushmills, for which Parliamentary powers had been obtained, would be +suitable in many respects for electrical working, especially as there +was abundant water power available in the neighborhood. Dr. Siemens at +once joined in the undertaking, which has been carried out under his +direction. The line extends from Portrush, the terminus of the Belfast +and Northern Counties Railway, to Bushmills in the Bush valley, a +distance of six miles. For about half a mile the line passes down the +principal street of Portrush, and has an extension along the Northern +Counties Railway to the harbor. For the rest of the distance, the +rails are laid on the sea side of the county road, and the head of the +rails being level with the ground, a footpath is formed the whole +distance, separated from the road by a curbstone. The line is single, +and has a gauge of three feet, the standard of the existing narrow +gauge lines in Ulster. The gradients are exceedingly heavy, as will be +seen from the diagram, being in parts as steep as 1 in 35. The curves +are also in many cases very sharp, having necessarily to follow the +existing road. There are five passing places, in addition to the +sidings at the termini and at the carriage depot. At the Bushmills +end, the line is laid for about 200 yards along the street, and ends +in the marketplace of the town. It is intended to connect it with an +electrical railway from Dervock, for which Parliamentary powers have +already been obtained, thus completing the connection with the narrow +gauge system from Ballymena to Larne and Cushendall. About 1,500 yards +from the end of the line, there is a waterfall on the river Bush, with +an available head of 24 feet, and an abundant supply of water at all +seasons of the year. Turbines are now being erected, and the necessary +works executed for employing the fall for working the generating +dynamo machines, and the current will be conveyed by means of an +underground cable to the end of the line. Of the application of the +water power it is unnecessary to speak further, as the works are not +yet completed. For the present, the line is worked by a small +steam-engine placed at the carriage depot at the Portrush end. The +whole of the constructive works have been designed and carried out by +Mr. Traill, assisted by Mr. E.B. Price. + +The system employed may be described as that of the separate +conductor. A rail of T-iron, weighing 19 pounds to the yard, is +carried on wooden posts, boiled in pitch, and placed ten feet apart, +at a distance of 22 inches from the inside rail and 17 inches above +the ground. This rail comes close up against the fence on the side of +the road, thus forming an additional protection. The conductor is +connected by an underground cable to a single shunt-wound dynamo +machine, placed in the engine shed, and worked by a small agricultural +steam engine of about 25 indicated horse power. The current is +conveyed from the conductor by means of two springs, made of steel, +rigidly held by two steel bars placed one at each end of the car, and +projecting about six inches from the side. Since the conducting rail +is iron, while the brushes are steel, the wear of the latter is +exceedingly small. In dry weather they require the rail to be slightly +lubricated; in wet weather the water on the surface of the iron +provides all the lubrication required. The double brushes, placed at +the extremities of the car, enable it to bridge over the numerous +gaps, which necessarily interrupt the conductor to allow cart ways +into the fields and commons adjoining the shore. On the diagram the +car is shown passing one of these gaps: the front brush has broken +contact, but since the back brush is still touching the rail, the +current has not been broken. Before the back brush leaves the +conductor, the front brush will have again risen upon it, so that the +current is never interrupted. There are two or three gaps too broad to +be bridged in this way. In these cases the driver will break the +current before reaching the gap, the momentum of the car carrying it +the 10 or 12 yards it must travel without power. + +The current is conveyed under the gaps by means of an insulated copper +cable carried in wrought-iron pipes, placed at a depth of 18 inches. +At the passing places, which are situated on inclines, the conductor +takes the inside, and the car ascending the hill also runs on the +inside, while the car descending the hill proceeds by gravity on the +outside lines. + +From the brushes the current is taken to a commutator worked by a +lever, which switches resistance frames placed under the car, in or +out, as may be desired. The same lever alters the position of the +brushes on the commutator of the dynamo machine, reversing the +direction of rotation, in the manner shown by the electrical hoist. +The current is not, as it were, turned full on suddenly, but passes +through the resistances, which are afterward cut out in part or +altogether, according as the driver desires to run at part speed or +full speed. + +From the dynamo the current is conveyed through the axle boxes to the +axles, thence to the tires of the wheels, and finally back by the +rails, which are uninsulated, to the generating machine. The conductor +is laid in lengths of about 21 feet, the lengths being connected by +fish plates and also by a double copper loop securely soldered to the +iron. It is also necessary that the rails of the permanent way should +be connected in a similar manner, as the ordinary fish plates give a +very uncertain electrical contact, and the earth for large currents is +altogether untrustworthy as a conductor, though no doubt materially +reducing the total resistance of the circuit. + +The dynamo is placed in the center of the car, beneath the floor, and +through intermediate spur gear drives by a steel chain on to one axle +only. The reversing levers, and also the levers working the mechanical +brakes, are connected to both ends of the car, so that the driver can +always stand at the front and have uninterrupted view of the rails, +which is of course essential in the case of a line laid by the side of +the public road. + +The cars are first and third class, some open and some covered, and +are constructed to hold twenty people, exclusive of the driver. At +present, only one is fitted with a dynamo, but four more machines are +now being constructed by Messrs. Siemens Bros., so that before the +beginning of the heavy summer traffic five cars will be ready; and +since two of these will be fitted with machines capable of drawing a +second car, there will be an available rolling stock of seven cars. It +is not intended at present to work electrically the portion of the +line in the town at Portrush, though this will probably be done +hereafter; and a portion, at least, of the mineral traffic will be +left for the two steam-tramway engines which were obtained for the +temporary working of the line pending the completion of the electrical +arrangements. + +Let us now put in a form suitable for calculation the principles with +which Mr. Siemens has illustrated in a graphic form more convenient +for the purposes of explanation, and then show how these principles +have been applied in the present case. + +Let L be the couple, measured in foot-pounds, which the dynamo must +exert in order to drive the car, and _w_ the necessary angular +velocity. Taking the tare of the car as 50 cwt., including the weight +of the machinery it carries, and a load of twenty people as 30 cwt., +we have a gross weight of 4 tons. Assume that the maximum required is +that the car should carry this load at a speed of seven miles an hour, +on an incline of 1 in 40. The resistance due to gravity may be taken +as 56 lb. per ton, and the frictional resistance and that due to other +causes, say, 14 lb. per ton, giving a total resistance of 280 lb., at +a radius of 14 inches. The angular velocity of the axle corresponding +to a speed of seven miles an hour, is 84 revolutions per minute. Hence +L = 327 foot pounds, and _w_ = (2[pi] × 84) / 60. + +If the dynamo be wound directly on the axle, it must be designed to +exert the couple, L, corresponding to the maximum load, when revolving +at an angular velocity, w, the difference of potential between the +terminals being the available E.M.F. of the conductor, and the current +the maximum the armature will safely stand. This will be the case in +the Charing-cross Electrical Railway. But when the dynamo is connected +by intermediate gear to the driving wheels only, the product of L and +_w_ remains constant, and the two factors may be varied. In the +present case L is diminished in the ratio of 7 to 1, and _w_ +consequently increased in the same ratio. Hence the dynamo, with its +maximum load, must revolve at 588 revolutions per minute, and exert a +couple of forty-seven foot-pounds. Let E be the potential of the +conductor from which the current is drawn, measured in volts, C the +current in amperes, and E1 the E.M.F. of the dynamo. Then E1 is +proportional to the product of the angular velocity, and a certain +function of the current. For a velocity [omega], let this function be +denoted by _f_(C). If the characteristic of the dynamo can be drawn, +then _f_(C) is known. + +We have then + + w + E1 = -------- f + [Omega] (1.) + +If R be the resistance in circuit by Ohm's law, + + E - E1 + C = -------- + R + + w + = E ------- f(C) + [Omega] + ---------------- + R + +and therefore + + [Omega](E - CR) (2.) + w = ----------------- + f(C) + +Let _a_ be the efficiency with which the motor transforms electrical +into mechanical energy, then-- + + Power required = L w = a E1 C + + w + = a C ------- f(C) + [Omega] + +Dividing by _w_, + + a C f(C) + L = -------- . (3.) + [Omega] + +It must be noted that L is here measured in electrical measure, or, +adopting the unit given by Dr. Siemens in the British Association +Address, in joules. One joule equals approximately 0.74 foot pound. +Equation 3 gives at once an analytical proof of the second principle +stated above, that for a given motor the current depends upon the +couple, and upon it alone. Equation 2 shows that with a given load the +speed depends upon E, the electromotive force of the main, and R the +resistance in circuit. It shows also the effect of putting into the +circuit the resistance frames placed beneath the car. If R be +increased, until CR is equal to E, then _w_ vanishes, and the car +remains at rest. If R be still further increased, Ohm's law applies, +and the current diminishes. Hence suitable resistances are, first, a +high resistance for diminishing the current, and consequently, the +sparking at making and breaking of of the circuit; and, secondly, one +or more low resistances for varying the speed of the car. If the form +of _f_(C) be known, as is the case with a Siemens machine, equations 2 +and 3 can be completely solved for _w_ and C, giving the current and +speed in terms of L, E, and R. The expressions so obtained are not +without interest, and agree with the results of experiment. + +It may be observed that an arc light presents the converse case to a +motor. The E.M.F. of the arc is approximately constant, whatever the +intensity of the current passing between the carbons; and the current +depends entirely on the resistance in circuit. Hence the instability +of an arc produced by machines of low internal resistance, unless +compensated by considerable resistance in the leads. + +The following experiment shows in a striking form the principles just +considered: An Edison lamp is placed in parallel circuit with a small +dynamo machine, used as a motor. The Prony brake on the pulley of the +dynamo is quite slack, allowing it to revolve freely. Now let the lamp +and dynamo be coupled to the generator running at full speed. First, +the lamp glows, in a moment it again becomes dark, then, as the dynamo +gets up speed, glows again. If the brake be screwed up tight, the lamp +once more becomes dark. The explanation is simple. Owing to the +coefficient of self-induction of the dynamo machine being +considerable, it takes a finite time for the current to obtain an +appreciable intensity, but the lamp having no self-induction, the +current at once passes through it, and causes it to glow. Secondly, +the electrical inertia of the dynamo being overcome, it must draw a +large current to produce the kinetic energy of rotation, i.e., to +overcome its mechanical inertia; the lamp is therefore practically +short-circuited, and ceases to glow. When once the rotation has been +established, the current through the dynamo becomes very small, having +no work to do except to overcome the friction of the bearings, hence +the lamp again glows. Finally, by screwing up the brake, the current +through the dynamo is increased, and the lamp again short-circuited. + +It has often been pointed out that reversal of the motor on the car +would be a most effective brake. This is certainly true; but, at the +same time, it is a brake that should not be used except in cases of +emergency. For this reason, the dynamo revolving at a high speed, the +momentum of the current is very considerable; hence, owing to the +self-induction of the machine, a sudden reversal will tend to break +down the insulation at any weak point of the machine. The action is +analogous to the spark produced by a Ruhmkorff coil. This was +illustrated at Portrush; when the car was running perhaps fifteen +miles an hour, the current was suddenly reversed. The car came to a +standstill in little more than its own length, but at the expense of +breaking down the insulation of one of the wires of the magnet coils. +The way out of the difficulty is evidently at the moment of reversal +to insert a high resistance to diminish the momentum of the current. + +In determining the proper dimensions of a conductor for railway +purposes, Sir William Thomson's law should properly apply. But on a +line where the gradients and traffic are very irregular, it is +difficult to estimate the average current, and the desirability of +having the rail mechanically strong, and of such low resistance that +the potential shall not vary very materially throughout its length, +becomes more important than the economic considerations involved in +Sir William Thomson's law. At Portrush the resistance of a mile, +including the return by earth and the ground rails, is actually about +0.23 ohm. If calculated from the section of the iron, it would be 0.15 +ohm, the difference being accounted for by the resistance of the +copper loops, and occasional imperfect contacts. The E.M.F. at which +the conductor is maintained is about 225 volts, which is well within +the limit of perfect safety assigned by Sir William Thomson and Dr. +Siemens. At the same time the shock received by touching the iron is +sufficient to be unpleasant, and hence is some protection against the +conductor being tampered with. + +Consider a car requiring a given constant current; evidently the +maximum loss due to resistance will occur when the car is at the +middle point of the line, and will then be one-fourth of the total +resistance of the line, provided the two extremities are maintained by +the generators at the same potential. Again, by integration, the mean +resistance can be shown to be one-sixth of the resistance of the line. +Applying these figures, and assuming four cars are running, requiring +4 horse power each, the loss due to resistance does not exceed 4 per +cent. of the power developed on the cars; or if one car only be +running, the loss is less than 1 per cent. But in actual practice at +Portrush even these estimates are too high, as the generators are +placed at the bottom of the hills, and the middle portion of the line +is more or less level, hence the minimum current is required when the +resistance is at its maximum value. + +The insulation of the conductor has been a matter of considerable +difficulty, chiefly on account of the moistness of the climate. An +insulation has now, however, been obtained of from 500 to 1,000 ohms +per mile, according to the state of the weather, by placing a cap of +insulite between the wooden posts and T-iron. Hence the total leakage +cannot exceed 2.5 amperes, representing a loss of three-fourths of a +horse power, or under 5 per cent, when four cars are running. But +apart from these figures, we have materials for an actual comparison +of the cost of working the line by electricity and steam. The steam +tramway engines, temporarily employed at Portrush, are made by Messrs. +Wilkinson, of Wigan, and are generally considered as satisfactory as +any of the various tramway engines. They have a pair of vertical +cylinders, 8 inches diameter and one foot stroke, and work at a boiler +pressure of 120 lb., the total weight of the engine being 7 tons. The +electrical car with which the comparison is made has a dynamo weighing +13 cwt., and the tare of the car is 52 cwt. The steam-engines are +capable of drawing a total load of about 12 tons up the hill, +excluding the weight of the engine; the dynamo over six tons, +including its own weight; hence, weight for weight, the dynamo will +draw five times as much as the steam-engine. Finally, compare the +following estimates of cost. From actual experience, the steam-engine, +taking an average over a week, costs-- + + £ s. d. + Driver's wages. 1 10 0 + Cleaner's " 0 12 0 + Coke, 58½ cwt. at 25s. per ton. 3 13 1½ + Oil, 1 gallon at 3s. 1d. 0 3 1 + Tallow, 4 lb. at 6d. 0 2 0 + Waste, 8 lb. at 2d. 0 1 4 + Depreciation, 15 per cent. on £750. 2 3 3 + ---------- + Total. £8 4 9½ + +The distance run was 312 miles. Also, from actual experience, the +electrical car, drawing a second behind it, and hence providing for +the same number of passengers, consumed 18 lb. of coke per mile run. +Hence, calculating the cost in the same way, for a distance run of 312 +miles in a week-- + + £ s. d. + Wages of stoker of stationary engine. 1 0 0 + Coke, 52 cwt. at 25s. per ton. 2 15 0 + Oil, 1 gallon at 3s. 1d. 0 3 1 + Waste, 4 lb. at 2d. 0 0 8 + Depreciation on stationary engine, 10 per cent. } + on £300 11s. 6d. } + Depreciation of electrical apparatus, 15 per cent. } 2 0 4 + on £500, £1 8s. 10d. } + --------- + Total. £5 19 1 + +A saving of over 25 per cent. + +The total mileage run is very small, on account of the light traffic +early in the year. Heavier traffic will tell very much in favor of the +electric car, as the loss due to leakage will be a much smaller +proportion of the total power developed. + +It will be observed that the cost of the tramway engines is very much +in excess of what is usual on other lines, but this is entirely +accounted for by the high price of coke, and the exceedingly difficult +nature of the line to work, on account of the curves and gradients. +These causes send up the cost of electrical working in the same ratio, +hence the comparison is valid as between the steam and electricity, +but it would be unsafe to compare the cost of either with +horse-traction or wire-rope traction on other lines. The same fuel was +burnt in the stationary steam-engine and in the tramway engines, and +the same rolling stock used in both cases; but, otherwise, the +comparison was made under circumstances in favor of the tramway +engine, as the stationary steam-engine is by no means economical, +consuming at least 5 lb. of coke per horse-power hour, and the +experiments were made, in the case of the electrical car, over a +length of line three miles long, which included the worst hills and +curves, and one-half of the conductor was not provided with the +insulite caps, the leakage consequently being considerably larger than +it will be eventually. + +Finally, as regards the speed of the electrical car, it is capable of +running on the level at the rate of 12 miles per hour, but as the line +is technically a tramway, the Board of Trade Regulations do not allow +the speed to exceed 10 miles an hour. + +Taking these data as to cost, and remembering how this will be reduced +when the water power is made available, and remembering such +considerations as the freedom from smoke and steam, the diminished +wear and tear of the permanent way, and the advantage of having each +car independent, it may be said that there is a future for electrical +railways. + +We must not conclude without expressing our best thanks to Messrs. +Siemens Bros. for having kindly placed all this apparatus at our +disposal to-night, and allowing us to publish the results of +experiments made at their works. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE THOMSON-HOUSTON ELECTRIC LIGHTING SYSTEM. + + +The generator is known as the "Thomson spherical," on account of the +nearly spherical form of its armature, and differs radically from all +others in all essential portions, viz., its field magnets, armature, +and winding thereof, and in its commutator; both in principle and +construction, and, besides, it is provided with an automatic +regulator, an attachment not applied to other generators. The annexed +view of the complete machine will convey an idea of the general +appearance and disposition of its parts. + +The revolving armature which generates the electrical current is made +internally of a hollow shell of soft iron secured to the central +portion of the shaft between the bearings, and is wound externally +with a copper conducting wire, constituting three coils or helices +surrounding the armature, which coils are, however, permanently +joined, and in reality act as a single three-branched wire. + +This wire, being wound on the exterior of the armature, is fully +exposed to the powerful magnetic influence of the field poles, which +inclose the armature almost completely. The armature will thus be seen +to be thoroughly incased and protected, at the same time that all the +wire upon it is subject to a powerful action of the surrounding +magnets, resulting in an economy in the generation of current in its +coils. The form of the armature being spherical, very little power is +lost by air friction, and no injury can occur from increased speed +developing centrifugal force. The field magnets, which surround the +armature, are cast iron shells, wound outside with many convolutions +of insulated copper wire, and are joined externally by iron bars to +convey the magnetism. These outer bars serve also as a most efficient +protection to the wire and armature of the machine during +transportation or otherwise. Objects cannot fall upon or rest upon the +wire coils and injure them. The coils of wire upon the field magnets +surround not only the iron poles or shells, but are situated also so +as to surround likewise the revolving armature, and increase the +effect produced in it by direct induction and magnetism. This feature +is not used in any other generator, nor does any other make use of a +spherical armature. The shaft is mounted in babbitted bearings of +ample size, sustained by a handsome frame therefor, and is of steel, +finely turned and perfectly true. The shaft and armature together are +balanced with the utmost care, and run without buzz or rumble. The +armature wire is kept cool by an active circulation of air over its +whole surface during revolution. The commutator, or portion from which +the currents developed in the armature are carried out for use, is a +beautiful piece of mechanism. It is mounted upon the end of the shaft, +and has attached to it the wires, three only, coming from the armature +wire through the tubular shaft. + +[Illustration: THE THOMSON SPHERICAL.] + +The commutator is peculiar, consisting of only three segments of a +copper ring, while in the simplest of other continuous current +generators several times that number exist, and frequently 120! +segments are to be found. These three segments are made so as to be +removable in a moment for cleaning or replacement. They are mounted +upon a metal support, and are surrounded on all sides by a free air +space, and cannot, therefore, lose their insulated condition. This +feature of air insulation is peculiar to this system, and is very +important as a factor in the durability of the commutator. Besides +this, the commutator is sustained by supports carried in flanges upon +the shaft, which flanges, as an additional safeguard, are coated all +over with hard rubber, one of the finest known insulators. It may be +stated, without fear of contradiction, that no other commutator made +is so thoroughly insulated and protected. The three commutator +segments virtually constitute a single copper ring, mounted in free +air, and cut into three equal pieces by slots across its face. Four +slit copper springs, called commutator brushes or collectors, are +allowed to bear lightly upon the commutator when it revolves, and +serve to take up the current and convey it to the circuit. These +commutator brushes are carried by movable supports, and their position +is automatically regulated so as to control the strength of the +developed current--a feature not found in other systems. This feature, +as well as the fact that the commutator can be oiled to prevent wear, +saves attendance and greatly increases the durability of the wearing +surfaces, while the commutator brushes are maintained in the position +of best adjustment. The commutator and brushes, in consequence, after +weeks of running, show scarcely any wear. + + +THE AUTOMATIC CURRENT REGULATOR. + +This consists of a peculiar magnet attached to the frame of the +generator, and the movable armature of which has connections to the +supports of the commutator brushes for controlling their position. The +regulator magnet is so formed as to give a uniform attraction upon +its armature in different positions. In Thomson's improved form this +is accomplished in a novel manner by making the pole of the magnet +paraboloidal in form, and making an opening in the movable armature to +encircle said pole. + +[Illustration: THE CURRENT REGULATOR] + +The armature is hung on pivots so as to be free to move only toward +and from the regulating magnet on changes in the current traversing +the latter, and being connected to the commutator brushes, +automatically adjusts their position. By this means the power of the +generator is adapted to run any number of lights within its limit of +capacity, or may be short circuited purposely or by accident without +difficulty arising therefrom; and a number of instances have occurred +where the injurious effects of a short circuit accidentally formed +have been entirely obviated by the presence of the regulator. In one +instance four generators, in series representing over forty lights' +capacity, were accidentally short circuited, and no injury or even +noticeable action took place except a quick movement of the regulators +in adapting themselves to the new conditions. Had this accident +occurred to generators unprovided with regulators, great injury or +possible destruction of the apparatus would have resulted. It is +important to a full understanding of the regulation, to state that its +action is independent of resistances introduced, that it saves power +and carbons in proportion to lights extinguished, and that it +compensates for speed variations above the minimum speed. The manner +of its action is to control the generation of current at the source in +the armature, and it does so by combining certain electrical actions +so as to obtain a differential effect, such that when small force of +current only is required it alone is furnished, and when the maximum +force is needed the same shall be forthcoming. + +[Illustration: THE CONTROLLER MAGNET.] + +On the larger generators we combine with the regulator magnet above +described an exceedingly sensitive controller magnet governing the +regulation, and by whose accuracy the smallest variations of current +are counteracted, and the operation of the generator rendered perfect. +The controller magnet is contained in a box placed on the wall or +other support near the generator, and consists of a delicate double +axial magnet controlling the admission of current to the regulator, +upon the generator, and its action is exceedingly simple and +effective. So perfect is the action that in a circuit of twenty-five +to thirty lights, lights may be removed or put out in rapid succession +without apparently affecting those that remain. Besides, we have been +enabled to put out even eight or ten lights together instantly, while +the remainder burn as before. The features above set forth are +peculiar to the Thomson-Houston system, and have been thoroughly +covered by patents, and cannot therefore be adopted into other +systems. + + +THE THOMSON ARC LAMP. + +This lamp is essentially a series lamp; that is, any number of them +can be put on one circuit wire, but a single lamp, used alone, burns +equally well. It consists of a metal frame supporting at the bottom +the holder for the globe and lower carbon, which is insulated from the +frame. + +The annexed figure of the plain lamp will convey an understanding of +its general appearance. The upper carbon is fed downward by the +mechanism contained in the box above, and is carried by a vertical +round rod called the carbon holding rod. + +[Illustration: THE THOMSON ARC LAMP.] + +In the regulating box of the lamp there exists a simple mechanism, the +result of careful study and experiment to discover the best and +simplest combination of appliances, which would obviate the necessity +for the use of clockwork or dash-pots, from which fluids might be +accidentally spilled, for obtaining a gradual feeding of the carbon as +fast as it is consumed in producing the light, and at the same time to +maintain the arc or space between the carbons in burning, of such +extent as to give a steady, noiseless light, of greatest possible +economy. + +The lamp, once adjusted, does not require any readjustment, and, in +fact, is built in such a manner as to avoid the presence of adjusting +devices in it. The lamp also contains an automatic safety device for +preserving the continuity of the circuit in case of accidental injury +to the feeding mechanism or the carbons of the lamps. This is quite +important when a considerable number of lights are operated upon one +circuit wire, as a break in the circuit, due to a defective lamp, +would result in the extinguishment of all the lights. With the safety +device mentioned, such a break does not occur, but the flow of current +is preserved through the faulty lamp. + +By an exceedingly simple device upon the carbon holding rod, the lamps +are extinguished when the carbons are burned out, and injury by +burning the holders completely avoided. + +The system is based upon the joint inventions of Elihu Thomson and +Edwin J. Houston, for generators, regulators, and electric lamps, and +also the patents of Elihu Thomson, in generators, regulators, and +electric lamps; all of which are now operated and controlled by the +Thomson-Houston Electric Co., 131 Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass. + + * * * * * + + + + + +A MODIFICATION OF THE VIBRATING BELL. + + +One of the causes which gives rise to induction in the telephone lines +running along the Belgian railroads is that there are so many electric +bells in the stations. + +Mr. Lippens proposes as a remedy for the trouble a slight modification +of the vibrating bell of his invention so as to exclude from the line +the extra currents from the bell. + +In one of the styles (Fig. 1) a spring, R, is attached at T to a fixed +metallic rod, and presses against the rod, T¹. The current enters +through the terminal, B, traverses the bobbins, passes through T, +through the spring, through T¹, and makes its exit through the other +terminal. The armature is attracted, and the point, P, fixed thereto +draws back the spring from the rod, T¹, and interrupts the current; +but, at the moment at which the point touches the spring, and before +the latter has been detached from the rod, T¹, the electro-magnet +becomes included in a short circuit, and the line current, instead of +passing through the bobbins for a very short time, passes through the +wire, T, the armature, and the rod, T¹, so that the extra current is +no longer sent into the line. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +In another style (Fig. 2) the current is not interrupted at all, but +enters through the terminal, B, traverses the bobbins, and goes +through C to the terminal, B. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +As soon as the armature is attracted, the spring, R, which is fixed to +it presses against the fixed metallic rod, T, and thus gives the +electricity a shorter travel than it would take by preference. The +current ceases, then, to pass through the bobbins, demagnetization +occurs, and the spring that holds the armature separates anew. The +current now passes for a second time into the bobbins and produces a +new action, and so on. There is no longer, then, any interruption of +the current, and the motions of the hammer are brought about by the +change in direction of the current, which alternately traverses and +leaves the bobbins. + +In a communication that he has addressed to us on the subject of these +bells, Mr. Lippens adds a few details in regard to the mode of +applying the ground pile to micro-telephone stations. + +Being given any two stations, he puts into the ground at the first a +copper plate, and at the second a zinc one, and connects the two by a +line wire provided with two vibrating bells and two telephone +apparatus. The earth current suffices to actuate the bells, but, in +order to effect a call, the inventor is obliged to run them +continuously and to interrupt them at the moment at which he wishes to +communicate. The correspondent is then notified through the cessation +of noise in the bells, and the two call-apparatus are thrown out of +the circuit by the play of the commutator, and are replaced by the +micro-telephone apparatus. + +It is certainly impracticable to allow vibrating bells to ring +continuously in this manner. The ground pile would, at the most, be +only admissible in cases where the call, having to be made from only +one of the stations, might be effected by a closing of the +circuit.--_La Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + +The advantage of lighting vessels by electricity was shown when the +steamer Carolina, of the old Bay Line between Baltimore and Norfolk, +ran into the British steamship Riversdale in a dense fog off Cedar +Point, on Chesapeake Bay. The electric lights of the Carolina were +extinguished only in the damaged part of the boat, and her officers +think that if she had been lighted in any other way, a conflagration +would have followed the collision. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTO PLATES--WET AND DRY. + + +Dr. Eder has recently published, in the _Correspondenz_, the first of +a series of articles embodying the results of his more recent work on +gelatino bromide; and we now reproduce the substance of the article in +a somewhat abstracted form. + +The "sensitiveness of a wet" plate continues to be used as a rough and +ready standard of comparison; and, notwithstanding the fact that it is +physically impossible to exactly compare the sensitiveness of a wet +plate with that of a gelatino bromide film, it is convenient to refer +to wet plates as some kind of a rough standard. + +Experiments have shown that a gelatine plate which gives the number 10 +on the Warnerke sensitometer, may be regarded as approximately +corresponding to the average wet plate; and setting out from this +point, the following table has been constructed: + + Sensitometer Sensitiveness, expressed in terms + number. of a "Wet Plate." + + 10 1 + 11 1-1/3 + 12 1-3/4 + 13 2-1/3 + 14 3 + 15 4 + 16 5 + 17 7 + 18 9 + 19 12 + 20 16 + 21 21 + 22 27 + 23 36 + 24 48 + 25 63 + +The nature of the developer used has, of course, some influence on the +sensitiveness of the plates; but in the above cases it is assumed that +oxalate developer, without any addition, is used; or pyro., to which +ammonia is added at intervals of about thirty seconds, so as to +produce a slight tendency to fog; the time of development being from +three to four minutes. The numbers are supposed to be read after +fixation, the plate being held against the sky. + +Schumann's statement that a gelatino bromide plate is less sensitive +when developed at 30° C. than when developed at 5°, is contested; the +more recent investigations of Dr. Eder serving to demonstrate that a +developer at a moderate high temperature acts very much more rapidly +than when the temperature is low; but when a sufficient time is +allowed for each developer to thoroughly penetrate the film, the +difference becomes less apparent. Here are examples: + + _A.--Oxalate Developer._ + + Temperature of developer 4-8° C. 16-17° C. 26-28° C. + Time of development 1 min. 3° W. 8° W. 13° W. + " " 2 min. 9½° W. 10° W. 15° W. + + _B.--Pyrogallic Developer._ + + Temperature of developer 1-2° C. 26-28° C. + Time of development ¼ min. 6° W. 10° W. + " " 3 min. 14° W. 15° W. + + * * * * * + + + + +INTENSIFIER FOR WET PLATES. + +By MAJOR WATERHOUSE. + + +The collodion process is still preferred for reproducing black and +white designs, drawings, engravings, etc., where very dense negatives +are desirable. The fixed and washed plate is put in a bath of bromide +of copper (ten per cent. solution); the film whitens immediately, and +when the color is even all over, the plate is taken out and plunged +into a bath of the ordinary ferrous oxalate developer. It takes a dark +olive tint, which is very non-actinic, the shadows meanwhile remaining +very clear.--_Photo. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GELATINO BROMIDE EMULSION WITH BROMIDE OF ZINC. + + +By this time of the year I have no doubt many, both amateur and +professional photographers, are either contemplating or are actually +at work making their stock of plates for the coming season, and it is +to be hoped that we shall have more favorable weather than we had last +year. + +Some four or five years since I tried using bromide of zinc instead of +the ordinary salts, namely, bromide of ammonium or potassium. I only +made one batch of plates at the time, which possessed several +important features I considered an advantage, and I think well worth +while following out. I do not think it can be denied that ordinary +gelatine plates, if exposed in a weak light, fall very short of the +results obtained with wet collodion when compared side by side, +gelatine being almost useless under these conditions, and there is a +decided gain in the result in this respect if the emulsion be made +with zinc bromide. + +In using bromide of zinc there is a slight difficulty to overcome, but +it _can_ be overcome, as I have succeeded in making a perfect +emulsion. It will, I have no doubt, be remembered that Mr. L. Warnerke +was the first to call attention to this salt in the days of collodion +emulsion; and I think he claimed for an emulsion prepared with it that +the image would stand more forcing without fogging to gain any amount +of intensity. This was said of a collodion emulsion, and I also find +that it is the same when used in a gelatine emulsion. I have heard a +great many say, when speaking about the intensity of gelatine plates, +that they can get any amount of intensity. I grant that in a studio +where the operator has full command over the lighting of his subject +by means of blinds, but it is not so in the field, especially when the +light is dull. I have seen thousands of negatives, and as a rule I +have found want of intensity has been the fault, and generally through +the light. Now if we can find a remedy for this, it will be a step in +advance. + +What I claim for bromide of zinc is that a rapid plate can be made +with it, and any degree of intensity can be readily obtained with a +very small proportion of pyrogallic acid in the developer. The cry as +always is to use plenty of pyrogallic acid and you can get any amount +of intensity. I remember, in the early days of gelatine, as much as +six grains being recommended, and I have myself, under extraordinary +circumstances, used as much as ten grains to the ounce; but I think it +is now, to a certain extent, a thing of the past. With the plates to +which I refer, I found that I only required to use for a 7½ × 5 plate +one grain of pyrogallic acid in about three ounces of developer to get +full density without the slightest difficulty. If the ordinary +quantity were used far too much density was obtained, and the plate +ruined beyond recovery; but with so small a quantity of pyro. the +plate was not so much stained as with a larger quantity, and the +negative took far less time to develop on account of the intensity +being so readily obtained. + +In making a gelatine emulsion with zinc it must be _decidedly acid_ or +it fogs. I prefer nitric acid for the purpose. I also found that some +samples of the bromide behaved in a very peculiar way. All went on +well until it came to the washing, when the bromide of silver washed +out slowly, rendering the washing water slightly milky; this continued +until the whole of the bromide of silver was discharged from the +gelatine, and the latter rendered perfectly transparent as in the +first instance. I remember a gentleman mentioning at one of the +meetings of the South London Photographic Society that he was troubled +in the same way as I was at that time. I think if a few experiments +were made in this direction with the zinc salt and worked out, it +would be a great advantage.--_Wm. Brooks, in Br. Jour. of Photo_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DESIGN FOR A VILLA. + + +The villa of which we give a perspective drawing is intended as a +country residence, being designed in a quiet and picturesque style of +domestic Gothic, frequently met with in old country houses. It is +proposed to face the external walls with red Suffolk bricks and +Corsham Down stone dressings, the chimneys to be finished with moulded +bricks. The attic gables, etc., would be half-timbered in oak, and the +roof covered with red Fareham tiles laid on felt. Internally, the hall +and corridors are to be laid with tiles; the wood finishing on ground +floor to be of walnut, and on first floor of pitch pine. The ground +floor contains drawing-room, 23 ft. by 16 ft., with octagonal recess +in angle (which also forms a feature in the elevation), and door +leading to conservatory. The morning-room, 16 ft. by 16 ft., also +leads into conservatory. Dining-room, 20 ft. by 16 ft., with serving +door leading from kitchen. The hall and principal staircase are +conveniently situated in the main part of the house, with doors +leading to the several rooms, and entrances to garden. The domestic +offices, though conveniently placed, are entirely cut off from the +main portion of the house by a door leading from the hall. In the +basement there is ample cellar accommodation for wine or other +purposes. The first floor contains four bed-rooms, two dressing-rooms, +bath-room, w.c., etc. The attic floor, reached by the servants' +staircase, contains two servants' bed-rooms, day and night nurseries, +and box and store rooms. The estimated cost is £3,800. The design is +by Mr. Charles C. Bradley, of 82 Wellesley Road, Croydon.--_Building +Times_. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE--DESIGN FOR A VILLA.] + + * * * * * + + + + +WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE. + + +William Spottiswoode, President of the Royal Society, was born in +London, Jan. 11, 1825. He belongs to an ancient Scottish family, many +members of which have risen to distinction in Scotland and also in the +New World. + +In 1845 he took a first class in mathematics, and he afterward won the +junior (1846) and the senior (1847) university mathematical +scholarships. He returned to Oxford for a term or two, and gave a +course of lectures in Balliol College on Geometry of Three +Dimensions--a favorite subject of his. He was examiner in the +mathematical schools in 1857-58. On leaving Oxford, he immediately, we +believe, took an active part in the working management of the business +of the Queen's printers, about this time resigned to him by his +father, Andrew Spottiswoode, brother of the Laird of Spottiswoode. The +business has largely developed under his hands. + +Other subjects than mathematics have occupied his attention: at an +early age he studied languages, as well Oriental as European. + +[Illustration: WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE.] + +As treasurer and president, he has been continuously on the Council +of the Royal Society for a great many years, and through his +exceptional gifts as an administrator he has rendered it invaluable +services. He has rendered similar services to the British Association, +to the London Mathematical Society, and to the Royal Institution. We +have permission to make the following extract from a letter written by +a friend of many years' standing: "In the councils (of the various +societies) he has always been distinguished by his sound judgment and +his deep sympathy with their purest and highest aims. There never was +a trace of partisanship in his action, or of narrowness in his +sympathies. On the contrary, every one engaged in thoroughly +scientific work has felt that he had a warm supporter in Spottiswoode, +on whose opportune aid he might surely count. The same breadth of +sympathy and generosity of sentiment has marked also his relations to +those more entirely dependent upon him. The workmen in his large +establishment all feel that they have in him a true and trustworthy +friend. He has always identified himself with their educational and +social well-being." We give here a list of some of the offices Mr. +Spottiswoode has held, and of the honors that have been bestowed upon +him: Treasurer of the British Association from 1861 to 1874, of the +Royal Institution from 1865 to 1873, and of the Royal Society from +1871 to 1878. In 1871 he succeeded Dr. Bence Jones as Honorary +Secretary to the Royal Institution. President of Section A, 1865; of +the British Association, 1878; of the London Mathematical Society, +1870 to 1872; of the Royal Society, 1879, which office he still holds. +Correspondent of the Institut (Académie des Sciences), March 27, 1876. +He is also LL.D. of the Universities of Cambridge, Dublin, and +Edinburgh, D.C.L. of Oxford, and F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. In +addition to these honors he has many other literary and scientific +distinctions.--_Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACETATE OF LIME. + + +I have made a series of experiments with regard to finding a reliable +method of estimating the acetic acid in commercial acetate of lime, +and find the following gives the best results: The sample is finely +ground and about 6 grms. weighed into a half-liter flask, dissolved in +water, and diluted to the containing mark. 100 c.c. of this solution +are distilled with 70 grms. of strong phosphoric acid nearly to +dryness, and 50 c.c. of water are added to the residue in the retort +and distilled till the distillate gives no precipitate with nitrate of +silver, titrate the distillates with standard caustic soda, evaporate +to dryness in a platinum dish, and ignite the residue before the blow +pipe, which converts the phosphate of soda (formed by a little +phosphoric acid carried over in the distillation) into the insoluble +pyrophosphate and the acetate of soda into NaHO; dissolve in water, +and titrate with standard H_{2}SO_{4}, which gives the amount of soda +combined with the acetic acid in the original sample. In a number of +samples analyzed they were found to vary hardly anything.--_C. H. +Slaytor, in Chem. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF AMMONIA FROM CRUDE GAS. + + +In connection with the many plans now brought forward to utilize the +ammonia in the gases escaping from coke ovens and blast furnaces, it +may be of interest to refer to a process brought out some years ago in +connection with illuminating gas manufacture by Messrs. Bolton & +Wanklyn, and adapted by them, we understand, to the metallurgical +branches also. + +When bone ash or any other substance containing phosphate of lime is +treated with sulphuric acid, the products formed are superphosphate of +lime and hydrated sulphate of lime; this mixture is known as +superphosphate of lime, in commerce, and is the substance used in this +process. This substance is capable of absorbing carbonic acid and +ammonia from foul gas. The complete action can only take place in the +presence of a certain proportion of carbonic acid, so that the process +is not so successful with "well-scrubbed illuminating gas." The +superphosphate is converted into carbonate of lime, while the ammonia +combines with the phosphoric acid to form phosphate of ammonia; the +hydrated sulphate of lime is also acted upon, and forms carbonate of +lime and sulphate of ammonia; so that, presuming the action to be +complete, and the material to be thoroughly saturated with carbonic +acid and ammonia from the foul gas, the result is a mixture of +carbonate of lime and phosphate and sulphate of ammonia. + +Under these circumstances, the mixture absorbs one equivalent of +carbonic acid for every four equivalents of ammonia; therefore, if the +superphosphate process be substituted for the ordinary washers and +scrubbers, a large proportion of the carbonic acid and also the whole +of the sulphureted hydrogen is left in the gas, and must be dealt with +in other ways. + +This superphosphate process has been at work at the South Metropolitan +Gas Works, Old Kent Road, for nearly two years. In practice it is +usual to water the superphosphate before use with ammoniacal liquor, +and it is used in dry purifiers, in layers about eight inches thick. + +This process has been thoroughly investigated at the Munich Gas Works, +by Drs. Bunte and Schilling, and the report made by these gentlemen +proves its practical efficiency, and therefore the question of its +advantage, as compared with washing and scrubbing, is based chiefly +upon financial considerations. It is evident that in foreign parts, +or in any place where there is a difficulty in disposing of the +ammonia, the obtaining of the same in a dry form offers several +advantages as compared with having it as a weak solution. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECONVERSION OF NITRO-GLYCERIN INTO GLYCERIN. + +By C.L. BLOXAM. + + +The following experiments on this subject appear to possess some +interest at the present moment: + +1. Nitro-glycerin was shaken with methylated alcohol, which dissolves +it readily, and the solution was mixed with an alcoholic solution of +KHS (prepared by dissolving KHO in methylated spirit, and saturating +with H_{2}S gas). Considerable rise of temperature took place, the +liquid became red, a large quantity of sulphur separated, and the +nitro-glycerin was entirely decomposed. + +2. Nitro-glycerin was shaken with a strong aqueous solution of +commercial K_{2}S. The same changes were observed as in 1, but the +rise of temperature was not so great, and the liquid became opaque +very suddenly when the decomposition of the nitro-glycerin was +completed. + +3. The ordinary yellow solution of ammonium sulphide used in the +laboratory had the same effect as the K_{2}S. In this case the mixture +was evaporated to dryness on the steam bath, when bubbles of gas were +evolved, due to the decomposition of the ammonium nitrite. The pasty +mass of sulphur was treated with alcohol, which extracted the +glycerin, subsequently recovered by evaporation. Another portion of +the mixture of nitro-glycerin with ammonium sulphide was treated with +excess of PbCO_{3} and a little lead acetate, filtered, and the ammonium +nitrite detected in the solution. These qualitative results would be +expressed by the equation-- + + C3H5(NO)+3NH4HS = C3H5(OH)3 + 3NH4NO2 + S3, + +which is similar to that for the action of potassium hydrosulphide +upon gun-cotton. + +4. Flowers of sulphur and slaked lime were boiled with water, till a +bright orange solution was obtained. This was filtered, and some +nitro-glycerin powered into it. The reduction took place much more +slowly than in the other cases, and more agitation was required, +because the nitro-glycerin became coated with sulphur. In a few +minutes, the reduction appearing to be complete, the separated sulphur +was filtered off. The filtrate was clear, and the sulphur bore +hammering without the slightest indication of nitro-glycerin. + +This would be the cheapest method of decomposing nitro-glycerin. +Perhaps the calcium sulphide of tank-waste, obtainable from the alkali +works, might answer the purpose.--_Chemical News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBONIC ACID AND BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A paper read before the Royal Society, April 5, 1883.] + +By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S. + + +Chemists are ever on the alert to notice analogies and resemblances in +the atomic structure of different bodies. They long ago indicated +points of resemblance between bisulphide of carbon and carbonic acid. +In the case of the latter we have one atom of carbon united to two of +oxygen, and in the case of the former one atom of carbon united to two +of sulphur. Attempts have been made to push the analogy still further +by the discovery of a compound of carbon and sulphur analogous to +carbonic oxide, but hitherto, I believe, without success. I have now +to note a resemblance of some interest to the physicist, and of a more +settled character than any hitherto observed. + +When, by means of an electric current, a metal is volatilized and +subjected to spectrum analysis, the "reversal" of the bright band of +the incandescent vapor is commonly observed. This is known to be due +to the absorption of the rays emitted by the vapor by the partially +cooled envelope of its own substance which surrounds it. The effect is +the same in kind as the absorption by cold carbonic acid of the heat +emitted by a carbonic oxide flame. For most sources of radiation +carbonic acid is one of the most transparent of gases; for the +radiation from the hot carbonic acid produced in the carbonic oxide +flame it is the most opaque of all. + +Again, for all ordinary sources of radiant heat, bisulphide of carbon, +both in the liquid and vaporous form, is one of the most diathermanous +bodies ever known. I thought it worth while to try whether a body +reputed to be analogous to carbonic acid, and so pervious to most +kinds of heat, would show any change of deportment when presented to +the radiation from hot carbonic acid. Does the analogy between the two +substances extend to the vibrating periods of their atoms? If it does, +then the bisulphide, like the carbonic acid, will abandon its usually +transparent character, and play the part of an opaque body when +presented to the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame. This proved +to be the case. Of the radiation from hydrogen, a thin layer of +bisulphide transmits 90 per cent., absorbing only 10. For the +radiation from carbonic acid, the same layer of bisulphide transmits +only 25 per cent., 75 per cent. being absorbed. For this source of +rays, indeed, the bisulphide transcends, as an absorbent, many +substances which, for all other sources, far transcend _it_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HAIR, ITS USE AND ITS CARE.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Abstract of a paper read before the Pennsylvania State +Medical Society, at Norristown, May 10, 1883.--_N.Y. Med. Jour._] + +By JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D., Physician to the Philadelphia +Hospital for Skin Diseases. + + +The object of this paper is to briefly describe the hair and its +important functions, and to suggest the proper manner of preserving it +in a healthy state. + +I know full well that much has been written upon this useful part of +the human economy, but the constant increase of bald heads and +beardless faces, notwithstanding all our modern advancement in the +application of remedies to the cure of disease, prompts me to point +out to you the many ways of retaining, without medication, the hair, +which is a defense, ornamentation, and adornment to the human body. + +[Dr. Shoemaker here gave an interesting history of the growth and +development of the hair and its uses, which we are compelled to omit. +Then, proceeding, he said:] Now, the hair, which fulfills such an +important function in the adornment and health of the body, requires +both constitutional and local care to keep it in its normal, healthy +state. When I say constitutional care, I mean that the various organs +of the body that assist in nourishing and sustaining the hair-forming +apparatus should, by judicious diet, exercise, and attention to the +nervous system, be kept healthy and sound, in order that they in turn +may assist in preserving the hairs in a vigorous condition. + +In the first place, that essential material, food, which is necessary +to supply the waste and repair of all animal life, should be selected, +given, or used according to good judgment and experience. + +Thus, mothers should feed their infants at regular intervals according +to their age, and not permit them to constantly pull at the breast or +the bottle until the little stomach becomes gorged with food, and some +alimentary disorder supervenes, often setting up a rash and +interfering with the growth and development of the hair. It is +likewise important, in case the baby must be artificially fed, to +select good nutritious food as near as possible like the +mother's--cow's milk, properly prepared, being the only recognized +substitute. Care and discretion should likewise be taken by parents +and nurses, after the infant has developed into childhood, to give +simple, substantial, and varied food at regular periods of the day, +and not in such quantities as to overload the stomach. Children need +active nutrition to develop them into robust and healthy men and +women; and it is from neglect of these important laws of health, and +in allowing improper food, that very often bring their results in +scald head, ring-worm, and scrofula, that leave their stamp in the +poor development of the hair. With the advent of youth and the advance +of years, food should be selected and partaken of according to the +judgment and experience of its acceptable and wholesome action on the +consumer. + +The meals should also be taken at regular intervals. At least four +hours should be left between them for the act of digestion and the +proper rest of the stomach. + +It is, on the contrary, when the voice of nature has been stifled, +when judgment and experience have been set aside, that mischief +follows; when the stomach is teased and fretted with overloading, and +the food gulped down without being masticated, gastric and intestinal +derangement supervenes, which is one of the most prolific sources of +the early decay and fall of the hair. + +The nervous system, which is one of the most important portions of the +human structure, and which controls circulation, secretion, and +nutrition, often by being impaired, plays a prominent part in the +production of baldness. Thus, it has been demonstrated by modern +investigation that the nerves of nutrition, by their defective action, +are often the cause of thinning and loss of hair. The nutritive action +of a part is known to suddenly fail, the hair-forming apparatus ceases +to act, the skin changes from a peculiar healthy hue to a white and +shining appearance, and often loses at the same time its sensibility; +the hairs drop out until very few remain, or the part becomes entirely +bald. It is the overtaxing of the physical powers, excessive brain +work, the exacting demands made by parents and teachers upon +children's mental faculties, the loss of sleep, incessant cares, +anxiety, grief, excitement, the sudden depression and exaltation of +spirits, irregular and hastily bolted meals, the lack of rest and +recreation, the abuse of tobacco, spirits, tea, coffee, and drugs of +all forms, that are fruitful sources of this defective action of the +nerves of nutrition, and consequent general thinning and loss of hair. + +The hair, particularly of the head, should also receive marked local +attention. In reference to the use of coverings for it, I know of no +better rules than those which I laid down in my chapter on clothing in +"Household Practice of Medicine" (vol. i., p. 218, William Wood & Co., +New York), in which I state that the head is the only part of the body +so protected by nature as to need no artificial covering. + +The stiff hats so extensively worn by men produce more or less injury. +Premature baldness most frequently first attacks that part of the head +where pressure is made by the hat. It is, indeed, a pity that custom +has so rigidly decreed that men and women must not appear out of doors +with heads uncovered. It would be far better for the hair if to be +bare-headed were the rule, and to wear a hat the exception. + +Since we can not change our social regulations in this respect, we +should endeavor to render them as harmless as possible. + +The forms of hats that are least injurious are: for Winter, soft hats +of light weight, having an open structure, or pierced with numerous +holes; for Summer, light straws, also of open structure. + +As regards the head-covering of women, the fashions have been for +several years favorable to proper form. The bonnet and hat have become +quite small, and cover but little of the head. This beneficial +condition, however, is in part counterbalanced by the weight of false +curls, switches, puffs, etc., by the aid of which women dress the +head. These, by interfering with evaporation of the secretions, +prevent proper regulations of the temperature of the scalp, and +likewise lead to the retention of a certain amount of excrementitious +matter, both of which are prolific sources of rapid thinning and loss +of hair in women. + +False hair has likewise sometimes been the means of introducing +parasites, which give rise to obstinate affections of the scalp. + +Cleanliness of the entire surface of the skin should next demand +attention, and that should be done by using water as the medium of +ablution. It is a well-known physiological law that it is necessary, +in order to enable the skin to carry on its healthful action, to have +washed off with water the constant cast of scales which become mingled +with the unctuous and saline products, together with particles of dirt +which coat over the pores, and thus interfere with the development of +the hairs. Water for ablution can be of any temperature that may be +acceptable and agreeable, according to the custom and condition of the +bather's health. Many chemical substances can be combined with water +to cleanse these effete productions from the skin. Soap is the most +efficacious of all for cleanliness, health, and the avoidance of +disease. Soap combines better with water to render these unctuous +products miscible, and readily removes them thoroughly from the skin. +The best variety of soap to use is the pure white soap, which cannot +be so easily adulterated by coloring material, or disguised by some +perfume or medicinal substance. Ablution with soap and water should be +performed once or twice a week at least, particularly to the head and +beard, in order to keep open the hair tubes so that they may take in +oxygen, give out carbon, carry on their nutrition, and maintain the +hairs in a fine, polished, and healthy condition. In using water to +the scalp and beard, care should be taken not to use soap-water too +frequently, as it often causes irritation of the glands, and leads to +the formation of scurf. It is equally important to avoid using on the +head, the daily shower-bath, which, by its sudden, rapid, and heavy +fall, excites local irritation, and, as a result, loss of hair quickly +follows. In case the health demands the shower-bath, the hair should +be protected by a bathing cap. The most acceptable time to wash the +hair, to those not accustomed to doing it with their morning bath, is +just before retiring, in order to avoid going into the open air or +getting into a draught and taking cold. After washing, the hair should +be briskly rubbed with rough towels, the Turkish towel heated being +particularly serviceable. Those who are delicate or sick, and fear +taking cold or being chilled from the wet or damp hairs, should rub +into the scalp a little bay rum, alcohol, or oil, a short time after +the parts have been well chafed with towels. The oil is particularly +serviceable at this period, as it is better absorbed, and at the same +time overcomes any dryness of the skin which often follows washing. + +It might be well to add in this connection that I have frequently been +consulted, by those taking salt-water baths, as to the care of the +hair during and after the bath. If the bather is in good health, and +the hair is normal, the bather can go into the surf and remain at +least fifteen minutes, and on coming out should rub the hair +thoroughly dry with towels. + +Ladies should permit it remain loose while doing so, after which it +can be advantageously dressed. + +It is, however, often injurious to both men and women having some +wasting of the hair to go into the surf without properly protecting +the head; the sea water has not, as is often thought, a tonic action +on the scalp; on the contrary, it often excites irritation and general +thinning. Again, it is most decidedly injurious to the hair for +persons to remain in the surf one or two hours, the hair wet, and the +head unprotected from the rays of the sun. This latter class of +bathers, and those who hurriedly dress the hair wet, which soon +becomes mouldy and emits a disagreeable odor, are frequent sufferers +from general loss and thinning of the hair. + +An agreeable and efficient adjunct after ablution, which I have +already referred to, is oil. Oil has not only a cleansing action upon +the scalp, but it also overcomes any rough or uneven state of the +hair, and gives it a soft and glossy appearance. + +The oil of ergot is particularly serviceable in fulfilling these +indications, and, at the same time, by its soothing and slight +astringent action upon the glands, will arrest the formation of scurf. +In using oil, the animal and vegetable oils should always be +preferred, as mineral oils, especially the petroleum products, have a +very poor affinity for animal tissues. + +Pomatum is largely used by many in place of oil, as it remains on the +surface and gives a full appearance to the hairs, thus hiding, +sometimes, the thinness of the hair. + +It will do no harm or no special good if it contains pure grease, wax, +harmless perfume, and coloring matter, but it is often highly +adulterated, or, the fat in it decomposing, sets up irritation on the +part to which it is applied. I therefore always advise against its +use. + +The comb and brush are also agents of the toilet by which the hair is +kept clean, vigorous, and healthy. The comb should be of flexible gum, +with large, broad, blunt, round, and coarse teeth, having plenty of +elasticity. It should be used to remove from the hairs any scurf or +dirt that may have become entangled in them, to separate the hairs and +prevent them from becoming matted and twisted together. + +The fine-tooth comb, made with the teeth much closer together, can be +used in place of the regular toilet comb just named when the hair is +filled with very fine particles of scurf, dirt, or when parasites and +their eggs infest the hairs. It should, however, always be borne in +mind that combs are only for the hair, and not for the scalp or the +skin, which is too often torn and dug up by carelessly and roughly +pulling these valuable and important articles of toilet through the +skin as well as the hair. + +The brush with moderately stiff whalebone bristles may be passed +gently over the hair several times during the day, to brush out the +dust and the dandruff, and to keep the hair smooth, soft, and clean; +rough and hard brushing the hair with brushes having very stiff +bristles in them, especially the metal or wire bristles, is of no +service, but often irritates the parts and causes the hair to fall +out. [Dr. Shoemaker then denounced the use of the so-called electric +brush, saying its use was injurious, as also was the effort to remove +dandruff by the aid of the comb and brush. Continuing, he remarked:] +And now the question arises, Should the hair be periodically cut? It +may be that cutting and shaving may for the time increase the action +of the growth, but it has no permanent effect either upon the +hair-bulb or the hair sac, and will not in any way add to the life of +the hair. + +On the contrary, cutting and shaving will cause the hair to grow +longer for the time being, but in the end will inevitably shorten its +term of life by exhausting the nutritive action of the hair-forming +apparatus. When the hairs are frequently cut, they will usually become +coarser, often losing the beautiful gloss of the fine and delicate +hairs. The pigment will likewise change--brown, for instance, becoming +chestnut, and black changing to a dark brown. In addition, the ends of +very many will be split and ragged, presenting a brush like +appearance. If the hairs appear stunted in their growth upon portions +of the scalp or beard, or gray hairs crop up here and there, the +method of clipping off the ends of the short hairs, of plucking out +the ragged, withered, and gray hairs, will allow them to grow +stronger, longer, and thicker. + +Mothers, in rearing their children, should not cut their hair at +certain periods of the year (during the superstitious time of full +moon), in order to increase its length and luxuriance as they bloom +into womanhood, and manhood. This habit of cutting the hair of +children brings evil in place of good, and is also condemned by the +distinguished worker in this department, Professor Kaposi, of Vienna, +who states that it is well known that the hair of women who possess +luxuriant locks from the time of girlhood never again attains its +original length after having once been cut. + +Pincus has made the same observation by frequent experiment, and he +adds that there is a general opinion that frequent cutting of the hair +increases its length; but the effect is different from that generally +supposed. Thus, upon one occasion he states that he cut off circles of +hair an inch in diameter on the heads of healthy men, and from week to +week compared the intensity of growth of the shorn place with the rest +of the hair. The result was surprising to this close and careful +observer, as he found in some cases the numbers were equal, but +generally the growth became slower after cutting, and he has never +observed an increase in rapidity. + +I might also add that I believe many beardless faces and bald heads in +middle and advancing age are often due to constant cutting and shaving +in early life. The young girls and boys seen daily upon our streets +with their closely cropped heads, and the young men with their +clean-shaven faces, are, year by year, by this fashion, having their +hair-forming apparatus overstrained. + +I also must condemn the modern practice of curling and crimping, the +use of bandoline, powders, and all varieties of gum solutions, sharp +hair-pins, long-pointed metal ornaments and hair combs, the wearing of +chignons, false plaits, curls, and frizzes, as the latter are liable +to cause headaches and tend to congestion. Likewise I protest against +the use of castor-oil and the various mixtures extolled as the best +hair-tonics, restoratives, vegetable hair-dyes, or depilatories, as +they are highly injurious instead of beneficial, the majority of +hair-dyes being largely composed of lead salts. But, should your +patients wish to hide their gray hairs, probably the best hair-dye +that can be used safely is pyrogallic acid or walnut juice, the hairs +being first washed with an alkaline solution to get rid of the grease. +Nitrate of silver is also a good and safe hair-dye, but its +application should be done by one experienced in its use. The +judicious use of these hair-dyes will give the hair above the surface +of the skin a brownish-black appearance, the intensity of the color of +which depends upon the strength of the solution. But hair-dyeing for +premature grayness should be avoided, as the diseased condition may be +averted by the proper remedies. Never permit the hair to be bleached +for the purpose of obtaining the fashionable golden hue, as the +arsenical solution generally used is highly dangerous; but, if your +patients must have their hair of a golden color, insist upon their +hairdresser using the peroxide of hydrogen, which is less dangerous +than the preparation first mentioned. + +Perhaps one of the most pernicious compounds used for the hair at the +present day is that which is sold in the shops as a depilatory. It is +usually a mixture of quicklime and arsenic, and is wrongly used and +recommended at this time by many physicians to remove hairy moles and +an excessive growth of hair upon ladies' faces. Its application +excites inflammation of the skin; and, while it removes the hair from +the surface for a time, it often leaves a scar, or makes the part +rough, congested, and deformed. + +In the meantime, the hair will grow after a short period stronger, +coarser, and changed in color, which will even more disfigure the +person's countenance. With the present scientific knowledge of the +application of electrolysis, hairs can be removed from the face of +ladies or children, or in any improper situation, in the most harmless +manner without using such obnoxious and injurious compounds as +depilatories. + +In conclusion, let me add that, if the hair becomes altered in +texture, or falls out gradually or suddenly, or changes in color, a +disease of the hair, either locally or generally, has set in, and the +hair, and perhaps the constitution, now needs, as in any other +disease, the constant care of the physician. + +A general remedy for this or that hair disease that may develop will +not answer, as hair diseases, like other affections, have no one +remedy which will overcome wasting, thinning, or loss of color. +Patients reasoning upon this belief, frequently apply to me for a +remedy to restore their hair to its full vigor or give them back its +color. I always reply that I have no such remedy. + +The general health, as well as the scalp and hairs, must be examined +carefully, particularly the latter, with the lens and microscope. All +changes must be watched, and the treatment varied from time to time +according to the indications. + +No one remedy can, therefore, under any circumstances, suit, as the +remedy used to-day may be changed at the next or succeeding visit. No +remedy for the hair will be necessary if the foregoing advice be +followed which I have just narrated, and which is the result of some +seven years of labor and experience. + +The proper consideration and putting into practice of these +suggestions will most certainly secure to the rising generation fewer +bald heads and more luxuriant hair than is possessed at the present +day. + + * * * * * + + [Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 387, page 6179.] + + + + +THE INFLUENCE OF EFFECTIVE BREATHING IN DELAYING THE PHYSICAL +CHANGES INCIDENT TO THE DECLINE OF LIFE, AND IN THE PREVENTION OF +PNEUMONIA, CONSUMPTION, AND DISEASES OF WOMEN. + +By DAVID WARK, M.D., 9 East 12th Street, New York. + + +PNEUMONIA. + +During the past winter inflammation of the lungs has destroyed the +lives of many persons who, although they were in most cases past the +meridian of life, yet still apparently enjoyed vigorous health, and, I +have little doubt, would still have been alive and well had the +preventive means here laid down against the occurrence of the disease +from which they perished been effectively practiced at the proper +time. + +The most important anatomical change occurring during the progress of +pneumonia is the solidification of a larger or smaller part of one or +both lungs by the deposit in the terminal bronchial tubes and in the +air cells of a substance by which the spongy lungs are rendered as +solid and heavy as a piece of liver. The access of the respired air to +the solidified part being totally prevented, life is inevitably +destroyed if a sufficiently large portion of the lungs be invaded. + +This deposit succeeds the first or congestive stage, and it occurs +with great rapidity; an entire lobe of the lung may be rendered +perfectly solid by the exudation from the blood of fully two pounds of +solid matter in the short space of twelve hours or even less. The +rapidity with which the lungs become solidified amply accounts for the +promptly fatal results that often attend attacks of acute pneumonia. +If recovery takes place, the foreign matter by which the lung tissue +has been solidified is perfectly absorbed and the diseased portion is +found to be quite uninjured. The only natural method by which the +blood can be freed from the presence of foreign matter is by the +oxidation--the burning--of such impure matters; the results being +carbonic acid gas that escapes by the lungs and certain materials that +are eliminated chiefly by the kidneys. But when these blood impurities +exist in the vital fluid in unusually large quantities, or if the +respiratory capacity be inadequate, the natural internal crematory +operations are a partial failure. But nature will not tolerate the +presence of such impurities in the vital fluid; if they cannot be +eliminated by natural means they must by unnatural means; therefore +such material is very frequently deposited in various parts of the +body, the point of deposit being often determined by some local +disturbance or irritation. + +For instance, if a person whose blood is in fairly good condition +takes a cold that settles on his lungs, he either recovers of it +spontaneously or is readily cured by means of some cough mixture; but +if his blood be loaded with tubercular matter, the latter is extremely +liable to be deposited in his lungs; the cough that was excited in the +first place by a simple cold becomes worse and persistent, in a few +months his lungs show signs of disorganization, and he has consumption +of the acute or chronic type, as the case may be. + +On the other hand, if the impure matter by which the blood is loaded +be of the kind that causes the pulmonary solidifications of pneumonia, +the latter disease is very likely to be developed if a cold on the +lungs be caught. + +The liability of any individual to attacks of acute pneumonia is +therefore determined very largely by the presence or absence in his +blood of the matter already alluded to. If his blood be free from it, +no cold, however severe, is competent to originate the disease. + +There can be no question but that good living and sedentary habits +have a strong tendency to befoul the blood; the former renders +effective respiration all the more necessary for the removal from the +blood of whatever nutritive matter has been taken beyond the needs of +the system, and the latter inevitably diminishes the respiratory +motions to the lowest point consistent with physical comfort. From +these conditions originates the active predisposing cause of +pneumonia, to which we have already alluded. + +The disease is more fatal in the very young and in the aged; the +mortality seems to bear a direct ratio to the respiratory capacity; in +young subjects the breathing powers have not been fully developed like +the other physical capacities, while in the old the respiratory volume +has been diminished by the stiffening of the chest walls and of the +lungs by the senile changes already detailed. + +There can be no question but that protection from cold and judicious +attention to the health generally, by suitable exercise and diet, has +a powerful tendency to prevent that overloaded condition of the blood +to which I believe acute pneumonia to be chiefly due; still I have no +doubt but that the most active preventive measure that can be adopted +is keeping up the respiratory capacity to the full requirements of the +system, a precaution which is specially necessary to ease-loving and +high-living gentlemen who are past the prime of life. I am of the +opinion that if such persons would cultivate their breathing powers by +the simple means here recommended, their liability to pneumonia would +be notably reduced. + + +THE TRUE FIRST STAGE OF CONSUMPTION. + +The progress of tubercular consumption has been divided by pathologists +into three stages. The first stage being that in which a deposit of +tubercular matter occurs in the lung tissue, the second is entered on +when the tubercles soften, and the third when they have melted down, +been expectorated, and cavities have formed. But the real beginning of +this most insidious and justly dreaded disease not infrequently +antedates for a long time, often for several years, the deposit of any +tubercular matter. During all this time an expert examiner can detect +the slight but very significant changes already taking place in the +pulmonary organs. Physicians determine the condition of the lungs +chiefly through the sounds elicited by percussion of the chest walls +by the end of the middle finger, or a small rubber hammer adapted to +the purpose, and by those produced by the respired air rushing in to +and out of the bronchial tubes and air vesicles. The percussion sounds +yielded by the chest during what has been aptly called the +pre-tubercular stage do not differ from those elicited in health, +because it is only when some morbid matter exists in the lungs that +the percussion note is altered, therefore negative results only are +obtained in the real first stage by this mode of examination. But +important information can be obtained by interrogating the sounds due +to the inspired air rushing into and distending the air vesicles. When +the lungs are perfectly healthy, these are breezy and almost musical. +During the pre-tubercular stage they become drier and harsher; +qualities of evil omen that continue to increase as time passes, if +properly directed means be not adopted to correct the evil; but so far +none of the symptoms that indicate the slightest deposit of tubercle +can be detected, but the breathing capacity of such persons is never +up to the full requirements of the system. The reader is referred to +the table already given, which exhibits the decline of the breathing +capacity of persons suffering from consumption in its several stages. +When the disease has made such decided progress that tubercles are +already deposited in the lungs in sufficient quantity to give rise to +the physical signs by which their presence is proved, this carefully +compiled table shows that the diminution of the vital capacity already +amounts to one-third of that considered by Dr. Hutchinson to be +necessary to the maintenance of health. + +During the pre-tubercular stage the breathing capacity rarely falls so +much as 33 per cent. below the healthy standard, but it is never up to +the normal vital volume. This fact is most significant, especially +when it occurs in an individual whose relatives have succumbed to this +disease; but it rarely attracts sufficient attention from such persons +as to induce them to have their breathing capacity measured, much less +to take effective measures to bring and keep it up to the healthy +standard. So long as there are, to them, no tangible symptoms of +approaching mischief, and they feel fairly well, they act as if they +thought "that all men were mortal but themselves." Yet it is from +among persons who have an inherited but latent tendency to tubercular +disease, and whose lung power is below par, that the great army of +consumptives who die every year is recruited. It is very difficult to +induce persons who ought to be interested in this matter to take +effective measures for their future safety when the terrible symptoms +accompanying the last stages of the disease often fail to shake the +sufferer's confident expectation of recovery; and we sometimes see +them engaged in laying plans for the future when death is imminent. I +regret deeply to be obliged to make these statements, because I am +convinced that if the suggestions laid down in this work were +generally reduced to practice by those who have reason to dread the +development of tubercular disease, many valuable lives would be saved. + + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF TUBERCULAR MATTER IN THE BLOOD. + +During the digestive processes the starchy, saccharine, and albuminoid +elements of food are dissolved, and the fatty matters are emulsified. +A uniform milky solution is thus formed, which is rapidly absorbed +into the general circulation; some of it passes directly through the +walls of the vessels into the blood, and some is taken up by the +lacteals and reaches the vital fluid by traversing the complicated +series of tubes known as the absorbent system, and the numerous glands +connected with it. The chief function of the starchy and fatty food +elements is to keep up the physical temperature, by being submitted to +oxidation in the organism; therefore it is not necessary that they +should experience any vitalizing change, but are fitted to discharge +their duties in the vital domain by simply undergoing the solution +that fits them for absorption. But the materials intended to enter +into the composition of the body must be developed into living blood, +in order to be fitted to become part and parcel of the organs by which +power is evolved, and through the use of which we see, hear, feel, +think, and move. This wonderful process begins and is carried forward +in the absorbent system, which has been described by Dr. Carpenter as +a great blood-making gland. But the vital transformation is not +completed until the nutritive materials have been submitted to the +action of the liver, and afterward to the influence of oxygen in the +capillaries of the lungs. The food that was eaten a few hours before +is thus converted into rich scarlet arterial blood, if every part of +the complex vitalizing processes has been properly conducted. But the +influence of oxygen is requisite, not only to complete the +vitalization of the embryo blood in the lungs, it is an absolutely +essential element in every step of the vitalizing process in the +absorbents. + +The average quantity of food required to sustain an ordinary man in +health and strength, I have previously stated, is about two pounds +avoirdupois daily, and an equal weight of oxygen is necessary to the +integrity of the vitalizing processes undergone by the food, and to +maintain the physical temperature. When the requisite supply of oxygen +is reduced, the extrication of heat within the system is promptly +diminished, but the vitalization of digested food is unfavorably +affected much more slowly, but with equal certainty. If the quota of +oxygen existing in the arterial blood of the vessels whose duty it is +to supply the vital fluid to the absorbent system, be inadequate to +enable these operations to go on properly, the life-giving processes +must necessarily be imperfectly accomplished. Under these +circumstances the digested material is imperfectly vitalized, and is +therefore inadequately fitted to be used in building up and repairing +the living body. But its course in the system cannot be delayed, much +less stopped. + +The blood possesses a definite constitution, which cannot be +materially altered without the rapid development of grave, perhaps +fatal consequences. The nutritive matters received into the blood must +be given up by it to the tissues for their repair, whether such +materials are well or ill fitted for the vital purposes. Dr. B.W. +Carpenter, of London, the celebrated physiologist, makes the following +pertinent statements on this subject, which I condense from his great +work on physiology: "We frequently find an imperfectly organizable +product, known by the designation of tubercular matter, taking the +place of the normal elements of tissue, both in the ordinary process +of nutrition, and still more when inflammation is set up. + +From the examination of the blood of tuberculous subjects it appears +that, although the bulk of the coagulum obtained by stirring or +beating is usually greater than that of healthy blood, yet this +coagulum is not composed or well elaborated fibriae, for it is soft +and loose, and contains an unusually large number of colorless blood +corpuscles, while the red corpuscles form an abnormally small +proportion of it. We can understand, therefore, that such a constant +deficiency in capacity for organization must unfavorably affect the +ordinary nutritive processes; and that there will be a liability to +the deposit of imperfectly vitalized matter, instead of the normal +elements of tissue, even without any inflammation. Such appears to be +the history of the formation of tubercles in the lungs and other +organs. + +When it occurs as a kind of metamorphosis of the ordinary nutritive +processes and in this manner, it may proceed insidiously for a long +period, so that a large part of the tissue of the lungs shall be +replaced by tubercular deposit without any other sign than an +increasing difficulty of respiration." These views are strongly +corroborated by the following facts: + +In making post mortem examinations of persons who have died of +consumption, tubercles of different kinds are found in the same +subject; some of these, having been deposited during what is called +the first stage of the disease before the breathing powers were much +impaired, bear evident traces of organization in the form of cells and +fibers more or less obvious, these being sometimes almost as perfectly +formed as living matter, at least on the superficial part of the +deposit, which is in immediate contact with the living structures +around. + +This variety of tubercle has a tendency to contract and remain in the +lungs without doing much injury. But as the disease progressed, and +the breathing capacity progressively diminished, tubercular matter +occurs, evincing less and less organization, showing a tendency to +break down and cause inflammation in the surrounding lung tissue, +until at last we find crude yellow tubercles that have become +softened, and formed cavities almost as soon as they were deposited. + +Some cases of chronic consumption pass in a few months through the +various stages from the deposit of the first tubercle to a fatal +termination. + +The progress of the disease is determined largely by the nature of the +tubercular matter at the time it is deposited. + +The variety of matter which has been partially vitalized commonly +exists in small quantity, has a strong tendency to maintain its +semi-organized condition unchanged by time, and rarely causes +inflammation. + +A small or moderate quantity of this sort of tubercle exists in the +lungs of many persons, in whom it produces no tangible symptoms, and +who are therefore quite unconscious of its presence; and even when it +does exist in sufficient quantity to develop the symptoms of lung +disorder, the progress of the disease is slow, often continuing for +many years. It constitutes a variety of consumption which is specially +amenable to proper treatment. On the other hand, the soft, yellow, +cheesy, tubercular matter, which is totally destitute of any vitality, +is too often deposited in large quantities, acts on the adjacent lung +tissue as an active irritant, causes inflammation, undergoes +softening, forms cavities, defies treatment, and rapidly hurries the +sufferers to a premature grave. These facts, taken in connection with +the immunity from lung diseases enjoyed by those whose respiratory +capacity is well developed and properly used, as well as the +beneficial effects that are promptly secured in the favorable +varieties of consumption by any important increase in the vital +volume, I believe fully justify the statement that _tubercles are the +results of defective nutrition directly traceable to inadequate +respiratory capacity_, either congenital or acquired--in other words, +tubercles are composed of particles of food which have failed to +acquire sufficient life while undergoing the vital processes, because +the person in whom they occur habitually breathed too little fresh +air. + +Persons who possess what is called the scrofulous constitution are +specially liable to the occurrence of tubercular matter when their +respiration is defective, or they are exposed to any other influences +that favor its development in the organism. But habitually defective +respiration, or the breathing of an atmosphere containing too little +oxygen, which practically amounts to the same thing, has a very +powerful tendency in the same direction, in persons who are apparently +as free from scrofulous taint as any human being can be. + + +THE VALUE OF COD-LIVER OIL IN THE PREVENTION OF CONSUMPTION. + +There is a broad but not commonly recognized distinction between what +constitutes a medicine and a food. All the materials that normally +enter into the composition of the living body, and are necessary to +the maintenance of health and strength, may be property classed as +foods, whether they be obtained from the animal, vegetable, or mineral +kingdoms; thus the iron, sulphur, phosphorus, lime, potash, etc., +required by the system usually exist in and are organically combined +with the various foods in common use, and they are perhaps quite as +essential to the physical well-being as albuminoid, fatty, and +saccharine matters. When the system is suffering from lack of any of +the above mentioned chemicals, their administration is to be regarded +as the giving of nutritive substances, although they be prescribed by +a physician in divided doses and procured from a pharmacist. + +On the other hand, a medicine is any substance that does not naturally +enter into the composition of the body, but which has the power, when +skillfully used, to modify the physical processes so that +physiological disorder--disease, shall be replaced by physiological +harmony--health. Belladonna, hyoscyamus, opium, etc., are familiar +examples of medicaments. Therefore a food is any substance that is +capable of directly contributing to the nutrition of the body, and +medicine is a substance competent, under proper conditions, to secure +the same results indirectly. Viewed in the light of the above +definition, cod-liver oil is to be regarded as a very valuable food, +as well as a most effective remedy both for the prevention and cure of +consumption. + +I have previously stated that food is divided by physiologists into +three great classes. The albuminoids are used to build up the +organism, while the fatty and saccharine are burned in the body to +keep it warm. Although these are the chief functions devolving on the +above mentioned food elements, yet they are mutually interdependent on +each other for the proper performance of their several offices. Thus +the albuminoids cannot undergo the wonderful vitalizing process +necessary to fit them to enter into and form part of the living body, +except an adequate quantity of fatty matter be present to assist in +the vital transformation. On the other hand, the assistance of the +albuminoids is equally necessary to enable the fatty and saccharine +foods to maintain the internal heat of the body. Of all fatty matters, +whether derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, none possesses +the property of stimulating and perfecting the nutritive processes in +so high a degree as cod-liver oil; it is more readily emulsified and +fitted for absorption by the pancreatic secretion during intestinal +digestion than any other fatty matter of which we have any knowledge. +The beneficial effects of its use have been proved in myriads of cases +of confirmed consumption, and if it were used for prolonged periods by +persons who are losing weight, and whose breathing capacity is too +little, along with effective cultivation of the latter function, many +persons would escape this disease who now succumb to it. + + +THE INFLUENCE OF NORMAL BREATHING ON THE FEMALE GENERATIVE +ORGANS. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The body is divided into three separate stories by two partitions. The +diaphragm, A, separates the cavity of the chest from that of the +abdomen. The partition, _D_, forms a floor for the digestive cavity, +F, and a roof for the pelvis; the pelvic cavity is occupied mainly by +the generative organs. The upper part of the uterus is firmly fixed to +the partition, D, by which the pelvis is covered. Now, the diaphragm, +A, and the external respiratory muscles are in ceaseless motion +performing the act of breathing. The diaphragm acts like the piston of +a pump, both on the lungs above, and on the contents of the abdominal +and pelvic cavities below. When it rises from B to A, it diminishes +the size of the thoracic cavity, compresses the lungs, and assists in +the expiratory part of breathing; at the same time it acts through the +contents of the abdominal cavity on the pelvic roof, D, to which the +uterus is attached, and raises it from D to C. When the diaphragm +contracts, it descends from A to B, increases the size of the thoracic +cavity, inflates the lungs, promotes the inspiratory part of +breathing, pushes the walls of the chest and abdomen outward from F to +E, and lowers the pelvic roof at the same time the uterus sinks from C +to D. When the effect of these respiratory motions is not diminished +by muscular debility, rigidity of the thoracic walls, or by unsuitable +clothing, they have so direct an effect on the pelvic contents that +the uterus and its appendages make two distinct motions every time a +woman breathes. When the diaphragm rises and the breath is expelled, +the womb is elevated from one inch to one inch and a half, because the +roof of the pelvis, to which it is attached, is lifted about this +distance, because of gentle suction from above. The uterus and its +appendages are thus kept in constant motion, up and down, chiefly by +action of the muscles by which breathing is carried on. + +Several influences combine to maintain the circulation of the blood. +The pumping action of the heart and the affinity of the blood for the +walls of the capillary vessels require to be assisted by the motion +both of the body as a whole and of its parts in order to keep the +circulation flowing equably through every tissue. Therefore muscular +action and the resulting bodily motion play a very important part in +maintaining the general and local blood circulation. During the +contraction of a muscle, the blood current flowing through it is, for +the time being, retarded, but when relaxation occurs the blood flows +into its vessels more freely than if no momentary cessation had taken +place. When the body or any of its parts is deprived of motion, the +blood circulation stagnates, and the nutrition, general or local, as +the case may be, promptly becomes impaired. This is specially true of +the uterus. Gentle but constant motion is absolutely essential to keep +up a healthy uterine blood circulation. Nature has provided for the +automatic performance of all the ceaseless internal motions that are +necessary to the continuance of life and the preservation of health; +thus the heart beats, the respiratory muscles act, the stomach +executes a churning motion during gastric digestion, the intestines +pass on their contents by worm-like contractions, automatically +without our supervision and without causing fatigue, being under the +control of the sympathetic system of nerves chiefly. It is equally +true, but not so well recognized, that the previously described +motions that are committed to the pelvic organs from the respiratory +apparatus are absolutely necessary to the continued health of the +uterus and its appendages. But the womb is not under the control of +the voluntary muscles, therefore it cannot be directly moved by them, +nor are its necessary motions influenced by the sympathetic system of +nerves as are the heart, stomach, and intestines, etc., but it is +fortunately under the indirect but positive control of involuntary +muscles that never, as long as breathing continues, cease their work. +Nature has thus made ample provision to keep the uterus in automatic +motion. As before stated, the natural ceaseless heavings of the lungs, +chest, and diaphragm, aided by the muscles inclosing the abdomen, have +the duty assigned them of communicating automatic motion to the uterus +and the other contents of the pelvis. When the diaphragm descends from +A to B, and the lungs are filled with air, the uterus sinks in the +pelvic cavity in obedience to the downward pressure from above, as +before stated; the circulation through the uterus is then for a moment +retarded, but the next instant, when the lungs are emptied of air and +the diaphragm rises, the blood flows forward more freely than if it +had not been momentarily obstructed. Ample provision has thus been +made to maintain a healthy circulation through the uterus. + +The uterine motions I have described are fully adequate for the +purposes indicated. But when the natural stimulus of motion is +withheld, the circulation becomes sluggish causing congestion, which +may develop into inflammation. Under these conditions the uterus +gradually becomes displaced, falling backward, forward or downward as +the case may be. The blood vessels by which the uterus is supplied +thus have their caliber diminished by bending; the circulation through +them is retarded just as the flow of water in a rubber tube is +obstructed by a kink. A very good idea of what occurs in the uterus +under the conditions just described may be obtained by winding a +string around the fingers. + +As the coats of the arteries are thick, and the pressure exerted by +the ligature has less power to prevent the arterial blood flowing +outward past the string to the end of the finger than it has to +prevent the return of the venous blood toward the heart, therefore the +part beyond the ligature soon becomes congested, the blood stagnating +in the capillaries. If the ligature be sufficiently tight and kept on +long enough, mortification will take place, but if the circulation be +only moderately obstructed, the congestion will continue until +ulceration occurs. A similar condition is developed in the uterus when +the necessary natural stimulus of motion fails to be communicated to +it or when it is so far out of its proper place that the circulation +through it is obstructed. + +I believe the above described condition to be a most potent but +inadequately recognized cause of the various forms of uterine diseases +that distress so many women. + + +SHOWING HOW THE BREATHING POWERS MAY BE DEVELOPED. + +When the circumference of the chest bears a due proportion to the size +of the body generally; when its walls and the lungs possess a suitable +degree of elasticity; when the strength of the respiratory muscles is +adequate to their work, and no undue opposition is offered to the +breathing motions by the clothing--then the vital volume is always up +to the full requirements of the system. But when one or all of these +are lacking in any important degree, the breathing capacity is +proportionately diminished. If the testimony of the spirometer be +corroborated by the impaired physical condition of the individual, its +correction should be sought in part at least by enlarging the chest, +increasing the elasticity of its walls and of the lungs, and by +augmenting the strength of the respiratory muscles. These results may +commonly be secured by diligent and persevering use of the following +exercises: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +A trapeze, Fig. 2, should be suspended from the ceiling, so that the +bar shall be six inches above the head of the person who is to use it; +the toes should be placed under straps nailed to the floor to keep +them in position. Then if the bar be grasped and the body thrown +forward, the trapeze, the arms, and the body will form the segment of +a circle. + +The exercise is taken by causing the body to describe a complete +circle in the manner indicated in the cut. Little muscular effort is +required if the motion be rapid, because the momentum is sufficient to +carry the body around; but if the rotation be slow, more exertion is +required. This movement is specially adapted to the breathing powers +of weak persons, yet the most vigorous can readily get from it all the +exercise their chest and lungs require. + +By means of these exercises the chest is gently but effectively +expanded in every direction and the elasticity of its walls promoted, +the air cells are expanded, and the lungs are rendered more permeable +to the respired air, and the strength of the respiratory muscles is +developed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +Fig. 3 illustrates an exercise for the chest that is taken without any +apparatus other than an ordinary doorway. The exerciser should stand +in the position indicated in the engraving, and then step forward with +each foot alternately as far as possible without stretching the chest +too severely. The longer the step the more vigorous the exercise will +be. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +Fig. 4 shows an exercise taken between two chairs; the position +indicated in the cut having been assumed, the chest is then slowly +lowered and raised three to six times. This exercise is adapted to +strong persons only. + + +THE EFFECTS OF ADEQUATE RESPIRATION IN SPECIAL CASES. + +When the nutrition of the body is promoted by effective respiration, +and waste matters are promptly removed, the chances that tubercle will +be developed in persons who are predisposed thereto are reduced to a +minimum. + +Better materials are furnished by the nutritive processes to renew the +tissues, so that the occurrence of those degenerations that result in +various fatal affections, peculiar to the decline of life, are +rendered much less probable or are prevented altogether, and the +chances that death shall take place by old age is increased. The +system possesses much greater resisting power against the influence of +malaria and the poisons that give rise to typhoid fever, scarlatina, +diphtheria, measles, etc. + +When the motions of a woman's respiratory organs are normal and are +properly communicated to the pelvic organs, she enjoys the greatest +possible immunity attainable against the development of any diseases +peculiar to the sex. + + * * * * * + + + + +VITAL DISCOVERIES IN OBSTRUCTED AIR AND VENTILATION.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Read by Wm. C. Conant before the Polytechnic Association +of the American Institute, New York, May 10, 1883.] + + +I suppose that we all consider ourselves to be sufficiently impressed +with the importance of ventilation. If I should stop here to declaim +against foul exhalations, or to dwell upon the virtues of fresh air, +you might feel inclined to interrupt me by saying, "Oh, we know all +about that! If you have anything practical to advance, come to the +point." Gentlemen, I beg your pardon, but I must say that the great +fact concerning ventilation, as yet, is that its strongest advocates +are not conscious of one-half the seriousness of the subject; and the +second fact is that the supposed means of ventilation prescribed by +science _fail to secure it_. + +This, then, is my point to-night--the supreme necessity, still urgent, +and _universally_ urgent, for a reformation of the breath of life. I +believe in a promised time when the days of a man's life shall again +be as the days of a tree. And next to the abolition of vice and sin, I +believe that the very grandest factor of such result must be an entire +disuse of obstructed air for the lungs. I propose to bring forward +some evidence of the necessity, and likewise of the possibility, of a +reform so radical and sweeping as this. The subject is too wide for +the occasion. I shall be able to read only extracts from what I have +prepared, in the few minutes that you can give with patience to my +unpracticed lecturing. + +The best prescription that doctors have to give (when we are not too +far gone to take it) is to live out of doors. Why is this? Why is life +out of doors proverbially synonymous with robust health? Why is it +that a superior vitality, and a singular exemption from disease, +notoriously distinguish dwellers in the open air, by land or sea? +Without disparaging the virtues of exercise or of bracing temperature, +indispensable as these are for the recuperation of enfeebled +constitutions, we must admit that among the native and settled +inhabitants of the open air high health is the rule in warm climates +as well as in cold, and with the very laziest mortals that bask in the +sun, or loaf in the woods. The fact is that simple vegetative health +seems to be nearly independent of all other external conditions but +that of a pure natural diet for the lungs. Man in nature seems to +thrive as spontaneously as plants, by the free grace of air, earth, +and sun. On the other hand, the very diseases from which houses are +supposed to defend us--that most numerous class resulting from +colds--are the special scourge of the lives that are most carefully +shielded from their commonly supposed cause--exposure to the open air. +Those diseases diminish, and entirely disappear, just so far as +exposure in the pure and freely moving air becomes complete and +habitual. Soldiers, inured to camp life, catch cold if they once sleep +in a house; and, generally speaking, the inhabitants of the free air +contract colds _only_ by exposure to confined exhalations from their +own or other bodies, within the walls of houses. The explanation of +this is plain and simple: Carbonic acid detained within four walls +accumulates in place of the breath of life--oxygen--and narcotizes the +excretory function of the skin. The moment that this great and +continual vent of waste and impurity from the system is obstructed, +internal derangement ensues in every direction. All hands, so to +speak, are strained to extra duty to discharge the noxious +accumulation. The lungs labor to discharge the load thrown back upon +them, with hastened respiration, increased combustion, and feverish +heat. The pores of the mucous membrane in the nose, throat, alimentary +canal, or bronchial passages, are forced by an aggravated discharge +(or catarrh), and this congestive and inflammatory pressure is a fever +also. There is nothing of "cold" about it except as an auxiliary and +antecedent, in cases where an external chill has struck upon nerves +already half paralyzed by the universal narcotic--carbonic acid--which +house dwellers may be said to "smoke" perpetually. + +So much for nerve-poison; but blood-poisoning is a still more terrible +characteristic of house-protected existence. It is now the almost +universal opinion of the medical profession that the whole class of +malarial and zymotic diseases that make such frightful progress and +havoc in the most civilized communities, are due to living germs with +which the exhalations of organic waste and decay are everywhere loaded +in inconceivable numbers. They are known to multiply themselves many +times over, every two or three hours. They swarm into the blood by +millions, through all the absorbents, especially those of the lungs, +that drink the atmosphere in which they are suffered to linger and +propagate. Mr. Dancer, the eminent microscopist, counted in a sample +from such an atmosphere a number of organized germs equivalent to +3,700,000 in the volume of air hourly inhaled by one person. That is +over 60,000 germs per minute, and about 2,000 in every breath. In the +blood, they still propagate, and feed, and grow, consuming its oxygen, +thus defeating its purification, and turning that stream of otherwise +healthful and invigorating nutrition into a stream of effete and +corrupt matter--a sewer rather than a river of life--or at best an +impoverished and impure supply for the support of existence. + +The same pestilential but invisible hosts of bacteria, mustered and +bred in the close filthiness of Oriental cities, and jungles, swarm +out as Asiatic cholera on the wings of the wind, sweeping the wide +world with havoc. Settled on the tropical shores of the Eastern +Atlantic, they lie in wait for their victims in the sluggish and +terrible coast fever. On the western coast of the same ocean, perhaps +from some cause connected with oceanic or atmospheric currents, they +make devastating irruptions inland, as yellow fever, in every +direction where the walls of their enclosure are low enough to be +freely passed. These, let us remember, are all essentially the same +organic poison that is engendered _wherever_ life and death are plying +their perpetual game; and this, like Cleopatra's "worm, will do its +kind" in the veins of man, wherever obstructions, natural or +artificial, temporary or permanent, interfere with its prompt +diffusion in the vastness of the general atmosphere. Our "house of +life" stands generously open, for every "inmate bad" to come and go +through the absorbent, unquestioned, except in the stomach, where the +tangible poisons have to go by the act of swallowing and where they +are often challenged and ejected. It seems at first thought very +strange that we are not so well protected by natural instinct or +sensibility from the subtle poisons of the atmosphere as from those +that can affect us only by the voluntary act of swallowing. The +obvious explanation, however, of this apparent neglect is that Nature +protects us in general from gaseous poisons by her own system of +ventilation; and if, when we devise houses, necessarily excluding that +system, we fail to devise also a sufficient substitute for it, the +consequences of such negligence are as fairly due as when we swallow +tangible poison. + +I have hitherto referred only to the _dispersion_ of poisonous +exhalations, as if the best and most necessary thing the atmosphere +can do for us were to dilute the dose to a comparatively harmless +potency. But this is now known to be not the true remedial process +with respect to the zymotic germs. The most wonderful achievement of +recent investigation reveals a philosophy of both bane and antidote +that astonishes us with its simplicity as much as with its efficiency. +At the moment when humanity stands aghast at the announcement that +germs are not destroyed by disinfectants, comes the counter discovery +that they are rendered harmless by oxygen. It seems that it makes no +difference, really, of what sort or from what source are the bacteria +that we take into the blood. The only material difference to us +depends on _the sort of atmosphere_ in which their hourly generations +are bred. For example, the bacteria _developed in confined air_, from +a simple infusion of hay, are found by experiment to be as capable of +generating that most terrible of blood poisoners, the malignant +pustule, as are the bacteria taken from the pustule itself. + +On the other hand, the bacteria from the malignant pustule itself, +after propagating for a few hours in pure and free air, become a +perfectly harmless race, and are actually injected into the blood +with impunity. The explanation of the strange discovery is this--note +its extreme simplicity--bacteria bred in copious oxygen perish for +want of it as soon as they enter the blood vessels; whereas those +inured to an unventilated atmosphere for a few generations, which +means only a few hours, are prepared to thrive and propagate +infinitely within our veins; and that is the whole mystery of blood +poisoning and zymotic diseases. Taken in connection with the narcotic +or _nerve-poisoning_ power of carbonic acid (to which all the classes +of diseases resulting from colds are due), we have also in this simple +but grand discovery the whole mystery of the question with which we +set out--why free air is health, and why sickness is a purely domestic +product. The restitution of natural health to mankind demands only, +but demands absolutely, the constant diffusion in copious and +continuous floods of atmospheric oxygen, of the nerve-poisoning +carbonic acid of combustion (organic and inorganic), and of the +blood-poisoning bacteria of organic decomposition. + +We find, then, as a matter both of experience and of philosophy, that +life or death, in the main and in the long run, turns on the single +pivot of atmospheric movement or obstruction. The resistance of mere +rising ground or dense vegetation to a free movement of the air from +low-lying levels performs an obstructive office similar to that of the +walls and roofs of houses, and with like effect. The invariable +condition of unhealthy _seasons_ and _days_ is a state of rarefaction +and stagnation of the atmosphere, when the poison-freighted vapor +cannot be lifted and dispersed, and every one complains of the sultry, +close, "muggy" (meaning _murky_) feeling of the air. Few reflect, when +fretted by the boisterous winds of March, upon the vital office they +perform in dispersing and sanitating the bacteria-laden exhalations +let loose by the first warmth from the soaked soil and the macerated +deposits of the former year. + +The passing air, then, that we breathe so lightly, is on other +business, and carries a load we little think of, and that is not to be +trifled with. This grand carrier of nature, on business of life or +death, must not be detained, must not be hindered! or they who +interfere with the business by restraining walls and roofs will take +the consequences. It is a good deal like stopping a bullet, except as +to consciousness and suddenness of effect. + +That men live at all in their obstructed and therefore poison-loaded +atmosphere, is a proof of the wonderful efficiency of the protective +economy of Nature within us; so wonderful, indeed, that few can +believe the fact of living to be consistent with the real existence of +such a deadly environment as science pretends to reveal. It is a +common impression, therefore, that actual results fail to justify the +alarm sounded by sanitarians. Hence the necessity for calling +attention at the outset to an ample and manifest equivalent for the +deadly dose of confined exhalations taken daily by all civilized men. +We perceive that that dose is not lost, like the Humboldt River, in a +"sink," but reappears, like the wide-sown grass, in a perennial and +universal crop of diseases, almost numberless and ever increasing in +number, peculiar to house-dwellers. The trail of these plagues stops +nowhere else; it leads straight to the imprisoned atmosphere in our +artificial inclosures, and there it ends. That marvelous protective +economy of Nature within us, to which we have referred, is no +perpetual guaranty against the consequences of our negligence; it is +only a limited reprieve, to afford space for repentance; and unless we +hasten to improve the day of grace, the suspended sentence comes down, +upon us at last with force the more accumulated by delay. + +Now, therefore, the grand problem of sanitary science (almost +untouched, almost unrecognized) proves to be no other and no less than +this: + +What can be done to remedy the obstructive nature of an inclosure, so +that its gaseous contents shall _move off_, and be replaced by pure +air, as freely, as rapidly, and as incessantly, as in the open +atmosphere? + +It happens to be the most necessary preliminary in approaching this +problem, to show how _not_ to do it, for that, respectfully be it +spoken, is what we have hitherto practiced, as results abundantly +prove. Fallacies, both vulgar and scientific, obstruct our way. A +fundamental fallacy respects the very nature of the work, which is +supposed to be _to get in fresh air_. In point of fact, this care is +both unnecessary and comparatively useless. Take care of the bad air, +and the fresh air will take care of itself. Only make room for it, and +you cannot keep it out. On the other hand, unless you first make room +for it, you cannot keep it _in_; pump it in and blow it in as you may, +you only blow it _through_, as the Jordan flows comparatively +uncontaminated through the Dead Sea. This is a law of fluids that must +be kept in view. The pure air is quite as ready to get out as to get +in; while the air loaded with poisonous vapors is as sluggish as a +gorged serpent, and will not budge but on compulsion. Such compulsion +the grand system of wind _suction_, actuated by the sun, supplies on +the scale of the universe; and this we must imitate and adapt for our +more limited purposes. + +It would seem as if we need not pause to notice so shallow though +common a notion as that which usually comes in right here, namely, +that confined air will move off somehow of itself, if you give it +liberty; being supposed to be much like a cat in a bag, wanting only a +hole to make its escape. Air is ponderable matter--as much so as +lead--and equally requires force of some kind to set it or keep it in +motion. But applied philosophy itself relies on a fallacious, or, at +best, inadequate source of motive power for ventilation. It gravely +prescribes ventilating flues and even holes, and promises us that the +warmed air within the house will rise through these flues and holes, +carrying its impurities away with it, from the pressure of the cooler +and denser air without. But we very well know that the best of flues +and chimneys will draw only by favor of lively fires or clear weather. +They fail us utterly when most needed, in warm and murky weather, when +the barometer is low, and the thin atmosphere drops, down its damp and +dirty contents, burying us to the chimney tops in a pestilent +congregation of vapors. + +Nevertheless, so far as I can discover, these holes and flues, at best +a little fire at the bottom of the latter, are the sole and +all-sufficient expedients of science and architecture for ventilation +to this _day_, in spite of their total failure in experience. I can +find nothing in standard treatises or examples from philosophers or +architects, beyond a theoretical calculation on so much expansion of +air from so many units of heat, and hence so much ascensional force +_inferred_ in the ventilating flue--a result which never comes to +pass, yet none the less continues to be cheerfully relied on. +Unfortunately for the facts, they contradict the philosophy, and are +only to be ignored with silent contempt. A French Academician's report +on the ventilation of a large public building, lately reprinted by the +Smithsonian Institution, states with absolute assurance and exactness +the cubic feet of air changed per minute, with the precise volume and +velocity of its ascension, by burning a peck of coal at the bottom of +the trunk flue. No mention is made of the anemometer or any other +gauge of the result asserted, and we are left to the suspicion that it +is merely a matter of theoretical inference, as usual; for every one +who has had any acquaintance with practical tests in these matters +knows that no such movement of air ever takes place under such +conditions, unless by exceptional favor of the weather. + +I have seen a tall steam boiler chimney induce through a four inch +pipe a suction strong enough to exhaust the air from a large room as +fast as perfect ventilation would require. But this, it is well known, +requires four hundred or five hundred degrees of heat in the chimney. +I never saw an ordinary domestic fire of coals produce any noticeable +ventilating suction, without the use of a blower, urging the +combustion to fury, and I presume nobody else ever did. + +But, while nobody ever saw an active suction of air produced by the +mere heat of a still or unexcited fire--unless the _quantity_ of heat +were on a very large scale--everybody has seen a roaring current +sucked through the narrowed throat of a chimney or a stove by a +blazing handful of shavings, paper, or straw. It is very remarkable, +when you come to think of it, that the burning of an insignificant +piece of paper, with less heat in it, perhaps, than a pea of +anthracite, will cause a rush of air that a bushel of anthracite +cannot in the least degree imitate. It is not only a curious but a +most important fact. In short, it is _the cardinal_ fact on which +ventilation practically turns. But what is the nature of it? There are +three factors in the phenomenon. In the first place, the mechanical +peculiarity of flame, or gas in the moment of combustion, as compared +with a gas like air merely heated, is _an almost explosive velocity of +ascent._ The physical peculiarity from which this results is the +intensity of its heat--commonly stated at 2,000 degrees, as to our +common illuminating gas--acting instantaneously throughout its mass, +just as in gunpowder. The gas goes up the flue in its own flash, like +the ignited charge in the barrel of a gun: the burning coals can only +_send_, and by a leisurely messenger, namely, the moderately heated +gases, and contiguous air, that rise only by the gravitation or +pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. + +And yet it is not the small flame itself that roars in the chimney but +the rush of air induced by it. The semi-explosion of flame is but for +an instant, though constantly renewed, and its explosive impulse +cannot carry its light products of combustion very far through +stationary and resistant air. It is _the induction of air_ carried +with it by such semi-explosive impulse (under proper mechanical +conditions) that is strange to our observation and understanding, and +is the second factor in the phenomenon we are accounting for and +preparing to utilize. + +The process, as it actually is, may be clearly exhibited by a very +simple means. Let anyone take a tube, say an inch in diameter--a roll +of paper will do as well as anything--and, applying it closely to his +mouth, try the whole force of his lungs through it upon any light +object. The amount of effect will be found surprisingly small; and +unless the tube is a short one, it will be so far absorbed by friction +and atmospheric resistance as to be almost imperceptible. Then let him +hold the same tube near to the mouth, but not in contact, and repeat +the experiment. With the best adjustment, the effect may be described +as tenfold or fifty-fold, or almost any fold--the effect of the simple +blowing being merely nominal as compared with the induced current +added by blowing _into_ the tube instead of _in_ it. The blast enters +the free and open orifice with all the contiguous air which its +surface friction and the vacuum of its movement can involve in its +rolling vortex. While the entrance is thus crowded with pressure, the +exit is free; and the result at the exit is a blast of well sustained +velocity and _magnified volume;_ ready itself to repeat the miracle on +a still larger scale if provided with the apparatus for doing so. To +test this, now place a second and larger tube in such position as to +prolong the first in a straight line, but with a slight interval +between the meeting ends; so that the blast, as magnified in volume in +entering the first tube, may enter in like manner the second tube and +be magnified again. With correct adjustments this experiment will +prove more surprising than the first. Put on a third and still larger +tube in the same way, and still larger surprise will meet a still +larger volume and force of blast, like a stiff breeze set in motion by +the puny effort of a single expiration. Of course, the prime impulse +must bear a certain proportion to the result; and the inductive or +tractional friction of the initial blast, of flame or breath, will be +used up at length unless re-enforced. In ventilating practice, there +_is_ such re-enforcement, from an excess of gravity in the cooler +atmosphere outside the flue in which the flame is operating with its +heat as well as its ascensional traction; so that there has been found +no limit to the extensions and fresh inductions that may be added to +the first or trunk flue, with increase rather than diminution of power +at every point. But the terms on which such extensions must be made +have been referred to in our illustration, and must be accurately +ascertained and observed. They constitute what is, in effect, the +third factor in the phenomenon of a roaring draught, and also, +therefore, ineffective ventilation. That is, the entering or induced +current of air must always find its channel of progress and exit +certain correct degrees larger than the opening by which it entered. +Every one knows that a stove or chimney wide open admits of but little +suction in connection with even the blaze of paper or shavings. + +The mobility of air seems almost preternatural, when the proper +conditions for setting a current in motion are supplied. But without a +current established, it is surprising in turn to find how obstinately +and elusively immovable it can be. It is like tossing a feather; or +trying to drive a swarm of flies; dodging and evading every impulse +applied. But, given a flue, to define and conduct a stream; an upright +flue, to take advantage of the slighter gravity of the warmed air +within it; and a flue contracted at the inlet and expanded as it +rises, so as to free, diffuse, and lighten the column of air, toward +the exit; _then_, initiate an induced current of air at the inlet, by +the injection of a jet of gas in the state of semi-explosive action +called flame; the pressure pushing upward from the crowded entrance +finds easier way and less resistance the farther it goes in the +expanding flue; the warmth and reduced gravity of the stream comes in +as an auxiliary in overcoming friction and any exceptional obstruction +in the state of the atmosphere; and now, as the ball is once set +rolling, with a little _aid_ instead of resistance from gravitation, +its initial impulse all the while sustained by the gas jet, and +friction reduced to a very small incident--there is nothing to prevent +the current rolling on with accelerated velocity (within the +limitations imposed by increasing friction) and rolling on forever. I +might, if I had time, add a curious consideration of the law of +_vortex motion_ in elastic fluids, demonstrated by Helmholtz, which +relieves the motion of such fluids from friction, as wheels facilitate +the movement of a solid; and which also sucks into the rolling vortex +the contiguous air, thus entraining it, as we have seen, so much more +effectively than could be done by a direct and rigid current, like a +jet of water, for instance. A wheel set in motion on an almost +frictionless bearing of metalline, runs without perceptible abatement +of velocity, until one begins to involuntarily question whether it +will ever stop. In the all but free winds that roll with minimized +friction in the higher atmosphere, there seems to be a self-moving +force; so persistent is simple momentum in a mass so infinitesimally +obstructed and so infinitely wheeled. An active current of air in a +ventilating flue is only less perfect in the same conditions; and so +it is quite conceivable, and not incredible, that such a current may +be gradually established and thenceforward permanently maintained by a +small motor flame barely more than enough to overbalance the minimized +friction. This is not a supposed or theoretically inferred fact, like +the facts of ventilation sometimes alleged by theorists. On the +contrary, the theory I have offered is merely an attempt to explain +facts that I have witnessed and that anyone can verify with the +anemometer. But the _theory_ by no means covers the art and mystery of +ventilation; for ventilation is truly an _art_ as well as a mystery. +The art lies in a consummate experience of the sizes, proportions, and +forms of flues, their inlets, expansions, and exits, with many other +incidental adaptations necessary, in order to insure under _all_ +circumstances the regular exhaustion of any specific volume of air +required, per minute. And this art has by one man been achieved. It +would be a double injustice if I should neglect from any motive to +inform my audience to whom I am indebted for what I know about +ventilation practically, and even for the knowledge that there is any +such fact as a practicable ventilation of houses; one who is no +theorist, but who has felt his way experimentally with his own hands, +for a lifetime, to a practical mastery of the art to which I have +attempted to fit a theory; every one present who is well informed on +this subject must have anticipated already in mind the name of Henry +A. Gouge. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RECENT ERUPTION OF ETNA. + + +On the morning of the 20th of March, a long series of earthquakes +spread alarm throughout all the cities and numerous villages that are +scattered over the sides of Mt. Etna. The shocks followed each other +at intervals of a few minutes; dull subterranean rumblings were heard; +and a catastrophe was seen to be impending. Toward evening the ground +cracked at the lower part of the south side of the mountain, at the +limit of the cultivated zone, and at four kilometers to the north of +the village of Nicolosi. There formed on the earth a large number of +very wide fissures, through which escaped great volumes of steam and +gases which enveloped the mountain in a thick haze; and toward night, +a very bright red light, which, seen from Catania, seemed to come out +in great waves from the foot of the mountain, announced the coming of +the lava. + +[Illustration: ERUPTION OF MOUNT ETNA, MARCH 22, 1883.] + +Eleven eruptions occurred during the night, and shot into the air +fiery scoriæ which, in a short time, formed three hillocks from forty +to fifty meters in height. The jet of scoriæ was accompanied with +strong detonations, and the oscillations of the ground were of such +violence that the bells in the villages of Nicolosi and Pedara rang of +themselves. The general consternation was the greater in that the +locality in which the eruptive phenomena were manifesting themselves +was nearly the same as that which formed the theater of the celebrated +eruption of 1669. This locality overlooks an inclined plane which is +given up to cultivation, and in which are scattered, at a short +distance from the place of the eruption, twelve villages having a +total population of 20,000 inhabitants. On the second day the +character, of the eruption had become of a very alarming character. +New fissures showed themselves up to the vicinity of Nicolosi, and the +lava flowed in great waves over the circumjacent lands. This seemed to +indicate a lengthy eruption; but, to the surprise of those interested +in volcanic phenomena, on the third day the eruptive movement began to +decrease, and, during the night, stopped entirely. This was a very +fortunate circumstance, for this eruption would have caused immense +damages. It cannot be disguised, however, that the eruptive attendants +of this conflagration remain under conditions such as to constitute a +permanent danger for the neighboring villages. It has happened, in +fact, that in consequence of the quick cessation of the eruption, +those secondary phenomena through which nature usually provides a +solid closing of the parasitic craters have not occurred. So it is +probable that when a new eruption takes place it will be at the same +point at which manifested itself the one that has just abated.--_La +Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHYSICS WITHOUT APPARATUS. + + +Take an ordinary wine bottle and place it in front of and within a few +inches of a lighted candle. Blow against the bottle with your mouth at +about four or six inches distant from it and in a line with the flame. +Very curiously, notwithstanding the presence of the bottle and its +interception of the current of air, the candle will be immediately +extinguished as if there were no obstacle in the way. This phenomenon +is readily understood when we reflect that the bottle receives the +current of air on its polished surface and divides it into two, one of +which is guided to the right and the other to the left. These two +currents, after separating and driving back the surrounding air, meet +again at the very spot at which the flame is situated, and extinguish +the candle. + +[Illustration: MODE OF EXTINGUISHING A CANDLE PLACED BEHIND A +BOTTLE.] + +It is evident that the experiment can be reproduced by putting the +candle behind a stove pipe, a cylinder of glass or metal, a +cylindrical tin box, or any other object of the same form with a +diameter greater than that of a bottle, but not having a rough or +angular surface, since the latter would cause the current to be lost +in the surrounding air. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TRAVELS OF THE SUN. + + +Some recent discussions of the constitution of the sun have turned in +part upon what is known as the sun's proper motion in space. This is +one of the most surprising and interesting things that science has +ever brought to light, and yet it is something of which comparatively +few persons have any knowledge. It is customary to look upon the sun +as if it were the center of the universe, an immovable fiery globe +around which the earth and other planets revolve while it remains +fixed in one place. Nothing could be further from the truth. The sun +is, in fact, the most wonderful of travelers. He is flying through +space at the rate of not less than a hundred and sixty millions of +miles in a year, and the earth and her sister planets are his fellow +voyagers, which, obeying his overpowering attraction, circle about him +as he advances. In other words, if we could take up a position in open +space in advance of the sun, we should see him rushing toward us at +the rate of some 450,000 miles a day, chased by his whole family of +shining worlds and the vast swarms of meteoric bodies which obey his +attraction. + +The general direction of this motion of the solar system has been +known since the time of Sir William Herschel. It is toward the +constellation Hercules, which, at this season, may be seen in the +northeastern sky at 9 o'clock in the evening. As the line of this +motion makes an angle of fifty odd degrees with the plane of the +earth's orbit, it follows that the earth is not like a horse at a +windlass, circling around the sun forever in one beaten path, but like +a ship belonging to a fleet whose leader is continually pushing its +prow into unexplored waters. + +The path of the earth through space is spiral, so that it is all the +time advancing into new regions along with the sun. She is on a +boundless voyage of discovery, and her human crew are born and die in +widely separated tracts of space. Think of the distance over which the +travels of the sun have borne the earth only since the beginning of +human history! Six thousand years ago the earth and sun were about a +million millions of miles further from the stars in Hercules than they +are to-day. Columbus and his contemporaries lived when the earth was +in a region of the universe more than sixty thousand millions of miles +from the place where it is now, so that since his time the whole human +race has been making a voyage through space, in comparison with which +his longest voyage was as the footstep of a fly. + +Thus the great events in the history of the world may be said to have +occurred in different parts of the universe. An almost inconceivable +distance separates the spot which the earth occupied in the time of +Alexander from that which it occupied when Cæsar invaded Gaul. The sun +and the earth have wandered so far from their birthplace that the mind +staggers in the attempt to guess at the stupendous distance which now +probably separates them from it. It may be that the motion of the +solar system is orbital and that our sun and many of the stars, his +fellow suns, are revolving around some common center, but if so, no +means has yet been devised of detecting the form or dimensions of his +orbit. So far as we can see, the sun is moving in a straight line. + +Since space is believed to be filled with some sort of ethereal +medium, curious consequences are seen to follow from the motions that +have been described. A solid globe like the earth rushing at great +speed through such a medium will encounter some resistance. If the +medium be exceedingly rare, as it must be in fact, the resistance will +be correspondingly small, but still there will be resistance. If the +sun stood still, the earth, owing to the inclination of its axis to +the plane of its orbit, around the sun, would encounter the resistance +of the ether principally on its northern hemisphere from summer to +winter, and on its southern hemisphere from winter to summer. But in +consequence of the motion of the sun shared by the earth, this law of +distribution is changed, and from summer to winter the earth plows +through the ether with its north pole foremost, while from winter to +summer, although the resistance of the ether is encountered more +evenly by the two hemispheres, yet it is still felt principally in the +northern hemisphere, and the south pole remains practically protected. +It follows that the southern hemisphere, and particularly the south +polar regions are more or less completely sheltered the whole year +around. It might then be supposed that the impact of the particles of +the ether shouldered aside by the earth in its swift flight and the +compression produced in front of the advancing globe would tend to +raise the temperature of the northern hemisphere as compared with the +southern hemisphere, while the south pole, being more or less directly +in the wake of the earth, and in a region of rarefaction of the ether, +would constantly possess a remarkably low temperature. + +Now, it is known that the south polar regions are more covered with +ice and snow than those of the north, and that the temperature there +the year around is lower. Whether this difference is owing to the +effects of the earth's journey through the ether, is a question. + +The sun, too, moves with his northern hemisphere foremost, and it is +worthy of remark that it has been suspected that the northern +hemisphere of the sun radiates more heat than the southern. + +But whatever effect it may or may not have upon the meteorological +condition of the earth, the fact that the solar system is thus +voyaging through space is in itself exceedingly interesting. Not the +wildest traveler's dream presents to the imagination such a voyage as +this on which every inhabitant of the earth is bound. A glance at a +star map shows that the direction in which we are going is carrying us +toward a region of the heavens exceedingly rich in stars, many, and +perhaps most, of which are greater suns than ours. There can be little +doubt that when the sun arrives in the neighborhood of those stars, he +will be surrounded by celestial scenery very different from and much +more brilliant than that of the region of space in which he now is. +The inhabitants of the globe at that distant period will certainly +behold new and far more glorious heavens, though the earth may be +unchanged.--_N.Y. Sun._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PROPAGATION OF MAPLE TREES. + + +I do not presume that all people over three score years of age are so +entirely ignorant as I am, but probably there are some. I have lived +more than sixty years almost in the woods, and I never observed, and +never heard any other person speak of, the blooming, seeding, and +maturing of the water maple. I have a beautiful low of water maple +shade trees along the street in front of my house. In March, 1882, I +observed that they were in bloom, and many bees were swarming about +them. After the bees left them I noticed the seed (specimens inclosed +of this spring's growth) in millions. As the leaves put out in April +the little knife blade seeds fell off, so thick as to almost cover the +ground. My grandson picked up three or four hatfuls, and I sent the +seed to my farm and had them drilled in like wheat, when I planted +corn. The result is I have from 300 to 500 beautiful maples from 6 +inches to three feet high. I noticed the blooms again this spring, but +a cold snap killed the blooms, and only now and then can I find a +seed. I had a sugar tree in my yard, which bloomed and bore seed which +did not fall off through the summer. My yard now has as many little +sugar trees as it has leaves of blue grass. + +It strikes me that the gathering and planting of maple seed is the +best way to wood the prairies of the West and the worn-out lands of +the Eastern and Middle States. The tree is valuable for shade and for +timber, and is as rapid in growth as any tree within my knowledge. I +noticed some trees of this sort yesterday which are from 2½ to 3½ feet +in diameter. The lumber from such timber makes beautiful furniture. +This is intended only for those who have been as non-observant as +myself, and not the wise, who are always posted. + + Franklin, Tenn. J.B.M. + +The seeds inclosed were the samaras of _Acer rubrum_, called the +"soft" maple in many localities, and "red" maple in others. We have +seen trees only three or four inches in diameter full of blossoms. +This is one of the earliest trees to bloom in spring, and the pretty +winged samaras soon mature and fall. The sugar maple, _Acer +saccharinum_, blossoms later, and the seeds are persistent till +autumn, and lie on the ground all winter before germinating. The +lumber from this latter is more valuable than soft maple, being +harder, heavier, and taking a better polish. Soft maple makes an +ox-yoke which is durable and not heavy. In early times a decoction of +the bark was frequently used for making a black ink.--_Country +Gentleman._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DIOSCOREA RETUSA. + + +[Illustration: FLOWERING SPRAY OF DIOSCOREA RETUSA.] + +One of the most elegant plants one can have in a greenhouse is this +twiner, a native of South Africa. It has slender stems clothed with +distinctly veined leaves, and produces a profusion of creamy white +fragrant flowers in pendulous clusters, as shown in the annexed +engraving, for which we are indebted to Messrs Veitch of Chelsea, who +distributed the plant a few years ago. On several occasions Messrs +Veitch have exhibited it trained parasol fashion and covered +abundantly with elegant drooping clusters of flowers, and as such it +has been much admired. When planted out in a warmish greenhouse and +allowed to twine at will around an upright pillar, it is seen to the +best advantage, and, though not showy, makes a pleasing contrast with +other gayly tinted flowers. It is so unlike any other ornamental plant +in cultivation, that it ought to become more widely known than it +appears to be at present.--_The Garden._ + + * * * * * + + + + +RAVAGES OF A RARE SCOLYTID BEETLE IN THE SUGAR MAPLES OF +NORTHEASTERN NEW YORK. + + +About the first of last August (1882) I noticed that a large +percentage of the undergrowth of the sugar maple (_Acer saccharinum_) +in Lewis County, Northeastern New York, seemed to be dying The leaves +drooped and withered, and finally shriveled and dried, but still clung +to the branches. + +The majority of the plants affected were bushes a centimeter or two in +thickness, and averaging from one to two meters in height, though a +few exceeded these dimensions. On attempting to pull them up they +uniformly, and almost without exception, broke off at the level of the +ground, leaving the root undisturbed. A glance at the broken end +sufficed to reveal the mystery, for it was perforated, both vertically +and horizontally, by the tubular excavations of a little Scolytid +beetle which, in most instances, was found still engaged in his work +of destruction. + +At this time the wood immediately above the part actually invaded by +the insect was still sound, but a couple of months later it was +generally found to be rotten. During September and October I dug up +and examined a large number of apparently healthy young maples of +about the size of those already mentioned, and was somewhat surprised +to discover that fully ten per cent. of them were infested with the +same beetles, though the excavations had not as yet been sufficiently +extensive to affect the outward appearance of the bush. They must all +die during the coming winter, and next spring will show that, in Lewis +County alone, hundreds of thousands of young sugar maples perished +from the ravages of this Scolytid during the summer of 1882. + +Dr. George H Horn, of Philadelphia, to whom I sent specimens for +identification, writes me that the beetle is _Corthylus +punctatissimus_, Zim, and that nothing is known of its habits. I take +pleasure, therefore, in contributing the present account, meager as it +is, of its operations, and have illustrated it with a few rough +sketches that are all of the natural size, excepting those of the +insects themselves, which are magnified about nine diameters. + +The hole which constitutes the entrance to the excavation is, without +exception, at or very near the surface of the ground, and is +invariably beneath the layer of dead and decaying leaves that +everywhere covers the soil in our Northern deciduous forests. Each +burrow consists of a primary, more or less horizontal, circular canal, +that passes completely around the bush, but does not perforate into +the entrance hole, for it generally takes a slightly spiral course, so +that when back to the starting point it falls either a little above, +or a little below it--commonly the latter (see Figs. 1 and 2). + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2--Mines of Corthylus +punctatissimus.] + +It follows the periphery so closely that the outer layer of growing +wood, separating it from the bark, does not average 0.25 mm. in +thickness, and yet I have never known it to cut entirely through this, +so as to lie in contact with the bark. + +From this primary circular excavation issue, at right angles, and +generally in both directions (up and down), a varying number of +straight tubes, parallel to the axis of the plant (see Figs. 1, 2, and +3). They average five or six millimeters in length, and commonly +terminate blindly, a mature beetle being usually found in the end of +each. Sometimes, but rarely, one or more of those vertical excavations +is found to extend farther, and, bending at a right angle, to take a +turn around the circumference of the bush, thus constituting a second +horizontal circular canal from which, as from the primary one, a +varying number of short vertical tubes branch off. And in very +exceptional cases these excavations extend still deeper, and there may +be three, or even four, more or less complete circular canals. Such an +unusual state of things exists in the specimen from which Fig 3 is +taken. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 3 and 4--Mines of Corthylus +punctatissimus.] + +It will be seen that with few exceptions, the most important of which +is shown in Fig 4, all the excavations (including both the horizontal +canals and their vertical off shoots) are made in the sap-wood +immediately under the bark, and not in the hard and comparatively dry +central portion. This is, doubtless, because the outer layers of the +wood are softer and more juicy, and therefore more easily cut, besides +containing more nutriment and being, doubt less, better relished than +the drier interior. + +This beetle does not bore, like some insects, but devours bodily all +the wood that is removed in making its burrows. The depth of each +vertical tube may be taken as an index to the length of time the +animal has been at work, and the number of these tubes generally tells +how many inhabit each bush, for as a general rule each individual +makes but one hole, and is commonly found at the bottom of it. All of +the excavations are black inside. + +The beetle is sub-cylindric in outline, and very small, measuring but +3.5 mm in length. Its color is a dark chestnut brown, some specimens +being almost black. Its head is bent down under the thorax, and cannot +be seen from above (see Fig. 5). + +[Illustration: FIG 5.--Corthylus punctatissimus.] + +Should this species become abundant and widely dispersed, it could but +exercise a disastrous influence upon the maple forests of the +future--_G. Hart Merriam, M D, in American Naturalist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RED SPIDER. + +(_Tetranyehus telarius._) + + +The red spider is not correctly speaking an insect, though it is +commonly spoken of as such, neither is it a spider, as its name would +imply, but an acarus or mite. Whether its name is correct or not, it +is a most destructive and troublesome pest wherever it makes its +presence felt, it by no means confines itself to one or only a few +kinds of plants, as many insects do, but it is very indiscriminate in +its choice of food, and it attacks both plants grown under glass and +those in the open air. When these pests are present in large numbers, +the leaves on which they feed soon present a sickly yellow or scorched +appearance, for the supply of sap is drawn off by myriads of these +little mites, which congregate on the under sides of the leaves, where +they live in a very delicate web, which they spin, and multiply very +rapidly; this web and the excrement of the red spider soon choke up +the pores of the leaves, which, deprived of their proper amount of +sap, and unable to procure the carbon from the atmosphere which they +so much need, are soon in a sorry plight. However promiscuous these +mites may be in their choice of food plants--melons, cucumbers, kidney +beans, hops, vines, apple, pear, plum, peach trees, limes, roses, +laurustinus, cactuses, clover, ferns, orchids, and various stove and +greenhouse plants being their particular favorites--they are by no +means insensible to the difference between dryness and moisture. To +the latter they have a most decided objection, and it is only in warm +and dry situations that they give much trouble, and it is nearly +always in dry seasons that plants, etc., out of doors suffer most from +these pests. Fruit trees grown against walls are particularly liable +to be attacked, since from their position the air round them is +generally warm and dry, and the cracks and boles in the walls are +favorite places for the red spider to shelter in, so that extra care +should be taken to prevent them from being infested, this may best be +effected by syringing the trees well night and morning with plain +water, directing the water particularly to the under sides of the +leaves, so as, if possible, to wash off the spiders and their webs. If +the trees be already attacked, adding soft soap and sulphur to the +water will destroy them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--Red Spider (magnified). A 1. Ditto +(natural size). 2. Underside of head. 3. Foot. 4. Spinneret.] + +Sulphur is one of the most efficient agents known for killing them, +but it will not, however, mix properly with water in its ordinary +form, but should be teated according to the following recipe: + +Boil together in four gallons of water 1 lb. of flowers of sulphur and +2 lb. of fresh lime, and add 1½ lb. of soft soap, and, before using, 3 +gallons more of water, or mix 4 oz of sulphate of lime with half that +weight of soft soap, and, when well mixed, add 1 gallon of hot water. +Use when cool enough to bear your hand in it. Any insecticide +containing sulphur is useful. The walls should be well washed with +some insecticide of this kind. Old walls in which the pointing is bad +and the bricks full of nail holes, etc., are very difficult to keep +free from red spider. They should be painted over with a strong +solution of soot water mixed with clay to form a paint. To a gallon of +this paint add 1 lb. of flowers of sulphur and 2 oz of soft soap. + +This mixture should be thoroughly rubbed with a brush into every crack +and crevice of the walls, and if applied regularly every year would +probably prevent the trees from being badly attacked. As the red +spider passes the winter under some shelter, frequently choosing +stones, rubbish, etc., near the roots of the trees, keeping the ground +near the trees clean and well cultivated will tend greatly to diminish +their numbers. In vineries one of the best ways of destroying these +creatures is to paint the hot water pipes with one part of fresh lime +and two parts of flowers of sulphur mixed into a paint. If a flue is +painted in this way, great care should be taken that the sulphur does +not burn, or much damage may be done, as the flues may become much +hotter than hot water pipes. During the earlier stages of growth keep +the atmosphere moist and impregnated with ammonia by a layer of fresh +stable litter, or by painting the hot water pipes with guano made into +a paint, as long as the air in the house is kept moist there is not +much danger of a bad attack. As soon as the leaves are off, the canes +should be dressed with the recipe already given for painting the +walls, and two inches or so of the surface soil removed and replaced +with fresh and all the wood and iron work of the house well scrubbed. +If carnations are attacked, tying up some flowers of sulphur in a +muslin bag and sulphuring the plants liberally, and washing them well +in three days' time has been recommended. + +Tobacco water and tobacco smoke will also kill these pests, but as +neither tobacco nor sulphuring the hot water pipes can always be +resorted to with safety in houses, by far the better way is to keep a +sharp look out for this pest, and as soon as a plant is found to be +attacked to at once clean it with an insecticide which it is known the +plant will bear, and by this means prevent other plants from being +infested. These little mites breed with astonishing rapidity, so that +great care should be exercised in at once stopping an attack. A lady +friend of mine had some castor oil plants growing in pots in a window +which were badly attacked, and found that some lady-birds soon made +short work of the mites and cleared the plants. The red spider lays +its eggs among the threads of the web which it weaves over the under +sides of the leaves; the eggs are round and white; the young spiders +are hatched in about a week, and they very much resemble their parents +in general appearance, but they have only three pairs of legs instead +of four at first, and they do not acquire the fourth pair until they +have changed their skins several times; they are, of course, much +smaller in size, but are, however, in proportion just as destructive +as the older ones. They obtain the juices of the leaves by eating +through the skin with their mandibles, and then thrusting in their +probosces or suckers (Fig. 2), through which they draw out the juices. +These little creatures are so transparent, that it is very difficult +to make out all the details of their mouths accurately. The females +are very fertile, and breed with great rapidity under favorable +circumstances all the year round. + +The red spiders, as I have already stated, are not real spiders, but +belong to the family Acarina or mites, a family included in the same +class (the arachnida) as the true spiders, from which they may be +easily distinguished by the want of any apparent division between the +head and thorax and body; in the true spiders the head and thorax are +united together and form one piece, to which the body is joined by a +slender waist. The arachnidæ are followed by the myriapoda +(centipedes, etc.), and these by the insectiæ or true insects. The red +spiders belong to the kind of mites called spinning mites, to +distinguish them from those which do not form a web of any kind. It is +not quite certain at present whether there is only one or more species +of red spider; but this is immaterial to the horticulturist, as their +habits and the means for their destruction are the same. The red +spider (Tetranychus telarius--Fig. 1) is very minute, not measuring +more than the sixtieth of an inch in length when full grown; their +color is very variable, some individuals being nearly white, others +greenish, or various shades of orange, and red. This variation in +color probably depends somewhat on their age or food--the red ones are +generally supposed to be the most mature. The head is furnished with a +pair of pointed mandibles, between which is a pointed beak or sucker +(Fig. 2). The legs are eight in number; the two front pairs project +forward and the other two backward; they are covered with long stiff +hairs; the extremities of the feet are provided with long bent hairs, +which are each terminated by a knob. The legs and feet appear to be +only used in drawing out the threads and weaving the web. The thread +is secreted by a nipple or spinneret (Fig. 4) situated near the apex +of the body on the under side. The upper surface of the body is +sparingly covered with long stiff hairs.--_G.S.S., in The Garden._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HELODERMA HORRIDUM. + + +The discussion of the curious lizard found in our Western Territories +and in Mexico, and variously known as the "Montana alligator," "the +Gila monster," and "the Mexican heloderma," is becoming decidedly +interesting. + +As noted in a recent issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, a live specimen +was sent last summer to Sir John Lubbock, and by him presented to the +London Zoological Gardens. At first it was handled as any other lizard +would be, without special fear of its bite, although its mouth is well +armed with teeth. Subsequent investigation has convinced its keepers +that the creature is not a fit subject for careless handling; that its +native reputation is justified by fact; and that it is an exception +to all known lizards, in that its teeth are poison fangs comparable +with those of venomous serpents. + +Speaking of the Mexican reputation of the lizard, in a recent issue of +_Knowledge_, Dr. Andrew Wilson, whose opinion will be respected by all +naturalists, says that "without direct evidence of such a statement no +man of science, basing his knowledge of lizard nature on the exact +knowledge to hand, would have hesitated in rejecting the story as, at +least, improbable. Yet it is clear that the stories of the New World +may have had an actual basis of fact; for the _Heloderma horridum_ has +been, beyond doubt, proved to be poisonous in as high a degree as a +cobra or a rattlesnake. + +"At first the lizard was freely handled by those in charge at Regent's +Park, and being a lizard, was regarded as harmless. It was certainly +dull and inactive, a result probably due to its long voyage and to the +want of food. Thanks, however, to the examination of Dr. Gunther, of +the British Museum, and to actual experiment, we now know that +_Heloderma_ will require in future to be classed among the deadly +enemies of other animals. Examining its mouth, Dr. Gunther found that +its teeth formed a literal series of poison fangs. Each tooth, +apparently, possesses a poison gland; and lizards, it may be added, +are plentifully supplied with these organs as a rule. Experimenting +upon the virulence of the poison, _Heloderma_ was made to bite a frog +and a guinea pig. The frog died in one minute, and the guinea-pig in +three. The virus required to produce these effects must be of +singularly acute and powerful nature. It is to be hoped that no case +of human misadventure at the teeth of _Heloderma_ may happen. There +can be no question, judging from the analogy of serpent-bite, that the +poison of the lizard would affect man." + +[Illustration: HELODERMA HORRIDUM, OR GILA MONSTER] + +In an article in the London _Field_, Mr. W.B. Tegetmeier states that +this remarkable lizard was first described in the _Isis_, in 1829, by +the German naturalist Wiegmann, who gave it the name it bears, and +noted the ophidian character of its teeth. + +In the _Comptes Rendus_ of 1875, M.F. Sumichrast gave a much more +detailed account of the habits and mode of life of this animal, and +forwarded specimens in alcohol to Paris, where they were dissected and +carefully described. The results of these investigations have been +published in the third part of the "Mission Scientifique an Mexique," +which, being devoted to reptiles, has been edited by Messrs. Aug. +Dumeril and Becourt. + +The heloderm, according to M.F. Sumichrast, inhabits the hot zone of +Mexico--that intervening between the high mountains and the Pacific in +the districts bordering the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It is found only +where the climate is dry and hot; and on the moister eastern slopes of +the mountain chain that receive the damp winds from the Gulf of Mexico +it is entirely unknown. Of its habits but little is known, as it +appears to be, like many lizards, nocturnal, or seminocturnal, in its +movements, and, moreover, it is viewed with extreme dread by the +natives, who regard it as equally poisonous with the most venomous +serpents. It is obviously, however, a terrestrial animal, as it has +not a swimming tail flattened from side to side, nor the climbing feet +that so characteristically mark arboreal lizards. Sumichrast further +states that the animal has a strong nauseous smell, and that when +irritated it secretes a large quantity of gluey saliva. In order to +test its supposed poisonous property, he caused a young one to bite a +pullet under the wing. In a few minutes the adjacent parts became +violet in color, convulsions ensued, from which the bird partially +recovered, but it died at the expiration of twelve hours. A large cat +was also caused to be bitten in the foot by the same heloderm; it was +not killed, but the limb became swollen, and the cat continued +mewing for several hours, as if in extreme pain. The dead specimens +sent to Europe have been carefully examined as to the character of the +teeth. Sections of these have been made, which demonstrate the +existence of a canal in each, totally distinct from and anterior to +the pulp cavity; but the soft parts had not been examined with +sufficient care to determine the existence or non-existence of any +poison gland in immediate connection with these perforated teeth until +Dr. Gunther's observations were made, as described by Dr. Wilson. + +Hitherto, as noted in a previous article, American naturalists have +regarded the heloderm as quite harmless--an opinion well sustained by +the judgment of many persons in Arizona and other parts of the West by +whom the reptile has been kept as an interesting though ugly pet. +While the Indians and native Mexicans believe the creature to be +venomous, we have never heard an instance in which the bite of it has +proved fatal. + +A correspondent of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, "C.E.J.," writing from +Salt Lake City, Utah, under date of September 8, says, after referring +to the article on the heloderm in our issue of August 26: + + "Having resided in the southern part of this Territory for + seventeen years, where the mercury often reaches 110° or more in + the shade, and handled a number of these 'monsters,' I can say + that I never yet knew anybody or anything to have perished from + their bite. We have often had two or three of them tied in the + door-yard by a hind leg, and the children have freely played + around them--picking them up by the nape of the neck and watching + them snap off a small bit from the end of a stick when poked at + them. We have fed them raw egg and milk; the latter they take with + great relish. At one time a small canine came too near the mouth + of our alligator (_mountain alligator_, we call them), when it + instantly caught the pup by the under jaw and held on as only it + could (they have a powerful jaw), nor would it release its hold + until choked near to death, which was done by taking it behind the + bony framework of the head, between the thumb and finger, and + pressing hard. The pup did considerable howling for half an hour, + by which time the jaw was much swollen, remaining so for two or + three days, after which it was all right again. By this I could + only conclude that the animal was but slightly poisonous. I never + knew of a human being having been bitten by one. My sister kept + one about the house for several weeks, and fed it from her hands + and with a spoon. The specimens have generally been sent (through + the Deseret Museum) to colleges and museums in the East. + + "The Indians have a great fear that these animals produce at will + good or bad weather, and will not molest them. Many times they + have come to see them, and told us that we should let them go or + they would talk to the storm spirit and send wind and water and + fire upon us. An old Indian I once talked with told me of another + who was bitten on the hand, and said it swelled up the arm badly, + but he recovered. From some reason we never find specimens less + than 12 or 14 inches long, I never saw a young one. There is a + nice stuffed specimen, 18 inches long, in our museum here." + +Sir John Lubbock's specimen, shown in the engraving herewith, for +which we are indebted to the London _Field_, is about 19 inches in +length. Its general color is a creamy buff, with dark brown markings. +The forepart of the head and muzzle is entirely dark, the upper eyelid +being indicated by a light stripe. The entire body is covered with +circular warts. It is fed upon eggs, which it eats greedily. + +It would be interesting to know whether the northern specimens, if +venomous at all, are as fully equipped with poison bags and fangs as +Dr. Gunther finds the Mexican specimen to be. Some of our Western or +Mexican readers may be able to make comparative tests. Meantime it +would be prudent to limit the use of the "monster" as a children's +pet. + +The foregoing appeared in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Oct. 7, 1882. + +We are now indebted to a correspondent, Mr. Wm. Y. Beach, of the Grand +View Mine, Grant County, Southern Arizona, for a fine specimen of this +singular reptile, just received alive. The example sent to us is about +twenty inches long, and answers very well to the description of the +monster and the engraving above given. + +In the course of an hour after opening the box in which the reptile +had been confined during its eight days' journey by rail, it became +very much at home, stretching and crawling about our office floor with +much apparent satisfaction. + +Our correspondent is located in the mountains, some nine miles distant +from the Gila River. He states that the reptile he sends was found in +one of the shops pertaining to the mine, which had been left +unoccupied for a week or so. + +Apropos to the foregoing, we have received the following letter from +another correspondent in Arizona: + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American:_ + + My attention has been called to an article in your issue of Oct. + 7, 1882, relating to the _Heloderma horridum_, or commonly known + as the Gila Monster. + + During a residence of ten years in Arizona I have had many + opportunities of learning the habits of these reptiles, and I am + satisfied their bite will produce serious effects, if not death, + of the human race. I know of one instance where a gentleman of my + acquaintance by the name of Bostick, at the Tiga Top mining camp, + in Arizona, was bitten on the fingers, and suffered all the + symptoms of poison from snake bite. He was confined to his bed for + six weeks and subsequently died. I am of the opinion his death was + in part caused by the effects of the poison of the Gila Monster. + + The Hualzar Indians are very much afraid of them, and one I showed + the picture to of the Monster in your paper remarked, "Chinamuck," + which in Hualzar language means "very bad." He said if an Indian + is bitten, he sometimes dies. + + I have seen them nearly two feet in length. Never, to my + knowledge, are they kept as pets in our portion of Arizona. They + live on mice and other small animals, and when aggravated can jump + several times their length. + + W.E. DAY, M.D. + + Huckberry, Mahone Co., Ar. T., April, 1883. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE KANGAROO. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American:_ + +In page 69 of your issue of 3d of February, 1883, I notice among the +"Challenger Notes" of Professor Mosely the statement that "Among +stockmen, and even some well educated people in Australia, there is a +conviction that the young kangaroo grows out as a sort of bud on the +teat of the mother within the pouch." Some eighteen months ago I +noticed a paragraph wherein some learned professor was reported to +have set at rest the contested point as to whether the kangaroo come +into being in the same manner as the calves of the cow and other +mammals, or whether the young grows, as alleged, upon the teat of its +dam within the pouch. The learned professor in question asserted that +it did not so grow upon the teat; but, with all due respect to the +professor's claim to credibility on other matters, I must in this +instance take the liberty of stating that he is in error. The young +kangaroo actually oozes out, if I may use such an expression, from the +teat. Strange as the statement may seem, it is a fact that the first +indication of life on the part of the kangaroo offspring is a very +slight eruption, in size not larger than an ordinary pin head. This +growth gradually resolves itself into the form of the marsupial, and +is not detached until close upon the expiring of of the fourth month. +It is carried by the mother during that period, and thenceforth exists +partially at least on herbage. Indeed, from the fourth till the +seventh month it is almost constantly in the pouch, only coming out +occasionally toward the close of evening to crop the grass. I had at +one time in my possession a specimen of the kangaroo germ which I cut +from off the teat, complete in form, whose entire weight was less than +an ounce; and, at the same time, I had a kangaroo in my possession +which measured seven feet six inches from the top of the ears to the +extremity of the tail. + +Your readers would doubtless feel interested with a few particulars as +to my life among the kangaroos in a genuine kangaroo country. I have +read somewhere about the exceeding beauty of the eyes of the gazelle; +how noted hunters have alleged that their nature so softened on +looking into the animal's eyes that they (the hunters) had no heart to +destroy the creature. Now, I have never seen a gazelle, and so cannot +indulge in comparisons; but if their eyes are more beautiful than +those of a middle-aged kangaroo, they may indeed be all that huntsmen +say of them. With respect to the old kangaroos, their eyes and face +are simply atrocious in their repulsive ugliness. + +Nothing in nature could surpass the affection which the female +kangaroo manifests for her young. There is something absolutely +touching in the anxious solicitude displayed by the dam while the +young ones are at play. On the least alarm the youngster instantly +ensconces himself in the pouch of his gentle mother, and should he, in +the exuberance of his joy, thrust his head out from his place of +refuge, it is instantly thrust back by his dam. I have, on several +occasions, by hard riding, pressed a doe to dire extremity, and it has +only been when hope had entirely forsaken her, or when her capture was +inevitable, that she has reluctantly thrown out the fawn. Their method +of warfare has often reminded me of the style of two practiced +pugilists, the aim of each being to firmly gripe his opponent by the +shoulder, upon accomplishing which, the long hind leg, with its horny +blade projecting from its toe, comes into formidable play. It is +lifted and drawn downward with a rapid movement, and one or other of +the combatants soon shows the entrails laid bare, which is usually the +_grand finale_. The sparring that takes place between the marsupials +while trying to get the advantageous gripe is marvelous--I had almost +said scientific; for the style and rapidity of the animals' movements +might excite the admiration of the Tipton Slasher. + +Strangely enough, these animals have their social distinctions almost +as well defined as in the case of the human species. Thus, one herd +will not, on any consideration, associate with another; each tribe has +its rendezvous for morning and evening reunions, and each its leader +or king, who is the first to raise an alarm on the approach of danger, +and the first to lead the way, whether in ignominious retreat, +confronting a recognized foe, or standing at bay. These leaders are +generally extremely cunning, one old stager with whom I was intimately +acquainted having baffled all attempts to effect its capture for more +than ten months. I got him at last by a stratagem. He had a knack of +always keeping near a flock of sheep, and on the approach of the dogs +dodged among them. + +By this means he had always succeeded in effecting his escape, and +more than that, this noble savage had actually drowned several of our +best dogs, for, if at any time a dog came upon him at a distance from +the sheep flocks, he would make for a neighboring swamp, on nearing +which he has been known to turn round upon the pursuing dog, seize +him, and carry him for some distance right into the swamp, and then +thrust the dog's head under water, holding him there till he was +drowned. It was amusing to see how some of our old knowing warrior +dogs gave him best when they noticed that he was approaching a flock +of sheep, well remembering, from former experience, that it was of no +use trying to get him on that occasion, and that when near the water +the attempt at his capture was both dangerous and impracticable. + +If you take a new and inexperienced dog into your hunt after an old +man, he invariably gets his throat ripped up, or is otherwise +maltreated until well used to the sport. After a dog has had one +season's experience he becomes a warrior, and it is a wonderfully +clever kangaroo that can scratch him after he has attained that +position. The young recruit, if we may so speak of a dog who has never +had any practice, is over-impetuous, rushing into the treacherous +embraces of the close hugger somewhat unadvisedly, and is fortunate if +he escapes with his life as a penalty for his rashness. The dog of +experience always gripes his marsupial adversary by the butt end of +the tail, close to the rump, or at its juncture with the spinal +vertebræ. Once the dog has thrown his kangaroo, he makes for the +throat, which he gripes firmly, while at the same time he is careful +to keep his own body as far as he conveniently can from the quarry's +dangerous hind quarters. In this position dog and kangaroo work round +and round for some time until one or the other of the combatants is +exhausted. It is noteworthy that the kangaroo will only make use of +its sharp teeth in cases of the direst extremity. On such occasions, +however, it must be conceded that the bite is one of a most formidable +character--one not to be any means underrated or despised. + +Should those few incidents prove of sufficient interest in your +estimation, I may state that I shall willingly, at some future time, +forward you particulars of the "ways peculiar" of the emirs, +bandicoots, wombats, opossums, and other remarkable animals, the +observance of which formed almost my sole amusement during a rather +lengthy sojourn in the bush of South Australia. + +SEPTIMUS FREARSON. + +Adelaide, S.A., April, 1883. + + * * * * * + + + + +JAPANESE PEPPERMINT. + + +In more than one periodical the botanical name of this plant has been +given as Mentha arvensis, var. purpurascens. It will be well, +therefore, to point out that this is an error before the statement is +further copied and the mistake perpetuated. The plant has green +foliage, with not a trace of purple, and less deserves the name +purpurascens than the true peppermint (Mentha piperita), of which a +purplish leaved form is well known. The mistake probably arose in the +first place in a printer's error. The history is as follows: + +For some years past a large quantity of a substance called menthol has +been imported into this country, and extensively used as a topical +application for the relief of neuralgia, and in some instances as an +antiseptic. This substance in appearance closely resembles Epsom +salts, and consists of crystals deposited in the oil of peppermint +distilled from the Japanese peppermint plant. This oil, when separated +from the crystals, is now largely used to flavor cheap peppermint +lozenges, being less expensive than the English oil. The crystals +deposit naturally in the oil upon keeping, but the Japanese extract +the whole of it by submitting the oil several times in succession to a +low temperature, when all the menthol crystallizes out from the oil +and falls to the bottom of the vessel. The source of the Japanese +peppermint oil has been stated to be Mentha arvensis, var. javanica. +On examining several specimens of this plant in our national herbaria +I found that the leaves tasted like those of the common garden mint +(Mentha viridis), and not at all like peppermint, and that therefore +the oil and menthol could not possibly be derived from this plant. + +I then asked my friend, Mr. T. Christy, who takes great interest in +medicinal plants, to endeavor to get specimens from Japan of the plant +yielding the oil. After many vain attempts, he at last succeeded in +obtaining live plants. These were cultivated in his garden at Malvern +House, Sydenham, and when they flowered I examined the plant and found +that it differed from other forms of M. arvensis in the taste, in the +acuminate segments of the calyx of the flower, and in the longer leaf +stalks; the leaves also taper more toward the base. Dr. Franchet, the +greatest living authority on Japanese plants, to whom I sent +specimens, confirmed my opinion as to the variety deserving a special +name, and M. Malinvaud, a well known authority on mints, suggested the +name piperascens, which I adopted, calling the plant Mentha arvensis, +var. piperascens. Specimens of the plant kindly lent by Mr. Christy +for the purpose were exhibited by me at an evening meeting of the +Linnæan Society, and by a printer's error in the report of the remarks +then made, the name of the plant appeared in print as Mentha arvensis, +var. purpurascens. + +I trust that the present note, through the medium of _The Garden_, +will prevent the perpetuation of this error. This is the more +important, as I hope that the plant will come into cultivation in this +country. It is a robust plant of rapid growth, as easily cultivated as +the English peppermint, and seems to require less moisture, and is +therefore capable of cultivation in a great variety of localities. The +increasing demand for menthol, which can only be procured in small +quantities from the English peppermint, and the high price of English +peppermint oil, lead to the hope that instead of importing menthol +from Japan, it will be prepared in this country from the Japanese +plant. + +With the appliances of more advanced civilization, it ought to be +possible for the oil and menthol to be made in this country at less +price than the Japanese products now cost. + +At the present time large quantities of cheap peppermint oil are +imported into this country from the United States, and Chinese oil is +imported into Bombay for use in the Government medical stores. There +is no reason why this should be the case if the Japanese plant were +cultivated in this country. In Ireland, where labor is cheap and the +climate moist, this crop might afford a valuable source of income to +enterprising cultivators. It may be interesting to note here that the +plant used in China closely resembles the Japanese one, differing +chiefly in the narrower and more glabrous leaves. I have therefore +named it Mentha arvensis f. glabrata, from specimens sent to me from +Hong Kong, by Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic Gardens there. + +E.M. HOLMES. + + * * * * * + + + + +GLADIOLUS. + + +The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in +early spring in pots of rich soil placed in heat, the pots being kept +near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants being +gradually hardened to permit their being placed out of doors in a +sheltered spot for the summer. In October they will have ripened off, +and must be taken out of the soil and stored in paper bags in a dry +room secure from frost. They will have made little bulbs, from the +size of a hazel nut downward, according to their vigor. In the +subsequent spring they should be planted like the old bulbs, and the +larger ones will flower during the season, while the smaller specimens +must be again harvested and planted out as above described. + + * * * * * + + +A catalogue containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at +this office. + + * * * * * + + +The + +Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + + * * * * * + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + + * * * * * + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers. + + * * * * * + +COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + + MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y. + + * * * * * + + +PATENTS. + +In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 38 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. +Patents are obtained on the best terms. + +A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all +Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence +of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public +attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or +introduction often easily effected. + +Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, +free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing +to MUNN & CO. + +We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address + + MUNN & CO.. 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, Vol. +XV., No. 388, June 9, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 15417-8.txt or 15417-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/4/1/15417/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/15417-8.zip b/15417-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9cb57a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-8.zip diff --git a/15417-h.zip b/15417-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c7d79a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h.zip diff --git a/15417-h/15417-h.htm b/15417-h/15417-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..16a6806 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/15417-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5182 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + +<title> +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, June 9, 1883 +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + img {border: 0;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.short {width: 25%;} + hr.long {width: 75%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .ctr {text-align: center;} + .signature {text-align: right;} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XV., +No. 388, June 9, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XV., No. 388, June 9, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 20, 2005 [EBook #15417] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr" style="margin-left: -10%; margin-right: 110%"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 388</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, June 9, 1883</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XV., No. 388.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#art01"> +ENGINEERING.—Farcot's Improved Woolf Compound Engine.—4 figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art02"> +The "Swallow," a New Vehicle. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art03"> +Boring an Oil Well. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art04"> +A Cement Reservoir.—2 figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art05"> +"Flying." +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#art06"> +TECHNOLOGY.—Iron and Steel.—By BARNARD SAMUELSON. +The world's production of pig iron.—Wonderful uses and demands +for iron and steel.—Progress of Bessemer steel.—Latest +improvements in iron making.—Honors and rewards to inventors.—Growth +of the Siemens-Martin process.—The future of iron and +steel.—Relations between employers and workmen. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art07"> +Machine for Grinding Lithographic Inks and Colors.—1 figure. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art08"> +A new Evaporating apparatus.—2 figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art09"> +Photo Plates.—Wet and Dry. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art10"> +Gelatino Bromide Emulsion with Bromide of Zinc. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art11"> +The Removal of Ammonia from Crude Gas. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#art12"> +MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.—The Hair, its Uses and its Care. +The Influence of Effective Breathing in Delaying the Physical +Changes Incident to the Decline of Life, and in the Prevention +of Pneumonia. Consumption, and Diseases of Women.—By DAVID +WARK. M.D.—Pneumonia.—The true first stage of Consumption. The +development of tubercular matter in the blood.—The value of +cod-liver oil in the prevention of consumption.—The influence +of normal breathing on the female generative organs—Showing how +the breathing powers may be developed.—The effects of adequate +respiration in special cases. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art13"> +Vital Discoveries in Obstructed Air and Ventilation. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#art14"> +ELECTRICITY.—The Portrush Electric Railway, Ireland.—By Dr. EDWARD HOPKINSON. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art15"> +The Thomson-Houston Electric Lighting System.—4 figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art16"> +A Modification of the Vibrating Bell.—2 figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#art17"> +CHEMISTRY.—Acetate of Lime. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art18"> +Reconversion of Nitroglycerine into Glycerine. By C.L. BLOXAM. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art19"> +Carbonic Acid and Bisulphide of Carbon. By JOHN TYNDALL. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#art20"> +AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.—Propagation of Maple Trees. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art21"> +Dioscorea Retusa.—Illustration. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art22"> +Ravages of a Rare Scolytid Beetle in the Sugar Maples of +Northeastern New York.—Several figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art23"> +The Red Spider. 4 figures. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art24"> +Japanese Peppermint. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#art25"> +NATURAL HISTORY.—The Recent Eruption of Etna. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art26"> +The Heloderma Horridum.—Illustration. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art27"> +The Kangaroo. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#art28"> +ARCHITECTURE.—Design for a Villa.—Illustration. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#art29"> +BIOGRAPHY.—William Spottiswoode.—Portrait. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">X.</td> +<td><a href="#art30"> +MISCELLANEOUS.—Physics without Apparatus.—Illustration. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art31"> +The Travels of the Sun. +</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h2><a name="Page_6183" id="Page_6183"></a><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>In a preceding article, we have described a ventilator which is in use +at the Decazeville coal mines, and which is capable of furnishing, per +second, 20 cubic meters of air whose pressure must be able to vary +between 30 and 80 millimeters.</p> + +<p>In order to actuate such an apparatus, it was necessary to have a +motor that was possessed of great elasticity, and that nevertheless +presented no complications incompatible with the application that was +to be made of it.</p> + +<p>In the ventilation of mines it has been demonstrated that the +theoretic power in kilogrammes necessary to displace a certain number +of cubic meters of air, at a pressure expressed in millimeters of +water, is obtained by multiplying one number by the other. Applying +this rule to the case of 20 cubic meters under a hydrostatic pressure +of 30 millimeters, we find:</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +20 × 30 = 600 kilogrammeters. +</p> + +<p>In the case of a pressure of 80 millimeters, we have:</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +20 × 80 = 1,600 kilogrammeters. +</p> + +<p>If we admit a product of 50 per cent., we shall have in the two cases, +for the power actually necessary:</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +600 / 0.05 = 1,200 kilogrammeters, or 16 H.P. +</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +1,600 / 0.05 = 3,200 kilogrammeters, or 43 H.P. +</p> + +<p>Such are the limits within which the power of the motor should be able +to vary.</p> + +<p>After successively examining all the different systems of engines now +in existence, and finding none which, in a plain form, was capable of +fulfilling the conditions imposed, Mr. E.D. Farcot decided to study +out one for himself. Almost from the very beginning of his researches +in this direction, he adopted the Woolf system, which is one that +permits of great variation in the expansion, and one in which the +steam under full pressure acts only upon the small piston. There are +many types of this engine in use, all of which present marked defects. +In one of them, the large cylinder is arranged directly over the small +one so as to have but a single rod for the two pistons; and the two +cylinders have then one bottom in common, which is furnished with a +stuffing-box in which the rod moves. With this arrangement we have but +a single connecting rod and a single crank for the shaft; but, the +stuffing-box not being accessible so that it can be kept in a clean +state, there occur after a time both leakages of steam and entrances +of air.</p> + +<p>Mr. Farcot has further simplified this last named type by suppressing +the intermediate partition, and consequently the stuffing-box. The +engine thus becomes direct acting, that is to say, the steam acts +first upon the lower surface of the small piston during its ascent, +and afterward expands in the large cylinder and exerts its pressure +upon the upper surface of the large piston during its descent. +Moreover, the expansion may be begun in the small cylinder, thanks to +the use of a slide plate distributing valve, devised by the elder +Farcot and slightly modified by the son.</p> + +<p>As the volume comprised between the two pistons varies with the +position of the latter, annoying counter-pressures might result +therefrom had not care been taken to put the chamber in communication +with a reservoir of ten times greater capacity, and which is formed by +the interior of the frame. This brings about an almost constant +counter-pressure.</p> + +<p>The type of motor under consideration, which we represent in the +accompanying plate, is possessed of remarkable simplicity. The number +of parts is reduced to the extremest limits; it works at high speed +without perceptible wear; it does not require those frequent repairs +that many other cheap engines do; and the expansion of the steam is +utilized without occasioning violent shocks in the parts which +transmit motion. Finally, the plainness of the whole apparatus is +perfectly in accordance with the uses for which it was devised.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src="./images/1a_th.png" alt="FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE." /></a><br />FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE.</p> + +<p><i>Details of Construction.</i>—Figs. 1 and 2 represent the motor in +vertical section made in the direction of two planes at right angles. +Figs. 3 and 4 are horizontal sections made respectively in the +direction of the lines 1-2 and 3-4.</p> + +<p>The frame, which is of cast iron and entirely hollow, consists of two +uprights, B, connected at their upper part by a sort of cap, B¹, which +is cast in a piece with the two cylinders, C and <i>c</i>. The whole rests +upon a base, B², which is itself bolted to the masonry foundation.</p> + +<p>Each of the uprights is provided internally with projecting pieces for +receiving the guides between which slides the cross-head, <i>g</i>, of the +piston rod. The slides terminate in two lubricating cups designed for +oiling the surfaces submitted to friction.</p> + +<p>The cross-head carries two bearings, <i>g¹</i>, to which is jointed the +forked extremity, D, of the connecting rod, whose opposite extremity +receives a strap that embraces the cranked end of the driving shaft, +A. It will be remarked that the crank, A¹, and the bearings, <i>g¹</i>, +are very long. The end the inventor had in view in constructing them +thus was to diminish friction.</p> + +<p>To the shaft, A, are keyed the coupling disks, Q, which are cast solid +at a portion of their circumference situated at 180° with respect to +the parts, A², of the cranked shaft, the object of this being to +balance the latter as well as a portion of the connecting rod, D.</p> + +<p>The shaft, A, also receives the eccentric, E, of the slide valve, the +rod, <i>e</i>, of which is jointed to the slide valve rod through the +intermedium of a cross-head, <i>e¹</i>, analogous to that of the pistons, +and which, like the latter, runs on guides held by the support, b.</p> + +<p>The two pistons, <i>p</i> and P, are mounted very simply on the rod, T, as +shown in Fig. 1, and slide in cylinders, <i>c</i> and C, whose diameters +are respectively equal to 270 and 470 millimeters.</p> + +<p>The slide valve box, F, is bolted to the cap-piece, B¹, as seen in +Fig. 4. As for the slide valve, <i>t</i>, its arrangement may be +distinguished in section in Fig. 2. Its eccentric is keyed at 170° so +as to admit steam into the small cylinder during the entire travel, +which latter is 470 mm.</p> + +<p>To permit of the expansion beginning in the small cylinder, Mr. Farcot +has added a sliding plate, <i>t¹</i>, which abuts at every stroke against +the stops, s. These latter are affixed to the rod, S, whose lower +extremity is threaded, and which may be moved vertically, as slightly +as may be desired, through the medium of the pinions, S¹, when the +hand-wheel, V, is revolved. A datum point, <i>v</i>, and a graduated +socket, <i>v¹</i>, allow the position of the stops, <i>s</i>, and consequently +the degree of expansion, to be known.</p> + +<p>Steam is introduced into the small cylinder through the conduit, <i>i</i>, +and its passage into the large one is effected through the conduit, +<i>f</i>. The escape into the interior of the frame is effected, after +expansion, through the horizontal conduit, <i>h</i>. The pipe, H, leads +this exhaust steam to the open air.</p> + +<p>The pipe, I, leads steam into the jacket, C¹, of the large cylinder, +this latter being provided in addition with a casing of wood, C², so +as to completely prevent chilling.</p> + +<p>The regulator, R, is after the Büss pattern, and is set in motion by a +belt which runs over the pulleys, <i>a</i> and <i>a¹</i>. It is mounted upon a +distributing box, R¹, to which steam is led from the boiler by the +pipe, <i>r¹</i>. After traversing this box, the steam enters the slide +valve box through the pipe, <i>r²</i>, its admission thereto being +regulated by the hand-wheel, R², which likewise serves for stopping +the engine.</p> + +<p>The cocks, <i>x</i>, are fixed at the base of the uprights, B, for <a name="Page_6184" id="Page_6184"></a>drawing +from the frame the condensed water that has accumulated therein.</p> + +<p>The lubricating apparatus, V, which communicates, through the tube, +<i>u</i>, with the steam port, <i>r¹</i>, permits oil to be sent to the large +and small cylinders through the tubes, <i>u¹</i> and <i>u²</i>.</p> + +<p>Mr. Farcot has recently adapted this type of motor to the direct +running of electric machines that are required to make 400 revolutions +per minute.—<i>Publication Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>IRON AND STEEL.</h2> + +<p>At the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, London, the +president-elect (Mr. Bernard Samuelson, M.P.), delivered the following +inaugural address:</p> + +<h3>THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON.</h3> + +<p>He showed that the world's production of pig iron has increased in +round numbers from 10,500,000 tons in 1869 to 20,500,000 tons in 1882. +The blast furnaces of 1869 produced on the average a little over 180 +tons per week, with a temperature of blast scarcely exceeding 800° +Fahr. The consumption of coke per ton of iron varied from 25 to 30 +cwt. To-day our blast furnaces produce on the average upward of 300 +tons per week.</p> + +<p>The Consett Company have reached a production of 3,400 tons in four +weeks, or 850 tons per week, and of 134 tons in one day from a single +furnace.</p> + +<p>From the United States we have authentic accounts of an average +production of 1,120 tons per furnace per week having been attained, +and that even this great output has lately been considerably exceeded +there. Both as to consumption of fuel and wear and tear, per ton of +iron produced, these enormous outputs are attended with economy.</p> + +<p>In the case of the Consett furnace they were obtained although the +heat of the blast was under 1,100° Fahr., while heats of 1,500° to +1,600° are not uncommon at the present day in brick stoves, thanks to +the application of the regenerating principle of ex-president Sir W. +Siemens.</p> + +<p>But an economy which promises to be of great importance is now sought +in the recovery and useful application of those constituents of coal +which, in the coking process, have hitherto been lost; or, as an +alternative, in a similar recovery in those cases in which the coal is +charged in a raw state into the blast furnace, as is the practice in +Scotland and elsewhere. This recovery of the hydrocarbons and the +nitrogen contained in the coal, and their collection as tar and +ammoniacal liquors, and subsequent conversion into sulphate of ammonia +as to the latter, and into the various light and heavy paraffin oils +and the residual pitch as to the former, have now been carried on for +a considerable time at two of the Gartsherrie furnaces; and they are +already engaged in applying the necessary apparatus to eight more +furnaces. In the coke oven the recovery of these by-products—if that +name can be properly applied to substances which yield the most +brilliant colors, the purest illuminants, and the flesh-forming +constituents supplied by the vegetable world—would appear at first +sight to be simpler; but it has presented its own peculiar +difficulties; the chief of which was, or was believed to be, a +deterioration in the quality of what has hitherto been the principal, +but what may, perhaps, come to be regarded hereafter as the residual +product, namely, the coke. But the more recent experience of Messrs. +Pease, at Crook, appears not to justify this opinion. You will see on +our table specimens of the coke produced in the Carves-Simon oven, +yielding 75 to 77 per cent. of coke from the Pease's West coal, which +they have now had at work for several months. Twenty-five of these +ovens are at work, and the average yield of ammoniacal liquor per ton +of coal has been 30 gallons of a strength of 7° Twaddell, valued at +1d. per gallon at the ovens; the quantity of tar per ton has been 7 +gallons, valued at 3d. per gallon. These products would therefore +realize 4s. 3d. per ton of coal. Of course the profit on the ton of +coke is considerably more, and to this has to be added the value of +the additional weight of coke, which in the ordinary beehive ovens +from coal of the same quality is only 60 per cent. or in beehive ovens +having bottom flues about 66 per cent., while in the Carves ovens it +is, as I have said, upward of 75 per cent. Against these figures there +is a charge of 1s. 4d. per ton of coke for additional labor, including +all the labor in collecting the by-products; the interest on the first +cost of the plant, which is considerable, and probably some outlay for +repairs in excess of that in the case of ordinary ovens, has also to +be charged. Mr. Jameson takes credit for the combustible gas, which is +used up in the Carves ovens, but which remains over in his process, +and is available, though not nearly all consumed, in raising steam for +the various purposes of a colliery, including, no doubt, before long, +the generation of electricity for its illumination. It is right to +state that prior to 1879 Mr. Henry Aitken had applied bottom flues for +taking off the oil and ammoniacal water to beehive ovens at the Almond +Ironworks, near Falkirk. He states that the largest quantity of oil +obtained was eleven gallons, the specific gravity varying from 0.925 +to 1.000, and that the water contained a quantity of ammonia fully +equal to 5½ lb. of sulphate of ammonia to the ton of coal coked. The +residual permanent or non-condensed gases were allowed to issue from +the end of the condenser pipe, and were burnt for light in the +engine-houses, but it was intended to force them into the oven again +above the level of the coke. Owing to the works being closed, nothing +has been done with these ovens for some years. I may mention, by the +way, that it is proposed to apply the principle of Mr. Jameson's +process to the recovery of oil and ammonia from the smouldering waste +heaps at the pit-bank, by the introduction into these of conduits +resembling those which he applies to the bottom of the beehive oven. +There is every reason to expect that one or more of these various +methods of utilizing valuable products which are at present lost will +be carried to perfection, and will tend to cheapen the cost at which +iron can be produced, and still further to increase its consumption +for all the multifarious purposes to which it is applied.</p> + +<h3>WONDERFUL USES AND DEMAND FOR IRON AND STEEL.</h3> + +<p>But the world's annual production of 20,000,000 tons of pig iron is +itself sufficiently startling, and without attempting to present to +you the statistics of all its various uses—for which, in fact, we do +not possess the necessary materials—the increased consumption of more +than 9,000,000 tons since 1869 becomes conceivable when we consider +how some of the great works in which it is employed have been +extending during that or even a shorter interval. And of these I need +only speak of the world's railways, of which there were in 1872 +155,000 miles, and in 1882 not less than 260,000, but probably more +nearly 265,000 miles. In the United States alone about 60,000 miles +of railway have been built since 1869—the year, I may remind you in +passing, in which the Atlantic and Pacific States of the Union were +first united by a railway; while in our Indian Empire the +communication between Calcutta and Bombay was not completed till the +following year.</p> + +<p>The substitution of iron and steel for wood in the construction of +ships, and the enormous increase in the tonnage of the world, in spite +of the economy arising from the employment of steamers in place of +sailing ships, is perhaps the element of increased consumption next in +importance to that of railways. I do not think that the materials are +available for estimating with any accuracy the amount of this +increase, but I believe I am rather understating it if I take the +consumption of iron and steel used last year throughout the world in +shipbuilding as having required considerably more than 1,000,000 tons +of pig iron for its production, and that this is not far short of four +times the quantity used for the same purpose before 1870. And so all +the other great works in which iron and steel are employed have +increased throughout the world. It would be tedious to indicate them +all.</p> + +<p>Among those which rank next in importance to the preceding, I will +only name the works for the distribution of water and gas, which in +this country and in the United States have been extended in a ratio +far greater than that of the increase of the population, and which, +since the conclusion of the Franco-German war, and the consolidation +of the German and Italian States, are now to be found in almost every +European town of even secondary importance; and bridges and piers, in +the construction of which iron has almost entirely superseded every +other material.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to imagine what would have been the state of the iron +industry in this country if we had been called upon to supply our full +proportion of the enormously increased demand for iron. To meet that +proportion, the British production of pig iron should have been close +on 11,000,000 tons in 1882, a drain on our mineral resources which +cannot be replaced, and which, especially if continued in the same +ratio, would have been anything but desirable. Fortunately, as I am +disposed to think, other countries have contributed more than a +proportionate amount to the increase in the world's demand; and, +paradoxical as it may appear, it is possible that, to this country at +least, the encouragement given by protective duties to the production +of iron abroad may have been a blessing in disguise.</p> + +<h3>PROGRESS OF BESSEMER STEEL.</h3> + +<p>To speak of the enormous increase in the production of steel by the +introduction of the Bessemer process has become a commonplace on +occasions like the present, and yet I doubt whether its real +dimensions are generally known or remembered. In 1869 the manufacture +of Bessemer steel had already acquired what was then looked upon as a +considerable development in all the principal centers of metallurgical +industry, except the United States, but including our own country, +Germany, France, and Austria, and the world's production in that year +was 400,000 tons. Last year it was over 5,000,000 tons, and it has +doubled in every steel-producing country during the last four years, +except in France, where, during this latter period, the increase has +not been much more than one-fourth. What is almost as remarkable as +the enormous increase in the production of Bessemer steel is the great +diminution in its cost. In the years preceding 1875, the price of +rails manufactured from Bessemer ingots fluctuated between £10 and £18 +per ton, and I remember Lord George Hamilton when he was +Under-Secretary for India of Lord Beaconsfield's administration in +1875 or 1876, congratulating himself on his good fortune in having +been able to secure a quantity of steel rails for the Indian +government at £13 per ton. Within the last three years we have seen +them sold under £4 10s. in this country, and £5 10s. in Germany and +Belgium.</p> + +<h3>LATEST IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MAKING.</h3> + +<p>This great reduction is the cumulative result of a number of +concurrent improvements, partly in the conversion of the iron, and +partly in the subsequent treatment of the ingot steel. In most of the +great steelworks the iron is no longer remelted, but is transferred +direct from the blast furnace to the converter, a practice which +originated at Terre-Noire, and was long considered in this country to +be incompatible with uniformity in the quality of the steel produced. +The turn-out of the converter plant has been gradually increased in +this country to more than four times that of fourteen years ago, while +the practice of the United States is stated by a recent visitor to +have reached such an astounding figure that I am afraid to quote it +without confirmation; but the greatest economy arises no doubt in the +labor and fuel employed in the mill.</p> + +<p>Cogging has taken the place of hammering. Even wash-heating will be, +if it is not already, generally dispensed with by the soaking process +of our colleague, Mr. Gjers, which permits of the ingot, as it leaves +the pit, being directly converted into a rail.</p> + +<h3>STEEL RAILS 150 FEET LONG.</h3> + +<p>An extract from a letter addressed to me by our colleague, Mr. E.W. +Richards, will describe better than any words of mine the perfection +at which steel rail mills have arrived. He says, "Our cogging rolls +are 48 in. diameter, and the roughing and finishing rolls are 30 in. +diameter. We roll rails 150 feet long as easily as they used to roll +21 feet. Our ingots are 15½ inches square, and weigh from 25 to 30 +cwts. according to the weight of rail we have to roll. These heavy +ingots are all handled by machinery. We convey them by small +locomotives from the Bessemer shop to the heating furnaces, and by the +same means from the heating furnaces to the cogging rolls.</p> + +<p>So quickly are these ingots now handled that we have given up second +heating altogether, so that after one heat the ingot is cogged from +15½ inches square down to 8 inches square, then at once passed on to +the roughing and finishing rolls, and finished in lengths, as I have +said before, of 150 ft., then cut at the hot saws to the lengths given +in the specifications, and varying from 38 ft. to about 21 ft. The 38 +ft. lengths are used by the Italian 'Meridionali' Railway Company, and +found to give very satisfactory results." I need scarcely say that in +a mill like this, the expenditure of fuel and labor and the loss by +waste caused by crop ends are reduced to a minimum.</p> + +<h3>BASIC STEEL.</h3> + +<p>The enormous production of steel has required the importation of large +quantities of iron ore of pure quality from Spain, Algeria, and +elsewhere, into this country, France, Belgium, Germany, and the United +States; and these supplies have contributed greatly to the reduction +in the price of steel to which I have referred, and what is, perhaps, +of equal importance, they have prevented the great fluctuations of +price which formerly prevailed. In 1869 this trade was in its infancy, +and almost confined to the importation of the Algerian ores of Mokta +el Hadid into France, while in 1882 Bilbao alone exported 3,700,000 +tons of hematite ores to various countries to which the exports from +the south of Spain, Algeria, Elba, Greece, and other countries have to +be added. Great Britain alone imported 3,000,000 tons of high class, +including manganiferous iron ores last year.</p> + +<p>It is questionable whether the mines of pure iron existing in Europe +would long bear a drain so great and still increasing; but happily the +question no longer presses for an answer, because the problem of +obtaining first-class steel from inferior ores has been solved by the +genius of our colleagues, Mr. Snelus and Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist, +and by the practical skill and indomitable resolution of Mr. Windsor +Richards. It is no part of the duty of the Institute to assign to each +of these gentlemen his precise share in the development of the basic +process. Whatever those shares may be, I feel sure you will agree with +your council as to the propriety of their having awarded a Bessemer +medal to two of these gentlemen—Messrs. Snelus and Thomas—to Mr. +Snelus as the first who made pure steel from impure iron in a Bessemer +converter lined with basic materials; to Mr. Thomas, who solved the +same problem independently, and so clearly demonstrated its +practicability to Mr. Richards by the trials at Blaenavon, as to have +led that gentleman to devote all his energies and the great resources +of the Eston Works to the task of making it what it now is, a great +commercial success. All difficulties connected with the lining of the +converter and in insuring a durability of the bottom, nearly, if not +quite, equal to that in the acid process, appear now to have been +successfully surmounted, and I am informed by Mr. Gilchrist that the +present production of basic steel in this country and on the Continent +is already at the rate of considerably more than 500,000 tons per +annum, and that works are now in course of construction which will +increase this quantity to more than a million tons.</p> + +<p>Our members will have the opportunity of seeing the process at work +during their visit to Middlesbrough, at the Eston Works of Messrs. +Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., which are now producing 150,000 tons per annum +of steel of the highest quality from the phosphoretic Cleveland ores; +and also at the North-Eastern Steel Company's Works. I believe it is +the intention of the latter company to make a pure, soft steel +suitable for plates, for which, according to the testimony of Mons. +Delafond, of Creuzot, and others, the basic steel is peculiarly +suitable on account of its remarkable regularity. I shall have the +pleasure of presenting to Mr. Snelus the medal which he has so well +deserved.</p> + +<h3>HONORS AND REWARDS TO INVENTORS.</h3> + +<p>The presentation to Mr. Thomas is deferred. His arduous labors having +affected his health, he is at present in Australia, after having, I am +happy to say, received great advantage from the voyage; and his +mother, justly proud of his merits, and appreciating fully the value +of their recognition by the award which we have made, has requested us +not to present the medal by proxy, but to await the return of her son, +in order that it may be handed to him in person. But honors, whether +conferred by the Crown, by learned bodies, or, as in this case, by the +colleagues of the recipient, though they stimulate invention, are by +themselves not always sufficient to encourage inventors to devote +their labor to the improvements of manufactures or to induce +capitalists to assist inventors in the prosecution of costly +experiments; and it is on this account that the protection of +inventions by patent is a public advantage. The members of our +profession, unlike some others, have not been eager to apply for +patents in the case of minor inventions; on the contrary, they have +freely communicated to each other the experience as to improvement in +detail which have resulted from their daily practice. It has been well +said that all the world is wiser than any one man in it, and this free +interchange of our various experiences has tended greatly to the +advancement of our trade. But new departures, like the great invention +of Sir H. Bessemer, and important improvements like the basic process, +require the protection of patents for their development.</p> + +<h3>THE PATENT LAWS.</h3> + +<p>The subject of the patent laws is, therefore, of interest to us, as it +is to other manufacturers. You are aware that the Government has +introduced a bill for amending these laws. If that bill should pass, +it will effect several important changes. It will, in the first place, +enable a poor man to obtain protection for an invention at a small +cost; secondly, it will make it more difficult than at present for a +merely pretended invention to obtain the protection and prestige of a +patent; thirdly, it will promote the amalgamation of mutually +interdependent inventions by the clause which compels patentees to +grant licenses; and, lastly, it will enable the Government to enter +into treaties with other powers for the international protection of +inventions. If you should be of opinion that these are objects +deserving of your support, I hope that you will induce your +representatives in the House of Commons to do all that is in their +power to assist the Government in passing them into law.</p> + +<h3>GROWTH OF THE SIEMENS-MARTIN PROCESS.</h3> + +<p>The growth of the open hearth or what is known as the Siemens-Martin +process of making steel, during the interval from 1869 to the present +time, has been no less remarkable than that of the Bessemer process; +for though it has not attained the enormous dimensions of the latter, +it has risen from smaller beginnings. Mr. Ramsbottom started a small +open-hearth plant at the Crewe Works of the London and North-Western +Railway, in 1868, for making railway tires, and the Landore Works were +begun by Sir W. Siemens in the same year. On the Continent there were +a few furnaces at the works of M. Emile Martin, at the Firming Works, +and at Le Creuzot. None of these works, I believe, possessed furnaces +before 1870, capable of containing more than four-ton charges, +ordinarily worked off twice in twenty-four hours. The ingots weighed +about 6 cwt., and the largest steel casting made by this process, of +which I can find any account, did not exceed 10 cwt. At the present +day, we have furnaces of a capacity of from 15 to 25 tons, and by +combining several furnaces, single ingots weighing from 120 to 125 +tons have been produced at Le Creuzot. The world's production of +open-hearth steel ingots for ship and boiler plates, propeller shafts, +ordnance, wheels and axles, wire billets, armor plates, castings of +various kinds, and a multiplicity of other articles, cannot have been +less than from 800,000 to 850,000 tons in 1882.</p> + +<p>The process itself has followed two somewhat dissimilar lines. In this +country, iron ores of a pure quality are dissolved in a bath of pig +iron, with the addition of only small quantities of scrap steel and +iron. At Le Creuzot large <a name="Page_6185" id="Page_6185"></a>quantities of wrought iron are melted in +the bath. This iron is puddled in modified rotating Danks furnaces +containing a charge of a ton each. The furnaces have a mid-rib +dividing the product into two balls of 10 cwt., which are shingled +under a 10-ton hammer. The iron is of exceptional purity, containing +less than 0.01 per cent. of phosphorus and sulphur. I should add that +the two rotating furnaces produce 50 tons of billets in twenty-four +hours.</p> + +<h3>PRESENT PRODUCTION OF WROUGHT IRON.</h3> + +<p>Meanwhile, the world's production of wrought iron has not been +stationary. I cannot give very accurate figures, as the statistics of +some countries are incomplete, while in others the output of puddled +bar only, and not that of finished iron, has been ascertained. The +nearest estimate which I can arrive at is a production increased from +about 5,000,000 tons in 1869 to somewhat over 8,000,000 tons of +finished iron in 1882; an increase all the more remarkable when it is +considered that at the present time iron rails have been almost +entirely superseded by steel. It is due, no doubt, in part to the +extensive use of iron plates and angles in shipbuilding; but, apart +from these, and from bars for the manufacture of tin-plates, the +consumption has increased for the numberless purposes to which it is +applied in the world's economy.</p> + +<h3>PROGRESS OF PUDDLING.</h3> + +<p>There has been no striking improvement in the manufacture of puddled +iron, partly on account of the impression that it is doomed to be +superseded by steel. Mechanical puddling has made but little progress, +and few of the attempts to economize fuel in the puddling furnace, by +the use of gas or otherwise, have been successful. I would, however, +draw attention to the remarkable success which has attended the use of +the Bicheroux gas puddling and heating furnaces at the works of +Ougrée, near Liege. The works produce 20,000 tons of puddled bars per +annum, in fifteen double furnaces. The consumption of coal per ton of +ordinary puddled bar is under 11 cwt., and per ton of "fer à fin +grain" (puddled steel, etc.) 16 cwt. The gas is produced from slack, +and the waste heat raises as much steam as that from an ordinary +double furnace. The consumption of pig iron per ton of puddled bar was +rather less than 21½ cwts. for the year 1882; and that of "mine" for +fettling was 33 lb. The repairs are said to be considerably less than +in the ordinary furnaces, and the puddlers earn from 25 to 30 per +cent. more at the same tonnage rate. I have already mentioned the +large consumption, reckoned in tons of pig iron, of the materials for +shipbuilding.</p> + +<h3>GROSS OF IRON AND STEEL SHIP BUILDING.</h3> + +<p>It may be useful to add that the gross tonnage of iron vessels classed +during 1882 by the three societies of Lloyd's, the Liverpool Registry, +and the Bureau Veritas was 1,142,000, and of steel 143,000 tons, and +that the proportion of steel to iron vessels is increasing from year +to year. I am informed by our colleague, Mr. Pearce, of Messrs. +Elder's firm, that the largest vessel built by them in 1869 was an +iron steamer, of 3,063 tons gross, with compound engines of 3,000 +horse power, working at 60 lb. pressure; speed, 14 knots.</p> + +<h3>A GIGANTIC STEAMER.</h3> + +<p>The largest vessel now on the ways is the Oregon, of 7,400 tons gross, +and 13,000 horse power; estimated speed, 18 knots. The superficial +area of the largest plates in the former was 22½ square feet; that of +the largest plate in the latter is 206 square feet. The Oregon is an +iron vessel, but some of the largest vessels now being built by Mr. +Pearce's firm are of steel.</p> + +<p>The information which I have obtained from Messrs. Thomson, of +Glasgow, is especially emphatic as to the supersession of iron by +steel in the construction of ships. They say that large steel plates +are as cheap as iron ones, and that they have never had one bad plate +or angle in steel. This is confirmed by Mr. Denny, who says: "Whenever +our shipwrights or smiths have to turn out anything particularly +difficult in shape, and on which much 'work' has to be put, they will +get hold of a piece of steel if they can."</p> + +<h3>REMARKABLE MACHINERY AND TOOLS.</h3> + +<p>It will be readily understood that the rolls, the hammers, the +machinery for punching, drilling, planing, etc., used in the +manufacture and preparation of plates and angles for shipbuilding and +armor plates are on a scale far different at the present date from +what they were in 1869. Perhaps the most striking examples of powerful +machinery for these purposes are the great Creuzot hammer, the falling +mass of which has recently been increased to 100 tons, and the new +planing machines at the Cyclops Works, which weigh upward of 140 tons +each, for planing compound armor plates 19 in. thick and weighing 57 +tons.</p> + +<h3>THE FUTURE OF IRON AND STEEL.</h3> + +<p>Some of the eminent men who have preceded me in this chair have made +their inaugural address the occasion for a forecast of the +improvements in practice and the developments in area of the great +industry in which we are engaged. Several of these forecasts have been +verified by the results; in other cases they have proved to be +mistaken; nor need this excite surprise. I believe that few would have +predicted, when the consideration of the subject was somewhat +unfortunately deferred through want of time at our Paris meeting of +1878, that the basic process would so speedily prove itself to be of +such paramount value as we now know it to possess. On the other hand, +the extinction of the old puddling process has long been the favorite +topic of one of our most practical ex-presidents, and I have shown you +by figures that the process is not only not yet dead, but that the +manufacture of wrought iron is actually flourishing side by side with +that of its younger brother, steel. How much longer this may continue +to be the case it would not be easy to foretell, but there can be +little doubt that, just as for rails steel has superseded iron as +being cheaper and vastly more durable, so it will be in regard to +plates for constructive purposes, and especially for shipbuilding. It +is now an ascertained fact that steel ships are as cheap, ton for ton +of carrying capacity, as iron ones, and it is probable that as the +demand for, and consequently the production of, steel plates +increases, steel ships will become cheaper than those built of iron; +but, what is more important, they have been proved to be safer, and no +time can long elapse before this will tell on the premiums of +insurance. Steel forgings also are superseding, and must to an +increasing extent, supersede iron; while it is probable that the +former will in their turn be replaced for many purposes by the +beautiful solid steel castings which are now being produced by the +Terre-Noire Company in France, the Steel Company of Scotland, and +other manufacturers, by the Siemens-Martin process. On this subject I +believe Mr. Parker can give us valuable information; and on a cognate +branch, namely, the production of steel castings from the Bessemer +converter, an interesting paper will be submitted to us by Mr. Allen +at our present meeting.</p> + +<p>I may here mention incidentally, that I have of late had occasion to +make trials on a considerable scale of edge tools made from Bessemer +steel, which show that, except perhaps in the case of the finest +cutlery, there is no longer any occasion to resort to the crucible for +the production of this quality of steel.</p> + +<h3>RAILWAY DEMAND FOR IRON AND STEEL.</h3> + +<p>But it is in the further development of the world's railways that we +must mainly look in the future, as in the past, for the support of our +trade. In India the railway between Calcutta and Bombay was only +completed in 1870, and at the present time, with a population of +250,000,000, it has less than 10,000 miles of railway, while the +United States, with only 50,000,000, possesses more than 100,000 +miles. In other words, the United States have fifty times as many +miles of railway in relation to the population as India. Even Russia +in Europe has 14,000 miles, or, in relation to its population, nearly +five times as great a mileage as our Indian Empire; and the existing +Indian railways are so successful pecuniarily, and give such promise +of contributing to the wealth of the Indian people—or perhaps it +would be more just to say, of rescuing them from their present state +of poverty and depression—that it should be the aim of those who are +responsible for the well-being of our great dependency to give to its +railways the utmost and most rapid development.</p> + +<p>As to the United States themselves, I look upon their railways as a +little more than the main arteries from which an indefinitely large +circulating system will branch out. Besides these countries I need +only allude to the Dominion of Canada, whose vast territory bids fair +to rival that of the United States in agricultural importance, to our +Australian colonies, to Brazil, and other countries in which railways +are still comparatively in their infancy, to show that, quite apart +from the renewal of existing lines, the world's manufacture of rails +has an enormous future before it.</p> + +<h3>RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN.</h3> + +<p>I look on the excellent feeling which happily prevails between the +employers and the workmen in our great industry as another of the most +important elements of its future prosperity. It confers honor on all +concerned that by our Boards of Conciliation and Arbitration, ruinous +strikes, and even momentary suspensions of labor, are avoided; and +still more that masters like our esteemed Treasurer, Mr. David Dale, +should deserve, and that large bodies of workmen should have the +manliness and discernment to bestow on him, the confidence implied in +choosing him so frequently as an arbitrator. I believe that similar +friendly relations exist in some, at any rate, of the other great +centers of the iron and steel industries, and that although our +methods may not be adapted to the habits of all, there is no country +in which some way does not exist, or may not be found, to avoid those +contests which were so fatal to our prosperity in former days. Lastly +I regard as one of the most hopeful signs of the future the increased +estimate of the value of science entertained by our practical men. In +this respect we may claim with pride that the Iron and Steel Institute +has been the pioneer, at any rate, so far as this country is +concerned. But the conviction that the elements of science should be +placed within the reach of those who occupy a humbler position in the +industrial hierarchy than we do who are assembled here is rapidly +spreading among us. The iron manufacturers of Westphalia have been the +first to found an institution in which the intelligent and ambitious +ironworker can qualify himself by study for a higher position, and I +hope when this Institute visits Middlesbrough in the autumn, some +progress will have been made in that locality toward the establishment +of a similar school. Other districts will doubtless follow, and the +result will be, to quote the words of Sir W. Siemens on a late +occasion, that "by the dissemination of science a higher spirit will +take possession of our artisans; that they will work with the object +of obtaining higher results, instead of only discussing questions of +wages." It is on the mutual co-operation in this spirit of all the +workers of every grade in our great craft that we may build the +hope—nay, that we may even cherish the certain expectation—of +placing it on even a higher eminence than that which it has already +attained.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>THE "SWALLOW," A NEW VEHICLE.</h2> + +<p>The graceful vehicle shown in the accompanying cut is much used in +Poland and Russia, and we believe that it has already made its +appearance at Paris. The builder is Mr. Henri Barycki, of Warsaw, who +has very skillfully utilized a few very curious mechanical principles +in it.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/3a.png"><img src="./images/3a_th.png" alt="THE SWALLOW." /></a><br />THE SWALLOW.</p> + +<p>The driver's seat is fixed in the interior of a wide ring to which are +fastened the shafts. This ring revolves, by the aid of three pulleys +or small wheels, within the large ring resting on the ground. It will +be seen that when the horse is drawing the vehicle, the friction of +this large wheel against the ground being greater than that of the +concentric one within it, the latter will revolve until the center of +gravity of the whole is situated anew in a line vertical to the point +at which it bears on the ground. The result of such an arrangement is +that the driver rolls on the large wheel just as he would do on the +surface of an endless rail. As may be conceived, the tractive stress +is, as a consequence, considerably diminished.</p> + +<p>There are two side wheels which are connected by a flexible axle to +the seat of the carriage, but these have no other purpose than that of +preventing the affair from turning to one side or the other.</p> + +<p>The "swallow," for so it is named, is made entirely of steel and +wrought iron. It is very easily kept clean; the horse can be harnessed +to it in three minutes; and, aside from its uses for pleasure, it is +capable of being utilized in numerous ways.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<p>[Our excellent contemporary, <i>La Nature</i>, is mistaken in its account +of the above vehicle. It is an American invention and was first +published, with engraving, in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, December 16, +1882.]</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>BORING AN OIL WELL.</h2> + +<h3>HOW THE HOLE WAS MADE AND THE OIL BROUGHT UP.</h3> + +<p>A letter from Bradford, Pa., says: The machinery used in boring one of +these deep oil wells, while simple enough in itself, requires nice +adjustment and skill in operating. First comes the derrick, sixty feet +high, crowned by a massive pulley.</p> + +<p>The derrick is a most essential part of the mechanism, and its shape +and height are needed in handling the long rods, piping, casting, and +other fittings which have to be inserted perpendicularly. The borer or +drill used is not much different from the ordinary hand arm of the +stone cutters, and the blade is exactly the same, but is of massive +size, three or four inches across, about four feet long, and weighing +100 or 200 pounds. A long solid rod, some thirty feet long, three +inches in diameter, and called the "stem," is screwed on the drill. +This stem weighs almost a ton, and its weight is the hammer relied on +for driving the drill through dirt and rock. Next come the "jars," two +long loose links of hardened iron playing along each other about a +foot.</p> + +<p>The object of the jars is to raise the drill with a shock, so as to +detach it when so tightly fixed that a steady pull would break the +machinery. The upper part of the two jars is solidly welded to another +long rod called the sinker bar, to the upper end of which, in turn, is +attached the rope leading up to the derrick pulley, and thence to a +stationary steam engine. In boring, the stem and drill are raised a +foot or two, dropped, then raised with a shock by the jars, and the +operation repeated.</p> + +<p>If I may hazard a further illustration of the internal boring +machinery of the well, let the reader link loosely together the thumbs +and forefingers of his two hands, then bring his forearms into a +straight line. Conceiving this line to be a perpendicular one, the +point of one elbow would represent the drill blade, the adjacent +forearm and hand the stem, the linked finger the jars, and the other +hand and forearm the sinker bar, with the derrick cord attached at a +point represented by the second elbow. By remembering the immense and +concentrated weight of the upright drill and stem, the tremendous +force of even a short fall may be conceived. The drill will bore many +feet in a single day through solid rock, and a few hours sometimes +suffices to force it fifty feet through dirt or gravel. When the +debris accumulates too thickly around the drill, the latter is drawn +up rapidly. The debris has previously been reduced to mud by keeping +the drill surrounded by water. A sand pump, not unlike an ordinary +<a name="Page_6186" id="Page_6186"></a>syringe, is then let down, the mud sucked up, lifted, and then the +drill sent down to begin its pounding anew. Great deftness and +experience are needed to work the drill without breaking the jars or +connected machinery, and, in case of accident, there are grapples, +hooks, knives, and other devices without number, to be used in +recovering lost drills, cutting the rope, and other emergencies, the +briefest explanation of which would exceed the limits of this letter.</p> + +<p>The exciting moment in boring a well is when a drill is penetrating +the upper covering of sand rock which overlies the oil. The force with +which the compressed gas and petroleum rushes upward almost surpasses +belief. Drill, jars, and sinker bar are sometimes shot out along with +debris, oil, and hissing gas. Sometimes this gas and oil take fire, +and last summer one of the wells thus ignited burned so fiercely that +a number of days elapsed before the flames could be extinguished. More +often the tankage provided is insufficient, and thousands of barrels +escape. Two or three years ago, at the height of the oil production of +the Bradford region, 8,000 barrels a day were thus running to waste. +But those halcyon days of Bradford have gone forever. Although +nineteen-twentieths of the wells sunk in this region "struck" oil and +flowed freely, most of them now flow sluggishly or have to be "pumped" +two or three times a week.</p> + +<p>"Piping" and "casing," terms substantially identical, and meaning the +lining of the well with iron pipe several inches in the interior +diameter, complete the labor of boring. The well, if a good flowing +one, does all the rest of the work itself, forcing the fluid into the +local tanks, whence it is distributed into the tanks of the pipe-line +companies, and is carried from them to the refineries. The pipe lines +now reach from the oil regions to the seaboard, carrying the petroleum +over hill and valley, hundreds of miles to tide-water.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>A CEMENT RESERVOIR.</h2> + +<p>The annexed figures represent, on a scale of 1 to 50, a plan and +vertical section of a reservoir of beton, 11 cubic meters in capacity, +designed for the storage of drinking water and for collecting the +overflow of a canal. The volume of beton employed in its construction +was 0.9 cubic meter per cubic meter of water to be stored. The inner +walls were covered with a layer of cement to insure of tightness.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/4a.png" alt="A CEMENT RESERVOIR." /><br />A CEMENT RESERVOIR.</p> + +<p>T is the inlet pipe, with a diameter of 0.08 m.</p> + +<p>T' is the distributing pipe, and T" is the waste pipe.—<i>Annales des +Travaux Publics</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS AND COLORS.</h2> + +<p>The grinding of the inks and colors that are employed in lithographing +is a long and delicate operation, which it has scarcely been possible +up to the present time to perform satisfactorily otherwise than by +hand, because of the perfect mixture that it is necessary to obtain in +the materials employed.</p> + +<p>Per contra, this manual work, while it has the advantage of giving a +very homogeneous product, offers the inconvenience of taking a long +time and being costly. The Alauzet machine, shown in the accompanying +cut, is designed to perform this work mechanically.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4c.png"><img src="./images/4c_th.png" alt="ALAUZET'S MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS." /></a><br />ALAUZET'S MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists of a flat, cast iron, rectangular frame, +resting upon a wooden base which forms a closet. In a longitudinal +direction there is mounted on the machine a rectangular guide, along +which travel two iron slides in the shape of a reversed U, which make +part of two smaller carriers that are loaded with weights, and to +which are fixed cast-steel mullers.</p> + +<p>At the center of the frame there is fixed a support which carries a +train of gear wheels which is set in motion by a pulley and belt. +These wheels serve to communicate a backward and forward motion, +longitudinally, to the mullers through the intermedium of a winch, and +a backward and forward motion transversely to two granite tables on +which is placed the ink or color to be ground. This last-named motion +is effected by means of a bevel pinion which is keyed to the same axle +as the large gear wheel, and which actuates a heart wheel—this latter +being adjusted in a horizontal frame which is itself connected to the +cast iron plate into which the tables are set.</p> + +<p>This machine, which is 2 meters in length by 1 meter in width, +requires a one-third horse power to actuate it. It weighs altogether +about 800 kilogrammes.—<i>Annales Industrielles.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>A NEW EVAPORATING APPARATUS.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the <i>Société Industrielle</i> of Elbeuf, Mr. L. +Quidet described an apparatus that he had, with the aid of Mr. Perré, +invented for evaporating juices.</p> + +<p>In this new apparatus a happy application is made of those pipes with +radiating disks that have for some time been advantageously employed +for heating purposes. In addition to this it is so constructed as to +give the best of results as regards evaporation, thanks to the lengthy +travel that the current of steam makes in it.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src="./images/4b_th.png" alt="PERRE & QUIDET'S EVAPORATING APPARATUS." /></a><br />PERRE & QUIDET'S EVAPORATING APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>It may be seen from an examination of the annexed cuts, the apparatus +consists essentially of a cylindrical reservoir, in the interior of +which revolves a system formed of seven pipes, with radiating disks, +affixed to plate iron disks, EE. The reservoir is mounted upon a +cast-iron frame, and is provided at its lower part with a cock, B, +which permits of the liquid being drawn off when it has been +sufficiently concentrated. It is surmounted with a cover, which is +bolted to lateral flanges, so that the two parts as a whole constitute +a complete cylinder. This shape, however, is not essential, and the +inventors reserve the right of giving it the arrangement that may be +best adapted to the application that is to be made of it.</p> + +<p>In the center of the apparatus there is a conduit whose diameter is +greater than that of the pipes provided with radiators, and which +serves to cross-brace the two ends, EE, which latter consist of iron +boxes cast in a piece with the hollow shaft of the rotary system.</p> + +<p>The steam enters through the pipe, F, traverses the first evaporating +pipe, then the second, then the third, and so on, and continues to +circulate in this manner till it finally reaches the last one, which +communicates with the exit, G.</p> + +<p>Motion is transmitted to the evaporator by a gearing, H, which is +keyed on the shaft, and is actuated by a pinion, L, connected with an +intermediate shaft which is provided with fast and loose pulleys.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is very efficient in its action, and this is due, in the +first place, to the use of radiators, which greatly increase the +heating surface, and second, to the motion communicated to the +evaporating parts. In fact, each of the pipes, on issuing from the +liquid to be concentrated, carries upon its entire surface a pellicle +which evaporates immediately.</p> + +<p>The arrangement devised by Messrs. Perré and Quidet realizes, then, +the best theoretic conditions for this sort of work, to wit:</p> + +<p>/l + 1. A large evaporating surface. + 2. A very slight thickness of liquid. + 3. A constant temperature of about from 100° to 120°, according + to the internal pressure of the steam. +l/</p> + +<p>Owing to such advantages, this apparatus will find an application in +numerous industries, and will render them many services.—<i>Revue +Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>"FLYING."</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American:</i></p> + +<p>Your correspondent on this subject in the issue of April 14 cites an +array of facts from which it would seem the proper conclusions should +be inferred. I think the whole difficulty arises from a confusion of +terms, and by this I mean a want of care to explain the unknown +strictly in terms of the known; and I think underlying this error is a +misconception as to what an animal is, and what animal strength is, +only of course with reference to this particular discussion, <i>i.e.</i>, +in so far only as they may be considered physical organisms having no +reference to the intellectual or moral development, all of which lies +beyond the sphere of our discussion.</p> + +<p>Purely with reference to the development of physical strength, which +alone is under consideration, any animal organism whatsoever must be +considered simply in the light of a machine.</p> + +<p>A compound machine having two parts, first an arrangement of levers +and points of application of power, all of which is purely mechanical, +together with an arrangement of parts, designed, first, to convert +fuel or food into heat, and, secondly, to transform heat into force, +which is purely a chemical change in the first instance, and a +transformation of energy in the second. So much for the animal—man or +beast—as a machine physically considered.</p> + +<p>What then is animal strength considered in the same light? The animal +is not creative. It can make nothing—it can only transform. Does it +create any strength or force? No. The strength it puts forth or exerts +is merely the outcome of this transformation, which it is the office +of the machine to perform.</p> + +<p>What do we find transformed? Simply the energy, or potential, +contained in the fuel or food we put into the machine. Its exact +equivalent we find transformed to another <a name="Page_6187" id="Page_6187"></a>form of energy, known as +animal strength, which is simply heat within the system available for +the working of its mechanical parts. How, then, is this energy which +exists in the shape of animal strength used and distributed? This is +the question the answer of which underlies this whole discussion as a +principle. It is distributed to the different parts of the machine in +proportion to the relative amount of physical work that nature has +made it the office of any particular part to perform.</p> + +<p>Let us see how it is with the bird machine. In course of flight he is +called upon to remain in the air, which means that should he cease to +make an effort to do this, <i>i.e.</i>, should he cease to expend energy in +doing it, he would fall during the first second of time after ceasing +to make the effort some sixteen feet toward the center of the earth. +But he remains in the air for hours and days at a time. What is he, +then, doing every second of that time? He is overcoming the force of +gravitation, which is incessantly pulling him down. That is, every +second he is doing an amount of work equal to his weight—say 10 lb. +multiplied by 16—say 160 lb. approximately; all this by beating the +air with his wings. Now let us institute a slight comparison—and the +work shall be performed by a man, who climbs a mountain 10,000 feet +high in 10 hours. The man weighs 150 lb.; he climbs 10,000 feet; +1,500,000 foot pounds is, then, the work done. He does it in 10 hours, +or 36,000 seconds, which gives an amount of work of only 42 foot +pounds per second performed by his muscles of locomotion.</p> + +<p>At the end of the ten hours the man is exhausted, while the bird +delights in further flight. To what is this difference of condition +due? <i>It is due simply to the difference in the machine;</i> but this, +you say, is not explaining the unknown in terms of the known. Let us +see, then, if we cannot do this. In the two accounts of work done as +above cited in the case of the man and the bird, an amount of energy, +<i>i.e.</i>, heat of the system, has been expended just proportional to the +work done.</p> + +<p>Now while the bird has expended more energy in this particular work of +locomotion than has the man, we find the bird machine has done little +else; he has consumed but little of his available heat force in +exercising his brain or the other functions of his system, or in +preserving the temperature of the body, and but little of his animal +heat, which is his strength, has been radiated into space. In short, +we find the bird machine so devised by nature that a very large +proportion of the available energy of the system can be used in +working those parts contrived for locomotion, and resist the force of +gravity, or, what is the same thing, nature has placed a greater +relative portion of the whole furnace at the disposal of these parts +than she has in man. The breast muscles of the bird are so constructed +as to burn a far greater proportional amount of the fuel from which +all energy is derived than do the muscles of the rest of the body +combined.</p> + +<p>Let us see how it is with the man who has climbed the mountain. In +this machine we find affairs in a very different state. During his +climbing he has been doing a vast amount of other work, both internal +and external. His arms, his whole muscular system, in fact, has been +vigorously at work, all drawing upon his total available energy. His +brain has been in constant and unremitted action, as well as the other +internal organs, which require a greater proportional amount of energy +than they did in the bird. Besides this, he has been radiating his +animal heat into space in a far greater amount. All these parts must +be supplied; they cannot be neglected while the accumulated surplus is +given to the machinery for locomotion or lifting. This then is what +constitutes what I call the difference in the machine, which is purely +one of organic development depending upon the functions nature has +determined that the different organs shall perform. As for the +pterodactyl quoted in the last article, I have only to remark that +this discussion arose purely from a consideration of what was the best +type of flying apparatus nature had given man to study, and I claim +that this prehistoric bird of geology does not come within this class. +For if it is not fully established that this species had become +extinct long before the appearance of man on the globe, it is at least +certain that the man of that early day had not dreamt of flying and +was presumably content if he could find other means to evade the +pterodactyl's claw.</p> + +<p class="signature">F.J.P., U.S. Army.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>THE PORTRUSH ELECTRIC RAILWAY, IRELAND.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By DR. EDWARD HOPKINSON.</h3> + +<p>In the summer of 1881, Mr. W.A. Traill, late of H.M. Geological +Survey, suggested to Dr. Siemens that the line between Portrush and +Bushmills, for which Parliamentary powers had been obtained, would be +suitable in many respects for electrical working, especially as there +was abundant water power available in the neighborhood. Dr. Siemens at +once joined in the undertaking, which has been carried out under his +direction. The line extends from Portrush, the terminus of the Belfast +and Northern Counties Railway, to Bushmills in the Bush valley, a +distance of six miles. For about half a mile the line passes down the +principal street of Portrush, and has an extension along the Northern +Counties Railway to the harbor. For the rest of the distance, the +rails are laid on the sea side of the county road, and the head of the +rails being level with the ground, a footpath is formed the whole +distance, separated from the road by a curbstone. The line is single, +and has a gauge of three feet, the standard of the existing narrow +gauge lines in Ulster. The gradients are exceedingly heavy, as will be +seen from the diagram, being in parts as steep as 1 in 35. The curves +are also in many cases very sharp, having necessarily to follow the +existing road. There are five passing places, in addition to the +sidings at the termini and at the carriage depot. At the Bushmills +end, the line is laid for about 200 yards along the street, and ends +in the marketplace of the town. It is intended to connect it with an +electrical railway from Dervock, for which Parliamentary powers have +already been obtained, thus completing the connection with the narrow +gauge system from Ballymena to Larne and Cushendall. About 1,500 yards +from the end of the line, there is a waterfall on the river Bush, with +an available head of 24 feet, and an abundant supply of water at all +seasons of the year. Turbines are now being erected, and the necessary +works executed for employing the fall for working the generating +dynamo machines, and the current will be conveyed by means of an +underground cable to the end of the line. Of the application of the +water power it is unnecessary to speak further, as the works are not +yet completed. For the present, the line is worked by a small +steam-engine placed at the carriage depot at the Portrush end. The +whole of the constructive works have been designed and carried out by +Mr. Traill, assisted by Mr. E.B. Price.</p> + +<p>The system employed may be described as that of the separate +conductor. A rail of T-iron, weighing 19 pounds to the yard, is +carried on wooden posts, boiled in pitch, and placed ten feet apart, +at a distance of 22 inches from the inside rail and 17 inches above +the ground. This rail comes close up against the fence on the side of +the road, thus forming an additional protection. The conductor is +connected by an underground cable to a single shunt-wound dynamo +machine, placed in the engine shed, and worked by a small agricultural +steam engine of about 25 indicated horse power. The current is +conveyed from the conductor by means of two springs, made of steel, +rigidly held by two steel bars placed one at each end of the car, and +projecting about six inches from the side. Since the conducting rail +is iron, while the brushes are steel, the wear of the latter is +exceedingly small. In dry weather they require the rail to be slightly +lubricated; in wet weather the water on the surface of the iron +provides all the lubrication required. The double brushes, placed at +the extremities of the car, enable it to bridge over the numerous +gaps, which necessarily interrupt the conductor to allow cart ways +into the fields and commons adjoining the shore. On the diagram the +car is shown passing one of these gaps: the front brush has broken +contact, but since the back brush is still touching the rail, the +current has not been broken. Before the back brush leaves the +conductor, the front brush will have again risen upon it, so that the +current is never interrupted. There are two or three gaps too broad to +be bridged in this way. In these cases the driver will break the +current before reaching the gap, the momentum of the car carrying it +the 10 or 12 yards it must travel without power.</p> + +<p>The current is conveyed under the gaps by means of an insulated copper +cable carried in wrought-iron pipes, placed at a depth of 18 inches. +At the passing places, which are situated on inclines, the conductor +takes the inside, and the car ascending the hill also runs on the +inside, while the car descending the hill proceeds by gravity on the +outside lines.</p> + +<p>From the brushes the current is taken to a commutator worked by a +lever, which switches resistance frames placed under the car, in or +out, as may be desired. The same lever alters the position of the +brushes on the commutator of the dynamo machine, reversing the +direction of rotation, in the manner shown by the electrical hoist. +The current is not, as it were, turned full on suddenly, but passes +through the resistances, which are afterward cut out in part or +altogether, according as the driver desires to run at part speed or +full speed.</p> + +<p>From the dynamo the current is conveyed through the axle boxes to the +axles, thence to the tires of the wheels, and finally back by the +rails, which are uninsulated, to the generating machine. The conductor +is laid in lengths of about 21 feet, the lengths being connected by +fish plates and also by a double copper loop securely soldered to the +iron. It is also necessary that the rails of the permanent way should +be connected in a similar manner, as the ordinary fish plates give a +very uncertain electrical contact, and the earth for large currents is +altogether untrustworthy as a conductor, though no doubt materially +reducing the total resistance of the circuit.</p> + +<p>The dynamo is placed in the center of the car, beneath the floor, and +through intermediate spur gear drives by a steel chain on to one axle +only. The reversing levers, and also the levers working the mechanical +brakes, are connected to both ends of the car, so that the driver can +always stand at the front and have uninterrupted view of the rails, +which is of course essential in the case of a line laid by the side of +the public road.</p> + +<p>The cars are first and third class, some open and some covered, and +are constructed to hold twenty people, exclusive of the driver. At +present, only one is fitted with a dynamo, but four more machines are +now being constructed by Messrs. Siemens Bros., so that before the +beginning of the heavy summer traffic five cars will be ready; and +since two of these will be fitted with machines capable of drawing a +second car, there will be an available rolling stock of seven cars. It +is not intended at present to work electrically the portion of the +line in the town at Portrush, though this will probably be done +hereafter; and a portion, at least, of the mineral traffic will be +left for the two steam-tramway engines which were obtained for the +temporary working of the line pending the completion of the electrical +arrangements.</p> + +<p>Let us now put in a form suitable for calculation the principles with +which Mr. Siemens has illustrated in a graphic form more convenient +for the purposes of explanation, and then show how these principles +have been applied in the present case.</p> + +<p>Let L be the couple, measured in foot-pounds, which the dynamo must +exert in order to drive the car, and <i>w</i> the necessary angular +velocity. Taking the tare of the car as 50 cwt., including the weight +of the machinery it carries, and a load of twenty people as 30 cwt., +we have a gross weight of 4 tons. Assume that the maximum required is +that the car should carry this load at a speed of seven miles an hour, +on an incline of 1 in 40. The resistance due to gravity may be taken +as 56 lb. per ton, and the frictional resistance and that due to other +causes, say, 14 lb. per ton, giving a total resistance of 280 lb., at +a radius of 14 inches. The angular velocity of the axle corresponding +to a speed of seven miles an hour, is 84 revolutions per minute. Hence +L = 327 foot pounds, and <i>w</i> = (2π × 84) / 60.</p> + +<p>If the dynamo be wound directly on the axle, it must be designed to +exert the couple, L, corresponding to the maximum load, when revolving +at an angular velocity, w, the difference of potential between the +terminals being the available E.M.F. of the conductor, and the current +the maximum the armature will safely stand. This will be the case in +the Charing-cross Electrical Railway. But when the dynamo is connected +by intermediate gear to the driving wheels only, the product of L and +<i>w</i> remains constant, and the two factors may be varied. In the +present case L is diminished in the ratio of 7 to 1, and <i>w</i> +consequently increased in the same ratio. Hence the dynamo, with its +maximum load, must revolve at 588 revolutions per minute, and exert a +couple of forty-seven foot-pounds. Let E be the potential of the +conductor from which the current is drawn, measured in volts, C the +current in amperes, and E<sub>1</sub> the E.M.F. of the dynamo. Then E<sub>1</sub> is +proportional to the product of the angular velocity, and a certain +function of the current. For a velocity ω, let this function be +denoted by <i>f</i>(C). If the characteristic of the dynamo can be drawn, +then <i>f</i>(C) is known.</p> + +<p>We have then</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Equation"> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="right" /><col align="center" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" width="100px" /></colgroup> +<tr><td></td> +<td><i>w</i></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>E<sub>1</sub> = </td> +<td>————</td> +<td><i>f</i></td> +<td>(1.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td>Ω</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + + +<p>If R be the resistance in circuit by Ohm's law,</p> + + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Equation"> +<colgroup span="5"><col align="right" /><col span="2" align="center" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" width="100px" /></colgroup> +<tr><td></td> +<td>E - E<sub>1</sub></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>C =</td> +<td>————</td><td> </td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td>R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> +<td><i>w</i></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> =</td> +<td>E -</td><td>—</td><td><i>f</i>(C)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td></td><td>Ω</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td colspan="3">————————</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td colspan="3" align="center">R</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>and therefore</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Equation"> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="right" /><col align="center" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" width="100px" /></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td><td>Ω(E - CR)</td></tr> +<tr> +<td><i>w</i> = </td> +<td>————</td> +<td></td><td>(2.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><i>f</i>(C)</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Let <i>a</i> be the efficiency with which the motor transforms electrical +into mechanical energy, then—</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Equation"> +<colgroup span="5"><col align="right" /><col align="left" /><col align="center" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" width="100px" /></colgroup> +<tr> +<td>Power required = L <i>w</i> =</td><td><i>a</i> E<sub>1</sub>C</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td></td><td><i>w</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>=</td> +<td><i>a</i> C</td><td>—</td><td><i>f</i>(C)</td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td></td><td>Ω</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Dividing by <i>w</i>,</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Equation"> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="right" /><col align="center" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" width="100px" /></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td><td><i>a</i>C<i>f</i>(C)</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>L =</td> +<td>————.</td> +<td> </td><td>(3.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ω</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>It must be noted that L is here measured in electrical measure, or, +adopting the unit given by Dr. Siemens in the British Association +Address, in joules. One joule equals approximately 0.74 foot pound. +Equation 3 gives at once an analytical proof of the second principle +stated above, that for a given motor the current depends upon the +couple, and upon it alone. Equation 2 shows that with a given load the +speed depends upon E, the electromotive force of the main, and R the +resistance in circuit. It shows also the effect of putting into the +circuit the resistance frames placed beneath the car. If R be +increased, until CR is equal to E, then <i>w</i> vanishes, and the car +remains at rest. If R be still further increased, Ohm's law applies, +and the current diminishes. Hence suitable resistances are, first, a +high resistance for diminishing the current, and consequently, the +sparking at making and breaking of of the circuit; and, secondly, one +or more low resistances for varying the speed of the car. If the form +of <i>f</i>(C) be known, as is the case with a Siemens machine, equations 2 +and 3 can be completely solved for <i>w</i> and C, giving the current and +speed in terms of L, E, and R. The expressions so obtained are not +without interest, and agree with the results of experiment.</p> + +<p>It may be observed that an arc light presents the converse case to a +motor. The E.M.F. of the arc is approximately constant, whatever the +intensity of the current passing between the carbons; and the current +depends entirely on the resistance in circuit. Hence the instability +of an arc produced by machines of low internal resistance, unless +compensated by considerable resistance in the leads.</p> + +<p>The following experiment shows in a striking form the principles just +considered: An Edison lamp is placed in parallel circuit with a small +dynamo machine, used as a motor. The Prony brake on the pulley of the +dynamo is quite slack, allowing it to revolve freely. Now let the lamp +and dynamo be coupled to the generator running at full speed. First, +the lamp glows, in a moment it again becomes dark, then, as the dynamo +gets up speed, glows again. If the brake be screwed up tight, the lamp +once more becomes dark. The explanation is simple. Owing to the +coefficient of self-induction of the dynamo machine being +considerable, it takes a finite time for the current to obtain an +appreciable intensity, but the lamp having no self-induction, the +current at once passes through it, and causes it to glow. Secondly, +the electrical inertia of the dynamo being overcome, it must draw a +large current to produce the kinetic energy of rotation, <i>i.e.</i>, to +overcome its mechanical inertia; the lamp is therefore practically +short-circuited, and ceases to glow. When once the rotation has been +established, the current through the dynamo becomes very small, having +no work to do except to overcome the friction of the bearings, hence +the lamp again glows. Finally, by screwing up the brake, the current +through the dynamo is increased, and the lamp again short-circuited.</p> + +<p>It has often been pointed out that reversal of the motor on the car +would be a most effective brake. This is certainly true; but, at the +same time, it is a brake that should not be used except in cases of +emergency. For this reason, the dynamo revolving at a high speed, the +momentum of the current is very considerable; hence, owing to the +self-induction of the machine, a sudden reversal will tend to break +down the insulation at any weak point of the machine. The action is +analogous to the spark produced by a Ruhmkorff coil. This was +illustrated at Portrush; when the car was running perhaps fifteen +miles an hour, the current was suddenly reversed. The car came to a +standstill in little more than its own length, but at the expense of +breaking down the insulation of one of the wires of the magnet coils. +The way out of the difficulty is evidently at the moment of reversal +to insert a high resistance to diminish the momentum of the current.</p> + +<p>In determining the proper dimensions of a conductor for railway +purposes, Sir William Thomson's law should properly apply. But on a +line where the gradients and traffic are very irregular, it is +difficult to estimate the average current, and the desirability of +having the rail mechanically strong, and of such low resistance that +the potential shall not vary very materially throughout its length, +becomes more important than the economic considerations involved in +Sir William Thomson's law. At Portrush the resistance of a mile, +including the return by earth and the ground rails, is actually about +0.23 ohm. If calculated from the section of the iron, it would be 0.15 +ohm, the difference being accounted for by the resistance of the +copper loops, and occasional imperfect contacts. The E.M.F. at which +the conductor is maintained is about 225 volts, which is well within +the limit of perfect safety assigned by Sir William Thomson and Dr. +Siemens. At the same time the shock received by touching the iron is +sufficient to be unpleasant, and hence is some protection against the +conductor being tampered with.</p> + +<p>Consider a car requiring a given constant current; evidently the +maximum loss due to resistance will occur when the car is at the +middle point of the line, and will then be one-fourth of the total +resistance of the line, provided the two extremities are maintained by +the generators at the same potential. Again, by integration, the mean +resistance can be shown to be one-sixth of the resistance of the line. +Applying these figures, and assuming four cars are running, requiring +<a name="Page_6188" id="Page_6188"></a>4 horse power each, the loss due to resistance does not exceed 4 per +cent. of the power developed on the cars; or if one car only be +running, the loss is less than 1 per cent. But in actual practice at +Portrush even these estimates are too high, as the generators are +placed at the bottom of the hills, and the middle portion of the line +is more or less level, hence the minimum current is required when the +resistance is at its maximum value.</p> + +<p>The insulation of the conductor has been a matter of considerable +difficulty, chiefly on account of the moistness of the climate. An +insulation has now, however, been obtained of from 500 to 1,000 ohms +per mile, according to the state of the weather, by placing a cap of +insulite between the wooden posts and T-iron. Hence the total leakage +cannot exceed 2.5 amperes, representing a loss of three-fourths of a +horse power, or under 5 per cent, when four cars are running. But +apart from these figures, we have materials for an actual comparison +of the cost of working the line by electricity and steam. The steam +tramway engines, temporarily employed at Portrush, are made by Messrs. +Wilkinson, of Wigan, and are generally considered as satisfactory as +any of the various tramway engines. They have a pair of vertical +cylinders, 8 inches diameter and one foot stroke, and work at a boiler +pressure of 120 lb., the total weight of the engine being 7 tons. The +electrical car with which the comparison is made has a dynamo weighing +13 cwt., and the tare of the car is 52 cwt. The steam-engines are +capable of drawing a total load of about 12 tons up the hill, +excluding the weight of the engine; the dynamo over six tons, +including its own weight; hence, weight for weight, the dynamo will +draw five times as much as the steam-engine. Finally, compare the +following estimates of cost. From actual experience, the steam-engine, +taking an average over a week, costs—</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table summary="Cost Summary: Item, Cost" border="0" cellpadding="4" > +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="3" /></colgroup> +<tr><td></td><td>£</td><td>s.</td><td>d.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Driver's wages.</td><td>1</td><td>10</td><td>0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cleaner's wages.</td><td>0</td><td>12</td><td>0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coke, 58½ cwt. at 25s. per ton.</td><td>3</td><td>13</td><td>1½</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil, 1 gallon at 3s. 1d.</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tallow, 4 lb. at 6d.</td><td>0</td><td>2</td><td>0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Waste, 8 lb. at 2d.</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Depreciation, 15 per cent. on £750.</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>3</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">Total.</td><td>£8</td><td>4</td><td>9½</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The distance run was 312 miles. Also, from actual experience, the +electrical car, drawing a second behind it, and hence providing for +the same number of passengers, consumed 18 lb. of coke per mile run. +Hence, calculating the cost in the same way, for a distance run of 312 +miles in a week—</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table summary="Cost Summary: Item, Cost" border="0" cellpadding="4" > +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="3" /></colgroup> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td>£</td><td>s.</td><td>d.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wages of stoker of stationary engine.</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coke, 52 cwt. at 25s. per ton.</td><td></td><td>2</td><td>15</td><td>0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil, 1 gallon at 3s. 1d.</td><td></td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Waste, 4 lb. at 2d.</td><td></td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td>Depreciation on stationary engine, 10 per cent. on £300 11s. 6d.</td> +<td rowspan="2" style="font-size: xx-large">}</td><td rowspan="2">2</td><td rowspan="2">0</td><td rowspan="2">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Depreciation of electrical apparatus, 15 per cent. on £500, £1 8s. 10d.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="3">——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">Total.</td><td></td><td>£5</td><td>19</td><td>1</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>A saving of over 25 per cent.</p> + +<p>The total mileage run is very small, on account of the light traffic +early in the year. Heavier traffic will tell very much in favor of the +electric car, as the loss due to leakage will be a much smaller +proportion of the total power developed.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that the cost of the tramway engines is very much +in excess of what is usual on other lines, but this is entirely +accounted for by the high price of coke, and the exceedingly difficult +nature of the line to work, on account of the curves and gradients. +These causes send up the cost of electrical working in the same ratio, +hence the comparison is valid as between the steam and electricity, +but it would be unsafe to compare the cost of either with +horse-traction or wire-rope traction on other lines. The same fuel was +burnt in the stationary steam-engine and in the tramway engines, and +the same rolling stock used in both cases; but, otherwise, the +comparison was made under circumstances in favor of the tramway +engine, as the stationary steam-engine is by no means economical, +consuming at least 5 lb. of coke per horse-power hour, and the +experiments were made, in the case of the electrical car, over a +length of line three miles long, which included the worst hills and +curves, and one-half of the conductor was not provided with the +insulite caps, the leakage consequently being considerably larger than +it will be eventually.</p> + +<p>Finally, as regards the speed of the electrical car, it is capable of +running on the level at the rate of 12 miles per hour, but as the line +is technically a tramway, the Board of Trade Regulations do not allow +the speed to exceed 10 miles an hour.</p> + +<p>Taking these data as to cost, and remembering how this will be reduced +when the water power is made available, and remembering such +considerations as the freedom from smoke and steam, the diminished +wear and tear of the permanent way, and the advantage of having each +car independent, it may be said that there is a future for electrical +railways.</p> + +<p>We must not conclude without expressing our best thanks to Messrs. +Siemens Bros. for having kindly placed all this apparatus at our +disposal to-night, and allowing us to publish the results of +experiments made at their works.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>A paper recently read before the Society of Arts, +London.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>THE THOMSON-HOUSTON ELECTRIC LIGHTING SYSTEM.</h2> + +<p>The generator is known as the "Thomson spherical," on account of the +nearly spherical form of its armature, and differs radically from all +others in all essential portions, viz., its field magnets, armature, +and winding thereof, and in its commutator; both in principle and +construction, and, besides, it is provided with an automatic +regulator, an attachment not applied to other generators. The annexed +view of the complete machine will convey an idea of the general +appearance and disposition of its parts.</p> + +<p>The revolving armature which generates the electrical current is made +internally of a hollow shell of soft iron secured to the central +portion of the shaft between the bearings, and is wound externally +with a copper conducting wire, constituting three coils or helices +surrounding the armature, which coils are, however, permanently +joined, and in reality act as a single three-branched wire.</p> + +<p>This wire, being wound on the exterior of the armature, is fully +exposed to the powerful magnetic influence of the field poles, which +inclose the armature almost completely. The armature will thus be seen +to be thoroughly incased and protected, at the same time that all the +wire upon it is subject to a powerful action of the surrounding +magnets, resulting in an economy in the generation of current in its +coils. The form of the armature being spherical, very little power is +lost by air friction, and no injury can occur from increased speed +developing centrifugal force. The field magnets, which surround the +armature, are cast iron shells, wound outside with many convolutions +of insulated copper wire, and are joined externally by iron bars to +convey the magnetism. These outer bars serve also as a most efficient +protection to the wire and armature of the machine during +transportation or otherwise. Objects cannot fall upon or rest upon the +wire coils and injure them. The coils of wire upon the field magnets +surround not only the iron poles or shells, but are situated also so +as to surround likewise the revolving armature, and increase the +effect produced in it by direct induction and magnetism. This feature +is not used in any other generator, nor does any other make use of a +spherical armature. The shaft is mounted in babbitted bearings of +ample size, sustained by a handsome frame therefor, and is of steel, +finely turned and perfectly true. The shaft and armature together are +balanced with the utmost care, and run without buzz or rumble. The +armature wire is kept cool by an active circulation of air over its +whole surface during revolution. The commutator, or portion from which +the currents developed in the armature are carried out for use, is a +beautiful piece of mechanism. It is mounted upon the end of the shaft, +and has attached to it the wires, three only, coming from the armature +wire through the tubular shaft.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6a.png"><img src="./images/6a_th.png" alt="THE THOMSON SPHERICAL." /></a><br />THE THOMSON SPHERICAL.</p> + +<p>The commutator is peculiar, consisting of only three segments of a +copper ring, while in the simplest of other continuous current +generators several times that number exist, and frequently 120! +segments are to be found. These three segments are made so as to be +removable in a moment for cleaning or replacement. They are mounted +upon a metal support, and are surrounded on all sides by a free air +space, and cannot, therefore, lose their insulated condition. This +feature of air insulation is peculiar to this system, and is very +important as a factor in the durability of the commutator. Besides +this, the commutator is sustained by supports carried in flanges upon +the shaft, which flanges, as an additional safeguard, are coated all +over with hard rubber, one of the finest known insulators. It may be +stated, without fear of contradiction, that no other commutator made +is so thoroughly insulated and protected. The three commutator +segments virtually constitute a single copper ring, mounted in free +air, and cut into three equal pieces by slots across its face. Four +slit copper springs, called commutator brushes or collectors, are +allowed to bear lightly upon the commutator when it revolves, and +serve to take up the current and convey it to the circuit. These +commutator brushes are carried by movable supports, and their position +is automatically regulated so as to control the strength of the +developed current—a feature not found in other systems. This feature, +as well as the fact that the commutator can be oiled to prevent wear, +saves attendance and greatly increases the durability of the wearing +surfaces, while the commutator brushes are maintained in the position +of best adjustment. The commutator and brushes, in consequence, after +weeks of running, show scarcely any wear.</p> + +<h3>THE AUTOMATIC CURRENT REGULATOR.</h3> + +<p>This consists of a peculiar magnet attached to the frame of the +generator, and the movable armature of which has connections to the +supports of the commutator brushes for controlling their position. The +regulator magnet is so formed as to give a uniform attraction upon +its armature in different positions. In Thomson's improved form this +is accomplished in a novel manner by making the pole of the magnet +paraboloidal in form, and making an opening in the movable armature to +encircle said pole.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/6b.png" alt="THE CURRENT REGULATOR" /><br />THE CURRENT REGULATOR</p> + +<p>The armature is hung on pivots so as to be free to move only toward +and from the regulating magnet on changes in the current traversing +the latter, and being connected to the commutator brushes, +automatically adjusts their position. By this means the power of the +generator is adapted to run any number of lights within its limit of +capacity, or may be short circuited purposely or by accident without +difficulty arising therefrom; and a number of instances have occurred +where the injurious effects of a short circuit accidentally formed +have been entirely obviated by the presence of the regulator. In one +instance four generators, in series representing over forty lights' +capacity, were accidentally short circuited, and no injury or even +noticeable action took place except a quick movement of the regulators +in adapting themselves to the new conditions. Had this accident +occurred to generators unprovided with regulators, great injury or +possible destruction of the apparatus would have resulted. It is +important to a full understanding of the regulation, to state that its +action is independent of resistances introduced, that it saves power +and carbons in proportion to lights extinguished, and that it +compensates for speed variations above the minimum speed. The manner +of its action is to control the generation of current at the source in +the armature, and it does so by combining certain electrical actions +so as to obtain a differential effect, such that when small force of +current only is required it alone is furnished, and when the maximum +force is needed the same shall be forthcoming.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/6c.png" alt="THE CONTROLLER MAGNET." /> +<br />THE CONTROLLER MAGNET.</p> + +<p>On the larger generators we combine with the regulator magnet above +described an exceedingly sensitive controller magnet governing the +regulation, and by whose accuracy the smallest variations of current +are counteracted, and the operation of the generator rendered perfect. +The controller magnet is contained in a box placed on the wall or +other support near the generator, and consists of a delicate double +axial magnet controlling the admission of current to the regulator, +upon the generator, and its action is exceedingly <a name="Page_6189" id="Page_6189"></a>simple and +effective. So perfect is the action that in a circuit of twenty-five +to thirty lights, lights may be removed or put out in rapid succession +without apparently affecting those that remain. Besides, we have been +enabled to put out even eight or ten lights together instantly, while +the remainder burn as before. The features above set forth are +peculiar to the Thomson-Houston system, and have been thoroughly +covered by patents, and cannot therefore be adopted into other +systems.</p> + +<h3>THE THOMSON ARC LAMP.</h3> + +<p>This lamp is essentially a series lamp; that is, any number of them +can be put on one circuit wire, but a single lamp, used alone, burns +equally well. It consists of a metal frame supporting at the bottom +the holder for the globe and lower carbon, which is insulated from the +frame.</p> + +<p>The annexed figure of the plain lamp will convey an understanding of +its general appearance. The upper carbon is fed downward by the +mechanism contained in the box above, and is carried by a vertical +round rod called the carbon holding rod.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/7a.png" alt="THE THOMSON ARC LAMP." /><br />THE THOMSON ARC LAMP.</p> + +<p>In the regulating box of the lamp there exists a simple mechanism, the +result of careful study and experiment to discover the best and +simplest combination of appliances, which would obviate the necessity +for the use of clockwork or dash-pots, from which fluids might be +accidentally spilled, for obtaining a gradual feeding of the carbon as +fast as it is consumed in producing the light, and at the same time to +maintain the arc or space between the carbons in burning, of such +extent as to give a steady, noiseless light, of greatest possible +economy.</p> + +<p>The lamp, once adjusted, does not require any readjustment, and, in +fact, is built in such a manner as to avoid the presence of adjusting +devices in it. The lamp also contains an automatic safety device for +preserving the continuity of the circuit in case of accidental injury +to the feeding mechanism or the carbons of the lamps. This is quite +important when a considerable number of lights are operated upon one +circuit wire, as a break in the circuit, due to a defective lamp, +would result in the extinguishment of all the lights. With the safety +device mentioned, such a break does not occur, but the flow of current +is preserved through the faulty lamp.</p> + +<p>By an exceedingly simple device upon the carbon holding rod, the lamps +are extinguished when the carbons are burned out, and injury by +burning the holders completely avoided.</p> + +<p>The system is based upon the joint inventions of Elihu Thomson and +Edwin J. Houston, for generators, regulators, and electric lamps, and +also the patents of Elihu Thomson, in generators, regulators, and +electric lamps; all of which are now operated and controlled by the +Thomson-Houston Electric Co., 131 Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.</p> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>A MODIFICATION OF THE VIBRATING BELL.</h2> + +<p>One of the causes which gives rise to induction in the telephone lines +running along the Belgian railroads is that there are so many electric +bells in the stations.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lippens proposes as a remedy for the trouble a slight modification +of the vibrating bell of his invention so as to exclude from the line +the extra currents from the bell.</p> + +<p>In one of the styles (Fig. 1) a spring, R, is attached at T to a fixed +metallic rod, and presses against the rod, T¹. The current enters +through the terminal, B, traverses the bobbins, passes through T, +through the spring, through T¹, and makes its exit through the other +terminal. The armature is attracted, and the point, P, fixed thereto +draws back the spring from the rod, T¹, and interrupts the current; +but, at the moment at which the point touches the spring, and before +the latter has been detached from the rod, T¹, the electro-magnet +becomes included in a short circuit, and the line current, instead of +passing through the bobbins for a very short time, passes through the +wire, T, the armature, and the rod, T¹, so that the extra current is +no longer sent into the line.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/7b.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br />FIG. 1.</p> + +<p>In another style (Fig. 2) the current is not interrupted at all, but +enters through the terminal, B, traverses the bobbins, and goes +through C to the terminal, B.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/7c.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br />FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>As soon as the armature is attracted, the spring, R, which is fixed to +it presses against the fixed metallic rod, T, and thus gives the +electricity a shorter travel than it would take by preference. The +current ceases, then, to pass through the bobbins, demagnetization +occurs, and the spring that holds the armature separates anew. The +current now passes for a second time into the bobbins and produces a +new action, and so on. There is no longer, then, any interruption of +the current, and the motions of the hammer are brought about by the +change in direction of the current, which alternately traverses and +leaves the bobbins.</p> + +<p>In a communication that he has addressed to us on the subject of these +bells, Mr. Lippens adds a few details in regard to the mode of +applying the ground pile to micro-telephone stations.</p> + +<p>Being given any two stations, he puts into the ground at the first a +copper plate, and at the second a zinc one, and connects the two by a +line wire provided with two vibrating bells and two telephone +apparatus. The earth current suffices to actuate the bells, but, in +order to effect a call, the inventor is obliged to run them +continuously and to interrupt them at the moment at which he wishes to +communicate. The correspondent is then notified through the cessation +of noise in the bells, and the two call-apparatus are thrown out of +the circuit by the play of the commutator, and are replaced by the +micro-telephone apparatus.</p> + +<p>It is certainly impracticable to allow vibrating bells to ring +continuously in this manner. The ground pile would, at the most, be +only admissible in cases where the call, having to be made from only +one of the stations, might be effected by a closing of the +circuit.—<i>La Lumiere Electrique</i>.</p> + +<hr class="short"/> + +<p>The advantage of lighting vessels by electricity was shown when the +steamer Carolina, of the old Bay Line between Baltimore and Norfolk, +ran into the British steamship Riversdale in a dense fog off Cedar +Point, on Chesapeake Bay. The electric lights of the Carolina were +extinguished only in the damaged part of the boat, and her officers +think that if she had been lighted in any other way, a conflagration +would have followed the collision.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>PHOTO PLATES—WET AND DRY.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Eder has recently published, in the <i>Correspondenz</i>, the first of +a series of articles embodying the results of his more recent work on +gelatino bromide; and we now reproduce the substance of the article in +a somewhat abstracted form.</p> + +<p>The "sensitiveness of a wet" plate continues to be used as a rough and +ready standard of comparison; and, notwithstanding the fact that it is +physically impossible to exactly compare the sensitiveness of a wet +plate with that of a gelatino bromide film, it is convenient to refer +to wet plates as some kind of a rough standard.</p> + +<p>Experiments have shown that a gelatine plate which gives the number 10 +on the Warnerke sensitometer, may be regarded as approximately +corresponding to the average wet plate; and setting out from this +point, the following table has been constructed:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Sensitometer Number, Wet Plate" width="60%"> +<tr><th>Sensitometer<br />number.</th> +<th>Sensitiveness,<br /> expressed in terms<br />of a "Wet Plate."</th> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>10</td><td>1</td></tr> +<tr><td>11</td><td>1-1/3</td></tr> +<tr><td>12</td><td>1-3/4</td></tr> +<tr><td>13</td><td>2-1/3</td></tr> +<tr><td>14</td><td>3</td></tr> +<tr><td>15</td><td>4</td></tr> +<tr><td>16</td><td>5</td></tr> +<tr><td>17</td><td>7</td></tr> +<tr><td>18</td><td>9</td></tr> +<tr><td>19</td><td>12</td></tr> +<tr><td>20</td><td>16</td></tr> +<tr><td>21</td><td>21</td></tr> +<tr><td>22</td><td>27</td></tr> +<tr><td>23</td><td>36</td></tr> +<tr><td>24</td><td>48</td></tr> +<tr><td>25</td><td>63</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The nature of the developer used has, of course, some influence on the +sensitiveness of the plates; but in the above cases it is assumed that +oxalate developer, without any addition, is used; or pyro., to which +ammonia is added at intervals of about thirty seconds, so as to +produce a slight tendency to fog; the time of development being from +three to four minutes. The numbers are supposed to be read after +fixation, the plate being held against the sky.</p> + +<p>Schumann's statement that a gelatino bromide plate is less sensitive +when developed at 30° C. than when developed at 5°, is contested; the +more recent investigations of Dr. Eder serving to demonstrate that a +developer at a moderate high temperature acts very much more rapidly +than when the temperature is low; but when a sufficient time is +allowed for each developer to thoroughly penetrate the film, the +difference becomes less apparent. Here are examples:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" summary=""> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="3" /></colgroup> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>A.—Oxalate Developer.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Temperature of developer</td><td></td><td>4-8° C.</td><td>16-17° C.</td><td>26-28° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Time of development</td><td>1 min.</td><td>3° W.</td><td>8° W.</td><td>13° W.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td>2 min.</td><td>9½° W.</td><td>10° W.</td><td>15° W.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>B.—Pyrogallic Developer.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Temperature of developer</td><td></td><td>1-2° C.</td><td>26-28° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Time of development</td><td>¼ min.</td><td>6° W.</td><td>10° W.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td>3 min.</td><td>14° W.</td><td>15° W.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="short"/> + +<h3>INTENSIFIER FOR WET PLATES.<br /> +By MAJOR WATERHOUSE.</h3> + +<p>The collodion process is still preferred for reproducing black and +white designs, drawings, engravings, etc., where very dense negatives +are desirable. The fixed and washed plate is put in a bath of bromide +of copper (ten per cent. solution); the film whitens immediately, and +when the color is even all over, the plate is taken out and plunged +into a bath of the ordinary ferrous oxalate developer. It takes a dark +olive tint, which is very non-actinic, the shadows meanwhile remaining +very clear.—<i>Photo. News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>GELATINO BROMIDE EMULSION WITH BROMIDE OF ZINC.</h2> + +<p>By this time of the year I have no doubt many, both amateur and +professional photographers, are either contemplating or are actually +at work making their stock of plates for the coming season, and it is +to be hoped that we shall have more favorable weather than we had last +year.</p> + +<p>Some four or five years since I tried using bromide of zinc instead of +the ordinary salts, namely, bromide of ammonium or potassium. I only +made one batch of plates at the time, which possessed several +important features I considered an advantage, and I think well worth +while following out. I do not think it can be denied that ordinary +gelatine plates, if exposed in a weak light, fall very short of the +results obtained with wet collodion when compared side by side, +gelatine being almost useless under these conditions, and there is a +decided gain in the result in this respect if the emulsion be made +with zinc bromide.</p> + +<p>In using bromide of zinc there is a slight difficulty to overcome, but +it <i>can</i> be overcome, as I have succeeded in making a perfect +emulsion. It will, I have no doubt, be remembered that Mr. L. Warnerke +was the first to call attention to this salt in the days of collodion +emulsion; and I think he claimed for an emulsion prepared with it that +the image would stand more forcing without fogging to gain any amount +of intensity. This was said of a collodion emulsion, and I also find +that it is the same when used in a gelatine emulsion. I have heard a +great many say, when speaking about the intensity of gelatine plates, +that they can get any amount of intensity. I grant that in a studio +where the operator has full command over the lighting of his subject +by means of blinds, but it is not so in the field, especially when the +light is dull. I have seen thousands of negatives, and as a rule I +have found want of intensity has been the fault, and generally through +the light. Now if we can find a remedy for this, it will be a step in +advance.</p> + +<p>What I claim for bromide of zinc is that a rapid plate can be made +with it, and any degree of intensity can be readily obtained with a +very small proportion of pyrogallic acid in the developer. The cry as +always is to use plenty of pyrogallic acid and you can get any amount +of intensity. I remember, in the early days of gelatine, as much as +six grains being recommended, and I have myself, under extraordinary +circumstances, used as much as ten grains to the ounce; but I think it +is now, to a certain extent, a thing of the past. With the plates to +which I refer, I found that I only required to use for a 7½ × 5 plate +one grain of pyrogallic acid in about three ounces of developer to get +full density without the slightest difficulty. If the ordinary +quantity were used far too much density was obtained, and the plate +ruined beyond recovery; but with so small a quantity of pyro. the +<a name="Page_6190" id="Page_6190"></a>plate was not so much stained as with a larger quantity, and the +negative took far less time to develop on account of the intensity +being so readily obtained.</p> + +<p>In making a gelatine emulsion with zinc it must be <i>decidedly acid</i> or +it fogs. I prefer nitric acid for the purpose. I also found that some +samples of the bromide behaved in a very peculiar way. All went on +well until it came to the washing, when the bromide of silver washed +out slowly, rendering the washing water slightly milky; this continued +until the whole of the bromide of silver was discharged from the +gelatine, and the latter rendered perfectly transparent as in the +first instance. I remember a gentleman mentioning at one of the +meetings of the South London Photographic Society that he was troubled +in the same way as I was at that time. I think if a few experiments +were made in this direction with the zinc salt and worked out, it +would be a great advantage.—<i>Wm. Brooks, in Br. Jour. of Photo</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art28" id="art28"></a>DESIGN FOR A VILLA.</h2> + +<p>The villa of which we give a perspective drawing is intended as a +country residence, being designed in a quiet and picturesque style of +domestic Gothic, frequently met with in old country houses. It is +proposed to face the external walls with red Suffolk bricks and +Corsham Down stone dressings, the chimneys to be finished with moulded +bricks. The attic gables, etc., would be half-timbered in oak, and the +roof covered with red Fareham tiles laid on felt. Internally, the hall +and corridors are to be laid with tiles; the wood finishing on ground +floor to be of walnut, and on first floor of pitch pine. The ground +floor contains drawing-room, 23 ft. by 16 ft., with octagonal recess +in angle (which also forms a feature in the elevation), and door +leading to conservatory. The morning-room, 16 ft. by 16 ft., also +leads into conservatory. Dining-room, 20 ft. by 16 ft., with serving +door leading from kitchen. The hall and principal staircase are +conveniently situated in the main part of the house, with doors +leading to the several rooms, and entrances to garden. The domestic +offices, though conveniently placed, are entirely cut off from the +main portion of the house by a door leading from the hall. In the +basement there is ample cellar accommodation for wine or other +purposes. The first floor contains four bed-rooms, two dressing-rooms, +bath-room, w.c., etc. The attic floor, reached by the servants' +staircase, contains two servants' bed-rooms, day and night nurseries, +and box and store rooms. The estimated cost is £3,800. The design is +by Mr. Charles C. Bradley, of 82 Wellesley Road, Croydon.—<i>Building +Times</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8b.png"><img src="./images/8b_th.png" alt="SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE—DESIGN FOR A VILLA." /></a><br />SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE—DESIGN FOR A VILLA.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art29" id="art29"></a>WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE.</h2> + +<p>William Spottiswoode, President of the Royal Society, was born in +London, Jan. 11, 1825. He belongs to an ancient Scottish family, many +members of which have risen to distinction in Scotland and also in the +New World.</p> + +<p>In 1845 he took a first class in mathematics, and he afterward won the +junior (1846) and the senior (1847) university mathematical +scholarships. He returned to Oxford for a term or two, and gave a +course of lectures in Balliol College on Geometry of Three +Dimensions—a favorite subject of his. He was examiner in the +mathematical schools in 1857-58. On leaving Oxford, he immediately, we +believe, took an active part in the working management of the business +of the Queen's printers, about this time resigned to him by his +father, Andrew Spottiswoode, brother of the Laird of Spottiswoode. The +business has largely developed under his hands.</p> + +<p>Other subjects than mathematics have occupied his attention: at an +early age he studied languages, as well Oriental as European.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/8a.png" alt="WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE." /><br />WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE.</p> + +<p>As treasurer and president, he has been continuously on the Council +of the Royal Society for a great many years, and through his +exceptional gifts as an administrator he has rendered it invaluable +services. He has rendered similar services to the British Association, +to the London Mathematical Society, and to the Royal Institution. We +have permission to make the following extract from a letter written by +a friend of many years' standing: "In the councils (of the various +societies) he has always been distinguished by his sound judgment and +his deep sympathy with their purest and highest aims. There never was +a trace of partisanship in his action, or of narrowness in his +sympathies. On the contrary, every one engaged in thoroughly +scientific work has felt that he had a warm supporter in Spottiswoode, +on whose opportune aid he might surely count. The same breadth of +sympathy and generosity of sentiment has marked also his relations to +those more entirely dependent upon him. The workmen in his large +establishment all feel that they have in him a true and trustworthy +friend. He has always identified himself with their educational and +social well-being." We give here a list of some of the offices Mr. +Spottiswoode has held, and of the honors that have been bestowed upon +him: Treasurer of the British Association from 1861 to 1874, of the +Royal Institution from 1865 to 1873, and of the Royal Society from +1871 to 1878. In 1871 he succeeded Dr. Bence Jones as Honorary +Secretary to the Royal Institution. President of Section A, 1865; of +the British Association, 1878; of the London Mathematical Society, +1870 to 1872; of the Royal Society, 1879, which office he still holds. +Correspondent of the Institut (Académie des Sciences), March 27, 1876. +He is also LL.D. of the Universities of Cambridge, Dublin, and +Edinburgh, D.C.L. of Oxford, and F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. In +addition to these honors he has many other literary and scientific +distinctions.—<i>Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>ACETATE OF LIME.</h2> + +<p>I have made a series of experiments with regard to finding a reliable +method of estimating the acetic acid in commercial acetate of lime, +and find the following gives the best results: The sample is finely +ground and about 6 grms. weighed into a half-liter flask, dissolved in +water, and diluted to the containing mark. 100 c.c. of this solution +are distilled with 70 grms. of strong phosphoric acid nearly to +dryness, and 50 c.c. of water are added to the residue in the retort +and distilled till the distillate gives no precipitate with nitrate of +silver, titrate the distillates with standard caustic soda, evaporate +to dryness in a platinum dish, and ignite the residue before the blow +pipe, which converts the phosphate of soda (formed by a little +phosphoric acid carried over in the distillation) into the insoluble +pyrophosphate and the acetate of soda into NaHO; dissolve in water, +and titrate with standard H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, which gives the amount of soda +combined with the acetic acid in the original sample. In a number of +samples analyzed they were found to vary hardly anything.—<i>C. H. +Slaytor, in Chem. News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>THE REMOVAL OF AMMONIA FROM CRUDE GAS.</h2> + +<p>In connection with the many plans now brought forward to utilize the +ammonia in the gases escaping from coke ovens and blast furnaces, it +may be of interest to refer to a process brought out some years ago in +connection with illuminating gas manufacture by Messrs. Bolton & +Wanklyn, and adapted by them, we understand, to the metallurgical +branches also.</p> + +<p>When bone ash or any other substance containing phosphate of lime is +treated with sulphuric acid, the products formed are superphosphate of +lime and hydrated sulphate of lime; this mixture is known as +superphosphate of lime, in commerce, and is the substance used in this +process. This substance is capable of absorbing carbonic acid and +ammonia from foul gas. The complete action can only take place in the +presence of a certain proportion of carbonic acid, so that the process +is not so successful with "well-scrubbed illuminating gas." The +superphosphate is converted into carbonate of lime, while the ammonia +combines with the phosphoric acid to form phosphate of ammonia; the +hydrated sulphate of lime is also acted upon, and forms carbonate of +lime and sulphate of ammonia; so that, presuming the action to be +complete, and the material to be thoroughly saturated with carbonic +acid and ammonia from the foul gas, the result is a mixture of +carbonate of lime and phosphate and sulphate of ammonia.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, the mixture absorbs one equivalent of +carbonic acid for every four equivalents of ammonia; therefore, if the +superphosphate process be substituted for the ordinary washers and +scrubbers, a large proportion of the carbonic acid and also the whole +of the sulphureted hydrogen is left in the gas, and must be dealt with +in other ways.</p> + +<p>This superphosphate process has been at work at the South Metropolitan +Gas Works, Old Kent Road, for nearly two years. In practice it is +usual to water the superphosphate before use with ammoniacal liquor, +and it is used in dry purifiers, in layers about eight inches thick.</p> + +<p>This process has been thoroughly investigated at the Munich Gas Works, +by Drs. Bunte and Schilling, and the report made by these gentlemen +proves its practical efficiency, and therefore the question of its +advantage, as compared with washing and scrubbing, is based chiefly +upon <a name="Page_6191" id="Page_6191"></a>financial considerations. It is evident that in foreign parts, +or in any place where there is a difficulty in disposing of the +ammonia, the obtaining of the same in a dry form offers several +advantages as compared with having it as a weak solution.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>RECONVERSION OF NITRO-GLYCERIN INTO GLYCERIN.</h2> + +<h3>By C.L. BLOXAM.</h3> + +<p>The following experiments on this subject appear to possess some +interest at the present moment:</p> + +<p>1. Nitro-glycerin was shaken with methylated alcohol, which dissolves +it readily, and the solution was mixed with an alcoholic solution of +KHS (prepared by dissolving KHO in methylated spirit, and saturating +with H<sub>2</sub>S gas). Considerable rise of temperature took place, the +liquid became red, a large quantity of sulphur separated, and the +nitro-glycerin was entirely decomposed.</p> + +<p>2. Nitro-glycerin was shaken with a strong aqueous solution of +commercial K<sub>2</sub>S. The same changes were observed as in 1, but the +rise of temperature was not so great, and the liquid became opaque +very suddenly when the decomposition of the nitro-glycerin was +completed.</p> + +<p>3. The ordinary yellow solution of ammonium sulphide used in the +laboratory had the same effect as the K<sub>2</sub>S. In this case the mixture +was evaporated to dryness on the steam bath, when bubbles of gas were +evolved, due to the decomposition of the ammonium nitrite. The pasty +mass of sulphur was treated with alcohol, which extracted the +glycerin, subsequently recovered by evaporation. Another portion of +the mixture of nitro-glycerin with ammonium sulphide was treated with +excess of PbCO<sub>3</sub> and a little lead acetate, filtered, and the ammonium +nitrite detected in the solution. These qualitative results would be +expressed by the equation—</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(NO) + 3NH<sub>4</sub>HS = C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub> + 3NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>2</sub> + S<sub>3</sub>, +</p> + +<p>which is similar to that for the action of potassium hydrosulphide +upon gun-cotton.</p> + +<p>4. Flowers of sulphur and slaked lime were boiled with water, till a +bright orange solution was obtained. This was filtered, and some +nitro-glycerin powered into it. The reduction took place much more +slowly than in the other cases, and more agitation was required, +because the nitro-glycerin became coated with sulphur. In a few +minutes, the reduction appearing to be complete, the separated sulphur +was filtered off. The filtrate was clear, and the sulphur bore +hammering without the slightest indication of nitro-glycerin.</p> + +<p>This would be the cheapest method of decomposing nitro-glycerin. +Perhaps the calcium sulphide of tank-waste, obtainable from the alkali +works, might answer the purpose.—<i>Chemical News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>CARBONIC ACID AND BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S.</h3> + +<p>Chemists are ever on the alert to notice analogies and resemblances in +the atomic structure of different bodies. They long ago indicated +points of resemblance between bisulphide of carbon and carbonic acid. +In the case of the latter we have one atom of carbon united to two of +oxygen, and in the case of the former one atom of carbon united to two +of sulphur. Attempts have been made to push the analogy still further +by the discovery of a compound of carbon and sulphur analogous to +carbonic oxide, but hitherto, I believe, without success. I have now +to note a resemblance of some interest to the physicist, and of a more +settled character than any hitherto observed.</p> + +<p>When, by means of an electric current, a metal is volatilized and +subjected to spectrum analysis, the "reversal" of the bright band of +the incandescent vapor is commonly observed. This is known to be due +to the absorption of the rays emitted by the vapor by the partially +cooled envelope of its own substance which surrounds it. The effect is +the same in kind as the absorption by cold carbonic acid of the heat +emitted by a carbonic oxide flame. For most sources of radiation +carbonic acid is one of the most transparent of gases; for the +radiation from the hot carbonic acid produced in the carbonic oxide +flame it is the most opaque of all.</p> + +<p>Again, for all ordinary sources of radiant heat, bisulphide of carbon, +both in the liquid and vaporous form, is one of the most diathermanous +bodies ever known. I thought it worth while to try whether a body +reputed to be analogous to carbonic acid, and so pervious to most +kinds of heat, would show any change of deportment when presented to +the radiation from hot carbonic acid. Does the analogy between the two +substances extend to the vibrating periods of their atoms? If it does, +then the bisulphide, like the carbonic acid, will abandon its usually +transparent character, and play the part of an opaque body when +presented to the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame. This proved +to be the case. Of the radiation from hydrogen, a thin layer of +bisulphide transmits 90 per cent., absorbing only 10. For the +radiation from carbonic acid, the same layer of bisulphide transmits +only 25 per cent., 75 per cent. being absorbed. For this source of +rays, indeed, the bisulphide transcends, as an absorbent, many +substances which, for all other sources, far transcend <i>it</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A paper read before the Royal Society, April 5, 1883.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>THE HAIR, ITS USE AND ITS CARE.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D., Physician to the Philadelphia +Hospital for Skin Diseases.</h3> + +<p>The object of this paper is to briefly describe the hair and its +important functions, and to suggest the proper manner of preserving it +in a healthy state.</p> + +<p>I know full well that much has been written upon this useful part of +the human economy, but the constant increase of bald heads and +beardless faces, notwithstanding all our modern advancement in the +application of remedies to the cure of disease, prompts me to point +out to you the many ways of retaining, without medication, the hair, +which is a defense, ornamentation, and adornment to the human body.</p> + +<p>[Dr. Shoemaker here gave an interesting history of the growth and +development of the hair and its uses, which we are compelled to omit. +Then, proceeding, he said:] Now, the hair, which fulfills such an +important function in the adornment and health of the body, requires +both constitutional and local care to keep it in its normal, healthy +state. When I say constitutional care, I mean that the various organs +of the body that assist in nourishing and sustaining the hair-forming +apparatus should, by judicious diet, exercise, and attention to the +nervous system, be kept healthy and sound, in order that they in turn +may assist in preserving the hairs in a vigorous condition.</p> + +<p>In the first place, that essential material, food, which is necessary +to supply the waste and repair of all animal life, should be selected, +given, or used according to good judgment and experience.</p> + +<p>Thus, mothers should feed their infants at regular intervals according +to their age, and not permit them to constantly pull at the breast or +the bottle until the little stomach becomes gorged with food, and some +alimentary disorder supervenes, often setting up a rash and +interfering with the growth and development of the hair. It is +likewise important, in case the baby must be artificially fed, to +select good nutritious food as near as possible like the +mother's—cow's milk, properly prepared, being the only recognized +substitute. Care and discretion should likewise be taken by parents +and nurses, after the infant has developed into childhood, to give +simple, substantial, and varied food at regular periods of the day, +and not in such quantities as to overload the stomach. Children need +active nutrition to develop them into robust and healthy men and +women; and it is from neglect of these important laws of health, and +in allowing improper food, that very often bring their results in +scald head, ring-worm, and scrofula, that leave their stamp in the +poor development of the hair. With the advent of youth and the advance +of years, food should be selected and partaken of according to the +judgment and experience of its acceptable and wholesome action on the +consumer.</p> + +<p>The meals should also be taken at regular intervals. At least four +hours should be left between them for the act of digestion and the +proper rest of the stomach.</p> + +<p>It is, on the contrary, when the voice of nature has been stifled, +when judgment and experience have been set aside, that mischief +follows; when the stomach is teased and fretted with overloading, and +the food gulped down without being masticated, gastric and intestinal +derangement supervenes, which is one of the most prolific sources of +the early decay and fall of the hair.</p> + +<p>The nervous system, which is one of the most important portions of the +human structure, and which controls circulation, secretion, and +nutrition, often by being impaired, plays a prominent part in the +production of baldness. Thus, it has been demonstrated by modern +investigation that the nerves of nutrition, by their defective action, +are often the cause of thinning and loss of hair. The nutritive action +of a part is known to suddenly fail, the hair-forming apparatus ceases +to act, the skin changes from a peculiar healthy hue to a white and +shining appearance, and often loses at the same time its sensibility; +the hairs drop out until very few remain, or the part becomes entirely +bald. It is the overtaxing of the physical powers, excessive brain +work, the exacting demands made by parents and teachers upon +children's mental faculties, the loss of sleep, incessant cares, +anxiety, grief, excitement, the sudden depression and exaltation of +spirits, irregular and hastily bolted meals, the lack of rest and +recreation, the abuse of tobacco, spirits, tea, coffee, and drugs of +all forms, that are fruitful sources of this defective action of the +nerves of nutrition, and consequent general thinning and loss of hair.</p> + +<p>The hair, particularly of the head, should also receive marked local +attention. In reference to the use of coverings for it, I know of no +better rules than those which I laid down in my chapter on clothing in +"Household Practice of Medicine" (vol. i., p. 218, William Wood & Co., +New York), in which I state that the head is the only part of the body +so protected by nature as to need no artificial covering.</p> + +<p>The stiff hats so extensively worn by men produce more or less injury. +Premature baldness most frequently first attacks that part of the head +where pressure is made by the hat. It is, indeed, a pity that custom +has so rigidly decreed that men and women must not appear out of doors +with heads uncovered. It would be far better for the hair if to be +bare-headed were the rule, and to wear a hat the exception.</p> + +<p>Since we can not change our social regulations in this respect, we +should endeavor to render them as harmless as possible.</p> + +<p>The forms of hats that are least injurious are: for Winter, soft hats +of light weight, having an open structure, or pierced with numerous +holes; for Summer, light straws, also of open structure.</p> + +<p>As regards the head-covering of women, the fashions have been for +several years favorable to proper form. The bonnet and hat have become +quite small, and cover but little of the head. This beneficial +condition, however, is in part counterbalanced by the weight of false +curls, switches, puffs, etc., by the aid of which women dress the +head. These, by interfering with evaporation of the secretions, +prevent proper regulations of the temperature of the scalp, and +likewise lead to the retention of a certain amount of excrementitious +matter, both of which are prolific sources of rapid thinning and loss +of hair in women.</p> + +<p>False hair has likewise sometimes been the means of introducing +parasites, which give rise to obstinate affections of the scalp.</p> + +<p>Cleanliness of the entire surface of the skin should next demand +attention, and that should be done by using water as the medium of +ablution. It is a well-known physiological law that it is necessary, +in order to enable the skin to carry on its healthful action, to have +washed off with water the constant cast of scales which become mingled +with the unctuous and saline products, together with particles of dirt +which coat over the pores, and thus interfere with the development of +the hairs. Water for ablution can be of any temperature that may be +acceptable and agreeable, according to the custom and condition of the +bather's health. Many chemical substances can be combined with water +to cleanse these effete productions from the skin. Soap is the most +efficacious of all for cleanliness, health, and the avoidance of +disease. Soap combines better with water to render these unctuous +products miscible, and readily removes them thoroughly from the skin. +The best variety of soap to use is the pure white soap, which cannot +be so easily adulterated by coloring material, or disguised by some +perfume or medicinal substance. Ablution with soap and water should be +performed once or twice a week at least, particularly to the head and +beard, in order to keep open the hair tubes so that they may take in +oxygen, give out carbon, carry on their nutrition, and maintain the +hairs in a fine, polished, and healthy condition. In using water to +the scalp and beard, care should be taken not to use soap-water too +frequently, as it often causes irritation of the glands, and leads to +the formation of scurf. It is equally important to avoid using on the +head, the daily shower-bath, which, by its sudden, rapid, and heavy +fall, excites local irritation, and, as a result, loss of hair quickly +follows. In case the health demands the shower-bath, the hair should +be protected by a bathing cap. The most acceptable time to wash the +hair, to those not accustomed to doing it with their morning bath, is +just before retiring, in order to avoid going into the open air or +getting into a draught and taking cold. After washing, the hair should +be briskly rubbed with rough towels, the Turkish towel heated being +particularly serviceable. Those who are delicate or sick, and fear +taking cold or being chilled from the wet or damp hairs, should rub +into the scalp a little bay rum, alcohol, or oil, a short time after +the parts have been well chafed with towels. The oil is particularly +serviceable at this period, as it is better absorbed, and at the same +time overcomes any dryness of the skin which often follows washing.</p> + +<p>It might be well to add in this connection that I have frequently been +consulted, by those taking salt-water baths, as to the care of the +hair during and after the bath. If the bather is in good health, and +the hair is normal, the bather can go into the surf and remain at +least fifteen minutes, and on coming out should rub the hair +thoroughly dry with towels.</p> + +<p>Ladies should permit it remain loose while doing so, after which it +can be advantageously dressed.</p> + +<p>It is, however, often injurious to both men and women having some +wasting of the hair to go into the surf without properly protecting +the head; the sea water has not, as is often thought, a tonic action +on the scalp; on the contrary, it often excites irritation and general +thinning. Again, it is most decidedly injurious to the hair for +persons to remain in the surf one or two hours, the hair wet, and the +head unprotected from the rays of the sun. This latter class of +bathers, and those who hurriedly dress the hair wet, which soon +becomes mouldy and emits a disagreeable odor, are frequent sufferers +from general loss and thinning of the hair.</p> + +<p>An agreeable and efficient adjunct after ablution, which I have +already referred to, is oil. Oil has not only a cleansing action upon +the scalp, but it also overcomes any rough or uneven state of the +hair, and gives it a soft and glossy appearance.</p> + +<p>The oil of ergot is particularly serviceable in fulfilling these +indications, and, at the same time, by its soothing and slight +astringent action upon the glands, will arrest the formation of scurf. +In using oil, the animal and vegetable oils should always be +preferred, as mineral oils, especially the petroleum products, have a +very poor affinity for animal tissues.</p> + +<p>Pomatum is largely used by many in place of oil, as it remains on the +surface and gives a full appearance to the hairs, thus hiding, +sometimes, the thinness of the hair.</p> + +<p>It will do no harm or no special good if it contains pure grease, wax, +harmless perfume, and coloring matter, but it is often highly +adulterated, or, the fat in it decomposing, sets up irritation on the +part to which it is applied. I therefore always advise against its +use.</p> + +<p>The comb and brush are also agents of the toilet by which the hair is +kept clean, vigorous, and healthy. The comb should be of flexible gum, +with large, broad, blunt, round, and coarse teeth, having plenty of +elasticity. It should be used to remove from the hairs any scurf or +dirt that may have become entangled in them, to separate the hairs and +prevent them from becoming matted and twisted together.</p> + +<p>The fine-tooth comb, made with the teeth much closer together, can be +used in place of the regular toilet comb just named when the hair is +filled with very fine particles of scurf, dirt, or when parasites and +their eggs infest the hairs. It should, however, always be borne in +mind that combs are only for the hair, and not for the scalp or the +skin, which is too often torn and dug up by carelessly and roughly +pulling these valuable and important articles of toilet through the +skin as well as the hair.</p> + +<p>The brush with moderately stiff whalebone bristles may be passed +gently over the hair several times during the day, to brush out the +dust and the dandruff, and to keep the hair smooth, soft, and clean; +rough and hard brushing the hair with brushes having very stiff +bristles in them, especially the metal or wire bristles, is of no +service, but often irritates the parts and causes the hair to fall +out. [Dr. Shoemaker then denounced the use of the so-called electric +brush, saying its use was injurious, as also was the effort to remove +dandruff by the aid of the comb and brush. Continuing, he remarked:] +And now the question arises, Should the hair be periodically cut? It +may be that cutting and shaving may for the time increase the action +of the growth, but it has no permanent effect either upon the +hair-bulb or the hair sac, and will not in any way add to the life of +the hair.</p> + +<p>On the contrary, cutting and shaving will cause the hair to grow +longer for the time being, but in the end will inevitably shorten its +term of life by exhausting the nutritive action of the hair-forming +apparatus. When the hairs are frequently cut, they will usually become +coarser, often losing the beautiful gloss of the fine and delicate +hairs. The pigment will likewise change—brown, for instance, becoming +chestnut, and black changing to a dark brown. In addition, the ends of +very many will be split and ragged, presenting a brush like +appearance. If the hairs appear stunted in their growth upon portions +of the scalp or beard, or gray hairs crop up here and there, the +method of clipping off the ends of the short hairs, of plucking out +the ragged, withered, and gray hairs, will allow them to grow +stronger, longer, and thicker.</p> + +<p>Mothers, in rearing their children, should not cut their hair at +certain periods of the year (during the superstitious time of full +moon), in order to increase its length and luxuriance as they bloom +into womanhood, and manhood. This habit of cutting the hair of +children brings evil in place of good, and is also condemned by the +distinguished worker in this department, Professor Kaposi, of Vienna, +who states that it is well known that the hair of women who possess +luxuriant locks from the time of girlhood never again attains its +original length after having once been cut.</p> + +<p>Pincus has made the same observation by frequent experiment, and he +adds that there is a general opinion that frequent cutting of the hair +increases its length; but the effect is different from that generally +supposed. Thus, upon one occasion he states that he cut off circles of +hair an inch in diameter on the heads of healthy men, and from week to +week compared the intensity of growth of the shorn place with the rest +of the hair. The result was surprising to this close and careful +observer, as he found in some cases the numbers were equal, but +generally the growth became slower after cutting, and he has never +observed an increase in rapidity.</p> + +<p>I might also add that I believe many beardless faces and bald heads in +middle and advancing age are often due to constant cutting and shaving +in early life. The young girls and boys seen daily upon our streets +with their closely cropped heads, and the young men with their +clean-shaven <a name="Page_6192" id="Page_6192"></a>faces, are, year by year, by this fashion, having their +hair-forming apparatus overstrained.</p> + +<p>I also must condemn the modern practice of curling and crimping, the +use of bandoline, powders, and all varieties of gum solutions, sharp +hair-pins, long-pointed metal ornaments and hair combs, the wearing of +chignons, false plaits, curls, and frizzes, as the latter are liable +to cause headaches and tend to congestion. Likewise I protest against +the use of castor-oil and the various mixtures extolled as the best +hair-tonics, restoratives, vegetable hair-dyes, or depilatories, as +they are highly injurious instead of beneficial, the majority of +hair-dyes being largely composed of lead salts. But, should your +patients wish to hide their gray hairs, probably the best hair-dye +that can be used safely is pyrogallic acid or walnut juice, the hairs +being first washed with an alkaline solution to get rid of the grease. +Nitrate of silver is also a good and safe hair-dye, but its +application should be done by one experienced in its use. The +judicious use of these hair-dyes will give the hair above the surface +of the skin a brownish-black appearance, the intensity of the color of +which depends upon the strength of the solution. But hair-dyeing for +premature grayness should be avoided, as the diseased condition may be +averted by the proper remedies. Never permit the hair to be bleached +for the purpose of obtaining the fashionable golden hue, as the +arsenical solution generally used is highly dangerous; but, if your +patients must have their hair of a golden color, insist upon their +hairdresser using the peroxide of hydrogen, which is less dangerous +than the preparation first mentioned.</p> + +<p>Perhaps one of the most pernicious compounds used for the hair at the +present day is that which is sold in the shops as a depilatory. It is +usually a mixture of quicklime and arsenic, and is wrongly used and +recommended at this time by many physicians to remove hairy moles and +an excessive growth of hair upon ladies' faces. Its application +excites inflammation of the skin; and, while it removes the hair from +the surface for a time, it often leaves a scar, or makes the part +rough, congested, and deformed.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the hair will grow after a short period stronger, +coarser, and changed in color, which will even more disfigure the +person's countenance. With the present scientific knowledge of the +application of electrolysis, hairs can be removed from the face of +ladies or children, or in any improper situation, in the most harmless +manner without using such obnoxious and injurious compounds as +depilatories.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, let me add that, if the hair becomes altered in +texture, or falls out gradually or suddenly, or changes in color, a +disease of the hair, either locally or generally, has set in, and the +hair, and perhaps the constitution, now needs, as in any other +disease, the constant care of the physician.</p> + +<p>A general remedy for this or that hair disease that may develop will +not answer, as hair diseases, like other affections, have no one +remedy which will overcome wasting, thinning, or loss of color. +Patients reasoning upon this belief, frequently apply to me for a +remedy to restore their hair to its full vigor or give them back its +color. I always reply that I have no such remedy.</p> + +<p>The general health, as well as the scalp and hairs, must be examined +carefully, particularly the latter, with the lens and microscope. All +changes must be watched, and the treatment varied from time to time +according to the indications.</p> + +<p>No one remedy can, therefore, under any circumstances, suit, as the +remedy used to-day may be changed at the next or succeeding visit. No +remedy for the hair will be necessary if the foregoing advice be +followed which I have just narrated, and which is the result of some +seven years of labor and experience.</p> + +<p>The proper consideration and putting into practice of these +suggestions will most certainly secure to the rising generation fewer +bald heads and more luxuriant hair than is possessed at the present +day.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>Abstract of a paper read before the Pennsylvania State +Medical Society, at Norristown, May 10, 1883.—<i>N.Y. Med. Jour.</i></p></div> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr">[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 387, page 6179.]</p> + + +<h2><a name="art12-a" id="art12-a"></a>THE INFLUENCE OF EFFECTIVE BREATHING IN DELAYING THE PHYSICAL +CHANGES INCIDENT TO THE DECLINE OF LIFE, AND IN THE PREVENTION OF +PNEUMONIA, CONSUMPTION, AND DISEASES OF WOMEN.</h2> + +<h3>By DAVID WARK, M.D., 9 East 12th Street, New York.</h3> + +<h3>PNEUMONIA.</h3> + +<p>During the past winter inflammation of the lungs has destroyed the +lives of many persons who, although they were in most cases past the +meridian of life, yet still apparently enjoyed vigorous health, and, I +have little doubt, would still have been alive and well had the +preventive means here laid down against the occurrence of the disease +from which they perished been effectively practiced at the proper +time.</p> + +<p>The most important anatomical change occurring during the progress of +pneumonia is the solidification of a larger or smaller part of one or +both lungs by the deposit in the terminal bronchial tubes and in the +air cells of a substance by which the spongy lungs are rendered as +solid and heavy as a piece of liver. The access of the respired air to +the solidified part being totally prevented, life is inevitably +destroyed if a sufficiently large portion of the lungs be invaded.</p> + +<p>This deposit succeeds the first or congestive stage, and it occurs +with great rapidity; an entire lobe of the lung may be rendered +perfectly solid by the exudation from the blood of fully two pounds of +solid matter in the short space of twelve hours or even less. The +rapidity with which the lungs become solidified amply accounts for the +promptly fatal results that often attend attacks of acute pneumonia. +If recovery takes place, the foreign matter by which the lung tissue +has been solidified is perfectly absorbed and the diseased portion is +found to be quite uninjured. The only natural method by which the +blood can be freed from the presence of foreign matter is by the +oxidation—the burning—of such impure matters; the results being +carbonic acid gas that escapes by the lungs and certain materials that +are eliminated chiefly by the kidneys. But when these blood impurities +exist in the vital fluid in unusually large quantities, or if the +respiratory capacity be inadequate, the natural internal crematory +operations are a partial failure. But nature will not tolerate the +presence of such impurities in the vital fluid; if they cannot be +eliminated by natural means they must by unnatural means; therefore +such material is very frequently deposited in various parts of the +body, the point of deposit being often determined by some local +disturbance or irritation.</p> + +<p>For instance, if a person whose blood is in fairly good condition +takes a cold that settles on his lungs, he either recovers of it +spontaneously or is readily cured by means of some cough mixture; but +if his blood be loaded with tubercular matter, the latter is extremely +liable to be deposited in his lungs; the cough that was excited in the +first place by a simple cold becomes worse and persistent, in a few +months his lungs show signs of disorganization, and he has consumption +of the acute or chronic type, as the case may be.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if the impure matter by which the blood is loaded +be of the kind that causes the pulmonary solidifications of pneumonia, +the latter disease is very likely to be developed if a cold on the +lungs be caught.</p> + +<p>The liability of any individual to attacks of acute pneumonia is +therefore determined very largely by the presence or absence in his +blood of the matter already alluded to. If his blood be free from it, +no cold, however severe, is competent to originate the disease.</p> + +<p>There can be no question but that good living and sedentary habits +have a strong tendency to befoul the blood; the former renders +effective respiration all the more necessary for the removal from the +blood of whatever nutritive matter has been taken beyond the needs of +the system, and the latter inevitably diminishes the respiratory +motions to the lowest point consistent with physical comfort. From +these conditions originates the active predisposing cause of +pneumonia, to which we have already alluded.</p> + +<p>The disease is more fatal in the very young and in the aged; the +mortality seems to bear a direct ratio to the respiratory capacity; in +young subjects the breathing powers have not been fully developed like +the other physical capacities, while in the old the respiratory volume +has been diminished by the stiffening of the chest walls and of the +lungs by the senile changes already detailed.</p> + +<p>There can be no question but that protection from cold and judicious +attention to the health generally, by suitable exercise and diet, has +a powerful tendency to prevent that overloaded condition of the blood +to which I believe acute pneumonia to be chiefly due; still I have no +doubt but that the most active preventive measure that can be adopted +is keeping up the respiratory capacity to the full requirements of the +system, a precaution which is specially necessary to ease-loving and +high-living gentlemen who are past the prime of life. I am of the +opinion that if such persons would cultivate their breathing powers by +the simple means here recommended, their liability to pneumonia would +be notably reduced.</p> + +<h3>THE TRUE FIRST STAGE OF CONSUMPTION.</h3> + +<p>The progress of tubercular consumption has been divided by pathologists +into three stages. The first stage being that in which a deposit of +tubercular matter occurs in the lung tissue, the second is entered on +when the tubercles soften, and the third when they have melted down, +been expectorated, and cavities have formed. But the real beginning of +this most insidious and justly dreaded disease not infrequently +antedates for a long time, often for several years, the deposit of any +tubercular matter. During all this time an expert examiner can detect +the slight but very significant changes already taking place in the +pulmonary organs. Physicians determine the condition of the lungs +chiefly through the sounds elicited by percussion of the chest walls +by the end of the middle finger, or a small rubber hammer adapted to +the purpose, and by those produced by the respired air rushing in to +and out of the bronchial tubes and air vesicles. The percussion sounds +yielded by the chest during what has been aptly called the +pre-tubercular stage do not differ from those elicited in health, +because it is only when some morbid matter exists in the lungs that +the percussion note is altered, therefore negative results only are +obtained in the real first stage by this mode of examination. But +important information can be obtained by interrogating the sounds due +to the inspired air rushing into and distending the air vesicles. When +the lungs are perfectly healthy, these are breezy and almost musical. +During the pre-tubercular stage they become drier and harsher; +qualities of evil omen that continue to increase as time passes, if +properly directed means be not adopted to correct the evil; but so far +none of the symptoms that indicate the slightest deposit of tubercle +can be detected, but the breathing capacity of such persons is never +up to the full requirements of the system. The reader is referred to +the table already given, which exhibits the decline of the breathing +capacity of persons suffering from consumption in its several stages. +When the disease has made such decided progress that tubercles are +already deposited in the lungs in sufficient quantity to give rise to +the physical signs by which their presence is proved, this carefully +compiled table shows that the diminution of the vital capacity already +amounts to one-third of that considered by Dr. Hutchinson to be +necessary to the maintenance of health.</p> + +<p>During the pre-tubercular stage the breathing capacity rarely falls so +much as 33 per cent. below the healthy standard, but it is never up to +the normal vital volume. This fact is most significant, especially +when it occurs in an individual whose relatives have succumbed to this +disease; but it rarely attracts sufficient attention from such persons +as to induce them to have their breathing capacity measured, much less +to take effective measures to bring and keep it up to the healthy +standard. So long as there are, to them, no tangible symptoms of +approaching mischief, and they feel fairly well, they act as if they +thought "that all men were mortal but themselves." Yet it is from +among persons who have an inherited but latent tendency to tubercular +disease, and whose lung power is below par, that the great army of +consumptives who die every year is recruited. It is very difficult to +induce persons who ought to be interested in this matter to take +effective measures for their future safety when the terrible symptoms +accompanying the last stages of the disease often fail to shake the +sufferer's confident expectation of recovery; and we sometimes see +them engaged in laying plans for the future when death is imminent. I +regret deeply to be obliged to make these statements, because I am +convinced that if the suggestions laid down in this work were +generally reduced to practice by those who have reason to dread the +development of tubercular disease, many valuable lives would be saved.</p> + +<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF TUBERCULAR MATTER IN THE BLOOD.</h3> + +<p>During the digestive processes the starchy, saccharine, and albuminoid +elements of food are dissolved, and the fatty matters are emulsified. +A uniform milky solution is thus formed, which is rapidly absorbed +into the general circulation; some of it passes directly through the +walls of the vessels into the blood, and some is taken up by the +lacteals and reaches the vital fluid by traversing the complicated +series of tubes known as the absorbent system, and the numerous glands +connected with it. The chief function of the starchy and fatty food +elements is to keep up the physical temperature, by being submitted to +oxidation in the organism; therefore it is not necessary that they +should experience any vitalizing change, but are fitted to discharge +their duties in the vital domain by simply undergoing the solution +that fits them for absorption. But the materials intended to enter +into the composition of the body must be developed into living blood, +in order to be fitted to become part and parcel of the organs by which +power is evolved, and through the use of which we see, hear, feel, +think, and move. This wonderful process begins and is carried forward +in the absorbent system, which has been described by Dr. Carpenter as +a great blood-making gland. But the vital transformation is not +completed until the nutritive materials have been submitted to the +action of the liver, and afterward to the influence of oxygen in the +capillaries of the lungs. The food that was eaten a few hours before +is thus converted into rich scarlet arterial blood, if every part of +the complex vitalizing processes has been properly conducted. But the +influence of oxygen is requisite, not only to complete the +vitalization of the embryo blood in the lungs, it is an absolutely +essential element in every step of the vitalizing process in the +absorbents.</p> + +<p>The average quantity of food required to sustain an ordinary man in +health and strength, I have previously stated, is about two pounds +avoirdupois daily, and an equal weight of oxygen is necessary to the +integrity of the vitalizing processes undergone by the food, and to +maintain the physical temperature. When the requisite supply of oxygen +is reduced, the extrication of heat within the system is promptly +diminished, but the vitalization of digested food is unfavorably +affected much more slowly, but with equal certainty. If the quota of +oxygen existing in the arterial blood of the vessels whose duty it is +to supply the vital fluid to the absorbent system, be inadequate to +enable these operations to go on properly, the life-giving processes +must necessarily be imperfectly accomplished. Under these +circumstances the digested material is imperfectly vitalized, and is +therefore inadequately fitted to be used in building up and repairing +the living body. But its course in the system cannot be delayed, much +less stopped.</p> + +<p>The blood possesses a definite constitution, which cannot be +materially altered without the rapid development of grave, perhaps +fatal consequences. The nutritive matters received into the blood must +be given up by it to the tissues for their repair, whether such +materials are well or ill fitted for the vital purposes. Dr. B.W. +Carpenter, of London, the celebrated physiologist, makes the following +pertinent statements on this subject, which I condense from his great +work on physiology: "We frequently find an imperfectly organizable +product, known by the designation of tubercular matter, taking the +place of the normal elements of tissue, both in the ordinary process +of nutrition, and still more when inflammation is set up.</p> + +<p>From the examination of the blood of tuberculous subjects it appears +that, although the bulk of the coagulum obtained by stirring or +beating is usually greater than that of healthy blood, yet this +coagulum is not composed or well elaborated fibriae, for it is soft +and loose, and contains an unusually large number of colorless blood +corpuscles, while the red corpuscles form an abnormally small +proportion of it. We can understand, therefore, that such a constant +deficiency in capacity for organization must unfavorably affect the +ordinary nutritive processes; and that there will be a liability to +the deposit of imperfectly vitalized matter, instead of the normal +elements of tissue, even without any inflammation. Such appears to be +the history of the formation of tubercles in the lungs and other +organs.</p> + +<p>When it occurs as a kind of metamorphosis of the ordinary nutritive +processes and in this manner, it may proceed insidiously for a long +period, so that a large part of the tissue of the lungs shall be +replaced by tubercular deposit without any other sign than an +increasing difficulty of respiration." These views are strongly +corroborated by the following facts:</p> + +<p>In making post mortem examinations of persons who have died of +consumption, tubercles of different kinds are found in the same +subject; some of these, having been deposited during what is called +the first stage of the disease before the breathing powers were much +impaired, bear evident traces of organization in the form of cells and +fibers more or less obvious, these being sometimes almost as perfectly +formed as living matter, at least on the superficial part of the +deposit, which is in immediate contact with the living structures +around.</p> + +<p>This variety of tubercle has a tendency to contract and remain in the +lungs without doing much injury. But as the disease progressed, and +the breathing capacity progressively diminished, tubercular matter +occurs, evincing less and less organization, showing a tendency to +break down and cause inflammation in the surrounding lung tissue, +until at last we find crude yellow tubercles that have become +softened, and formed cavities almost as soon as they were deposited.</p> + +<p>Some cases of chronic consumption pass in a few months through the +various stages from the deposit of the first tubercle to a fatal +termination.</p> + +<p>The progress of the disease is determined largely by the nature of the +tubercular matter at the time it is deposited.</p> + +<p>The variety of matter which has been partially vitalized commonly +exists in small quantity, has a strong tendency to maintain its +semi-organized condition unchanged by time, and rarely causes +inflammation.</p> + +<p>A small or moderate quantity of this sort of tubercle exists in the +lungs of many persons, in whom it produces no tangible symptoms, and +who are therefore quite unconscious of its presence; and even when it +does exist in sufficient quantity to develop the symptoms of lung +disorder, the progress of the disease is slow, often continuing for +many years. It constitutes a variety of consumption which is specially +amenable to proper treatment. On the other hand, the soft, yellow, +cheesy, tubercular matter, which is totally destitute of any vitality, +is too often deposited in large quantities, acts on the adjacent lung +tissue as an active irritant, causes inflammation, undergoes +softening, forms cavities, defies treatment, and rapidly hurries the +sufferers to a premature grave. These facts, taken in connection with +the immunity from lung diseases enjoyed by those whose respiratory +capacity is well developed and properly used, as well as the +beneficial effects that are promptly secured in the favorable +varieties of consumption by any important increase in the vital +volume, I believe fully justify the statement that <i>tubercles are the +results of defective nutrition directly traceable to inadequate +respiratory capacity</i>, either congenital or acquired—in other words, +tubercles are composed of particles of food which have failed to +acquire sufficient life while undergoing the vital processes, because +the person in whom they occur habitually breathed too little fresh +air.</p> + +<p>Persons who possess what is called the scrofulous constitution are +specially liable to the occurrence of tubercular matter when their +respiration is defective, or they are exposed to any other influences +that favor its development in<a name="Page_6193" id="Page_6193"></a> the organism. But habitually defective +respiration, or the breathing of an atmosphere containing too little +oxygen, which practically amounts to the same thing, has a very +powerful tendency in the same direction, in persons who are apparently +as free from scrofulous taint as any human being can be.</p> + +<h3>THE VALUE OF COD-LIVER OIL IN THE PREVENTION OF CONSUMPTION.</h3> + +<p>There is a broad but not commonly recognized distinction between what +constitutes a medicine and a food. All the materials that normally +enter into the composition of the living body, and are necessary to +the maintenance of health and strength, may be property classed as +foods, whether they be obtained from the animal, vegetable, or mineral +kingdoms; thus the iron, sulphur, phosphorus, lime, potash, etc., +required by the system usually exist in and are organically combined +with the various foods in common use, and they are perhaps quite as +essential to the physical well-being as albuminoid, fatty, and +saccharine matters. When the system is suffering from lack of any of +the above mentioned chemicals, their administration is to be regarded +as the giving of nutritive substances, although they be prescribed by +a physician in divided doses and procured from a pharmacist.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, a medicine is any substance that does not naturally +enter into the composition of the body, but which has the power, when +skillfully used, to modify the physical processes so that +physiological disorder—disease, shall be replaced by physiological +harmony—health. Belladonna, hyoscyamus, opium, etc., are familiar +examples of medicaments. Therefore a food is any substance that is +capable of directly contributing to the nutrition of the body, and +medicine is a substance competent, under proper conditions, to secure +the same results indirectly. Viewed in the light of the above +definition, cod-liver oil is to be regarded as a very valuable food, +as well as a most effective remedy both for the prevention and cure of +consumption.</p> + +<p>I have previously stated that food is divided by physiologists into +three great classes. The albuminoids are used to build up the +organism, while the fatty and saccharine are burned in the body to +keep it warm. Although these are the chief functions devolving on the +above mentioned food elements, yet they are mutually interdependent on +each other for the proper performance of their several offices. Thus +the albuminoids cannot undergo the wonderful vitalizing process +necessary to fit them to enter into and form part of the living body, +except an adequate quantity of fatty matter be present to assist in +the vital transformation. On the other hand, the assistance of the +albuminoids is equally necessary to enable the fatty and saccharine +foods to maintain the internal heat of the body. Of all fatty matters, +whether derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, none possesses +the property of stimulating and perfecting the nutritive processes in +so high a degree as cod-liver oil; it is more readily emulsified and +fitted for absorption by the pancreatic secretion during intestinal +digestion than any other fatty matter of which we have any knowledge. +The beneficial effects of its use have been proved in myriads of cases +of confirmed consumption, and if it were used for prolonged periods by +persons who are losing weight, and whose breathing capacity is too +little, along with effective cultivation of the latter function, many +persons would escape this disease who now succumb to it.</p> + +<h3>THE INFLUENCE OF NORMAL BREATHING ON THE FEMALE GENERATIVE +ORGANS.</h3> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/11a.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br />FIG. 1.</p> + +<p>The body is divided into three separate stories by two partitions. The +diaphragm, A, separates the cavity of the chest from that of the +abdomen. The partition, <i>D</i>, forms a floor for the digestive cavity, +F, and a roof for the pelvis; the pelvic cavity is occupied mainly by +the generative organs. The upper part of the uterus is firmly fixed to +the partition, D, by which the pelvis is covered. Now, the diaphragm, +A, and the external respiratory muscles are in ceaseless motion +performing the act of breathing. The diaphragm acts like the piston of +a pump, both on the lungs above, and on the contents of the abdominal +and pelvic cavities below. When it rises from B to A, it diminishes +the size of the thoracic cavity, compresses the lungs, and assists in +the expiratory part of breathing; at the same time it acts through the +contents of the abdominal cavity on the pelvic roof, D, to which the +uterus is attached, and raises it from D to C. When the diaphragm +contracts, it descends from A to B, increases the size of the thoracic +cavity, inflates the lungs, promotes the inspiratory part of +breathing, pushes the walls of the chest and abdomen outward from F to +E, and lowers the pelvic roof at the same time the uterus sinks from C +to D. When the effect of these respiratory motions is not diminished +by muscular debility, rigidity of the thoracic walls, or by unsuitable +clothing, they have so direct an effect on the pelvic contents that +the uterus and its appendages make two distinct motions every time a +woman breathes. When the diaphragm rises and the breath is expelled, +the womb is elevated from one inch to one inch and a half, because the +roof of the pelvis, to which it is attached, is lifted about this +distance, because of gentle suction from above. The uterus and its +appendages are thus kept in constant motion, up and down, chiefly by +action of the muscles by which breathing is carried on.</p> + +<p>Several influences combine to maintain the circulation of the blood. +The pumping action of the heart and the affinity of the blood for the +walls of the capillary vessels require to be assisted by the motion +both of the body as a whole and of its parts in order to keep the +circulation flowing equably through every tissue. Therefore muscular +action and the resulting bodily motion play a very important part in +maintaining the general and local blood circulation. During the +contraction of a muscle, the blood current flowing through it is, for +the time being, retarded, but when relaxation occurs the blood flows +into its vessels more freely than if no momentary cessation had taken +place. When the body or any of its parts is deprived of motion, the +blood circulation stagnates, and the nutrition, general or local, as +the case may be, promptly becomes impaired. This is specially true of +the uterus. Gentle but constant motion is absolutely essential to keep +up a healthy uterine blood circulation. Nature has provided for the +automatic performance of all the ceaseless internal motions that are +necessary to the continuance of life and the preservation of health; +thus the heart beats, the respiratory muscles act, the stomach +executes a churning motion during gastric digestion, the intestines +pass on their contents by worm-like contractions, automatically +without our supervision and without causing fatigue, being under the +control of the sympathetic system of nerves chiefly. It is equally +true, but not so well recognized, that the previously described +motions that are committed to the pelvic organs from the respiratory +apparatus are absolutely necessary to the continued health of the +uterus and its appendages. But the womb is not under the control of +the voluntary muscles, therefore it cannot be directly moved by them, +nor are its necessary motions influenced by the sympathetic system of +nerves as are the heart, stomach, and intestines, etc., but it is +fortunately under the indirect but positive control of involuntary +muscles that never, as long as breathing continues, cease their work. +Nature has thus made ample provision to keep the uterus in automatic +motion. As before stated, the natural ceaseless heavings of the lungs, +chest, and diaphragm, aided by the muscles inclosing the abdomen, have +the duty assigned them of communicating automatic motion to the uterus +and the other contents of the pelvis. When the diaphragm descends from +A to B, and the lungs are filled with air, the uterus sinks in the +pelvic cavity in obedience to the downward pressure from above, as +before stated; the circulation through the uterus is then for a moment +retarded, but the next instant, when the lungs are emptied of air and +the diaphragm rises, the blood flows forward more freely than if it +had not been momentarily obstructed. Ample provision has thus been +made to maintain a healthy circulation through the uterus.</p> + +<p>The uterine motions I have described are fully adequate for the +purposes indicated. But when the natural stimulus of motion is +withheld, the circulation becomes sluggish causing congestion, which +may develop into inflammation. Under these conditions the uterus +gradually becomes displaced, falling backward, forward or downward as +the case may be. The blood vessels by which the uterus is supplied +thus have their caliber diminished by bending; the circulation through +them is retarded just as the flow of water in a rubber tube is +obstructed by a kink. A very good idea of what occurs in the uterus +under the conditions just described may be obtained by winding a +string around the fingers.</p> + +<p>As the coats of the arteries are thick, and the pressure exerted by +the ligature has less power to prevent the arterial blood flowing +outward past the string to the end of the finger than it has to +prevent the return of the venous blood toward the heart, therefore the +part beyond the ligature soon becomes congested, the blood stagnating +in the capillaries. If the ligature be sufficiently tight and kept on +long enough, mortification will take place, but if the circulation be +only moderately obstructed, the congestion will continue until +ulceration occurs. A similar condition is developed in the uterus when +the necessary natural stimulus of motion fails to be communicated to +it or when it is so far out of its proper place that the circulation +through it is obstructed.</p> + +<p>I believe the above described condition to be a most potent but +inadequately recognized cause of the various forms of uterine diseases +that distress so many women.</p> + +<h3>SHOWING HOW THE BREATHING POWERS MAY BE DEVELOPED.</h3> + +<p>When the circumference of the chest bears a due proportion to the size +of the body generally; when its walls and the lungs possess a suitable +degree of elasticity; when the strength of the respiratory muscles is +adequate to their work, and no undue opposition is offered to the +breathing motions by the clothing—then the vital volume is always up +to the full requirements of the system. But when one or all of these +are lacking in any important degree, the breathing capacity is +proportionately diminished. If the testimony of the spirometer be +corroborated by the impaired physical condition of the individual, its +correction should be sought in part at least by enlarging the chest, +increasing the elasticity of its walls and of the lungs, and by +augmenting the strength of the respiratory muscles. These results may +commonly be secured by diligent and persevering use of the following +exercises:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/11b.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br />FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>A trapeze, Fig. 2, should be suspended from the ceiling, so that the +bar shall be six inches above the head of the person who is to use it; +the toes should be placed under straps nailed to the floor to keep +them in position. Then if the bar be grasped and the body thrown +forward, the trapeze, the arms, and the body will form the segment of +a circle.</p> + +<p>The exercise is taken by causing the body to describe a complete +circle in the manner indicated in the cut. Little muscular effort is +required if the motion be rapid, because the momentum is sufficient to +carry the body around; but if the rotation be slow, more exertion is +required. This movement is specially adapted to the breathing powers +of weak persons, yet the most vigorous can readily get from it all the +exercise their chest and lungs require.</p> + +<p>By means of these exercises the chest is gently but effectively +expanded in every direction and the elasticity of its walls promoted, +the air cells are expanded, and the lungs are rendered more permeable +to the respired air, and the strength of the respiratory muscles is +developed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/11c.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br />FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 illustrates an exercise for the chest that is taken without any +apparatus other than an ordinary doorway. The exerciser should stand +in the position indicated in the engraving, and then step forward with +each foot alternately as far as possible without stretching the chest +too severely. The longer the step the more vigorous the exercise will +be.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/11d.png" alt="FIG. 4." /><br />FIG. 4.</p> + +<p>Fig. 4 shows an exercise taken between two chairs; the position +indicated in the cut having been assumed, the chest is then slowly +lowered and raised three to six times. This exercise is adapted to +strong persons only.</p> + +<h3>THE EFFECTS OF ADEQUATE RESPIRATION IN SPECIAL CASES.</h3> + +<p>When the nutrition of the body is promoted by effective respiration, +and waste matters are promptly removed, the chances that tubercle will +be developed in persons who are predisposed thereto are reduced to a +minimum.</p> + +<p>Better materials are furnished by the nutritive processes to renew the +tissues, so that the occurrence of those degenerations that result in +various fatal affections, peculiar to the decline of life, are +rendered much less probable or are prevented altogether, and the +chances that death shall take place by old age is increased. The +system possesses much greater resisting power against the influence of +malaria and the poisons that give rise to typhoid fever, scarlatina, +diphtheria, measles, etc.</p> + +<p>When the motions of a woman's respiratory organs are normal and are +properly communicated to the pelvic organs, she enjoys the greatest +possible immunity attainable against the development of any diseases +peculiar to the sex.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>VITAL DISCOVERIES IN OBSTRUCTED AIR AND VENTILATION.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>I suppose that we all consider ourselves to be sufficiently impressed +with the importance of ventilation. If I should stop here to declaim +against foul exhalations, or to dwell upon the virtues of fresh air, +you might feel inclined to interrupt me by saying, "Oh, we know all +about that! If you have anything practical to advance, come to the +point." Gentlemen, I beg your pardon, but I must say that the great +fact concerning ventilation, as yet, is that its strongest advocates +are not conscious of one-half the seriousness of the subject; and the +second fact is that the supposed means of ventilation prescribed by +science <i>fail to secure it</i>.</p> + +<p>This, then, is my point to-night—the supreme necessity, still urgent, +and <i>universally</i> urgent, for a reformation of the breath of life. I +believe in a promised time when the days of a man's life shall again +be as the days of a tree. And next to the abolition of vice and sin, I +believe that the very grandest factor of such result must be an entire +disuse of <a name="Page_6194" id="Page_6194"></a>obstructed air for the lungs. I propose to bring forward +some evidence of the necessity, and likewise of the possibility, of a +reform so radical and sweeping as this. The subject is too wide for +the occasion. I shall be able to read only extracts from what I have +prepared, in the few minutes that you can give with patience to my +unpracticed lecturing.</p> + +<p>The best prescription that doctors have to give (when we are not too +far gone to take it) is to live out of doors. Why is this? Why is life +out of doors proverbially synonymous with robust health? Why is it +that a superior vitality, and a singular exemption from disease, +notoriously distinguish dwellers in the open air, by land or sea? +Without disparaging the virtues of exercise or of bracing temperature, +indispensable as these are for the recuperation of enfeebled +constitutions, we must admit that among the native and settled +inhabitants of the open air high health is the rule in warm climates +as well as in cold, and with the very laziest mortals that bask in the +sun, or loaf in the woods. The fact is that simple vegetative health +seems to be nearly independent of all other external conditions but +that of a pure natural diet for the lungs. Man in nature seems to +thrive as spontaneously as plants, by the free grace of air, earth, +and sun. On the other hand, the very diseases from which houses are +supposed to defend us—that most numerous class resulting from +colds—are the special scourge of the lives that are most carefully +shielded from their commonly supposed cause—exposure to the open air. +Those diseases diminish, and entirely disappear, just so far as +exposure in the pure and freely moving air becomes complete and +habitual. Soldiers, inured to camp life, catch cold if they once sleep +in a house; and, generally speaking, the inhabitants of the free air +contract colds <i>only</i> by exposure to confined exhalations from their +own or other bodies, within the walls of houses. The explanation of +this is plain and simple: Carbonic acid detained within four walls +accumulates in place of the breath of life—oxygen—and narcotizes the +excretory function of the skin. The moment that this great and +continual vent of waste and impurity from the system is obstructed, +internal derangement ensues in every direction. All hands, so to +speak, are strained to extra duty to discharge the noxious +accumulation. The lungs labor to discharge the load thrown back upon +them, with hastened respiration, increased combustion, and feverish +heat. The pores of the mucous membrane in the nose, throat, alimentary +canal, or bronchial passages, are forced by an aggravated discharge +(or catarrh), and this congestive and inflammatory pressure is a fever +also. There is nothing of "cold" about it except as an auxiliary and +antecedent, in cases where an external chill has struck upon nerves +already half paralyzed by the universal narcotic—carbonic acid—which +house dwellers may be said to "smoke" perpetually.</p> + +<p>So much for nerve-poison; but blood-poisoning is a still more terrible +characteristic of house-protected existence. It is now the almost +universal opinion of the medical profession that the whole class of +malarial and zymotic diseases that make such frightful progress and +havoc in the most civilized communities, are due to living germs with +which the exhalations of organic waste and decay are everywhere loaded +in inconceivable numbers. They are known to multiply themselves many +times over, every two or three hours. They swarm into the blood by +millions, through all the absorbents, especially those of the lungs, +that drink the atmosphere in which they are suffered to linger and +propagate. Mr. Dancer, the eminent microscopist, counted in a sample +from such an atmosphere a number of organized germs equivalent to +3,700,000 in the volume of air hourly inhaled by one person. That is +over 60,000 germs per minute, and about 2,000 in every breath. In the +blood, they still propagate, and feed, and grow, consuming its oxygen, +thus defeating its purification, and turning that stream of otherwise +healthful and invigorating nutrition into a stream of effete and +corrupt matter—a sewer rather than a river of life—or at best an +impoverished and impure supply for the support of existence.</p> + +<p>The same pestilential but invisible hosts of bacteria, mustered and +bred in the close filthiness of Oriental cities, and jungles, swarm +out as Asiatic cholera on the wings of the wind, sweeping the wide +world with havoc. Settled on the tropical shores of the Eastern +Atlantic, they lie in wait for their victims in the sluggish and +terrible coast fever. On the western coast of the same ocean, perhaps +from some cause connected with oceanic or atmospheric currents, they +make devastating irruptions inland, as yellow fever, in every +direction where the walls of their enclosure are low enough to be +freely passed. These, let us remember, are all essentially the same +organic poison that is engendered <i>wherever</i> life and death are plying +their perpetual game; and this, like Cleopatra's "worm, will do its +kind" in the veins of man, wherever obstructions, natural or +artificial, temporary or permanent, interfere with its prompt +diffusion in the vastness of the general atmosphere. Our "house of +life" stands generously open, for every "inmate bad" to come and go +through the absorbent, unquestioned, except in the stomach, where the +tangible poisons have to go by the act of swallowing and where they +are often challenged and ejected. It seems at first thought very +strange that we are not so well protected by natural instinct or +sensibility from the subtle poisons of the atmosphere as from those +that can affect us only by the voluntary act of swallowing. The +obvious explanation, however, of this apparent neglect is that Nature +protects us in general from gaseous poisons by her own system of +ventilation; and if, when we devise houses, necessarily excluding that +system, we fail to devise also a sufficient substitute for it, the +consequences of such negligence are as fairly due as when we swallow +tangible poison.</p> + +<p>I have hitherto referred only to the <i>dispersion</i> of poisonous +exhalations, as if the best and most necessary thing the atmosphere +can do for us were to dilute the dose to a comparatively harmless +potency. But this is now known to be not the true remedial process +with respect to the zymotic germs. The most wonderful achievement of +recent investigation reveals a philosophy of both bane and antidote +that astonishes us with its simplicity as much as with its efficiency. +At the moment when humanity stands aghast at the announcement that +germs are not destroyed by disinfectants, comes the counter discovery +that they are rendered harmless by oxygen. It seems that it makes no +difference, really, of what sort or from what source are the bacteria +that we take into the blood. The only material difference to us +depends on <i>the sort of atmosphere</i> in which their hourly generations +are bred. For example, the bacteria <i>developed in confined air</i>, from +a simple infusion of hay, are found by experiment to be as capable of +generating that most terrible of blood poisoners, the malignant +pustule, as are the bacteria taken from the pustule itself.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the bacteria from the malignant pustule itself, +after propagating for a few hours in pure and free air, become a +perfectly harmless race, and are actually injected into the blood +with impunity. The explanation of the strange discovery is this—note +its extreme simplicity—bacteria bred in copious oxygen perish for +want of it as soon as they enter the blood vessels; whereas those +inured to an unventilated atmosphere for a few generations, which +means only a few hours, are prepared to thrive and propagate +infinitely within our veins; and that is the whole mystery of blood +poisoning and zymotic diseases. Taken in connection with the narcotic +or <i>nerve-poisoning</i> power of carbonic acid (to which all the classes +of diseases resulting from colds are due), we have also in this simple +but grand discovery the whole mystery of the question with which we +set out—why free air is health, and why sickness is a purely domestic +product. The restitution of natural health to mankind demands only, +but demands absolutely, the constant diffusion in copious and +continuous floods of atmospheric oxygen, of the nerve-poisoning +carbonic acid of combustion (organic and inorganic), and of the +blood-poisoning bacteria of organic decomposition.</p> + +<p>We find, then, as a matter both of experience and of philosophy, that +life or death, in the main and in the long run, turns on the single +pivot of atmospheric movement or obstruction. The resistance of mere +rising ground or dense vegetation to a free movement of the air from +low-lying levels performs an obstructive office similar to that of the +walls and roofs of houses, and with like effect. The invariable +condition of unhealthy <i>seasons</i> and <i>days</i> is a state of rarefaction +and stagnation of the atmosphere, when the poison-freighted vapor +cannot be lifted and dispersed, and every one complains of the sultry, +close, "muggy" (meaning <i>murky</i>) feeling of the air. Few reflect, when +fretted by the boisterous winds of March, upon the vital office they +perform in dispersing and sanitating the bacteria-laden exhalations +let loose by the first warmth from the soaked soil and the macerated +deposits of the former year.</p> + +<p>The passing air, then, that we breathe so lightly, is on other +business, and carries a load we little think of, and that is not to be +trifled with. This grand carrier of nature, on business of life or +death, must not be detained, must not be hindered! or they who +interfere with the business by restraining walls and roofs will take +the consequences. It is a good deal like stopping a bullet, except as +to consciousness and suddenness of effect.</p> + +<p>That men live at all in their obstructed and therefore poison-loaded +atmosphere, is a proof of the wonderful efficiency of the protective +economy of Nature within us; so wonderful, indeed, that few can +believe the fact of living to be consistent with the real existence of +such a deadly environment as science pretends to reveal. It is a +common impression, therefore, that actual results fail to justify the +alarm sounded by sanitarians. Hence the necessity for calling +attention at the outset to an ample and manifest equivalent for the +deadly dose of confined exhalations taken daily by all civilized men. +We perceive that that dose is not lost, like the Humboldt River, in a +"sink," but reappears, like the wide-sown grass, in a perennial and +universal crop of diseases, almost numberless and ever increasing in +number, peculiar to house-dwellers. The trail of these plagues stops +nowhere else; it leads straight to the imprisoned atmosphere in our +artificial inclosures, and there it ends. That marvelous protective +economy of Nature within us, to which we have referred, is no +perpetual guaranty against the consequences of our negligence; it is +only a limited reprieve, to afford space for repentance; and unless we +hasten to improve the day of grace, the suspended sentence comes down, +upon us at last with force the more accumulated by delay.</p> + +<p>Now, therefore, the grand problem of sanitary science (almost +untouched, almost unrecognized) proves to be no other and no less than +this:</p> + +<p>What can be done to remedy the obstructive nature of an inclosure, so +that its gaseous contents shall <i>move off</i>, and be replaced by pure +air, as freely, as rapidly, and as incessantly, as in the open +atmosphere?</p> + +<p>It happens to be the most necessary preliminary in approaching this +problem, to show how <i>not</i> to do it, for that, respectfully be it +spoken, is what we have hitherto practiced, as results abundantly +prove. Fallacies, both vulgar and scientific, obstruct our way. A +fundamental fallacy respects the very nature of the work, which is +supposed to be <i>to get in fresh air</i>. In point of fact, this care is +both unnecessary and comparatively useless. Take care of the bad air, +and the fresh air will take care of itself. Only make room for it, and +you cannot keep it out. On the other hand, unless you first make room +for it, you cannot keep it <i>in</i>; pump it in and blow it in as you may, +you only blow it <i>through</i>, as the Jordan flows comparatively +uncontaminated through the Dead Sea. This is a law of fluids that must +be kept in view. The pure air is quite as ready to get out as to get +in; while the air loaded with poisonous vapors is as sluggish as a +gorged serpent, and will not budge but on compulsion. Such compulsion +the grand system of wind <i>suction</i>, actuated by the sun, supplies on +the scale of the universe; and this we must imitate and adapt for our +more limited purposes.</p> + +<p>It would seem as if we need not pause to notice so shallow though +common a notion as that which usually comes in right here, namely, +that confined air will move off somehow of itself, if you give it +liberty; being supposed to be much like a cat in a bag, wanting only a +hole to make its escape. Air is ponderable matter—as much so as +lead—and equally requires force of some kind to set it or keep it in +motion. But applied philosophy itself relies on a fallacious, or, at +best, inadequate source of motive power for ventilation. It gravely +prescribes ventilating flues and even holes, and promises us that the +warmed air within the house will rise through these flues and holes, +carrying its impurities away with it, from the pressure of the cooler +and denser air without. But we very well know that the best of flues +and chimneys will draw only by favor of lively fires or clear weather. +They fail us utterly when most needed, in warm and murky weather, when +the barometer is low, and the thin atmosphere drops, down its damp and +dirty contents, burying us to the chimney tops in a pestilent +congregation of vapors.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, so far as I can discover, these holes and flues, at best +a little fire at the bottom of the latter, are the sole and +all-sufficient expedients of science and architecture for ventilation +to this <i>day</i>, in spite of their total failure in experience. I can +find nothing in standard treatises or examples from philosophers or +architects, beyond a theoretical calculation on so much expansion of +air from so many units of heat, and hence so much ascensional force +<i>inferred</i> in the ventilating flue—a result which never comes to +pass, yet none the less continues to be cheerfully relied on. +Unfortunately for the facts, they contradict the philosophy, and are +only to be ignored with silent contempt. A French Academician's report +on the ventilation of a large public building, lately reprinted by the +Smithsonian Institution, states with absolute assurance and exactness +the cubic feet of air changed per minute, with the precise volume and +velocity of its ascension, by burning a peck of coal at the bottom of +the trunk flue. No mention is made of the anemometer or any other +gauge of the result asserted, and we are left to the suspicion that it +is merely a matter of theoretical inference, as usual; for every one +who has had any acquaintance with practical tests in these matters +knows that no such movement of air ever takes place under such +conditions, unless by exceptional favor of the weather.</p> + +<p>I have seen a tall steam boiler chimney induce through a four inch +pipe a suction strong enough to exhaust the air from a large room as +fast as perfect ventilation would require. But this, it is well known, +requires four hundred or five hundred degrees of heat in the chimney. +I never saw an ordinary domestic fire of coals produce any noticeable +ventilating suction, without the use of a blower, urging the +combustion to fury, and I presume nobody else ever did.</p> + +<p>But, while nobody ever saw an active suction of air produced by the +mere heat of a still or unexcited fire—unless the <i>quantity</i> of heat +were on a very large scale—everybody has seen a roaring current +sucked through the narrowed throat of a chimney or a stove by a +blazing handful of shavings, paper, or straw. It is very remarkable, +when you come to think of it, that the burning of an insignificant +piece of paper, with less heat in it, perhaps, than a pea of +anthracite, will cause a rush of air that a bushel of anthracite +cannot in the least degree imitate. It is not only a curious but a +most important fact. In short, it is <i>the cardinal</i> fact on which +ventilation practically turns. But what is the nature of it? There are +three factors in the phenomenon. In the first place, the mechanical +peculiarity of flame, or gas in the moment of combustion, as compared +with a gas like air merely heated, is <i>an almost explosive velocity of +ascent.</i> The physical peculiarity from which this results is the +intensity of its heat—commonly stated at 2,000 degrees, as to our +common illuminating gas—acting instantaneously throughout its mass, +just as in gunpowder. The gas goes up the flue in its own flash, like +the ignited charge in the barrel of a gun: the burning coals can only +<i>send</i>, and by a leisurely messenger, namely, the moderately heated +gases, and <a name="Page_6195" id="Page_6195"></a>contiguous air, that rise only by the gravitation or +pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.</p> + +<p>And yet it is not the small flame itself that roars in the chimney but +the rush of air induced by it. The semi-explosion of flame is but for +an instant, though constantly renewed, and its explosive impulse +cannot carry its light products of combustion very far through +stationary and resistant air. It is <i>the induction of air</i> carried +with it by such semi-explosive impulse (under proper mechanical +conditions) that is strange to our observation and understanding, and +is the second factor in the phenomenon we are accounting for and +preparing to utilize.</p> + +<p>The process, as it actually is, may be clearly exhibited by a very +simple means. Let anyone take a tube, say an inch in diameter—a roll +of paper will do as well as anything—and, applying it closely to his +mouth, try the whole force of his lungs through it upon any light +object. The amount of effect will be found surprisingly small; and +unless the tube is a short one, it will be so far absorbed by friction +and atmospheric resistance as to be almost imperceptible. Then let him +hold the same tube near to the mouth, but not in contact, and repeat +the experiment. With the best adjustment, the effect may be described +as tenfold or fifty-fold, or almost any fold—the effect of the simple +blowing being merely nominal as compared with the induced current +added by blowing <i>into</i> the tube instead of <i>in</i> it. The blast enters +the free and open orifice with all the contiguous air which its +surface friction and the vacuum of its movement can involve in its +rolling vortex. While the entrance is thus crowded with pressure, the +exit is free; and the result at the exit is a blast of well sustained +velocity and <i>magnified volume;</i> ready itself to repeat the miracle on +a still larger scale if provided with the apparatus for doing so. To +test this, now place a second and larger tube in such position as to +prolong the first in a straight line, but with a slight interval +between the meeting ends; so that the blast, as magnified in volume in +entering the first tube, may enter in like manner the second tube and +be magnified again. With correct adjustments this experiment will +prove more surprising than the first. Put on a third and still larger +tube in the same way, and still larger surprise will meet a still +larger volume and force of blast, like a stiff breeze set in motion by +the puny effort of a single expiration. Of course, the prime impulse +must bear a certain proportion to the result; and the inductive or +tractional friction of the initial blast, of flame or breath, will be +used up at length unless re-enforced. In ventilating practice, there +<i>is</i> such re-enforcement, from an excess of gravity in the cooler +atmosphere outside the flue in which the flame is operating with its +heat as well as its ascensional traction; so that there has been found +no limit to the extensions and fresh inductions that may be added to +the first or trunk flue, with increase rather than diminution of power +at every point. But the terms on which such extensions must be made +have been referred to in our illustration, and must be accurately +ascertained and observed. They constitute what is, in effect, the +third factor in the phenomenon of a roaring draught, and also, +therefore, ineffective ventilation. That is, the entering or induced +current of air must always find its channel of progress and exit +certain correct degrees larger than the opening by which it entered. +Every one knows that a stove or chimney wide open admits of but little +suction in connection with even the blaze of paper or shavings.</p> + +<p>The mobility of air seems almost preternatural, when the proper +conditions for setting a current in motion are supplied. But without a +current established, it is surprising in turn to find how obstinately +and elusively immovable it can be. It is like tossing a feather; or +trying to drive a swarm of flies; dodging and evading every impulse +applied. But, given a flue, to define and conduct a stream; an upright +flue, to take advantage of the slighter gravity of the warmed air +within it; and a flue contracted at the inlet and expanded as it +rises, so as to free, diffuse, and lighten the column of air, toward +the exit; <i>then</i>, initiate an induced current of air at the inlet, by +the injection of a jet of gas in the state of semi-explosive action +called flame; the pressure pushing upward from the crowded entrance +finds easier way and less resistance the farther it goes in the +expanding flue; the warmth and reduced gravity of the stream comes in +as an auxiliary in overcoming friction and any exceptional obstruction +in the state of the atmosphere; and now, as the ball is once set +rolling, with a little <i>aid</i> instead of resistance from gravitation, +its initial impulse all the while sustained by the gas jet, and +friction reduced to a very small incident—there is nothing to prevent +the current rolling on with accelerated velocity (within the +limitations imposed by increasing friction) and rolling on forever. I +might, if I had time, add a curious consideration of the law of +<i>vortex motion</i> in elastic fluids, demonstrated by Helmholtz, which +relieves the motion of such fluids from friction, as wheels facilitate +the movement of a solid; and which also sucks into the rolling vortex +the contiguous air, thus entraining it, as we have seen, so much more +effectively than could be done by a direct and rigid current, like a +jet of water, for instance. A wheel set in motion on an almost +frictionless bearing of metalline, runs without perceptible abatement +of velocity, until one begins to involuntarily question whether it +will ever stop. In the all but free winds that roll with minimized +friction in the higher atmosphere, there seems to be a self-moving +force; so persistent is simple momentum in a mass so infinitesimally +obstructed and so infinitely wheeled. An active current of air in a +ventilating flue is only less perfect in the same conditions; and so +it is quite conceivable, and not incredible, that such a current may +be gradually established and thenceforward permanently maintained by a +small motor flame barely more than enough to overbalance the minimized +friction. This is not a supposed or theoretically inferred fact, like +the facts of ventilation sometimes alleged by theorists. On the +contrary, the theory I have offered is merely an attempt to explain +facts that I have witnessed and that anyone can verify with the +anemometer. But the <i>theory</i> by no means covers the art and mystery of +ventilation; for ventilation is truly an <i>art</i> as well as a mystery. +The art lies in a consummate experience of the sizes, proportions, and +forms of flues, their inlets, expansions, and exits, with many other +incidental adaptations necessary, in order to insure under <i>all</i> +circumstances the regular exhaustion of any specific volume of air +required, per minute. And this art has by one man been achieved. It +would be a double injustice if I should neglect from any motive to +inform my audience to whom I am indebted for what I know about +ventilation practically, and even for the knowledge that there is any +such fact as a practicable ventilation of houses; one who is no +theorist, but who has felt his way experimentally with his own hands, +for a lifetime, to a practical mastery of the art to which I have +attempted to fit a theory; every one present who is well informed on +this subject must have anticipated already in mind the name of Henry +A. Gouge.</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>Read by Wm. C. Conant before the Polytechnic Association +of the American Institute, New York, May 10, 1883.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>THE RECENT ERUPTION OF ETNA.</h2> + +<p>On the morning of the 20th of March, a long series of earthquakes +spread alarm throughout all the cities and numerous villages that are +scattered over the sides of Mt. Etna. The shocks followed each other +at intervals of a few minutes; dull subterranean rumblings were heard; +and a catastrophe was seen to be impending. Toward evening the ground +cracked at the lower part of the south side of the mountain, at the +limit of the cultivated zone, and at four kilometers to the north of +the village of Nicolosi. There formed on the earth a large number of +very wide fissures, through which escaped great volumes of steam and +gases which enveloped the mountain in a thick haze; and toward night, +a very bright red light, which, seen from Catania, seemed to come out +in great waves from the foot of the mountain, announced the coming of +the lava.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13a.png"><img src="./images/13a_th.png" alt="ERUPTION OF MOUNT ETNA, MARCH 22, 1883." /></a><br />ERUPTION OF MOUNT ETNA, MARCH 22, 1883.</p> + +<p>Eleven eruptions occurred during the night, and shot into the air +fiery scoriæ which, in a short time, formed three hillocks from forty +to fifty meters in height. The jet of scoriæ was accompanied with +strong detonations, and the oscillations of the ground were of such +violence that the bells in the villages of Nicolosi and Pedara rang of +themselves. The general consternation was the greater in that the +locality in which the eruptive phenomena were manifesting themselves +was nearly the same as that which formed the theater of the celebrated +eruption of 1669. This locality overlooks an inclined plane which is +given up to cultivation, and in which are scattered, at a short +distance from the place of the eruption, twelve villages having a +total population of 20,000 inhabitants. On the second day the +character, of the eruption had become of a very alarming character. +New fissures showed themselves up to the vicinity of Nicolosi, and the +lava flowed in great waves over the circumjacent lands. This seemed to +indicate a lengthy eruption; but, to the surprise of those interested +in volcanic phenomena, on the third day the eruptive movement began to +decrease, and, during the night, stopped entirely. This was a very +fortunate circumstance, for this eruption would have caused immense +damages. It cannot be disguised, however, that the eruptive attendants +of this conflagration remain under conditions such as to constitute a +permanent danger for the neighboring villages. It has happened, in +fact, that in consequence of the quick cessation of the eruption, +those secondary phenomena through which nature usually provides a +solid closing of the parasitic craters have not occurred. So it is +probable that when a new eruption takes place it will be at the same +point at which manifested itself the one that has just abated.—<i>La +Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art30" id="art30"></a>PHYSICS WITHOUT APPARATUS.</h2> + +<p>Take an ordinary wine bottle and place it in front of and within a few +inches of a lighted candle. Blow against the bottle with your mouth at +about four or six inches distant from it and in a line with the flame. +Very curiously, notwithstanding the presence of the bottle and its +interception of the current of air, the candle will be immediately +extinguished as if there were no obstacle in the way. This phenomenon +is readily understood when we reflect that the bottle receives the +current of air on its polished surface and divides it into two, one of +which is guided to the right and the other to the left. These two +currents, after separating and driving back the surrounding air, meet +again at the very spot at which the flame is situated, and extinguish +the candle.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/13b.png" alt="MODE OF EXTINGUISHING A CANDLE PLACED BEHIND A" /> +<br />MODE OF EXTINGUISHING A CANDLE PLACED BEHIND A BOTTLE.</p> + +<p>It is evident that the experiment can be reproduced by putting the +candle behind a stove pipe, a cylinder of glass or metal, a +cylindrical tin box, or any other object of the same form with a +diameter greater than that of a bottle, but not having a rough or +angular surface, since the latter would cause the current to be lost +in the surrounding air.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art31" id="art31"></a>THE TRAVELS OF THE SUN.</h2> + +<p>Some recent discussions of the constitution of the sun have turned in +part upon what is known as the sun's proper motion in space. This is +one of the most surprising and interesting things that science has +ever brought to light, and yet it is something of which comparatively +few persons have any knowledge. It is customary to look upon the sun +as if it were the center of the universe, an immovable fiery globe +around which the earth and other planets revolve while it remains +fixed in one place. Nothing could be further from the truth. The sun +is, in fact, the most wonderful of travelers. He is flying through +space at the rate of not less than a hundred and sixty millions of +miles in a year, and the earth and her sister planets are his fellow +voyagers, which, obeying his overpowering attraction, circle about him +as he advances. In other words, if we could take up a position in open +space in advance of the sun, we should see him rushing toward us at +the rate of some 450,000 miles a day, chased by his whole family of +shining worlds and the vast swarms of meteoric bodies which obey his +attraction.</p> + +<p>The general direction of this motion of the solar system has been +known since the time of Sir William Herschel. It is toward the +constellation Hercules, which, at this season, may be seen in the +northeastern sky at 9 o'clock in the evening. As the line of this +motion makes an angle of fifty odd degrees with the plane of the +earth's orbit, it follows that the earth is not like a horse at a +windlass, circling around the sun forever in one beaten path, but like +a ship belonging to a fleet whose leader is continually pushing its +prow into unexplored waters.</p> + +<p>The path of the earth through space is spiral, so that it is all the +time advancing into new regions along with the sun. She is on a +boundless voyage of discovery, and her human crew are born and die in +widely separated tracts of space. Think of the distance over which the +travels of the sun have borne the earth only since the beginning of +human history! Six thousand years ago the earth and sun were about a +million millions of miles further from the stars in Hercules than they +are to-day. Columbus and his contemporaries lived when the earth was +in a region of the universe more than sixty thousand millions of miles +from the place where it is now, so that since his time the whole human +race has been making a voyage through space, in comparison with which +his longest voyage was as the footstep of a fly.</p> + +<p>Thus the great events in the history of the world may be said to have +occurred in different parts of the universe. An almost inconceivable +distance separates the spot which the earth occupied in the time of +Alexander from that which it occupied when Cæsar invaded Gaul. The sun +and the earth have wandered so far from their birthplace that the mind +staggers in the attempt to guess at the stupendous distance which now +probably separates them from it. It may be that the motion of the +solar system is orbital and that our sun and many of the stars, his +fellow suns, are revolving around some common center, but if so, no +means has yet been devised of detecting the form or dimensions of his +orbit. So far as we can see, the sun is moving in a straight line.</p> + +<p>Since space is believed to be filled with some sort of ethereal +medium, curious consequences are seen to follow from the motions that +have been described. A solid globe like the earth rushing at great +speed through such a medium will encounter some resistance. If the +medium be exceedingly rare, as it must be in fact, the resistance will +be correspondingly small, but still there will be resistance. If the +sun stood still, the earth, owing to the inclination of its axis to +the plane of its orbit, around the sun, would encounter the resistance +of the ether principally on its northern hemisphere from summer to +winter, and on its southern hemisphere from winter to summer. But in +consequence of the motion of the sun shared by the earth, this law of +distribution is changed, and from summer to winter the earth plows +through the ether with its north pole foremost, while from winter to +summer, although the resistance of the ether is encountered more +evenly by the two hemispheres, yet it is still felt principally in the +northern hemisphere, and the south pole remains practically protected. +It follows that the southern hemisphere, and particularly the south +polar regions are more or less completely sheltered the whole year +around. It might then be supposed that the impact of the particles of +the ether shouldered aside by the earth in its swift flight and the +compression produced in front of the advancing globe would tend to +raise the temperature of the northern hemisphere as compared with the +southern hemisphere, while the south pole, being more or less directly +in the wake of the earth, and in a region of rarefaction of the ether, +would constantly possess a remarkably low temperature.</p> + +<p>Now, it is known that the south polar regions are more covered with +ice and snow than those of the north, and that the temperature there +the year around is lower. Whether this difference is owing to the +effects of the earth's journey through the ether, is a question.</p> + +<p>The sun, too, moves with his northern hemisphere foremost, and it is +worthy of remark that it has been suspected that the northern +hemisphere of the sun radiates more heat than the southern.</p> + +<p>But whatever effect it may or may not have upon the meteorological +condition of the earth, the fact that the solar system is thus +voyaging through space is in itself exceedingly interesting. Not the +wildest traveler's dream presents to the imagination such a voyage as +this on which every inhabitant of the earth is bound. A glance at a +star map shows that the direction in which we are going is carrying us +toward a region of the heavens exceedingly rich in stars, many, and +perhaps most, of which are greater suns than ours. There can be little +doubt that when the sun arrives in the neighborhood of those stars, he +will be surrounded by celestial scenery very different from and much +more brilliant than that of the region of space in which he now is. +The inhabitants of the globe at that distant period will certainly +behold new and far more glorious heavens, though the earth may be +unchanged.—<i>N.Y. Sun.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>PROPAGATION OF MAPLE TREES.</h2> + +<p>I do not presume that all people over three score years of age are so +entirely ignorant as I am, but probably there are some. I have lived +more than sixty years almost in the woods, and I never observed, and +never heard any other person speak of, the blooming, seeding, and +maturing of the water maple. I have a beautiful low of water maple +shade trees along the street in front of my house. In March, 1882, I +observed that they were in bloom, and many bees were swarming about +them. After the bees left them I noticed the seed (specimens inclosed +of this spring's growth) in millions. As the leaves put out in April +the little knife blade seeds fell off, so thick as to almost cover the +ground. My grandson picked up three or four hatfuls, and I sent the +seed to my farm and had them drilled in like wheat, when I planted +corn. The result is I have from 300 to 500 beautiful maples from 6 +inches to three feet high. I noticed the blooms again this spring, but +a cold snap killed the blooms, and only now and then can I find a +seed. I had a sugar tree in my yard, which bloomed and bore seed which +did not fall off through the summer. My yard now has as many little +sugar trees as it has leaves of blue grass.</p> + +<p>It strikes me that the gathering and planting of maple seed is the +best way to wood the prairies of the West and the worn-out lands of +the Eastern and Middle States. The tree is valuable for shade and for +timber, and is as rapid in growth as any tree within my knowledge. I +noticed some trees of this sort yesterday which are from 2½ to 3½ feet +in diameter. The lumber from such timber makes beautiful furniture. +This is intended only for those who have been as non-observant as +myself, and not the wise, who are always posted.</p> + +<p style="text-align: justify">Franklin, Tenn. J.B.M.</p> + + +<p>The seeds inclosed were the samaras of <i>Acer rubrum</i>, called the +"soft" maple in many localities, and "red" maple in others. We have +seen trees only three or four inches in diameter full of blossoms. +This is one of the earliest trees to bloom in spring, and the pretty +winged samaras soon mature and fall. The sugar maple, <i>Acer +saccharinum</i>, blossoms later, and the seeds are persistent till +autumn, and lie on the <a name="Page_6196" id="Page_6196"></a>ground all winter before germinating. The +lumber from this latter is more valuable than soft maple, being +harder, heavier, and taking a better polish. Soft maple makes an +ox-yoke which is durable and not heavy. In early times a decoction of +the bark was frequently used for making a black ink.—<i>Country +Gentleman.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>DIOSCOREA RETUSA.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14a.png"><img src="./images/14a_th.png" alt="FLOWERING SPRAY OF DIOSCOREA RETUSA." /></a><br />FLOWERING SPRAY OF DIOSCOREA RETUSA.</p> + +<p>One of the most elegant plants one can have in a greenhouse is this +twiner, a native of South Africa. It has slender stems clothed with +distinctly veined leaves, and produces a profusion of creamy white +fragrant flowers in pendulous clusters, as shown in the annexed +engraving, for which we are indebted to Messrs Veitch of Chelsea, who +distributed the plant a few years ago. On several occasions Messrs +Veitch have exhibited it trained parasol fashion and covered +abundantly with elegant drooping clusters of flowers, and as such it +has been much admired. When planted out in a warmish greenhouse and +allowed to twine at will around an upright pillar, it is seen to the +best advantage, and, though not showy, makes a pleasing contrast with +other gayly tinted flowers. It is so unlike any other ornamental plant +in cultivation, that it ought to become more widely known than it +appears to be at present.—<i>The Garden.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>RAVAGES OF A RARE SCOLYTID BEETLE IN THE SUGAR MAPLES OF +NORTHEASTERN NEW YORK.</h2> + +<p>About the first of last August (1882) I noticed that a large +percentage of the undergrowth of the sugar maple (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>) +in Lewis County, Northeastern New York, seemed to be dying The leaves +drooped and withered, and finally shriveled and dried, but still clung +to the branches.</p> + +<p>The majority of the plants affected were bushes a centimeter or two in +thickness, and averaging from one to two meters in height, though a +few exceeded these dimensions. On attempting to pull them up they +uniformly, and almost without exception, broke off at the level of the +ground, leaving the root undisturbed. A glance at the broken end +sufficed to reveal the mystery, for it was perforated, both vertically +and horizontally, by the tubular excavations of a little Scolytid +beetle which, in most instances, was found still engaged in his work +of destruction.</p> + +<p>At this time the wood immediately above the part actually invaded by +the insect was still sound, but a couple of months later it was +generally found to be rotten. During September and October I dug up +and examined a large number of apparently healthy young maples of +about the size of those already mentioned, and was somewhat surprised +to discover that fully ten per cent. of them were infested with the +same beetles, though the excavations had not as yet been sufficiently +extensive to affect the outward appearance of the bush. They must all +die during the coming winter, and next spring will show that, in Lewis +County alone, hundreds of thousands of young sugar maples perished +from the ravages of this Scolytid during the summer of 1882.</p> + +<p>Dr. George H Horn, of Philadelphia, to whom I sent specimens for +identification, writes me that the beetle is <i>Corthylus +punctatissimus</i>, Zim, and that nothing is known of its habits. I take +pleasure, therefore, in contributing the present account, meager as it +is, of its operations, and have illustrated it with a few rough +sketches that are all of the natural size, excepting those of the +insects themselves, which are magnified about nine diameters.</p> + +<p>The hole which constitutes the entrance to the excavation is, without +exception, at or very near the surface of the ground, and is +invariably beneath the layer of dead and decaying leaves that +everywhere covers the soil in our Northern deciduous forests. Each +burrow consists of a primary, more or less horizontal, circular canal, +that passes completely around the bush, but does not perforate into +the entrance hole, for it generally takes a slightly spiral course, so +that when back to the starting point it falls either a little above, +or a little below it—commonly the latter (see Figs. 1 and 2).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/14b-1.png" alt="FIGS. 1 and 2—Mines of Corthylus" /><br />FIGS. 1 and 2—Mines of Corthylus punctatissimus.</p> + +<p>It follows the periphery so closely that the outer layer of growing +wood, separating it from the bark, does not average 0.25 mm. in +thickness, and yet I have never known it to cut entirely through this, +so as to lie in contact with the bark.</p> + +<p>From this primary circular excavation issue, at right angles, and +generally in both directions (up and down), a varying number of +straight tubes, parallel to the axis of the plant (see Figs. 1, 2, and +3). They average five or six millimeters in length, and commonly +terminate blindly, a mature beetle being usually found in the end of +each. Sometimes, but rarely, one or more of those vertical excavations +is found to extend farther, and, bending at a right angle, to take a +turn around the circumference of the bush, thus constituting a second +horizontal circular canal from which, as from the primary one, a +varying number of short vertical tubes branch off. And in very +exceptional cases these excavations extend still deeper, and there may +be three, or even four, more or less complete circular canals. Such an +unusual state of things exists in the specimen from which Fig 3 is +taken.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/14b-2.png" alt="FIGS. 3 and 4—Mines of Corthylus" /><br />FIGS. 3 and 4—Mines of Corthylus punctatissimus.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that with few exceptions, the most important of which +is shown in Fig 4, all the excavations (including both the horizontal +canals and their vertical off shoots) are made in the sap-wood +immediately under the bark, and not in the hard and comparatively dry +central portion. This is, doubtless, because the outer layers of the +wood are softer and more juicy, and therefore more easily cut, besides +containing more nutriment and being, doubt less, better relished than +the drier interior.</p> + +<p>This beetle does not bore, like some insects, but devours bodily all +the wood that is removed in making its burrows. The depth of each +vertical tube may be taken as an index to the length of time the +animal has been at work, and the number of these tubes generally tells +how many inhabit each bush, for as a general rule each individual +makes but one hole, and is commonly found at the bottom of it. All of +the excavations are black inside.</p> + +<p>The beetle is sub-cylindric in outline, and very small, measuring but +3.5 mm in length. Its color is a dark chestnut brown, some specimens +being almost black. Its head is bent down under the thorax, and cannot +be seen from above (see Fig. 5).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/14c.png" alt="FIG 5.—Corthylus punctatissimus." /><br />FIG 5.—Corthylus punctatissimus.</p> + +<p>Should this species become abundant and widely dispersed, it could but +exercise a disastrous influence upon the maple forests of the +future—<i>G. Hart Merriam, M D, in American Naturalist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>THE RED SPIDER.</h2> + +<h3>(<i>Tetranyehus telarius.</i>)</h3> + +<p>The red spider is not correctly speaking an insect, though it is +commonly spoken of as such, neither is it a spider, as its name would +imply, but an acarus or mite. Whether its name is correct or not, it +is a most destructive and troublesome pest wherever it makes its +presence felt, it by no means confines itself to one or only a few +kinds of plants, as many insects do, but it is very indiscriminate in +its choice of food, and it attacks both plants grown under glass and +those in the open air. When these pests are present in large numbers, +the leaves on which they feed soon present a sickly yellow or scorched +appearance, for the supply of sap is drawn off by myriads of these +little mites, which congregate on the under sides of the leaves, where +they live in a very delicate web, which they spin, and multiply very +rapidly; this web and the excrement of the red spider soon choke up +the pores of the leaves, which, deprived of their proper amount of +sap, and unable to procure the carbon from the atmosphere which they +so much need, are soon in a sorry plight. However promiscuous these +mites may be in their choice of food plants—melons, cucumbers, kidney +beans, hops, vines, apple, pear, plum, peach trees, limes, roses, +laurustinus, cactuses, clover, ferns, orchids, and various stove and +greenhouse plants being their particular favorites—they are by no +means insensible to the difference between dryness and moisture. To +the latter they have a most decided objection, and it is only in warm +and dry situations that they give much trouble, and it is nearly +always in dry seasons that plants, etc., out of doors suffer most from +these pests. Fruit trees grown against walls are particularly liable +to be attacked, since from their position the air round them is +generally warm and dry, and the cracks and boles in the walls are +favorite places for the red spider to shelter in, so that extra care +should be taken to prevent them from being infested, this may best be +effected by syringing the trees well night and morning with plain +water, directing the water particularly to the under sides of the +leaves, so as, if possible, to wash off the spiders and their webs. If +the trees be already attacked, adding soft soap and sulphur to the +water will destroy them.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/14d.png" alt="FIG. 1—Red Spider (magnified). A 1. Ditto" /> +<br />FIG. 1—Red Spider (magnified). A 1. Ditto +(natural size). 2. Underside of head. 3. Foot. 4. Spinneret.</p> + +<p>Sulphur is one of the most efficient agents known for killing them, +but it will not, however, mix properly with water in its ordinary +form, but should be teated according to the following recipe:</p> + +<p>Boil together in four gallons of water 1 lb. of flowers of sulphur and +2 lb. of fresh lime, and add 1½ lb. of soft soap, and, before using, 3 +gallons more of water, or mix 4 oz of sulphate of lime with half that +weight of soft soap, and, when well mixed, add 1 gallon of hot water. +Use when cool enough to bear your hand in it. Any insecticide +containing sulphur is useful. The walls should be well washed with +some insecticide of this kind. Old walls in which the pointing is bad +and the bricks full of nail holes, etc., are very difficult to keep +free from red spider. They should be painted over with a strong +solution of soot water mixed with clay to form a paint. To a gallon of +this paint add 1 lb. of flowers of sulphur and 2 oz of soft soap.</p> + +<p>This mixture should be thoroughly rubbed with a brush into every crack +and crevice of the walls, and if applied regularly every year would +probably prevent the trees from being badly attacked. As the red +spider passes the winter under some shelter, frequently choosing +stones, rubbish, etc., near the roots of the trees, keeping the ground +near the trees clean and well cultivated will tend greatly to diminish +their numbers. In vineries one of the best ways of destroying these +creatures is to paint the hot water pipes with one part of fresh lime +and two parts of flowers of sulphur mixed into a paint. If a flue is +painted in this way, great care should be taken that the sulphur does +not burn, or much damage may be done, as the flues may become much +hotter than hot water pipes. During the earlier stages of growth keep +the atmosphere moist and impregnated with ammonia by a layer of fresh +stable litter, or by painting the hot water pipes with guano made into +a paint, as long as the air in the house is kept moist there is not +much danger of a bad attack. As soon as the leaves are off, the canes +should be dressed with the recipe already given for painting the +walls, and two inches or so of the surface soil removed and replaced +with fresh and all the wood and iron work of the house well scrubbed. +If carnations are attacked, tying up some flowers of sulphur in a +muslin bag and sulphuring the plants liberally, and washing them well +in three days' time has been recommended.</p> + +<p>Tobacco water and tobacco smoke will also kill these pests, but as +neither tobacco nor sulphuring the hot water pipes can always be +resorted to with safety in houses, by far the better way is to keep a +sharp look out for this pest, and as soon as a plant is found to be +attacked to at once clean it with an insecticide which it is known the +plant will bear, and by this means prevent other plants from being +infested. <a name="Page_6197" id="Page_6197"></a>These little mites breed with astonishing rapidity, so that +great care should be exercised in at once stopping an attack. A lady +friend of mine had some castor oil plants growing in pots in a window +which were badly attacked, and found that some lady-birds soon made +short work of the mites and cleared the plants. The red spider lays +its eggs among the threads of the web which it weaves over the under +sides of the leaves; the eggs are round and white; the young spiders +are hatched in about a week, and they very much resemble their parents +in general appearance, but they have only three pairs of legs instead +of four at first, and they do not acquire the fourth pair until they +have changed their skins several times; they are, of course, much +smaller in size, but are, however, in proportion just as destructive +as the older ones. They obtain the juices of the leaves by eating +through the skin with their mandibles, and then thrusting in their +probosces or suckers (Fig. 2), through which they draw out the juices. +These little creatures are so transparent, that it is very difficult +to make out all the details of their mouths accurately. The females +are very fertile, and breed with great rapidity under favorable +circumstances all the year round.</p> + +<p>The red spiders, as I have already stated, are not real spiders, but +belong to the family Acarina or mites, a family included in the same +class (the arachnida) as the true spiders, from which they may be +easily distinguished by the want of any apparent division between the +head and thorax and body; in the true spiders the head and thorax are +united together and form one piece, to which the body is joined by a +slender waist. The arachnidæ are followed by the myriapoda +(centipedes, etc.), and these by the insectiæ or true insects. The red +spiders belong to the kind of mites called spinning mites, to +distinguish them from those which do not form a web of any kind. It is +not quite certain at present whether there is only one or more species +of red spider; but this is immaterial to the horticulturist, as their +habits and the means for their destruction are the same. The red +spider (Tetranychus telarius—Fig. 1) is very minute, not measuring +more than the sixtieth of an inch in length when full grown; their +color is very variable, some individuals being nearly white, others +greenish, or various shades of orange, and red. This variation in +color probably depends somewhat on their age or food—the red ones are +generally supposed to be the most mature. The head is furnished with a +pair of pointed mandibles, between which is a pointed beak or sucker +(Fig. 2). The legs are eight in number; the two front pairs project +forward and the other two backward; they are covered with long stiff +hairs; the extremities of the feet are provided with long bent hairs, +which are each terminated by a knob. The legs and feet appear to be +only used in drawing out the threads and weaving the web. The thread +is secreted by a nipple or spinneret (Fig. 4) situated near the apex +of the body on the under side. The upper surface of the body is +sparingly covered with long stiff hairs.—<i>G.S.S., in The Garden.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>THE HELODERMA HORRIDUM.</h2> + +<p>The discussion of the curious lizard found in our Western Territories +and in Mexico, and variously known as the "Montana alligator," "the +Gila monster," and "the Mexican heloderma," is becoming decidedly +interesting.</p> + +<p>As noted in a recent issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, a live specimen +was sent last summer to Sir John Lubbock, and by him presented to the +London Zoological Gardens. At first it was handled as any other lizard +would be, without special fear of its bite, although its mouth is well +armed with teeth. Subsequent investigation has convinced its keepers +that the creature is not a fit subject for careless handling; that its +native reputation is justified by fact; and that it is an exception +to all known lizards, in that its teeth are poison fangs comparable +with those of venomous serpents.</p> + +<p>Speaking of the Mexican reputation of the lizard, in a recent issue of +<i>Knowledge</i>, Dr. Andrew Wilson, whose opinion will be respected by all +naturalists, says that "without direct evidence of such a statement no +man of science, basing his knowledge of lizard nature on the exact +knowledge to hand, would have hesitated in rejecting the story as, at +least, improbable. Yet it is clear that the stories of the New World +may have had an actual basis of fact; for the <i>Heloderma horridum</i> has +been, beyond doubt, proved to be poisonous in as high a degree as a +cobra or a rattlesnake.</p> + +<p>"At first the lizard was freely handled by those in charge at Regent's +Park, and being a lizard, was regarded as harmless. It was certainly +dull and inactive, a result probably due to its long voyage and to the +want of food. Thanks, however, to the examination of Dr. Gunther, of +the British Museum, and to actual experiment, we now know that +<i>Heloderma</i> will require in future to be classed among the deadly +enemies of other animals. Examining its mouth, Dr. Gunther found that +its teeth formed a literal series of poison fangs. Each tooth, +apparently, possesses a poison gland; and lizards, it may be added, +are plentifully supplied with these organs as a rule. Experimenting +upon the virulence of the poison, <i>Heloderma</i> was made to bite a frog +and a guinea pig. The frog died in one minute, and the guinea-pig in +three. The virus required to produce these effects must be of +singularly acute and powerful nature. It is to be hoped that no case +of human misadventure at the teeth of <i>Heloderma</i> may happen. There +can be no question, judging from the analogy of serpent-bite, that the +poison of the lizard would affect man."</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src="./images/15a_th.png" alt="HELODERMA HORRIDUM, OR GILA MONSTER" /></a><br />HELODERMA HORRIDUM, OR GILA MONSTER</p> + +<p>In an article in the London <i>Field</i>, Mr. W.B. Tegetmeier states that +this remarkable lizard was first described in the <i>Isis</i>, in 1829, by +the German naturalist Wiegmann, who gave it the name it bears, and +noted the ophidian character of its teeth.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> of 1875, M.F. Sumichrast gave a much more +detailed account of the habits and mode of life of this animal, and +forwarded specimens in alcohol to Paris, where they were dissected and +carefully described. The results of these investigations have been +published in the third part of the "Mission Scientifique an Mexique," +which, being devoted to reptiles, has been edited by Messrs. Aug. +Dumeril and Becourt.</p> + +<p>The heloderm, according to M.F. Sumichrast, inhabits the hot zone of +Mexico—that intervening between the high mountains and the Pacific in +the districts bordering the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It is found only +where the climate is dry and hot; and on the moister eastern slopes of +the mountain chain that receive the damp winds from the Gulf of Mexico +it is entirely unknown. Of its habits but little is known, as it +appears to be, like many lizards, nocturnal, or seminocturnal, in its +movements, and, moreover, it is viewed with extreme dread by the +natives, who regard it as equally poisonous with the most venomous +serpents. It is obviously, however, a terrestrial animal, as it has +not a swimming tail flattened from side to side, nor the climbing feet +that so characteristically mark arboreal lizards. Sumichrast further +states that the animal has a strong nauseous smell, and that when +irritated it secretes a large quantity of gluey saliva. In order to +test its supposed poisonous property, he caused a young one to bite a +pullet under the wing. In a few minutes the adjacent parts became +violet in color, convulsions ensued, from which the bird partially +recovered, but it died at the expiration of twelve hours. A large cat +was also caused to be bitten in the foot by the same heloderm; it was +not killed, but the limb became swollen, and the cat continued +mewing for several hours, as if in extreme pain. The dead specimens +sent to Europe have been carefully examined as to the character of the +teeth. Sections of these have been made, which demonstrate the +existence of a canal in each, totally distinct from and anterior to +the pulp cavity; but the soft parts had not been examined with +sufficient care to determine the existence or non-existence of any +poison gland in immediate connection with these perforated teeth until +Dr. Gunther's observations were made, as described by Dr. Wilson.</p> + +<p>Hitherto, as noted in a previous article, American naturalists have +regarded the heloderm as quite harmless—an opinion well sustained by +the judgment of many persons in Arizona and other parts of the West by +whom the reptile has been kept as an interesting though ugly pet. +While the Indians and native Mexicans believe the creature to be +venomous, we have never heard an instance in which the bite of it has +proved fatal.</p> + +<p>A correspondent of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, "C.E.J.," writing from +Salt Lake City, Utah, under date of September 8, says, after referring +to the article on the heloderm in our issue of August 26:</p> + +<div class="note"> +<p>"Having resided in the southern part of this Territory for + seventeen years, where the mercury often reaches 110° or more in + the shade, and handled a number of these 'monsters,' I can say + that I never yet knew anybody or anything to have perished from + their bite. We have often had two or three of them tied in the + door-yard by a hind leg, and the children have freely played + around them—picking them up by the nape of the neck and watching + them snap off a small bit from the end of a stick when poked at + them. We have fed them raw egg and milk; the latter they take with + great relish. At one time a small canine came too near the mouth + of our alligator (<i>mountain alligator</i>, we call them), when it + instantly caught the pup by the under jaw and held on as only it + could (they have a powerful jaw), nor would it release its hold + until choked near to death, which was done by taking it behind the + bony framework of the head, between the thumb and finger, and + pressing hard. The pup did considerable howling for half an hour, + by which time the jaw was much swollen, remaining so for two or + three days, after which it was all right again. By this I could + only conclude that the animal was but slightly poisonous. I never + knew of a human being having been bitten by one. My sister kept + one about the house for several weeks, and fed it from her hands + and with a spoon. The specimens have generally been sent (through + the Deseret Museum) to colleges and museums in the East.</p> + +<p> "The Indians have a great fear that these animals produce at will + good or bad weather, and will not molest them. Many times they + have come to see them, and told us that we should let them go or + they would talk to the storm spirit and send wind and water and + fire upon us. An old Indian I once talked with told me of another + who was bitten on the hand, and said it swelled up the arm badly, + but he recovered. From some reason we never find specimens less + than 12 or 14 inches long, I never saw a young one. There is a + nice stuffed specimen, 18 inches long, in our museum here."</p> +</div> + +<p>Sir John Lubbock's specimen, shown in the engraving herewith, for +which we are indebted to the London <i>Field</i>, is about 19 inches in +length. Its general color is a creamy buff, with dark brown markings. +The forepart of the head and muzzle is entirely dark, the upper eyelid +being indicated by a light stripe. The entire body is covered with +circular warts. It is fed upon eggs, which it eats greedily.</p> + +<p>It would be interesting to know whether the northern specimens, if +venomous at all, are as fully equipped with <a name="Page_6198" id="Page_6198"></a>poison bags and fangs as +Dr. Gunther finds the Mexican specimen to be. Some of our Western or +Mexican readers may be able to make comparative tests. Meantime it +would be prudent to limit the use of the "monster" as a children's +pet.</p> + +<p>The foregoing appeared in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Oct. 7, 1882.</p> + +<p>We are now indebted to a correspondent, Mr. Wm. Y. Beach, of the Grand +View Mine, Grant County, Southern Arizona, for a fine specimen of this +singular reptile, just received alive. The example sent to us is about +twenty inches long, and answers very well to the description of the +monster and the engraving above given.</p> + +<p>In the course of an hour after opening the box in which the reptile +had been confined during its eight days' journey by rail, it became +very much at home, stretching and crawling about our office floor with +much apparent satisfaction.</p> + +<p>Our correspondent is located in the mountains, some nine miles distant +from the Gila River. He states that the reptile he sends was found in +one of the shops pertaining to the mine, which had been left +unoccupied for a week or so.</p> + +<p>Apropos to the foregoing, we have received the following letter from +another correspondent in Arizona:</p> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American:</i></p> + +<div class="note"> +<p>My attention has been called to an article in your issue of Oct. + 7, 1882, relating to the <i>Heloderma horridum</i>, or commonly known + as the Gila Monster.</p> + +<p> During a residence of ten years in Arizona I have had many + opportunities of learning the habits of these reptiles, and I am + satisfied their bite will produce serious effects, if not death, + of the human race. I know of one instance where a gentleman of my + acquaintance by the name of Bostick, at the Tiga Top mining camp, + in Arizona, was bitten on the fingers, and suffered all the + symptoms of poison from snake bite. He was confined to his bed for + six weeks and subsequently died. I am of the opinion his death was + in part caused by the effects of the poison of the Gila Monster.</p> + +<p> The Hualzar Indians are very much afraid of them, and one I showed + the picture to of the Monster in your paper remarked, "Chinamuck," + which in Hualzar language means "very bad." He said if an Indian + is bitten, he sometimes dies.</p> + +<p> I have seen them nearly two feet in length. Never, to my + knowledge, are they kept as pets in our portion of Arizona. They + live on mice and other small animals, and when aggravated can jump + several times their length.</p> + +<p class="signature">W.E. DAY, M.D.</p> +<p>Huckberry, Mahone Co., Ar. T., April, 1883.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art27" id="art27"></a>THE KANGAROO.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American:</i></p> + +<p>In page 69 of your issue of 3d of February, 1883, I notice among the +"Challenger Notes" of Professor Mosely the statement that "Among +stockmen, and even some well educated people in Australia, there is a +conviction that the young kangaroo grows out as a sort of bud on the +teat of the mother within the pouch." Some eighteen months ago I +noticed a paragraph wherein some learned professor was reported to +have set at rest the contested point as to whether the kangaroo come +into being in the same manner as the calves of the cow and other +mammals, or whether the young grows, as alleged, upon the teat of its +dam within the pouch. The learned professor in question asserted that +it did not so grow upon the teat; but, with all due respect to the +professor's claim to credibility on other matters, I must in this +instance take the liberty of stating that he is in error. The young +kangaroo actually oozes out, if I may use such an expression, from the +teat. Strange as the statement may seem, it is a fact that the first +indication of life on the part of the kangaroo offspring is a very +slight eruption, in size not larger than an ordinary pin head. This +growth gradually resolves itself into the form of the marsupial, and +is not detached until close upon the expiring of of the fourth month. +It is carried by the mother during that period, and thenceforth exists +partially at least on herbage. Indeed, from the fourth till the +seventh month it is almost constantly in the pouch, only coming out +occasionally toward the close of evening to crop the grass. I had at +one time in my possession a specimen of the kangaroo germ which I cut +from off the teat, complete in form, whose entire weight was less than +an ounce; and, at the same time, I had a kangaroo in my possession +which measured seven feet six inches from the top of the ears to the +extremity of the tail.</p> + +<p>Your readers would doubtless feel interested with a few particulars as +to my life among the kangaroos in a genuine kangaroo country. I have +read somewhere about the exceeding beauty of the eyes of the gazelle; +how noted hunters have alleged that their nature so softened on +looking into the animal's eyes that they (the hunters) had no heart to +destroy the creature. Now, I have never seen a gazelle, and so cannot +indulge in comparisons; but if their eyes are more beautiful than +those of a middle-aged kangaroo, they may indeed be all that huntsmen +say of them. With respect to the old kangaroos, their eyes and face +are simply atrocious in their repulsive ugliness.</p> + +<p>Nothing in nature could surpass the affection which the female +kangaroo manifests for her young. There is something absolutely +touching in the anxious solicitude displayed by the dam while the +young ones are at play. On the least alarm the youngster instantly +ensconces himself in the pouch of his gentle mother, and should he, in +the exuberance of his joy, thrust his head out from his place of +refuge, it is instantly thrust back by his dam. I have, on several +occasions, by hard riding, pressed a doe to dire extremity, and it has +only been when hope had entirely forsaken her, or when her capture was +inevitable, that she has reluctantly thrown out the fawn. Their method +of warfare has often reminded me of the style of two practiced +pugilists, the aim of each being to firmly gripe his opponent by the +shoulder, upon accomplishing which, the long hind leg, with its horny +blade projecting from its toe, comes into formidable play. It is +lifted and drawn downward with a rapid movement, and one or other of +the combatants soon shows the entrails laid bare, which is usually the +<i>grand finale</i>. The sparring that takes place between the marsupials +while trying to get the advantageous gripe is marvelous—I had almost +said scientific; for the style and rapidity of the animals' movements +might excite the admiration of the Tipton Slasher.</p> + +<p>Strangely enough, these animals have their social distinctions almost +as well defined as in the case of the human species. Thus, one herd +will not, on any consideration, associate with another; each tribe has +its rendezvous for morning and evening reunions, and each its leader +or king, who is the first to raise an alarm on the approach of danger, +and the first to lead the way, whether in ignominious retreat, +confronting a recognized foe, or standing at bay. These leaders are +generally extremely cunning, one old stager with whom I was intimately +acquainted having baffled all attempts to effect its capture for more +than ten months. I got him at last by a stratagem. He had a knack of +always keeping near a flock of sheep, and on the approach of the dogs +dodged among them.</p> + +<p>By this means he had always succeeded in effecting his escape, and +more than that, this noble savage had actually drowned several of our +best dogs, for, if at any time a dog came upon him at a distance from +the sheep flocks, he would make for a neighboring swamp, on nearing +which he has been known to turn round upon the pursuing dog, seize +him, and carry him for some distance right into the swamp, and then +thrust the dog's head under water, holding him there till he was +drowned. It was amusing to see how some of our old knowing warrior +dogs gave him best when they noticed that he was approaching a flock +of sheep, well remembering, from former experience, that it was of no +use trying to get him on that occasion, and that when near the water +the attempt at his capture was both dangerous and impracticable.</p> + +<p>If you take a new and inexperienced dog into your hunt after an old +man, he invariably gets his throat ripped up, or is otherwise +maltreated until well used to the sport. After a dog has had one +season's experience he becomes a warrior, and it is a wonderfully +clever kangaroo that can scratch him after he has attained that +position. The young recruit, if we may so speak of a dog who has never +had any practice, is over-impetuous, rushing into the treacherous +embraces of the close hugger somewhat unadvisedly, and is fortunate if +he escapes with his life as a penalty for his rashness. The dog of +experience always gripes his marsupial adversary by the butt end of +the tail, close to the rump, or at its juncture with the spinal +vertebræ. Once the dog has thrown his kangaroo, he makes for the +throat, which he gripes firmly, while at the same time he is careful +to keep his own body as far as he conveniently can from the quarry's +dangerous hind quarters. In this position dog and kangaroo work round +and round for some time until one or the other of the combatants is +exhausted. It is noteworthy that the kangaroo will only make use of +its sharp teeth in cases of the direst extremity. On such occasions, +however, it must be conceded that the bite is one of a most formidable +character—one not to be any means underrated or despised.</p> + +<p>Should those few incidents prove of sufficient interest in your +estimation, I may state that I shall willingly, at some future time, +forward you particulars of the "ways peculiar" of the emirs, +bandicoots, wombats, opossums, and other remarkable animals, the +observance of which formed almost my sole amusement during a rather +lengthy sojourn in the bush of South Australia.</p> + +<p class="signature">SEPTIMUS FREARSON.</p> + +<p>Adelaide, S.A., April, 1883.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>JAPANESE PEPPERMINT.</h2> + +<p>In more than one periodical the botanical name of this plant has been +given as Mentha arvensis, var. purpurascens. It will be well, +therefore, to point out that this is an error before the statement is +further copied and the mistake perpetuated. The plant has green +foliage, with not a trace of purple, and less deserves the name +purpurascens than the true peppermint (Mentha piperita), of which a +purplish leaved form is well known. The mistake probably arose in the +first place in a printer's error. The history is as follows:</p> + +<p>For some years past a large quantity of a substance called menthol has +been imported into this country, and extensively used as a topical +application for the relief of neuralgia, and in some instances as an +antiseptic. This substance in appearance closely resembles Epsom +salts, and consists of crystals deposited in the oil of peppermint +distilled from the Japanese peppermint plant. This oil, when separated +from the crystals, is now largely used to flavor cheap peppermint +lozenges, being less expensive than the English oil. The crystals +deposit naturally in the oil upon keeping, but the Japanese extract +the whole of it by submitting the oil several times in succession to a +low temperature, when all the menthol crystallizes out from the oil +and falls to the bottom of the vessel. The source of the Japanese +peppermint oil has been stated to be Mentha arvensis, var. javanica. +On examining several specimens of this plant in our national herbaria +I found that the leaves tasted like those of the common garden mint +(Mentha viridis), and not at all like peppermint, and that therefore +the oil and menthol could not possibly be derived from this plant.</p> + +<p>I then asked my friend, Mr. T. Christy, who takes great interest in +medicinal plants, to endeavor to get specimens from Japan of the plant +yielding the oil. After many vain attempts, he at last succeeded in +obtaining live plants. These were cultivated in his garden at Malvern +House, Sydenham, and when they flowered I examined the plant and found +that it differed from other forms of M. arvensis in the taste, in the +acuminate segments of the calyx of the flower, and in the longer leaf +stalks; the leaves also taper more toward the base. Dr. Franchet, the +greatest living authority on Japanese plants, to whom I sent +specimens, confirmed my opinion as to the variety deserving a special +name, and M. Malinvaud, a well known authority on mints, suggested the +name piperascens, which I adopted, calling the plant Mentha arvensis, +var. piperascens. Specimens of the plant kindly lent by Mr. Christy +for the purpose were exhibited by me at an evening meeting of the +Linnæan Society, and by a printer's error in the report of the remarks +then made, the name of the plant appeared in print as Mentha arvensis, +var. purpurascens.</p> + +<p>I trust that the present note, through the medium of <i>The Garden</i>, +will prevent the perpetuation of this error. This is the more +important, as I hope that the plant will come into cultivation in this +country. It is a robust plant of rapid growth, as easily cultivated as +the English peppermint, and seems to require less moisture, and is +therefore capable of cultivation in a great variety of localities. The +increasing demand for menthol, which can only be procured in small +quantities from the English peppermint, and the high price of English +peppermint oil, lead to the hope that instead of importing menthol +from Japan, it will be prepared in this country from the Japanese +plant.</p> + +<p>With the appliances of more advanced civilization, it ought to be +possible for the oil and menthol to be made in this country at less +price than the Japanese products now cost.</p> + +<p>At the present time large quantities of cheap peppermint oil are +imported into this country from the United States, and Chinese oil is +imported into Bombay for use in the Government medical stores. There +is no reason why this should be the case if the Japanese plant were +cultivated in this country. In Ireland, where labor is cheap and the +climate moist, this crop might afford a valuable source of income to +enterprising cultivators. It may be interesting to note here that the +plant used in China closely resembles the Japanese one, differing +chiefly in the narrower and more glabrous leaves. I have therefore +named it Mentha arvensis f. glabrata, from specimens sent to me from +Hong Kong, by Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic Gardens there.</p> + +<p class="signature">E.M. HOLMES.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>GLADIOLUS.</h3> + +<p>The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in +early spring in pots of rich soil placed in heat, the pots being kept +near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants being +gradually hardened to permit their being placed out of doors in a +sheltered spot for the summer. In October they will have ripened off, +and must be taken out of the soil and stored in paper bags in a dry +room secure from frost. They will have made little bulbs, from the +size of a hazel nut downward, according to their vigor. In the +subsequent spring they should be planted like the old bulbs, and the +larger ones will flower during the season, while the smaller specimens +must be again harvested and planted out as above described.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>A catalogue containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at +this office.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>The</h3> + +<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<div class="ctr"><p>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</p></div> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>COMBINED RATES—One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p class="ctr"><b>261 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>PATENTS.</h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 38 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. +Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of all +Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence +of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public +attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or +introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, +free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing +to MUNN & CO.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p> + +<div class="ctr"><p><b>MUNN & CO.. 261 Broadway, New York.</b></p></div> + +<div class="ctr"><p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, Vol. +XV., No. 388, June 9, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 15417-h.htm or 15417-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/4/1/15417/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/15417-h/images/11a.png b/15417-h/images/11a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..970f84c --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/11a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/11b.png b/15417-h/images/11b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1935546 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/11b.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/11c.png b/15417-h/images/11c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..458969d --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/11c.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/11d.png b/15417-h/images/11d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b92a760 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/11d.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/13a.png b/15417-h/images/13a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ba7b7d --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/13a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/13a_th.png b/15417-h/images/13a_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bbd0f99 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/13a_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/13b.png b/15417-h/images/13b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba93cce --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/13b.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/14a.png b/15417-h/images/14a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4527e14 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/14a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/14a_th.png b/15417-h/images/14a_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f84322a --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/14a_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/14b-1.png b/15417-h/images/14b-1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..237e958 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/14b-1.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/14b-2.png b/15417-h/images/14b-2.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d713fbc --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/14b-2.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/14c.png b/15417-h/images/14c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..95f7d04 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/14c.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/14d.png b/15417-h/images/14d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df9fb69 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/14d.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/15a.png b/15417-h/images/15a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..46b9513 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/15a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/15a_th.png b/15417-h/images/15a_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b69cf52 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/15a_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/1a.png b/15417-h/images/1a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca29fa5 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/1a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/1a_th.png b/15417-h/images/1a_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ef5335 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/1a_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/3a.png b/15417-h/images/3a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b18edb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/3a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/3a_th.png b/15417-h/images/3a_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eea626b --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/3a_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/4a.png b/15417-h/images/4a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e4187a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/4a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/4b.png b/15417-h/images/4b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf6cd9b --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/4b.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/4b_th.png b/15417-h/images/4b_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe5ab3a --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/4b_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/4c.png b/15417-h/images/4c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c7bed68 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/4c.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/4c_th.png b/15417-h/images/4c_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c43b2ad --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/4c_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/6a.png b/15417-h/images/6a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..40bab43 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/6a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/6a_th.png b/15417-h/images/6a_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ebdbdb --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/6a_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/6b.png b/15417-h/images/6b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ec2514b --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/6b.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/6c.png b/15417-h/images/6c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b15b05 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/6c.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/7a.png b/15417-h/images/7a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb61d40 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/7a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/7b.png b/15417-h/images/7b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7989ad6 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/7b.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/7c.png b/15417-h/images/7c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..acd07a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/7c.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/8a.png b/15417-h/images/8a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9aa884c --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/8a.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/8b.png b/15417-h/images/8b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0a48434 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/8b.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/8b_th.png b/15417-h/images/8b_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..154f94a --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/8b_th.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/title.png b/15417-h/images/title.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6565fe3 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/title.png diff --git a/15417-h/images/title_th.png b/15417-h/images/title_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eddcd1e --- /dev/null +++ b/15417-h/images/title_th.png diff --git a/15417.txt b/15417.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..298af70 --- /dev/null +++ b/15417.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5080 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XV., +No. 388, June 9, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XV., No. 388, June 9, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 20, 2005 [EBook #15417] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 388 + + + + +NEW YORK, June 9, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XV., No. 388. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ENGINEERING.--Farcot's Improved Woolf Compound Engine.--4 + figures. + + The "Swallow," a New Vehicle. + + Boring an Oil Well. + + A Cement Reservoir.--2 figures. + + "Flying." + + +II. TECHNOLOGY.--Iron and Steel.--By BARNARD SAMUELSON. + The world's production of pig iron.--Wonderful uses and demands + for iron and steel.--Progress of Bessemer steel.--Latest + improvements in iron making.--Honors and rewards to inventors. + --Growth of the Siemens-Martin process.--The future of iron and + steel.--Relations between employers and workmen. + + Machine for Grinding Lithographic Inks and Colors.--1 figure. + + A new Evaporating apparatus.--2 figures. + + Photo Plates.--Wet and Dry. + + Gelatino Bromide Emulsion with Bromide of Zinc. + + The Removal of Ammonia from Crude Gas. + +III. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Hair, its Uses and its Care. + The Influence of Effective Breathing in Delaying the Physical + Changes Incident to the Decline of Life, and in the Prevention + of Pneumonia. Consumption, and Diseases of Women.--By DAVID + WARK. M.D.--Pneumonia.--The true first stage of Consumption. The + development of tubercular matter in the blood.--The value of + cod-liver oil in the prevention of consumption.--The influence + of normal breathing on the female generative organs--Showing how + the breathing powers may be developed.--The effects of adequate + respiration in special cases. + + Vital Discoveries in Obstructed Air and Ventilation. + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--The Portrush Electric Railway, Ireland.--By Dr. + EDWARD HOPKINSON. + + The Thomson-Houston Electric Lighting System.--4 figures. + + A Modification of the Vibrating Bell.--2 figures. + +V. CHEMISTRY.--Acetate of Lime. + + Reconversion of Nitroglycerine into Glycerine. By C.L. BLOXAM. + + Carbonic Acid and Bisulphide of Carbon. By JOHN TYNDALL. + +VI. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.--Propagation of Maple Trees. + + Dioscorea Retusa.--Illustration. + + Ravages of a Rare Scolytid Beetle in the Sugar Maples of + Northeastern New York.--Several figures. + + The Red Spider. 4 figures. + + Japanese Peppermint. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Recent Eruption of Etna. + + The Heloderma Horridum.--Illustration. + + The Kangaroo. + +VIII. ARCHITECTURE.--Design for a Villa.--Illustration. + +IX. BIOGRAPHY.--William Spottiswoode.--Portrait. + +X. MISCELLANEOUS.--Physics without Apparatus.--Illustration. + + The Travels of the Sun. + + + + +FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE. + + +In a preceding article, we have described a ventilator which is in use +at the Decazeville coal mines, and which is capable of furnishing, per +second, 20 cubic meters of air whose pressure must be able to vary +between 30 and 80 millimeters. + +In order to actuate such an apparatus, it was necessary to have a +motor that was possessed of great elasticity, and that nevertheless +presented no complications incompatible with the application that was +to be made of it. + +In the ventilation of mines it has been demonstrated that the +theoretic power in kilogrammes necessary to displace a certain number +of cubic meters of air, at a pressure expressed in millimeters of +water, is obtained by multiplying one number by the other. Applying +this rule to the case of 20 cubic meters under a hydrostatic pressure +of 30 millimeters, we find: + + 20 x 30 = 600 kilogrammeters. + +In the case of a pressure of 80 millimeters, we have: + + 20 x 80 = 1,600 kilogrammeters. + +If we admit a product of 50 per cent., we shall have in the two cases, +for the power actually necessary: + + 600 + ---- = 1,200 kilogrammeters, or 16 H.P. + 0.05 + + 1,600 + ----- = 3,200 kilogrammeters, or 43 H.P. + 0.05 + +Such are the limits within which the power of the motor should be able +to vary. + +After successively examining all the different systems of engines now +in existence, and finding none which, in a plain form, was capable of +fulfilling the conditions imposed, Mr. E.D. Farcot decided to study +out one for himself. Almost from the very beginning of his researches +in this direction, he adopted the Woolf system, which is one that +permits of great variation in the expansion, and one in which the +steam under full pressure acts only upon the small piston. There are +many types of this engine in use, all of which present marked defects. +In one of them, the large cylinder is arranged directly over the small +one so as to have but a single rod for the two pistons; and the two +cylinders have then one bottom in common, which is furnished with a +stuffing-box in which the rod moves. With this arrangement we have but +a single connecting rod and a single crank for the shaft; but, the +stuffing-box not being accessible so that it can be kept in a clean +state, there occur after a time both leakages of steam and entrances +of air. + +Mr. Farcot has further simplified this last named type by suppressing +the intermediate partition, and consequently the stuffing-box. The +engine thus becomes direct acting, that is to say, the steam acts +first upon the lower surface of the small piston during its ascent, +and afterward expands in the large cylinder and exerts its pressure +upon the upper surface of the large piston during its descent. +Moreover, the expansion may be begun in the small cylinder, thanks to +the use of a slide plate distributing valve, devised by the elder +Farcot and slightly modified by the son. + +As the volume comprised between the two pistons varies with the +position of the latter, annoying counter-pressures might result +therefrom had not care been taken to put the chamber in communication +with a reservoir of ten times greater capacity, and which is formed by +the interior of the frame. This brings about an almost constant +counter-pressure. + +The type of motor under consideration, which we represent in the +accompanying plate, is possessed of remarkable simplicity. The number +of parts is reduced to the extremest limits; it works at high speed +without perceptible wear; it does not require those frequent repairs +that many other cheap engines do; and the expansion of the steam is +utilized without occasioning violent shocks in the parts which +transmit motion. Finally, the plainness of the whole apparatus is +perfectly in accordance with the uses for which it was devised. + +[Illustration: FARCOT'S IMPROVED WOOLF COMPOUND ENGINE.] + +_Details of Construction._--Figs. 1 and 2 represent the motor in +vertical section made in the direction of two planes at right angles. +Figs. 3 and 4 are horizontal sections made respectively in the +direction of the lines 1-2 and 3-4. + +The frame, which is of cast iron and entirely hollow, consists of two +uprights, B, connected at their upper part by a sort of cap, B¹, which +is cast in a piece with the two cylinders, C and _c_. The whole rests +upon a base, B squared, which is itself bolted to the masonry foundation. + +Each of the uprights is provided internally with projecting pieces for +receiving the guides between which slides the cross-head, _g_, of the +piston rod. The slides terminate in two lubricating cups designed for +oiling the surfaces submitted to friction. + +The cross-head carries two bearings, _g¹_, to which is jointed the +forked extremity, D, of the connecting rod, whose opposite extremity +receives a strap that embraces the cranked end of the driving shaft, +A. It will be remarked that the crank, A¹, and the bearings, _g¹_, +are very long. The end the inventor had in view in constructing them +thus was to diminish friction. + +To the shaft, A, are keyed the coupling disks, Q, which are cast solid +at a portion of their circumference situated at 180 deg. with respect to +the parts, A squared, of the cranked shaft, the object of this being to +balance the latter as well as a portion of the connecting rod, D. + +The shaft, A, also receives the eccentric, E, of the slide valve, the +rod, _e_, of which is jointed to the slide valve rod through the +intermedium of a cross-head, _e¹_, analogous to that of the pistons, +and which, like the latter, runs on guides held by the support, b. + +The two pistons, _p_ and P, are mounted very simply on the rod, T, as +shown in Fig. 1, and slide in cylinders, _c_ and C, whose diameters +are respectively equal to 270 and 470 millimeters. + +The slide valve box, F, is bolted to the cap-piece, B¹, as seen in +Fig. 4. As for the slide valve, _t_, its arrangement may be +distinguished in section in Fig. 2. Its eccentric is keyed at 170 deg. so +as to admit steam into the small cylinder during the entire travel, +which latter is 470 mm. + +To permit of the expansion beginning in the small cylinder, Mr. Farcot +has added a sliding plate, _t¹_, which abuts at every stroke against +the stops, _s_. These latter are affixed to the rod, S, whose lower +extremity is threaded, and which may be moved vertically, as slightly +as may be desired, through the medium of the pinions, S¹, when the +hand-wheel, V, is revolved. A datum point, _v_, and a graduated +socket, _v¹_, allow the position of the stops, _s_, and consequently +the degree of expansion, to be known. + +Steam is introduced into the small cylinder through the conduit, _i_, +and its passage into the large one is effected through the conduit, +_f_. The escape into the interior of the frame is effected, after +expansion, through the horizontal conduit, _h_. The pipe, H, leads +this exhaust steam to the open air. + +The pipe, I, leads steam into the jacket, C¹, of the large cylinder, +this latter being provided in addition with a casing of wood, C squared, so +as to completely prevent chilling. + +The regulator, R, is after the Buess pattern, and is set in motion by a +belt which runs over the pulleys, _a_ and _a¹_. It is mounted upon a +distributing box, R¹, to which steam is led from the boiler by the +pipe, _r¹_. After traversing this box, the steam enters the slide +valve box through the pipe, _r squared_, its admission thereto being +regulated by the hand-wheel, R squared, which likewise serves for stopping +the engine. + +The cocks, _x_, are fixed at the base of the uprights, B, for drawing +from the frame the condensed water that has accumulated therein. + +The lubricating apparatus, V, which communicates, through the tube, +_u_, with the steam port, _r¹_, permits oil to be sent to the large +and small cylinders through the tubes, _u¹_ and _u squared_. + +Mr. Farcot has recently adapted this type of motor to the direct +running of electric machines that are required to make 400 revolutions +per minute.--_Publication Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IRON AND STEEL. + + +At the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, London, the +president-elect (Mr. Bernard Samuelson, M.P.), delivered the following +inaugural address: + + +THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON. + +He showed that the world's production of pig iron has increased in +round numbers from 10,500,000 tons in 1869 to 20,500,000 tons in 1882. +The blast furnaces of 1869 produced on the average a little over 180 +tons per week, with a temperature of blast scarcely exceeding 800 deg. +Fahr. The consumption of coke per ton of iron varied from 25 to 30 +cwt. To-day our blast furnaces produce on the average upward of 300 +tons per week. + +The Consett Company have reached a production of 3,400 tons in four +weeks, or 850 tons per week, and of 134 tons in one day from a single +furnace. + +From the United States we have authentic accounts of an average +production of 1,120 tons per furnace per week having been attained, +and that even this great output has lately been considerably exceeded +there. Both as to consumption of fuel and wear and tear, per ton of +iron produced, these enormous outputs are attended with economy. + + +HEAT OF THE BLAST. + +In the case of the Consett furnace they were obtained although the +heat of the blast was under 1,100 deg. Fahr., while heats of 1,500 deg. to +1,600 deg. are not uncommon at the present day in brick stoves, thanks to +the application of the regenerating principle of ex-president Sir W. +Siemens. + +But an economy which promises to be of great importance is now sought +in the recovery and useful application of those constituents of coal +which, in the coking process, have hitherto been lost; or, as an +alternative, in a similar recovery in those cases in which the coal is +charged in a raw state into the blast furnace, as is the practice in +Scotland and elsewhere. This recovery of the hydrocarbons and the +nitrogen contained in the coal, and their collection as tar and +ammoniacal liquors, and subsequent conversion into sulphate of ammonia +as to the latter, and into the various light and heavy paraffin oils +and the residual pitch as to the former, have now been carried on for +a considerable time at two of the Gartsherrie furnaces; and they are +already engaged in applying the necessary apparatus to eight more +furnaces. In the coke oven the recovery of these by-products--if that +name can be properly applied to substances which yield the most +brilliant colors, the purest illuminants, and the flesh-forming +constituents supplied by the vegetable world--would appear at first +sight to be simpler; but it has presented its own peculiar +difficulties; the chief of which was, or was believed to be, a +deterioration in the quality of what has hitherto been the principal, +but what may, perhaps, come to be regarded hereafter as the residual +product, namely, the coke. But the more recent experience of Messrs. +Pease, at Crook, appears not to justify this opinion. You will see on +our table specimens of the coke produced in the Carves-Simon oven, +yielding 75 to 77 per cent. of coke from the Pease's West coal, which +they have now had at work for several months. Twenty-five of these +ovens are at work, and the average yield of ammoniacal liquor per ton +of coal has been 30 gallons of a strength of 7 deg. Twaddell, valued at +1d. per gallon at the ovens; the quantity of tar per ton has been 7 +gallons, valued at 3d. per gallon. These products would therefore +realize 4s. 3d. per ton of coal. Of course the profit on the ton of +coke is considerably more, and to this has to be added the value of +the additional weight of coke, which in the ordinary beehive ovens +from coal of the same quality is only 60 per cent. or in beehive ovens +having bottom flues about 66 per cent., while in the Carves ovens it +is, as I have said, upward of 75 per cent. Against these figures there +is a charge of 1s. 4d. per ton of coke for additional labor, including +all the labor in collecting the by-products; the interest on the first +cost of the plant, which is considerable, and probably some outlay for +repairs in excess of that in the case of ordinary ovens, has also to +be charged. Mr. Jameson takes credit for the combustible gas, which is +used up in the Carves ovens, but which remains over in his process, +and is available, though not nearly all consumed, in raising steam for +the various purposes of a colliery, including, no doubt, before long, +the generation of electricity for its illumination. It is right to +state that prior to 1879 Mr. Henry Aitken had applied bottom flues for +taking off the oil and ammoniacal water to beehive ovens at the Almond +Ironworks, near Falkirk. He states that the largest quantity of oil +obtained was eleven gallons, the specific gravity varying from 0.925 +to 1.000, and that the water contained a quantity of ammonia fully +equal to 51/2 lb. of sulphate of ammonia to the ton of coal coked. The +residual permanent or non-condensed gases were allowed to issue from +the end of the condenser pipe, and were burnt for light in the +engine-houses, but it was intended to force them into the oven again +above the level of the coke. Owing to the works being closed, nothing +has been done with these ovens for some years. I may mention, by the +way, that it is proposed to apply the principle of Mr. Jameson's +process to the recovery of oil and ammonia from the smouldering waste +heaps at the pit-bank, by the introduction into these of conduits +resembling those which he applies to the bottom of the beehive oven. +There is every reason to expect that one or more of these various +methods of utilizing valuable products which are at present lost will +be carried to perfection, and will tend to cheapen the cost at which +iron can be produced, and still further to increase its consumption +for all the multifarious purposes to which it is applied. + + +WONDERFUL USES AND DEMAND FOR IRON AND STEEL. + +But the world's annual production of 20,000,000 tons of pig iron is +itself sufficiently startling, and without attempting to present to +you the statistics of all its various uses--for which, in fact, we do +not possess the necessary materials--the increased consumption of more +than 9,000,000 tons since 1869 becomes conceivable when we consider +how some of the great works in which it is employed have been +extending during that or even a shorter interval. And of these I need +only speak of the world's railways, of which there were in 1872 +155,000 miles, and in 1882 not less than 260,000, but probably more +nearly 265,000 miles. In the United States alone about 60,000 miles +of railway have been built since 1869--the year, I may remind you in +passing, in which the Atlantic and Pacific States of the Union were +first united by a railway; while in our Indian Empire the +communication between Calcutta and Bombay was not completed till the +following year. + +The substitution of iron and steel for wood in the construction of +ships, and the enormous increase in the tonnage of the world, in spite +of the economy arising from the employment of steamers in place of +sailing ships, is perhaps the element of increased consumption next in +importance to that of railways. I do not think that the materials are +available for estimating with any accuracy the amount of this +increase, but I believe I am rather understating it if I take the +consumption of iron and steel used last year throughout the world in +shipbuilding as having required considerably more than 1,000,000 tons +of pig iron for its production, and that this is not far short of four +times the quantity used for the same purpose before 1870. And so all +the other great works in which iron and steel are employed have +increased throughout the world. It would be tedious to indicate them +all. + +Among those which rank next in importance to the preceding, I will +only name the works for the distribution of water and gas, which in +this country and in the United States have been extended in a ratio +far greater than that of the increase of the population, and which, +since the conclusion of the Franco-German war, and the consolidation +of the German and Italian States, are now to be found in almost every +European town of even secondary importance; and bridges and piers, in +the construction of which iron has almost entirely superseded every +other material. + +It is difficult to imagine what would have been the state of the iron +industry in this country if we had been called upon to supply our full +proportion of the enormously increased demand for iron. To meet that +proportion, the British production of pig iron should have been close +on 11,000,000 tons in 1882, a drain on our mineral resources which +cannot be replaced, and which, especially if continued in the same +ratio, would have been anything but desirable. Fortunately, as I am +disposed to think, other countries have contributed more than a +proportionate amount to the increase in the world's demand; and, +paradoxical as it may appear, it is possible that, to this country at +least, the encouragement given by protective duties to the production +of iron abroad may have been a blessing in disguise. + + +PROGRESS OF BESSEMER STEEL. + +To speak of the enormous increase in the production of steel by the +introduction of the Bessemer process has become a commonplace on +occasions like the present, and yet I doubt whether its real +dimensions are generally known or remembered. In 1869 the manufacture +of Bessemer steel had already acquired what was then looked upon as a +considerable development in all the principal centers of metallurgical +industry, except the United States, but including our own country, +Germany, France, and Austria, and the world's production in that year +was 400,000 tons. Last year it was over 5,000,000 tons, and it has +doubled in every steel-producing country during the last four years, +except in France, where, during this latter period, the increase has +not been much more than one-fourth. What is almost as remarkable as +the enormous increase in the production of Bessemer steel is the great +diminution in its cost. In the years preceding 1875, the price of +rails manufactured from Bessemer ingots fluctuated between L10 and L18 +per ton, and I remember Lord George Hamilton when he was +Under-Secretary for India of Lord Beaconsfield's administration in +1875 or 1876, congratulating himself on his good fortune in having +been able to secure a quantity of steel rails for the Indian +government at L13 per ton. Within the last three years we have seen +them sold under L4 10s. in this country, and L5 10s. in Germany and +Belgium. + + +LATEST IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MAKING. + +This great reduction is the cumulative result of a number of +concurrent improvements, partly in the conversion of the iron, and +partly in the subsequent treatment of the ingot steel. In most of the +great steelworks the iron is no longer remelted, but is transferred +direct from the blast furnace to the converter, a practice which +originated at Terre-Noire, and was long considered in this country to +be incompatible with uniformity in the quality of the steel produced. +The turn-out of the converter plant has been gradually increased in +this country to more than four times that of fourteen years ago, while +the practice of the United States is stated by a recent visitor to +have reached such an astounding figure that I am afraid to quote it +without confirmation; but the greatest economy arises no doubt in the +labor and fuel employed in the mill. + +Cogging has taken the place of hammering. Even wash-heating will be, +if it is not already, generally dispensed with by the soaking process +of our colleague, Mr. Gjers, which permits of the ingot, as it leaves +the pit, being directly converted into a rail. + + +STEEL RAILS 150 FEET LONG. + +An extract from a letter addressed to me by our colleague, Mr. E.W. +Richards, will describe better than any words of mine the perfection +at which steel rail mills have arrived. He says, "Our cogging rolls +are 48 in. diameter, and the roughing and finishing rolls are 30 in. +diameter. We roll rails 150 feet long as easily as they used to roll +21 feet. Our ingots are 151/2 inches square, and weigh from 25 to 30 +cwts. according to the weight of rail we have to roll. These heavy +ingots are all handled by machinery. We convey them by small +locomotives from the Bessemer shop to the heating furnaces, and by the +same means from the heating furnaces to the cogging rolls. + +So quickly are these ingots now handled that we have given up second +heating altogether, so that after one heat the ingot is cogged from +151/2 inches square down to 8 inches square, then at once passed on to +the roughing and finishing rolls, and finished in lengths, as I have +said before, of 150 ft., then cut at the hot saws to the lengths given +in the specifications, and varying from 38 ft. to about 21 ft. The 38 +ft. lengths are used by the Italian 'Meridionali' Railway Company, and +found to give very satisfactory results." I need scarcely say that in +a mill like this, the expenditure of fuel and labor and the loss by +waste caused by crop ends are reduced to a minimum. + + +BASIC STEEL. + +The enormous production of steel has required the importation of large +quantities of iron ore of pure quality from Spain, Algeria, and +elsewhere, into this country, France, Belgium, Germany, and the United +States; and these supplies have contributed greatly to the reduction +in the price of steel to which I have referred, and what is, perhaps, +of equal importance, they have prevented the great fluctuations of +price which formerly prevailed. In 1869 this trade was in its infancy, +and almost confined to the importation of the Algerian ores of Mokta +el Hadid into France, while in 1882 Bilbao alone exported 3,700,000 +tons of hematite ores to various countries to which the exports from +the south of Spain, Algeria, Elba, Greece, and other countries have to +be added. Great Britain alone imported 3,000,000 tons of high class, +including manganiferous iron ores last year. + +It is questionable whether the mines of pure iron existing in Europe +would long bear a drain so great and still increasing; but happily the +question no longer presses for an answer, because the problem of +obtaining first-class steel from inferior ores has been solved by the +genius of our colleagues, Mr. Snelus and Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist, +and by the practical skill and indomitable resolution of Mr. Windsor +Richards. It is no part of the duty of the Institute to assign to each +of these gentlemen his precise share in the development of the basic +process. Whatever those shares may be, I feel sure you will agree with +your council as to the propriety of their having awarded a Bessemer +medal to two of these gentlemen--Messrs. Snelus and Thomas--to Mr. +Snelus as the first who made pure steel from impure iron in a Bessemer +converter lined with basic materials; to Mr. Thomas, who solved the +same problem independently, and so clearly demonstrated its +practicability to Mr. Richards by the trials at Blaenavon, as to have +led that gentleman to devote all his energies and the great resources +of the Eston Works to the task of making it what it now is, a great +commercial success. All difficulties connected with the lining of the +converter and in insuring a durability of the bottom, nearly, if not +quite, equal to that in the acid process, appear now to have been +successfully surmounted, and I am informed by Mr. Gilchrist that the +present production of basic steel in this country and on the Continent +is already at the rate of considerably more than 500,000 tons per +annum, and that works are now in course of construction which will +increase this quantity to more than a million tons. + +Our members will have the opportunity of seeing the process at work +during their visit to Middlesbrough, at the Eston Works of Messrs. +Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., which are now producing 150,000 tons per annum +of steel of the highest quality from the phosphoretic Cleveland ores; +and also at the North-Eastern Steel Company's Works. I believe it is +the intention of the latter company to make a pure, soft steel +suitable for plates, for which, according to the testimony of Mons. +Delafond, of Creuzot, and others, the basic steel is peculiarly +suitable on account of its remarkable regularity. I shall have the +pleasure of presenting to Mr. Snelus the medal which he has so well +deserved. + + +HONORS AND REWARDS TO INVENTORS. + +The presentation to Mr. Thomas is deferred. His arduous labors having +affected his health, he is at present in Australia, after having, I am +happy to say, received great advantage from the voyage; and his +mother, justly proud of his merits, and appreciating fully the value +of their recognition by the award which we have made, has requested us +not to present the medal by proxy, but to await the return of her son, +in order that it may be handed to him in person. But honors, whether +conferred by the Crown, by learned bodies, or, as in this case, by the +colleagues of the recipient, though they stimulate invention, are by +themselves not always sufficient to encourage inventors to devote +their labor to the improvements of manufactures or to induce +capitalists to assist inventors in the prosecution of costly +experiments; and it is on this account that the protection of +inventions by patent is a public advantage. The members of our +profession, unlike some others, have not been eager to apply for +patents in the case of minor inventions; on the contrary, they have +freely communicated to each other the experience as to improvement in +detail which have resulted from their daily practice. It has been well +said that all the world is wiser than any one man in it, and this free +interchange of our various experiences has tended greatly to the +advancement of our trade. But new departures, like the great invention +of Sir H. Bessemer, and important improvements like the basic process, +require the protection of patents for their development. + + +THE PATENT LAWS. + +The subject of the patent laws is, therefore, of interest to us, as it +is to other manufacturers. You are aware that the Government has +introduced a bill for amending these laws. If that bill should pass, +it will effect several important changes. It will, in the first place, +enable a poor man to obtain protection for an invention at a small +cost; secondly, it will make it more difficult than at present for a +merely pretended invention to obtain the protection and prestige of a +patent; thirdly, it will promote the amalgamation of mutually +interdependent inventions by the clause which compels patentees to +grant licenses; and, lastly, it will enable the Government to enter +into treaties with other powers for the international protection of +inventions. If you should be of opinion that these are objects +deserving of your support, I hope that you will induce your +representatives in the House of Commons to do all that is in their +power to assist the Government in passing them into law. + + +GROWTH OF THE SIEMENS-MARTIN PROCESS. + +The growth of the open hearth or what is known as the Siemens-Martin +process of making steel, during the interval from 1869 to the present +time, has been no less remarkable than that of the Bessemer process; +for though it has not attained the enormous dimensions of the latter, +it has risen from smaller beginnings. Mr. Ramsbottom started a small +open-hearth plant at the Crewe Works of the London and North-Western +Railway, in 1868, for making railway tires, and the Landore Works were +begun by Sir W. Siemens in the same year. On the Continent there were +a few furnaces at the works of M. Emile Martin, at the Firming Works, +and at Le Creuzot. None of these works, I believe, possessed furnaces +before 1870, capable of containing more than four-ton charges, +ordinarily worked off twice in twenty-four hours. The ingots weighed +about 6 cwt., and the largest steel casting made by this process, of +which I can find any account, did not exceed 10 cwt. At the present +day, we have furnaces of a capacity of from 15 to 25 tons, and by +combining several furnaces, single ingots weighing from 120 to 125 +tons have been produced at Le Creuzot. The world's production of +open-hearth steel ingots for ship and boiler plates, propeller shafts, +ordnance, wheels and axles, wire billets, armor plates, castings of +various kinds, and a multiplicity of other articles, cannot have been +less than from 800,000 to 850,000 tons in 1882. + +The process itself has followed two somewhat dissimilar lines. In this +country, iron ores of a pure quality are dissolved in a bath of pig +iron, with the addition of only small quantities of scrap steel and +iron. At Le Creuzot large quantities of wrought iron are melted in +the bath. This iron is puddled in modified rotating Danks furnaces +containing a charge of a ton each. The furnaces have a mid-rib +dividing the product into two balls of 10 cwt., which are shingled +under a 10-ton hammer. The iron is of exceptional purity, containing +less than 0.01 per cent. of phosphorus and sulphur. I should add that +the two rotating furnaces produce 50 tons of billets in twenty-four +hours. + + +PRESENT PRODUCTION OF WROUGHT IRON. + +Meanwhile, the world's production of wrought iron has not been +stationary. I cannot give very accurate figures, as the statistics of +some countries are incomplete, while in others the output of puddled +bar only, and not that of finished iron, has been ascertained. The +nearest estimate which I can arrive at is a production increased from +about 5,000,000 tons in 1869 to somewhat over 8,000,000 tons of +finished iron in 1882; an increase all the more remarkable when it is +considered that at the present time iron rails have been almost +entirely superseded by steel. It is due, no doubt, in part to the +extensive use of iron plates and angles in shipbuilding; but, apart +from these, and from bars for the manufacture of tin-plates, the +consumption has increased for the numberless purposes to which it is +applied in the world's economy. + + +PROGRESS OF PUDDLING. + +There has been no striking improvement in the manufacture of puddled +iron, partly on account of the impression that it is doomed to be +superseded by steel. Mechanical puddling has made but little progress, +and few of the attempts to economize fuel in the puddling furnace, by +the use of gas or otherwise, have been successful. I would, however, +draw attention to the remarkable success which has attended the use of +the Bicheroux gas puddling and heating furnaces at the works of +Ougree, near Liege. The works produce 20,000 tons of puddled bars per +annum, in fifteen double furnaces. The consumption of coal per ton of +ordinary puddled bar is under 11 cwt., and per ton of "fer a fin +grain" (puddled steel, etc.) 16 cwt. The gas is produced from slack, +and the waste heat raises as much steam as that from an ordinary +double furnace. The consumption of pig iron per ton of puddled bar was +rather less than 211/2 cwts. for the year 1882; and that of "mine" for +fettling was 33 lb. The repairs are said to be considerably less than +in the ordinary furnaces, and the puddlers earn from 25 to 30 per +cent. more at the same tonnage rate. I have already mentioned the +large consumption, reckoned in tons of pig iron, of the materials for +shipbuilding. + + +GROSS OF IRON AND STEEL SHIP BUILDING. + +It may be useful to add that the gross tonnage of iron vessels classed +during 1882 by the three societies of Lloyd's, the Liverpool Registry, +and the Bureau Veritas was 1,142,000, and of steel 143,000 tons, and +that the proportion of steel to iron vessels is increasing from year +to year. I am informed by our colleague, Mr. Pearce, of Messrs. +Elder's firm, that the largest vessel built by them in 1869 was an +iron steamer, of 3,063 tons gross, with compound engines of 3,000 +horse power, working at 60 lb. pressure; speed, 14 knots. + + +A GIGANTIC STEAMER. + +The largest vessel now on the ways is the Oregon, of 7,400 tons gross, +and 13,000 horse power; estimated speed, 18 knots. The superficial +area of the largest plates in the former was 221/2 square feet; that of +the largest plate in the latter is 206 square feet. The Oregon is an +iron vessel, but some of the largest vessels now being built by Mr. +Pearce's firm are of steel. + +The information which I have obtained from Messrs. Thomson, of +Glasgow, is especially emphatic as to the supersession of iron by +steel in the construction of ships. They say that large steel plates +are as cheap as iron ones, and that they have never had one bad plate +or angle in steel. This is confirmed by Mr. Denny, who says: "Whenever +our shipwrights or smiths have to turn out anything particularly +difficult in shape, and on which much 'work' has to be put, they will +get hold of a piece of steel if they can." + + +REMARKABLE MACHINERY AND TOOLS. + +It will be readily understood that the rolls, the hammers, the +machinery for punching, drilling, planing, etc., used in the +manufacture and preparation of plates and angles for shipbuilding and +armor plates are on a scale far different at the present date from +what they were in 1869. Perhaps the most striking examples of powerful +machinery for these purposes are the great Creuzot hammer, the falling +mass of which has recently been increased to 100 tons, and the new +planing machines at the Cyclops Works, which weigh upward of 140 tons +each, for planing compound armor plates 19 in. thick and weighing 57 +tons. + + +THE FUTURE OF IRON AND STEEL. + +Some of the eminent men who have preceded me in this chair have made +their inaugural address the occasion for a forecast of the +improvements in practice and the developments in area of the great +industry in which we are engaged. Several of these forecasts have been +verified by the results; in other cases they have proved to be +mistaken; nor need this excite surprise. I believe that few would have +predicted, when the consideration of the subject was somewhat +unfortunately deferred through want of time at our Paris meeting of +1878, that the basic process would so speedily prove itself to be of +such paramount value as we now know it to possess. On the other hand, +the extinction of the old puddling process has long been the favorite +topic of one of our most practical ex-presidents, and I have shown you +by figures that the process is not only not yet dead, but that the +manufacture of wrought iron is actually flourishing side by side with +that of its younger brother, steel. How much longer this may continue +to be the case it would not be easy to foretell, but there can be +little doubt that, just as for rails steel has superseded iron as +being cheaper and vastly more durable, so it will be in regard to +plates for constructive purposes, and especially for shipbuilding. It +is now an ascertained fact that steel ships are as cheap, ton for ton +of carrying capacity, as iron ones, and it is probable that as the +demand for, and consequently the production of, steel plates +increases, steel ships will become cheaper than those built of iron; +but, what is more important, they have been proved to be safer, and no +time can long elapse before this will tell on the premiums of +insurance. Steel forgings also are superseding, and must to an +increasing extent, supersede iron; while it is probable that the +former will in their turn be replaced for many purposes by the +beautiful solid steel castings which are now being produced by the +Terre-Noire Company in France, the Steel Company of Scotland, and +other manufacturers, by the Siemens-Martin process. On this subject I +believe Mr. Parker can give us valuable information; and on a cognate +branch, namely, the production of steel castings from the Bessemer +converter, an interesting paper will be submitted to us by Mr. Allen +at our present meeting. + +I may here mention incidentally, that I have of late had occasion to +make trials on a considerable scale of edge tools made from Bessemer +steel, which show that, except perhaps in the case of the finest +cutlery, there is no longer any occasion to resort to the crucible for +the production of this quality of steel. + + +RAILWAY DEMAND FOR IRON AND STEEL. + +But it is in the further development of the world's railways that we +must mainly look in the future, as in the past, for the support of our +trade. In India the railway between Calcutta and Bombay was only +completed in 1870, and at the present time, with a population of +250,000,000, it has less than 10,000 miles of railway, while the +United States, with only 50,000,000, possesses more than 100,000 +miles. In other words, the United States have fifty times as many +miles of railway in relation to the population as India. Even Russia +in Europe has 14,000 miles, or, in relation to its population, nearly +five times as great a mileage as our Indian Empire; and the existing +Indian railways are so successful pecuniarily, and give such promise +of contributing to the wealth of the Indian people--or perhaps it +would be more just to say, of rescuing them from their present state +of poverty and depression--that it should be the aim of those who are +responsible for the well-being of our great dependency to give to its +railways the utmost and most rapid development. + +As to the United States themselves, I look upon their railways as a +little more than the main arteries from which an indefinitely large +circulating system will branch out. Besides these countries I need +only allude to the Dominion of Canada, whose vast territory bids fair +to rival that of the United States in agricultural importance, to our +Australian colonies, to Brazil, and other countries in which railways +are still comparatively in their infancy, to show that, quite apart +from the renewal of existing lines, the world's manufacture of rails +has an enormous future before it. + + +RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN. + +I look on the excellent feeling which happily prevails between the +employers and the workmen in our great industry as another of the most +important elements of its future prosperity. It confers honor on all +concerned that by our Boards of Conciliation and Arbitration, ruinous +strikes, and even momentary suspensions of labor, are avoided; and +still more that masters like our esteemed Treasurer, Mr. David Dale, +should deserve, and that large bodies of workmen should have the +manliness and discernment to bestow on him, the confidence implied in +choosing him so frequently as an arbitrator. I believe that similar +friendly relations exist in some, at any rate, of the other great +centers of the iron and steel industries, and that although our +methods may not be adapted to the habits of all, there is no country +in which some way does not exist, or may not be found, to avoid those +contests which were so fatal to our prosperity in former days. Lastly +I regard as one of the most hopeful signs of the future the increased +estimate of the value of science entertained by our practical men. In +this respect we may claim with pride that the Iron and Steel Institute +has been the pioneer, at any rate, so far as this country is +concerned. But the conviction that the elements of science should be +placed within the reach of those who occupy a humbler position in the +industrial hierarchy than we do who are assembled here is rapidly +spreading among us. The iron manufacturers of Westphalia have been the +first to found an institution in which the intelligent and ambitious +ironworker can qualify himself by study for a higher position, and I +hope when this Institute visits Middlesbrough in the autumn, some +progress will have been made in that locality toward the establishment +of a similar school. Other districts will doubtless follow, and the +result will be, to quote the words of Sir W. Siemens on a late +occasion, that "by the dissemination of science a higher spirit will +take possession of our artisans; that they will work with the object +of obtaining higher results, instead of only discussing questions of +wages." It is on the mutual co-operation in this spirit of all the +workers of every grade in our great craft that we may build the +hope--nay, that we may even cherish the certain expectation--of +placing it on even a higher eminence than that which it has already +attained. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "SWALLOW," A NEW VEHICLE. + + +The graceful vehicle shown in the accompanying cut is much used in +Poland and Russia, and we believe that it has already made its +appearance at Paris. The builder is Mr. Henri Barycki, of Warsaw, who +has very skillfully utilized a few very curious mechanical principles +in it. + +[Illustration: THE SWALLOW.] + +The driver's seat is fixed in the interior of a wide ring to which are +fastened the shafts. This ring revolves, by the aid of three pulleys +or small wheels, within the large ring resting on the ground. It will +be seen that when the horse is drawing the vehicle, the friction of +this large wheel against the ground being greater than that of the +concentric one within it, the latter will revolve until the center of +gravity of the whole is situated anew in a line vertical to the point +at which it bears on the ground. The result of such an arrangement is +that the driver rolls on the large wheel just as he would do on the +surface of an endless rail. As may be conceived, the tractive stress +is, as a consequence, considerably diminished. + +There are two side wheels which are connected by a flexible axle to +the seat of the carriage, but these have no other purpose than that of +preventing the affair from turning to one side or the other. + +The "swallow," for so it is named, is made entirely of steel and +wrought iron. It is very easily kept clean; the horse can be harnessed +to it in three minutes; and, aside from its uses for pleasure, it is +capable of being utilized in numerous ways.--_La Nature_. + +[Our excellent contemporary, _La Nature_, is mistaken in its account +of the above vehicle. It is an American invention and was first +published, with engraving, in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, December 16, +1882.] + + * * * * * + + + + +BORING AN OIL WELL. + +HOW THE HOLE WAS MADE AND THE OIL BROUGHT UP. + + +A letter from Bradford, Pa., says: The machinery used in boring one of +these deep oil wells, while simple enough in itself, requires nice +adjustment and skill in operating. First comes the derrick, sixty feet +high, crowned by a massive pulley. + +The derrick is a most essential part of the mechanism, and its shape +and height are needed in handling the long rods, piping, casting, and +other fittings which have to be inserted perpendicularly. The borer or +drill used is not much different from the ordinary hand arm of the +stone cutters, and the blade is exactly the same, but is of massive +size, three or four inches across, about four feet long, and weighing +100 or 200 pounds. A long solid rod, some thirty feet long, three +inches in diameter, and called the "stem," is screwed on the drill. +This stem weighs almost a ton, and its weight is the hammer relied on +for driving the drill through dirt and rock. Next come the "jars," two +long loose links of hardened iron playing along each other about a +foot. + +The object of the jars is to raise the drill with a shock, so as to +detach it when so tightly fixed that a steady pull would break the +machinery. The upper part of the two jars is solidly welded to another +long rod called the sinker bar, to the upper end of which, in turn, is +attached the rope leading up to the derrick pulley, and thence to a +stationary steam engine. In boring, the stem and drill are raised a +foot or two, dropped, then raised with a shock by the jars, and the +operation repeated. + +If I may hazard a further illustration of the internal boring +machinery of the well, let the reader link loosely together the thumbs +and forefingers of his two hands, then bring his forearms into a +straight line. Conceiving this line to be a perpendicular one, the +point of one elbow would represent the drill blade, the adjacent +forearm and hand the stem, the linked finger the jars, and the other +hand and forearm the sinker bar, with the derrick cord attached at a +point represented by the second elbow. By remembering the immense and +concentrated weight of the upright drill and stem, the tremendous +force of even a short fall may be conceived. The drill will bore many +feet in a single day through solid rock, and a few hours sometimes +suffices to force it fifty feet through dirt or gravel. When the +debris accumulates too thickly around the drill, the latter is drawn +up rapidly. The debris has previously been reduced to mud by keeping +the drill surrounded by water. A sand pump, not unlike an ordinary +syringe, is then let down, the mud sucked up, lifted, and then the +drill sent down to begin its pounding anew. Great deftness and +experience are needed to work the drill without breaking the jars or +connected machinery, and, in case of accident, there are grapples, +hooks, knives, and other devices without number, to be used in +recovering lost drills, cutting the rope, and other emergencies, the +briefest explanation of which would exceed the limits of this letter. + +The exciting moment in boring a well is when a drill is penetrating +the upper covering of sand rock which overlies the oil. The force with +which the compressed gas and petroleum rushes upward almost surpasses +belief. Drill, jars, and sinker bar are sometimes shot out along with +debris, oil, and hissing gas. Sometimes this gas and oil take fire, +and last summer one of the wells thus ignited burned so fiercely that +a number of days elapsed before the flames could be extinguished. More +often the tankage provided is insufficient, and thousands of barrels +escape. Two or three years ago, at the height of the oil production of +the Bradford region, 8,000 barrels a day were thus running to waste. +But those halcyon days of Bradford have gone forever. Although +nineteen-twentieths of the wells sunk in this region "struck" oil and +flowed freely, most of them now flow sluggishly or have to be "pumped" +two or three times a week. + +"Piping" and "casing," terms substantially identical, and meaning the +lining of the well with iron pipe several inches in the interior +diameter, complete the labor of boring. The well, if a good flowing +one, does all the rest of the work itself, forcing the fluid into the +local tanks, whence it is distributed into the tanks of the pipe-line +companies, and is carried from them to the refineries. The pipe lines +now reach from the oil regions to the seaboard, carrying the petroleum +over hill and valley, hundreds of miles to tide-water. + + * * * * * + + + + +A CEMENT RESERVOIR. + + +The annexed figures represent, on a scale of 1 to 50, a plan and +vertical section of a reservoir of beton, 11 cubic meters in capacity, +designed for the storage of drinking water and for collecting the +overflow of a canal. The volume of beton employed in its construction +was 0.9 cubic meter per cubic meter of water to be stored. The inner +walls were covered with a layer of cement to insure of tightness. + +[Illustration: A CEMENT RESERVOIR.] + +T is the inlet pipe, with a diameter of 0.08 m. + +T' is the distributing pipe, and T" is the waste pipe.--_Annales des +Travaux Publics_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS AND COLORS. + + +The grinding of the inks and colors that are employed in lithographing +is a long and delicate operation, which it has scarcely been possible +up to the present time to perform satisfactorily otherwise than by +hand, because of the perfect mixture that it is necessary to obtain in +the materials employed. + +Per contra, this manual work, while it has the advantage of giving a +very homogeneous product, offers the inconvenience of taking a long +time and being costly. The Alauzet machine, shown in the accompanying +cut, is designed to perform this work mechanically. + +[Illustration: ALAUZET'S MACHINE FOR GRINDING LITHOGRAPHIC INKS.] + +The apparatus consists of a flat, cast iron, rectangular frame, +resting upon a wooden base which forms a closet. In a longitudinal +direction there is mounted on the machine a rectangular guide, along +which travel two iron slides in the shape of a reversed U, which make +part of two smaller carriers that are loaded with weights, and to +which are fixed cast-steel mullers. + +At the center of the frame there is fixed a support which carries a +train of gear wheels which is set in motion by a pulley and belt. +These wheels serve to communicate a backward and forward motion, +longitudinally, to the mullers through the intermedium of a winch, and +a backward and forward motion transversely to two granite tables on +which is placed the ink or color to be ground. This last-named motion +is effected by means of a bevel pinion which is keyed to the same axle +as the large gear wheel, and which actuates a heart wheel--this latter +being adjusted in a horizontal frame which is itself connected to the +cast iron plate into which the tables are set. + +This machine, which is 2 meters in length by 1 meter in width, +requires a one-third horse power to actuate it. It weighs altogether +about 800 kilogrammes.--_Annales Industrielles._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW EVAPORATING APPARATUS. + + +At a recent meeting of the _Societe Industrielle_ of Elbeuf, Mr. L. +Quidet described an apparatus that he had, with the aid of Mr. Perre, +invented for evaporating juices. + +In this new apparatus a happy application is made of those pipes with +radiating disks that have for some time been advantageously employed +for heating purposes. In addition to this it is so constructed as to +give the best of results as regards evaporation, thanks to the lengthy +travel that the current of steam makes in it. + +[Illustration: PERRE & QUIDET'S EVAPORATING APPARATUS.] + +It may be seen from an examination of the annexed cuts, the apparatus +consists essentially of a cylindrical reservoir, in the interior of +which revolves a system formed of seven pipes, with radiating disks, +affixed to plate iron disks, EE. The reservoir is mounted upon a +cast-iron frame, and is provided at its lower part with a cock, B, +which permits of the liquid being drawn off when it has been +sufficiently concentrated. It is surmounted with a cover, which is +bolted to lateral flanges, so that the two parts as a whole constitute +a complete cylinder. This shape, however, is not essential, and the +inventors reserve the right of giving it the arrangement that may be +best adapted to the application that is to be made of it. + +In the center of the apparatus there is a conduit whose diameter is +greater than that of the pipes provided with radiators, and which +serves to cross-brace the two ends, EE, which latter consist of iron +boxes cast in a piece with the hollow shaft of the rotary system. + +The steam enters through the pipe, F, traverses the first evaporating +pipe, then the second, then the third, and so on, and continues to +circulate in this manner till it finally reaches the last one, which +communicates with the exit, G. + +Motion is transmitted to the evaporator by a gearing, H, which is +keyed on the shaft, and is actuated by a pinion, L, connected with an +intermediate shaft which is provided with fast and loose pulleys. + +The apparatus is very efficient in its action, and this is due, in the +first place, to the use of radiators, which greatly increase the +heating surface, and second, to the motion communicated to the +evaporating parts. In fact, each of the pipes, on issuing from the +liquid to be concentrated, carries upon its entire surface a pellicle +which evaporates immediately. + +The arrangement devised by Messrs. Perre and Quidet realizes, then, +the best theoretic conditions for this sort of work, to wit: + + 1. A large evaporating surface. + 2. A very slight thickness of liquid. + 3. A constant temperature of about from 100 deg. to 120 deg., according + to the internal pressure of the steam. + +Owing to such advantages, this apparatus will find an application in +numerous industries, and will render them many services.--_Revue +Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +"FLYING." + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American:_ + +Your correspondent on this subject in the issue of April 14 cites an +array of facts from which it would seem the proper conclusions should +be inferred. I think the whole difficulty arises from a confusion of +terms, and by this I mean a want of care to explain the unknown +strictly in terms of the known; and I think underlying this error is a +misconception as to what an animal is, and what animal strength is, +only of course with reference to this particular discussion, i.e., +in so far only as they may be considered physical organisms having no +reference to the intellectual or moral development, all of which lies +beyond the sphere of our discussion. + +Purely with reference to the development of physical strength, which +alone is under consideration, any animal organism whatsoever must be +considered simply in the light of a machine. + +A compound machine having two parts, first an arrangement of levers +and points of application of power, all of which is purely mechanical, +together with an arrangement of parts, designed, first, to convert +fuel or food into heat, and, secondly, to transform heat into force, +which is purely a chemical change in the first instance, and a +transformation of energy in the second. So much for the animal--man or +beast--as a machine physically considered. + +What then is animal strength considered in the same light? The animal +is not creative. It can make nothing--it can only transform. Does it +create any strength or force? No. The strength it puts forth or exerts +is merely the outcome of this transformation, which it is the office +of the machine to perform. + +What do we find transformed? Simply the energy, or potential, +contained in the fuel or food we put into the machine. Its exact +equivalent we find transformed to another form of energy, known as +animal strength, which is simply heat within the system available for +the working of its mechanical parts. How, then, is this energy which +exists in the shape of animal strength used and distributed? This is +the question the answer of which underlies this whole discussion as a +principle. It is distributed to the different parts of the machine in +proportion to the relative amount of physical work that nature has +made it the office of any particular part to perform. + +Let us see how it is with the bird machine. In course of flight he is +called upon to remain in the air, which means that should he cease to +make an effort to do this, i.e., should he cease to expend energy in +doing it, he would fall during the first second of time after ceasing +to make the effort some sixteen feet toward the center of the earth. +But he remains in the air for hours and days at a time. What is he, +then, doing every second of that time? He is overcoming the force of +gravitation, which is incessantly pulling him down. That is, every +second he is doing an amount of work equal to his weight--say 10 lb. +multiplied by 16--say 160 lb. approximately; all this by beating the +air with his wings. Now let us institute a slight comparison--and the +work shall be performed by a man, who climbs a mountain 10,000 feet +high in 10 hours. The man weighs 150 lb.; he climbs 10,000 feet; +1,500,000 foot pounds is, then, the work done. He does it in 10 hours, +or 36,000 seconds, which gives an amount of work of only 42 foot +pounds per second performed by his muscles of locomotion. + +At the end of the ten hours the man is exhausted, while the bird +delights in further flight. To what is this difference of condition +due? _It is due simply to the difference in the machine;_ but this, +you say, is not explaining the unknown in terms of the known. Let us +see, then, if we cannot do this. In the two accounts of work done as +above cited in the case of the man and the bird, an amount of energy, +i.e., heat of the system, has been expended just proportional to the +work done. + +Now while the bird has expended more energy in this particular work of +locomotion than has the man, we find the bird machine has done little +else; he has consumed but little of his available heat force in +exercising his brain or the other functions of his system, or in +preserving the temperature of the body, and but little of his animal +heat, which is his strength, has been radiated into space. In short, +we find the bird machine so devised by nature that a very large +proportion of the available energy of the system can be used in +working those parts contrived for locomotion, and resist the force of +gravity, or, what is the same thing, nature has placed a greater +relative portion of the whole furnace at the disposal of these parts +than she has in man. The breast muscles of the bird are so constructed +as to burn a far greater proportional amount of the fuel from which +all energy is derived than do the muscles of the rest of the body +combined. + +Let us see how it is with the man who has climbed the mountain. In +this machine we find affairs in a very different state. During his +climbing he has been doing a vast amount of other work, both internal +and external. His arms, his whole muscular system, in fact, has been +vigorously at work, all drawing upon his total available energy. His +brain has been in constant and unremitted action, as well as the other +internal organs, which require a greater proportional amount of energy +than they did in the bird. Besides this, he has been radiating his +animal heat into space in a far greater amount. All these parts must +be supplied; they cannot be neglected while the accumulated surplus is +given to the machinery for locomotion or lifting. This then is what +constitutes what I call the difference in the machine, which is purely +one of organic development depending upon the functions nature has +determined that the different organs shall perform. As for the +pterodactyl quoted in the last article, I have only to remark that +this discussion arose purely from a consideration of what was the best +type of flying apparatus nature had given man to study, and I claim +that this prehistoric bird of geology does not come within this class. +For if it is not fully established that this species had become +extinct long before the appearance of man on the globe, it is at least +certain that the man of that early day had not dreamt of flying and +was presumably content if he could find other means to evade the +pterodactyl's claw. + +F.J.P., U.S. Army. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PORTRUSH ELECTRIC RAILWAY, IRELAND.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A paper recently read before the Society of Arts, +London.] + +By DR. EDWARD HOPKINSON. + + +In the summer of 1881, Mr. W.A. Traill, late of H.M. Geological +Survey, suggested to Dr. Siemens that the line between Portrush and +Bushmills, for which Parliamentary powers had been obtained, would be +suitable in many respects for electrical working, especially as there +was abundant water power available in the neighborhood. Dr. Siemens at +once joined in the undertaking, which has been carried out under his +direction. The line extends from Portrush, the terminus of the Belfast +and Northern Counties Railway, to Bushmills in the Bush valley, a +distance of six miles. For about half a mile the line passes down the +principal street of Portrush, and has an extension along the Northern +Counties Railway to the harbor. For the rest of the distance, the +rails are laid on the sea side of the county road, and the head of the +rails being level with the ground, a footpath is formed the whole +distance, separated from the road by a curbstone. The line is single, +and has a gauge of three feet, the standard of the existing narrow +gauge lines in Ulster. The gradients are exceedingly heavy, as will be +seen from the diagram, being in parts as steep as 1 in 35. The curves +are also in many cases very sharp, having necessarily to follow the +existing road. There are five passing places, in addition to the +sidings at the termini and at the carriage depot. At the Bushmills +end, the line is laid for about 200 yards along the street, and ends +in the marketplace of the town. It is intended to connect it with an +electrical railway from Dervock, for which Parliamentary powers have +already been obtained, thus completing the connection with the narrow +gauge system from Ballymena to Larne and Cushendall. About 1,500 yards +from the end of the line, there is a waterfall on the river Bush, with +an available head of 24 feet, and an abundant supply of water at all +seasons of the year. Turbines are now being erected, and the necessary +works executed for employing the fall for working the generating +dynamo machines, and the current will be conveyed by means of an +underground cable to the end of the line. Of the application of the +water power it is unnecessary to speak further, as the works are not +yet completed. For the present, the line is worked by a small +steam-engine placed at the carriage depot at the Portrush end. The +whole of the constructive works have been designed and carried out by +Mr. Traill, assisted by Mr. E.B. Price. + +The system employed may be described as that of the separate +conductor. A rail of T-iron, weighing 19 pounds to the yard, is +carried on wooden posts, boiled in pitch, and placed ten feet apart, +at a distance of 22 inches from the inside rail and 17 inches above +the ground. This rail comes close up against the fence on the side of +the road, thus forming an additional protection. The conductor is +connected by an underground cable to a single shunt-wound dynamo +machine, placed in the engine shed, and worked by a small agricultural +steam engine of about 25 indicated horse power. The current is +conveyed from the conductor by means of two springs, made of steel, +rigidly held by two steel bars placed one at each end of the car, and +projecting about six inches from the side. Since the conducting rail +is iron, while the brushes are steel, the wear of the latter is +exceedingly small. In dry weather they require the rail to be slightly +lubricated; in wet weather the water on the surface of the iron +provides all the lubrication required. The double brushes, placed at +the extremities of the car, enable it to bridge over the numerous +gaps, which necessarily interrupt the conductor to allow cart ways +into the fields and commons adjoining the shore. On the diagram the +car is shown passing one of these gaps: the front brush has broken +contact, but since the back brush is still touching the rail, the +current has not been broken. Before the back brush leaves the +conductor, the front brush will have again risen upon it, so that the +current is never interrupted. There are two or three gaps too broad to +be bridged in this way. In these cases the driver will break the +current before reaching the gap, the momentum of the car carrying it +the 10 or 12 yards it must travel without power. + +The current is conveyed under the gaps by means of an insulated copper +cable carried in wrought-iron pipes, placed at a depth of 18 inches. +At the passing places, which are situated on inclines, the conductor +takes the inside, and the car ascending the hill also runs on the +inside, while the car descending the hill proceeds by gravity on the +outside lines. + +From the brushes the current is taken to a commutator worked by a +lever, which switches resistance frames placed under the car, in or +out, as may be desired. The same lever alters the position of the +brushes on the commutator of the dynamo machine, reversing the +direction of rotation, in the manner shown by the electrical hoist. +The current is not, as it were, turned full on suddenly, but passes +through the resistances, which are afterward cut out in part or +altogether, according as the driver desires to run at part speed or +full speed. + +From the dynamo the current is conveyed through the axle boxes to the +axles, thence to the tires of the wheels, and finally back by the +rails, which are uninsulated, to the generating machine. The conductor +is laid in lengths of about 21 feet, the lengths being connected by +fish plates and also by a double copper loop securely soldered to the +iron. It is also necessary that the rails of the permanent way should +be connected in a similar manner, as the ordinary fish plates give a +very uncertain electrical contact, and the earth for large currents is +altogether untrustworthy as a conductor, though no doubt materially +reducing the total resistance of the circuit. + +The dynamo is placed in the center of the car, beneath the floor, and +through intermediate spur gear drives by a steel chain on to one axle +only. The reversing levers, and also the levers working the mechanical +brakes, are connected to both ends of the car, so that the driver can +always stand at the front and have uninterrupted view of the rails, +which is of course essential in the case of a line laid by the side of +the public road. + +The cars are first and third class, some open and some covered, and +are constructed to hold twenty people, exclusive of the driver. At +present, only one is fitted with a dynamo, but four more machines are +now being constructed by Messrs. Siemens Bros., so that before the +beginning of the heavy summer traffic five cars will be ready; and +since two of these will be fitted with machines capable of drawing a +second car, there will be an available rolling stock of seven cars. It +is not intended at present to work electrically the portion of the +line in the town at Portrush, though this will probably be done +hereafter; and a portion, at least, of the mineral traffic will be +left for the two steam-tramway engines which were obtained for the +temporary working of the line pending the completion of the electrical +arrangements. + +Let us now put in a form suitable for calculation the principles with +which Mr. Siemens has illustrated in a graphic form more convenient +for the purposes of explanation, and then show how these principles +have been applied in the present case. + +Let L be the couple, measured in foot-pounds, which the dynamo must +exert in order to drive the car, and _w_ the necessary angular +velocity. Taking the tare of the car as 50 cwt., including the weight +of the machinery it carries, and a load of twenty people as 30 cwt., +we have a gross weight of 4 tons. Assume that the maximum required is +that the car should carry this load at a speed of seven miles an hour, +on an incline of 1 in 40. The resistance due to gravity may be taken +as 56 lb. per ton, and the frictional resistance and that due to other +causes, say, 14 lb. per ton, giving a total resistance of 280 lb., at +a radius of 14 inches. The angular velocity of the axle corresponding +to a speed of seven miles an hour, is 84 revolutions per minute. Hence +L = 327 foot pounds, and _w_ = (2[pi] x 84) / 60. + +If the dynamo be wound directly on the axle, it must be designed to +exert the couple, L, corresponding to the maximum load, when revolving +at an angular velocity, w, the difference of potential between the +terminals being the available E.M.F. of the conductor, and the current +the maximum the armature will safely stand. This will be the case in +the Charing-cross Electrical Railway. But when the dynamo is connected +by intermediate gear to the driving wheels only, the product of L and +_w_ remains constant, and the two factors may be varied. In the +present case L is diminished in the ratio of 7 to 1, and _w_ +consequently increased in the same ratio. Hence the dynamo, with its +maximum load, must revolve at 588 revolutions per minute, and exert a +couple of forty-seven foot-pounds. Let E be the potential of the +conductor from which the current is drawn, measured in volts, C the +current in amperes, and E1 the E.M.F. of the dynamo. Then E1 is +proportional to the product of the angular velocity, and a certain +function of the current. For a velocity [omega], let this function be +denoted by _f_(C). If the characteristic of the dynamo can be drawn, +then _f_(C) is known. + +We have then + + w + E1 = -------- f + [Omega] (1.) + +If R be the resistance in circuit by Ohm's law, + + E - E1 + C = -------- + R + + w + = E ------- f(C) + [Omega] + ---------------- + R + +and therefore + + [Omega](E - CR) (2.) + w = ----------------- + f(C) + +Let _a_ be the efficiency with which the motor transforms electrical +into mechanical energy, then-- + + Power required = L w = a E1 C + + w + = a C ------- f(C) + [Omega] + +Dividing by _w_, + + a C f(C) + L = -------- . (3.) + [Omega] + +It must be noted that L is here measured in electrical measure, or, +adopting the unit given by Dr. Siemens in the British Association +Address, in joules. One joule equals approximately 0.74 foot pound. +Equation 3 gives at once an analytical proof of the second principle +stated above, that for a given motor the current depends upon the +couple, and upon it alone. Equation 2 shows that with a given load the +speed depends upon E, the electromotive force of the main, and R the +resistance in circuit. It shows also the effect of putting into the +circuit the resistance frames placed beneath the car. If R be +increased, until CR is equal to E, then _w_ vanishes, and the car +remains at rest. If R be still further increased, Ohm's law applies, +and the current diminishes. Hence suitable resistances are, first, a +high resistance for diminishing the current, and consequently, the +sparking at making and breaking of of the circuit; and, secondly, one +or more low resistances for varying the speed of the car. If the form +of _f_(C) be known, as is the case with a Siemens machine, equations 2 +and 3 can be completely solved for _w_ and C, giving the current and +speed in terms of L, E, and R. The expressions so obtained are not +without interest, and agree with the results of experiment. + +It may be observed that an arc light presents the converse case to a +motor. The E.M.F. of the arc is approximately constant, whatever the +intensity of the current passing between the carbons; and the current +depends entirely on the resistance in circuit. Hence the instability +of an arc produced by machines of low internal resistance, unless +compensated by considerable resistance in the leads. + +The following experiment shows in a striking form the principles just +considered: An Edison lamp is placed in parallel circuit with a small +dynamo machine, used as a motor. The Prony brake on the pulley of the +dynamo is quite slack, allowing it to revolve freely. Now let the lamp +and dynamo be coupled to the generator running at full speed. First, +the lamp glows, in a moment it again becomes dark, then, as the dynamo +gets up speed, glows again. If the brake be screwed up tight, the lamp +once more becomes dark. The explanation is simple. Owing to the +coefficient of self-induction of the dynamo machine being +considerable, it takes a finite time for the current to obtain an +appreciable intensity, but the lamp having no self-induction, the +current at once passes through it, and causes it to glow. Secondly, +the electrical inertia of the dynamo being overcome, it must draw a +large current to produce the kinetic energy of rotation, i.e., to +overcome its mechanical inertia; the lamp is therefore practically +short-circuited, and ceases to glow. When once the rotation has been +established, the current through the dynamo becomes very small, having +no work to do except to overcome the friction of the bearings, hence +the lamp again glows. Finally, by screwing up the brake, the current +through the dynamo is increased, and the lamp again short-circuited. + +It has often been pointed out that reversal of the motor on the car +would be a most effective brake. This is certainly true; but, at the +same time, it is a brake that should not be used except in cases of +emergency. For this reason, the dynamo revolving at a high speed, the +momentum of the current is very considerable; hence, owing to the +self-induction of the machine, a sudden reversal will tend to break +down the insulation at any weak point of the machine. The action is +analogous to the spark produced by a Ruhmkorff coil. This was +illustrated at Portrush; when the car was running perhaps fifteen +miles an hour, the current was suddenly reversed. The car came to a +standstill in little more than its own length, but at the expense of +breaking down the insulation of one of the wires of the magnet coils. +The way out of the difficulty is evidently at the moment of reversal +to insert a high resistance to diminish the momentum of the current. + +In determining the proper dimensions of a conductor for railway +purposes, Sir William Thomson's law should properly apply. But on a +line where the gradients and traffic are very irregular, it is +difficult to estimate the average current, and the desirability of +having the rail mechanically strong, and of such low resistance that +the potential shall not vary very materially throughout its length, +becomes more important than the economic considerations involved in +Sir William Thomson's law. At Portrush the resistance of a mile, +including the return by earth and the ground rails, is actually about +0.23 ohm. If calculated from the section of the iron, it would be 0.15 +ohm, the difference being accounted for by the resistance of the +copper loops, and occasional imperfect contacts. The E.M.F. at which +the conductor is maintained is about 225 volts, which is well within +the limit of perfect safety assigned by Sir William Thomson and Dr. +Siemens. At the same time the shock received by touching the iron is +sufficient to be unpleasant, and hence is some protection against the +conductor being tampered with. + +Consider a car requiring a given constant current; evidently the +maximum loss due to resistance will occur when the car is at the +middle point of the line, and will then be one-fourth of the total +resistance of the line, provided the two extremities are maintained by +the generators at the same potential. Again, by integration, the mean +resistance can be shown to be one-sixth of the resistance of the line. +Applying these figures, and assuming four cars are running, requiring +4 horse power each, the loss due to resistance does not exceed 4 per +cent. of the power developed on the cars; or if one car only be +running, the loss is less than 1 per cent. But in actual practice at +Portrush even these estimates are too high, as the generators are +placed at the bottom of the hills, and the middle portion of the line +is more or less level, hence the minimum current is required when the +resistance is at its maximum value. + +The insulation of the conductor has been a matter of considerable +difficulty, chiefly on account of the moistness of the climate. An +insulation has now, however, been obtained of from 500 to 1,000 ohms +per mile, according to the state of the weather, by placing a cap of +insulite between the wooden posts and T-iron. Hence the total leakage +cannot exceed 2.5 amperes, representing a loss of three-fourths of a +horse power, or under 5 per cent, when four cars are running. But +apart from these figures, we have materials for an actual comparison +of the cost of working the line by electricity and steam. The steam +tramway engines, temporarily employed at Portrush, are made by Messrs. +Wilkinson, of Wigan, and are generally considered as satisfactory as +any of the various tramway engines. They have a pair of vertical +cylinders, 8 inches diameter and one foot stroke, and work at a boiler +pressure of 120 lb., the total weight of the engine being 7 tons. The +electrical car with which the comparison is made has a dynamo weighing +13 cwt., and the tare of the car is 52 cwt. The steam-engines are +capable of drawing a total load of about 12 tons up the hill, +excluding the weight of the engine; the dynamo over six tons, +including its own weight; hence, weight for weight, the dynamo will +draw five times as much as the steam-engine. Finally, compare the +following estimates of cost. From actual experience, the steam-engine, +taking an average over a week, costs-- + + L s. d. + Driver's wages. 1 10 0 + Cleaner's " 0 12 0 + Coke, 581/2 cwt. at 25s. per ton. 3 13 11/2 + Oil, 1 gallon at 3s. 1d. 0 3 1 + Tallow, 4 lb. at 6d. 0 2 0 + Waste, 8 lb. at 2d. 0 1 4 + Depreciation, 15 per cent. on L750. 2 3 3 + ---------- + Total. L8 4 91/2 + +The distance run was 312 miles. Also, from actual experience, the +electrical car, drawing a second behind it, and hence providing for +the same number of passengers, consumed 18 lb. of coke per mile run. +Hence, calculating the cost in the same way, for a distance run of 312 +miles in a week-- + + L s. d. + Wages of stoker of stationary engine. 1 0 0 + Coke, 52 cwt. at 25s. per ton. 2 15 0 + Oil, 1 gallon at 3s. 1d. 0 3 1 + Waste, 4 lb. at 2d. 0 0 8 + Depreciation on stationary engine, 10 per cent. } + on L300 11s. 6d. } + Depreciation of electrical apparatus, 15 per cent. } 2 0 4 + on L500, L1 8s. 10d. } + --------- + Total. L5 19 1 + +A saving of over 25 per cent. + +The total mileage run is very small, on account of the light traffic +early in the year. Heavier traffic will tell very much in favor of the +electric car, as the loss due to leakage will be a much smaller +proportion of the total power developed. + +It will be observed that the cost of the tramway engines is very much +in excess of what is usual on other lines, but this is entirely +accounted for by the high price of coke, and the exceedingly difficult +nature of the line to work, on account of the curves and gradients. +These causes send up the cost of electrical working in the same ratio, +hence the comparison is valid as between the steam and electricity, +but it would be unsafe to compare the cost of either with +horse-traction or wire-rope traction on other lines. The same fuel was +burnt in the stationary steam-engine and in the tramway engines, and +the same rolling stock used in both cases; but, otherwise, the +comparison was made under circumstances in favor of the tramway +engine, as the stationary steam-engine is by no means economical, +consuming at least 5 lb. of coke per horse-power hour, and the +experiments were made, in the case of the electrical car, over a +length of line three miles long, which included the worst hills and +curves, and one-half of the conductor was not provided with the +insulite caps, the leakage consequently being considerably larger than +it will be eventually. + +Finally, as regards the speed of the electrical car, it is capable of +running on the level at the rate of 12 miles per hour, but as the line +is technically a tramway, the Board of Trade Regulations do not allow +the speed to exceed 10 miles an hour. + +Taking these data as to cost, and remembering how this will be reduced +when the water power is made available, and remembering such +considerations as the freedom from smoke and steam, the diminished +wear and tear of the permanent way, and the advantage of having each +car independent, it may be said that there is a future for electrical +railways. + +We must not conclude without expressing our best thanks to Messrs. +Siemens Bros. for having kindly placed all this apparatus at our +disposal to-night, and allowing us to publish the results of +experiments made at their works. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE THOMSON-HOUSTON ELECTRIC LIGHTING SYSTEM. + + +The generator is known as the "Thomson spherical," on account of the +nearly spherical form of its armature, and differs radically from all +others in all essential portions, viz., its field magnets, armature, +and winding thereof, and in its commutator; both in principle and +construction, and, besides, it is provided with an automatic +regulator, an attachment not applied to other generators. The annexed +view of the complete machine will convey an idea of the general +appearance and disposition of its parts. + +The revolving armature which generates the electrical current is made +internally of a hollow shell of soft iron secured to the central +portion of the shaft between the bearings, and is wound externally +with a copper conducting wire, constituting three coils or helices +surrounding the armature, which coils are, however, permanently +joined, and in reality act as a single three-branched wire. + +This wire, being wound on the exterior of the armature, is fully +exposed to the powerful magnetic influence of the field poles, which +inclose the armature almost completely. The armature will thus be seen +to be thoroughly incased and protected, at the same time that all the +wire upon it is subject to a powerful action of the surrounding +magnets, resulting in an economy in the generation of current in its +coils. The form of the armature being spherical, very little power is +lost by air friction, and no injury can occur from increased speed +developing centrifugal force. The field magnets, which surround the +armature, are cast iron shells, wound outside with many convolutions +of insulated copper wire, and are joined externally by iron bars to +convey the magnetism. These outer bars serve also as a most efficient +protection to the wire and armature of the machine during +transportation or otherwise. Objects cannot fall upon or rest upon the +wire coils and injure them. The coils of wire upon the field magnets +surround not only the iron poles or shells, but are situated also so +as to surround likewise the revolving armature, and increase the +effect produced in it by direct induction and magnetism. This feature +is not used in any other generator, nor does any other make use of a +spherical armature. The shaft is mounted in babbitted bearings of +ample size, sustained by a handsome frame therefor, and is of steel, +finely turned and perfectly true. The shaft and armature together are +balanced with the utmost care, and run without buzz or rumble. The +armature wire is kept cool by an active circulation of air over its +whole surface during revolution. The commutator, or portion from which +the currents developed in the armature are carried out for use, is a +beautiful piece of mechanism. It is mounted upon the end of the shaft, +and has attached to it the wires, three only, coming from the armature +wire through the tubular shaft. + +[Illustration: THE THOMSON SPHERICAL.] + +The commutator is peculiar, consisting of only three segments of a +copper ring, while in the simplest of other continuous current +generators several times that number exist, and frequently 120! +segments are to be found. These three segments are made so as to be +removable in a moment for cleaning or replacement. They are mounted +upon a metal support, and are surrounded on all sides by a free air +space, and cannot, therefore, lose their insulated condition. This +feature of air insulation is peculiar to this system, and is very +important as a factor in the durability of the commutator. Besides +this, the commutator is sustained by supports carried in flanges upon +the shaft, which flanges, as an additional safeguard, are coated all +over with hard rubber, one of the finest known insulators. It may be +stated, without fear of contradiction, that no other commutator made +is so thoroughly insulated and protected. The three commutator +segments virtually constitute a single copper ring, mounted in free +air, and cut into three equal pieces by slots across its face. Four +slit copper springs, called commutator brushes or collectors, are +allowed to bear lightly upon the commutator when it revolves, and +serve to take up the current and convey it to the circuit. These +commutator brushes are carried by movable supports, and their position +is automatically regulated so as to control the strength of the +developed current--a feature not found in other systems. This feature, +as well as the fact that the commutator can be oiled to prevent wear, +saves attendance and greatly increases the durability of the wearing +surfaces, while the commutator brushes are maintained in the position +of best adjustment. The commutator and brushes, in consequence, after +weeks of running, show scarcely any wear. + + +THE AUTOMATIC CURRENT REGULATOR. + +This consists of a peculiar magnet attached to the frame of the +generator, and the movable armature of which has connections to the +supports of the commutator brushes for controlling their position. The +regulator magnet is so formed as to give a uniform attraction upon +its armature in different positions. In Thomson's improved form this +is accomplished in a novel manner by making the pole of the magnet +paraboloidal in form, and making an opening in the movable armature to +encircle said pole. + +[Illustration: THE CURRENT REGULATOR] + +The armature is hung on pivots so as to be free to move only toward +and from the regulating magnet on changes in the current traversing +the latter, and being connected to the commutator brushes, +automatically adjusts their position. By this means the power of the +generator is adapted to run any number of lights within its limit of +capacity, or may be short circuited purposely or by accident without +difficulty arising therefrom; and a number of instances have occurred +where the injurious effects of a short circuit accidentally formed +have been entirely obviated by the presence of the regulator. In one +instance four generators, in series representing over forty lights' +capacity, were accidentally short circuited, and no injury or even +noticeable action took place except a quick movement of the regulators +in adapting themselves to the new conditions. Had this accident +occurred to generators unprovided with regulators, great injury or +possible destruction of the apparatus would have resulted. It is +important to a full understanding of the regulation, to state that its +action is independent of resistances introduced, that it saves power +and carbons in proportion to lights extinguished, and that it +compensates for speed variations above the minimum speed. The manner +of its action is to control the generation of current at the source in +the armature, and it does so by combining certain electrical actions +so as to obtain a differential effect, such that when small force of +current only is required it alone is furnished, and when the maximum +force is needed the same shall be forthcoming. + +[Illustration: THE CONTROLLER MAGNET.] + +On the larger generators we combine with the regulator magnet above +described an exceedingly sensitive controller magnet governing the +regulation, and by whose accuracy the smallest variations of current +are counteracted, and the operation of the generator rendered perfect. +The controller magnet is contained in a box placed on the wall or +other support near the generator, and consists of a delicate double +axial magnet controlling the admission of current to the regulator, +upon the generator, and its action is exceedingly simple and +effective. So perfect is the action that in a circuit of twenty-five +to thirty lights, lights may be removed or put out in rapid succession +without apparently affecting those that remain. Besides, we have been +enabled to put out even eight or ten lights together instantly, while +the remainder burn as before. The features above set forth are +peculiar to the Thomson-Houston system, and have been thoroughly +covered by patents, and cannot therefore be adopted into other +systems. + + +THE THOMSON ARC LAMP. + +This lamp is essentially a series lamp; that is, any number of them +can be put on one circuit wire, but a single lamp, used alone, burns +equally well. It consists of a metal frame supporting at the bottom +the holder for the globe and lower carbon, which is insulated from the +frame. + +The annexed figure of the plain lamp will convey an understanding of +its general appearance. The upper carbon is fed downward by the +mechanism contained in the box above, and is carried by a vertical +round rod called the carbon holding rod. + +[Illustration: THE THOMSON ARC LAMP.] + +In the regulating box of the lamp there exists a simple mechanism, the +result of careful study and experiment to discover the best and +simplest combination of appliances, which would obviate the necessity +for the use of clockwork or dash-pots, from which fluids might be +accidentally spilled, for obtaining a gradual feeding of the carbon as +fast as it is consumed in producing the light, and at the same time to +maintain the arc or space between the carbons in burning, of such +extent as to give a steady, noiseless light, of greatest possible +economy. + +The lamp, once adjusted, does not require any readjustment, and, in +fact, is built in such a manner as to avoid the presence of adjusting +devices in it. The lamp also contains an automatic safety device for +preserving the continuity of the circuit in case of accidental injury +to the feeding mechanism or the carbons of the lamps. This is quite +important when a considerable number of lights are operated upon one +circuit wire, as a break in the circuit, due to a defective lamp, +would result in the extinguishment of all the lights. With the safety +device mentioned, such a break does not occur, but the flow of current +is preserved through the faulty lamp. + +By an exceedingly simple device upon the carbon holding rod, the lamps +are extinguished when the carbons are burned out, and injury by +burning the holders completely avoided. + +The system is based upon the joint inventions of Elihu Thomson and +Edwin J. Houston, for generators, regulators, and electric lamps, and +also the patents of Elihu Thomson, in generators, regulators, and +electric lamps; all of which are now operated and controlled by the +Thomson-Houston Electric Co., 131 Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass. + + * * * * * + + + + + +A MODIFICATION OF THE VIBRATING BELL. + + +One of the causes which gives rise to induction in the telephone lines +running along the Belgian railroads is that there are so many electric +bells in the stations. + +Mr. Lippens proposes as a remedy for the trouble a slight modification +of the vibrating bell of his invention so as to exclude from the line +the extra currents from the bell. + +In one of the styles (Fig. 1) a spring, R, is attached at T to a fixed +metallic rod, and presses against the rod, T¹. The current enters +through the terminal, B, traverses the bobbins, passes through T, +through the spring, through T¹, and makes its exit through the other +terminal. The armature is attracted, and the point, P, fixed thereto +draws back the spring from the rod, T¹, and interrupts the current; +but, at the moment at which the point touches the spring, and before +the latter has been detached from the rod, T¹, the electro-magnet +becomes included in a short circuit, and the line current, instead of +passing through the bobbins for a very short time, passes through the +wire, T, the armature, and the rod, T¹, so that the extra current is +no longer sent into the line. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +In another style (Fig. 2) the current is not interrupted at all, but +enters through the terminal, B, traverses the bobbins, and goes +through C to the terminal, B. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +As soon as the armature is attracted, the spring, R, which is fixed to +it presses against the fixed metallic rod, T, and thus gives the +electricity a shorter travel than it would take by preference. The +current ceases, then, to pass through the bobbins, demagnetization +occurs, and the spring that holds the armature separates anew. The +current now passes for a second time into the bobbins and produces a +new action, and so on. There is no longer, then, any interruption of +the current, and the motions of the hammer are brought about by the +change in direction of the current, which alternately traverses and +leaves the bobbins. + +In a communication that he has addressed to us on the subject of these +bells, Mr. Lippens adds a few details in regard to the mode of +applying the ground pile to micro-telephone stations. + +Being given any two stations, he puts into the ground at the first a +copper plate, and at the second a zinc one, and connects the two by a +line wire provided with two vibrating bells and two telephone +apparatus. The earth current suffices to actuate the bells, but, in +order to effect a call, the inventor is obliged to run them +continuously and to interrupt them at the moment at which he wishes to +communicate. The correspondent is then notified through the cessation +of noise in the bells, and the two call-apparatus are thrown out of +the circuit by the play of the commutator, and are replaced by the +micro-telephone apparatus. + +It is certainly impracticable to allow vibrating bells to ring +continuously in this manner. The ground pile would, at the most, be +only admissible in cases where the call, having to be made from only +one of the stations, might be effected by a closing of the +circuit.--_La Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + +The advantage of lighting vessels by electricity was shown when the +steamer Carolina, of the old Bay Line between Baltimore and Norfolk, +ran into the British steamship Riversdale in a dense fog off Cedar +Point, on Chesapeake Bay. The electric lights of the Carolina were +extinguished only in the damaged part of the boat, and her officers +think that if she had been lighted in any other way, a conflagration +would have followed the collision. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTO PLATES--WET AND DRY. + + +Dr. Eder has recently published, in the _Correspondenz_, the first of +a series of articles embodying the results of his more recent work on +gelatino bromide; and we now reproduce the substance of the article in +a somewhat abstracted form. + +The "sensitiveness of a wet" plate continues to be used as a rough and +ready standard of comparison; and, notwithstanding the fact that it is +physically impossible to exactly compare the sensitiveness of a wet +plate with that of a gelatino bromide film, it is convenient to refer +to wet plates as some kind of a rough standard. + +Experiments have shown that a gelatine plate which gives the number 10 +on the Warnerke sensitometer, may be regarded as approximately +corresponding to the average wet plate; and setting out from this +point, the following table has been constructed: + + Sensitometer Sensitiveness, expressed in terms + number. of a "Wet Plate." + + 10 1 + 11 1-1/3 + 12 1-3/4 + 13 2-1/3 + 14 3 + 15 4 + 16 5 + 17 7 + 18 9 + 19 12 + 20 16 + 21 21 + 22 27 + 23 36 + 24 48 + 25 63 + +The nature of the developer used has, of course, some influence on the +sensitiveness of the plates; but in the above cases it is assumed that +oxalate developer, without any addition, is used; or pyro., to which +ammonia is added at intervals of about thirty seconds, so as to +produce a slight tendency to fog; the time of development being from +three to four minutes. The numbers are supposed to be read after +fixation, the plate being held against the sky. + +Schumann's statement that a gelatino bromide plate is less sensitive +when developed at 30 deg. C. than when developed at 5 deg., is contested; the +more recent investigations of Dr. Eder serving to demonstrate that a +developer at a moderate high temperature acts very much more rapidly +than when the temperature is low; but when a sufficient time is +allowed for each developer to thoroughly penetrate the film, the +difference becomes less apparent. Here are examples: + + _A.--Oxalate Developer._ + + Temperature of developer 4-8 deg. C. 16-17 deg. C. 26-28 deg. C. + Time of development 1 min. 3 deg. W. 8 deg. W. 13 deg. W. + " " 2 min. 91/2 deg. W. 10 deg. W. 15 deg. W. + + _B.--Pyrogallic Developer._ + + Temperature of developer 1-2 deg. C. 26-28 deg. C. + Time of development 1/4 min. 6 deg. W. 10 deg. W. + " " 3 min. 14 deg. W. 15 deg. W. + + * * * * * + + + + +INTENSIFIER FOR WET PLATES. + +By MAJOR WATERHOUSE. + + +The collodion process is still preferred for reproducing black and +white designs, drawings, engravings, etc., where very dense negatives +are desirable. The fixed and washed plate is put in a bath of bromide +of copper (ten per cent. solution); the film whitens immediately, and +when the color is even all over, the plate is taken out and plunged +into a bath of the ordinary ferrous oxalate developer. It takes a dark +olive tint, which is very non-actinic, the shadows meanwhile remaining +very clear.--_Photo. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GELATINO BROMIDE EMULSION WITH BROMIDE OF ZINC. + + +By this time of the year I have no doubt many, both amateur and +professional photographers, are either contemplating or are actually +at work making their stock of plates for the coming season, and it is +to be hoped that we shall have more favorable weather than we had last +year. + +Some four or five years since I tried using bromide of zinc instead of +the ordinary salts, namely, bromide of ammonium or potassium. I only +made one batch of plates at the time, which possessed several +important features I considered an advantage, and I think well worth +while following out. I do not think it can be denied that ordinary +gelatine plates, if exposed in a weak light, fall very short of the +results obtained with wet collodion when compared side by side, +gelatine being almost useless under these conditions, and there is a +decided gain in the result in this respect if the emulsion be made +with zinc bromide. + +In using bromide of zinc there is a slight difficulty to overcome, but +it _can_ be overcome, as I have succeeded in making a perfect +emulsion. It will, I have no doubt, be remembered that Mr. L. Warnerke +was the first to call attention to this salt in the days of collodion +emulsion; and I think he claimed for an emulsion prepared with it that +the image would stand more forcing without fogging to gain any amount +of intensity. This was said of a collodion emulsion, and I also find +that it is the same when used in a gelatine emulsion. I have heard a +great many say, when speaking about the intensity of gelatine plates, +that they can get any amount of intensity. I grant that in a studio +where the operator has full command over the lighting of his subject +by means of blinds, but it is not so in the field, especially when the +light is dull. I have seen thousands of negatives, and as a rule I +have found want of intensity has been the fault, and generally through +the light. Now if we can find a remedy for this, it will be a step in +advance. + +What I claim for bromide of zinc is that a rapid plate can be made +with it, and any degree of intensity can be readily obtained with a +very small proportion of pyrogallic acid in the developer. The cry as +always is to use plenty of pyrogallic acid and you can get any amount +of intensity. I remember, in the early days of gelatine, as much as +six grains being recommended, and I have myself, under extraordinary +circumstances, used as much as ten grains to the ounce; but I think it +is now, to a certain extent, a thing of the past. With the plates to +which I refer, I found that I only required to use for a 71/2 x 5 plate +one grain of pyrogallic acid in about three ounces of developer to get +full density without the slightest difficulty. If the ordinary +quantity were used far too much density was obtained, and the plate +ruined beyond recovery; but with so small a quantity of pyro. the +plate was not so much stained as with a larger quantity, and the +negative took far less time to develop on account of the intensity +being so readily obtained. + +In making a gelatine emulsion with zinc it must be _decidedly acid_ or +it fogs. I prefer nitric acid for the purpose. I also found that some +samples of the bromide behaved in a very peculiar way. All went on +well until it came to the washing, when the bromide of silver washed +out slowly, rendering the washing water slightly milky; this continued +until the whole of the bromide of silver was discharged from the +gelatine, and the latter rendered perfectly transparent as in the +first instance. I remember a gentleman mentioning at one of the +meetings of the South London Photographic Society that he was troubled +in the same way as I was at that time. I think if a few experiments +were made in this direction with the zinc salt and worked out, it +would be a great advantage.--_Wm. Brooks, in Br. Jour. of Photo_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DESIGN FOR A VILLA. + + +The villa of which we give a perspective drawing is intended as a +country residence, being designed in a quiet and picturesque style of +domestic Gothic, frequently met with in old country houses. It is +proposed to face the external walls with red Suffolk bricks and +Corsham Down stone dressings, the chimneys to be finished with moulded +bricks. The attic gables, etc., would be half-timbered in oak, and the +roof covered with red Fareham tiles laid on felt. Internally, the hall +and corridors are to be laid with tiles; the wood finishing on ground +floor to be of walnut, and on first floor of pitch pine. The ground +floor contains drawing-room, 23 ft. by 16 ft., with octagonal recess +in angle (which also forms a feature in the elevation), and door +leading to conservatory. The morning-room, 16 ft. by 16 ft., also +leads into conservatory. Dining-room, 20 ft. by 16 ft., with serving +door leading from kitchen. The hall and principal staircase are +conveniently situated in the main part of the house, with doors +leading to the several rooms, and entrances to garden. The domestic +offices, though conveniently placed, are entirely cut off from the +main portion of the house by a door leading from the hall. In the +basement there is ample cellar accommodation for wine or other +purposes. The first floor contains four bed-rooms, two dressing-rooms, +bath-room, w.c., etc. The attic floor, reached by the servants' +staircase, contains two servants' bed-rooms, day and night nurseries, +and box and store rooms. The estimated cost is L3,800. The design is +by Mr. Charles C. Bradley, of 82 Wellesley Road, Croydon.--_Building +Times_. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE--DESIGN FOR A VILLA.] + + * * * * * + + + + +WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE. + + +William Spottiswoode, President of the Royal Society, was born in +London, Jan. 11, 1825. He belongs to an ancient Scottish family, many +members of which have risen to distinction in Scotland and also in the +New World. + +In 1845 he took a first class in mathematics, and he afterward won the +junior (1846) and the senior (1847) university mathematical +scholarships. He returned to Oxford for a term or two, and gave a +course of lectures in Balliol College on Geometry of Three +Dimensions--a favorite subject of his. He was examiner in the +mathematical schools in 1857-58. On leaving Oxford, he immediately, we +believe, took an active part in the working management of the business +of the Queen's printers, about this time resigned to him by his +father, Andrew Spottiswoode, brother of the Laird of Spottiswoode. The +business has largely developed under his hands. + +Other subjects than mathematics have occupied his attention: at an +early age he studied languages, as well Oriental as European. + +[Illustration: WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE.] + +As treasurer and president, he has been continuously on the Council +of the Royal Society for a great many years, and through his +exceptional gifts as an administrator he has rendered it invaluable +services. He has rendered similar services to the British Association, +to the London Mathematical Society, and to the Royal Institution. We +have permission to make the following extract from a letter written by +a friend of many years' standing: "In the councils (of the various +societies) he has always been distinguished by his sound judgment and +his deep sympathy with their purest and highest aims. There never was +a trace of partisanship in his action, or of narrowness in his +sympathies. On the contrary, every one engaged in thoroughly +scientific work has felt that he had a warm supporter in Spottiswoode, +on whose opportune aid he might surely count. The same breadth of +sympathy and generosity of sentiment has marked also his relations to +those more entirely dependent upon him. The workmen in his large +establishment all feel that they have in him a true and trustworthy +friend. He has always identified himself with their educational and +social well-being." We give here a list of some of the offices Mr. +Spottiswoode has held, and of the honors that have been bestowed upon +him: Treasurer of the British Association from 1861 to 1874, of the +Royal Institution from 1865 to 1873, and of the Royal Society from +1871 to 1878. In 1871 he succeeded Dr. Bence Jones as Honorary +Secretary to the Royal Institution. President of Section A, 1865; of +the British Association, 1878; of the London Mathematical Society, +1870 to 1872; of the Royal Society, 1879, which office he still holds. +Correspondent of the Institut (Academie des Sciences), March 27, 1876. +He is also LL.D. of the Universities of Cambridge, Dublin, and +Edinburgh, D.C.L. of Oxford, and F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. In +addition to these honors he has many other literary and scientific +distinctions.--_Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACETATE OF LIME. + + +I have made a series of experiments with regard to finding a reliable +method of estimating the acetic acid in commercial acetate of lime, +and find the following gives the best results: The sample is finely +ground and about 6 grms. weighed into a half-liter flask, dissolved in +water, and diluted to the containing mark. 100 c.c. of this solution +are distilled with 70 grms. of strong phosphoric acid nearly to +dryness, and 50 c.c. of water are added to the residue in the retort +and distilled till the distillate gives no precipitate with nitrate of +silver, titrate the distillates with standard caustic soda, evaporate +to dryness in a platinum dish, and ignite the residue before the blow +pipe, which converts the phosphate of soda (formed by a little +phosphoric acid carried over in the distillation) into the insoluble +pyrophosphate and the acetate of soda into NaHO; dissolve in water, +and titrate with standard H_{2}SO_{4}, which gives the amount of soda +combined with the acetic acid in the original sample. In a number of +samples analyzed they were found to vary hardly anything.--_C. H. +Slaytor, in Chem. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF AMMONIA FROM CRUDE GAS. + + +In connection with the many plans now brought forward to utilize the +ammonia in the gases escaping from coke ovens and blast furnaces, it +may be of interest to refer to a process brought out some years ago in +connection with illuminating gas manufacture by Messrs. Bolton & +Wanklyn, and adapted by them, we understand, to the metallurgical +branches also. + +When bone ash or any other substance containing phosphate of lime is +treated with sulphuric acid, the products formed are superphosphate of +lime and hydrated sulphate of lime; this mixture is known as +superphosphate of lime, in commerce, and is the substance used in this +process. This substance is capable of absorbing carbonic acid and +ammonia from foul gas. The complete action can only take place in the +presence of a certain proportion of carbonic acid, so that the process +is not so successful with "well-scrubbed illuminating gas." The +superphosphate is converted into carbonate of lime, while the ammonia +combines with the phosphoric acid to form phosphate of ammonia; the +hydrated sulphate of lime is also acted upon, and forms carbonate of +lime and sulphate of ammonia; so that, presuming the action to be +complete, and the material to be thoroughly saturated with carbonic +acid and ammonia from the foul gas, the result is a mixture of +carbonate of lime and phosphate and sulphate of ammonia. + +Under these circumstances, the mixture absorbs one equivalent of +carbonic acid for every four equivalents of ammonia; therefore, if the +superphosphate process be substituted for the ordinary washers and +scrubbers, a large proportion of the carbonic acid and also the whole +of the sulphureted hydrogen is left in the gas, and must be dealt with +in other ways. + +This superphosphate process has been at work at the South Metropolitan +Gas Works, Old Kent Road, for nearly two years. In practice it is +usual to water the superphosphate before use with ammoniacal liquor, +and it is used in dry purifiers, in layers about eight inches thick. + +This process has been thoroughly investigated at the Munich Gas Works, +by Drs. Bunte and Schilling, and the report made by these gentlemen +proves its practical efficiency, and therefore the question of its +advantage, as compared with washing and scrubbing, is based chiefly +upon financial considerations. It is evident that in foreign parts, +or in any place where there is a difficulty in disposing of the +ammonia, the obtaining of the same in a dry form offers several +advantages as compared with having it as a weak solution. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECONVERSION OF NITRO-GLYCERIN INTO GLYCERIN. + +By C.L. BLOXAM. + + +The following experiments on this subject appear to possess some +interest at the present moment: + +1. Nitro-glycerin was shaken with methylated alcohol, which dissolves +it readily, and the solution was mixed with an alcoholic solution of +KHS (prepared by dissolving KHO in methylated spirit, and saturating +with H_{2}S gas). Considerable rise of temperature took place, the +liquid became red, a large quantity of sulphur separated, and the +nitro-glycerin was entirely decomposed. + +2. Nitro-glycerin was shaken with a strong aqueous solution of +commercial K_{2}S. The same changes were observed as in 1, but the +rise of temperature was not so great, and the liquid became opaque +very suddenly when the decomposition of the nitro-glycerin was +completed. + +3. The ordinary yellow solution of ammonium sulphide used in the +laboratory had the same effect as the K_{2}S. In this case the mixture +was evaporated to dryness on the steam bath, when bubbles of gas were +evolved, due to the decomposition of the ammonium nitrite. The pasty +mass of sulphur was treated with alcohol, which extracted the +glycerin, subsequently recovered by evaporation. Another portion of +the mixture of nitro-glycerin with ammonium sulphide was treated with +excess of PbCO_{3} and a little lead acetate, filtered, and the ammonium +nitrite detected in the solution. These qualitative results would be +expressed by the equation-- + + C3H5(NO)+3NH4HS = C3H5(OH)3 + 3NH4NO2 + S3, + +which is similar to that for the action of potassium hydrosulphide +upon gun-cotton. + +4. Flowers of sulphur and slaked lime were boiled with water, till a +bright orange solution was obtained. This was filtered, and some +nitro-glycerin powered into it. The reduction took place much more +slowly than in the other cases, and more agitation was required, +because the nitro-glycerin became coated with sulphur. In a few +minutes, the reduction appearing to be complete, the separated sulphur +was filtered off. The filtrate was clear, and the sulphur bore +hammering without the slightest indication of nitro-glycerin. + +This would be the cheapest method of decomposing nitro-glycerin. +Perhaps the calcium sulphide of tank-waste, obtainable from the alkali +works, might answer the purpose.--_Chemical News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBONIC ACID AND BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A paper read before the Royal Society, April 5, 1883.] + +By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S. + + +Chemists are ever on the alert to notice analogies and resemblances in +the atomic structure of different bodies. They long ago indicated +points of resemblance between bisulphide of carbon and carbonic acid. +In the case of the latter we have one atom of carbon united to two of +oxygen, and in the case of the former one atom of carbon united to two +of sulphur. Attempts have been made to push the analogy still further +by the discovery of a compound of carbon and sulphur analogous to +carbonic oxide, but hitherto, I believe, without success. I have now +to note a resemblance of some interest to the physicist, and of a more +settled character than any hitherto observed. + +When, by means of an electric current, a metal is volatilized and +subjected to spectrum analysis, the "reversal" of the bright band of +the incandescent vapor is commonly observed. This is known to be due +to the absorption of the rays emitted by the vapor by the partially +cooled envelope of its own substance which surrounds it. The effect is +the same in kind as the absorption by cold carbonic acid of the heat +emitted by a carbonic oxide flame. For most sources of radiation +carbonic acid is one of the most transparent of gases; for the +radiation from the hot carbonic acid produced in the carbonic oxide +flame it is the most opaque of all. + +Again, for all ordinary sources of radiant heat, bisulphide of carbon, +both in the liquid and vaporous form, is one of the most diathermanous +bodies ever known. I thought it worth while to try whether a body +reputed to be analogous to carbonic acid, and so pervious to most +kinds of heat, would show any change of deportment when presented to +the radiation from hot carbonic acid. Does the analogy between the two +substances extend to the vibrating periods of their atoms? If it does, +then the bisulphide, like the carbonic acid, will abandon its usually +transparent character, and play the part of an opaque body when +presented to the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame. This proved +to be the case. Of the radiation from hydrogen, a thin layer of +bisulphide transmits 90 per cent., absorbing only 10. For the +radiation from carbonic acid, the same layer of bisulphide transmits +only 25 per cent., 75 per cent. being absorbed. For this source of +rays, indeed, the bisulphide transcends, as an absorbent, many +substances which, for all other sources, far transcend _it_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HAIR, ITS USE AND ITS CARE.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Abstract of a paper read before the Pennsylvania State +Medical Society, at Norristown, May 10, 1883.--_N.Y. Med. Jour._] + +By JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D., Physician to the Philadelphia +Hospital for Skin Diseases. + + +The object of this paper is to briefly describe the hair and its +important functions, and to suggest the proper manner of preserving it +in a healthy state. + +I know full well that much has been written upon this useful part of +the human economy, but the constant increase of bald heads and +beardless faces, notwithstanding all our modern advancement in the +application of remedies to the cure of disease, prompts me to point +out to you the many ways of retaining, without medication, the hair, +which is a defense, ornamentation, and adornment to the human body. + +[Dr. Shoemaker here gave an interesting history of the growth and +development of the hair and its uses, which we are compelled to omit. +Then, proceeding, he said:] Now, the hair, which fulfills such an +important function in the adornment and health of the body, requires +both constitutional and local care to keep it in its normal, healthy +state. When I say constitutional care, I mean that the various organs +of the body that assist in nourishing and sustaining the hair-forming +apparatus should, by judicious diet, exercise, and attention to the +nervous system, be kept healthy and sound, in order that they in turn +may assist in preserving the hairs in a vigorous condition. + +In the first place, that essential material, food, which is necessary +to supply the waste and repair of all animal life, should be selected, +given, or used according to good judgment and experience. + +Thus, mothers should feed their infants at regular intervals according +to their age, and not permit them to constantly pull at the breast or +the bottle until the little stomach becomes gorged with food, and some +alimentary disorder supervenes, often setting up a rash and +interfering with the growth and development of the hair. It is +likewise important, in case the baby must be artificially fed, to +select good nutritious food as near as possible like the +mother's--cow's milk, properly prepared, being the only recognized +substitute. Care and discretion should likewise be taken by parents +and nurses, after the infant has developed into childhood, to give +simple, substantial, and varied food at regular periods of the day, +and not in such quantities as to overload the stomach. Children need +active nutrition to develop them into robust and healthy men and +women; and it is from neglect of these important laws of health, and +in allowing improper food, that very often bring their results in +scald head, ring-worm, and scrofula, that leave their stamp in the +poor development of the hair. With the advent of youth and the advance +of years, food should be selected and partaken of according to the +judgment and experience of its acceptable and wholesome action on the +consumer. + +The meals should also be taken at regular intervals. At least four +hours should be left between them for the act of digestion and the +proper rest of the stomach. + +It is, on the contrary, when the voice of nature has been stifled, +when judgment and experience have been set aside, that mischief +follows; when the stomach is teased and fretted with overloading, and +the food gulped down without being masticated, gastric and intestinal +derangement supervenes, which is one of the most prolific sources of +the early decay and fall of the hair. + +The nervous system, which is one of the most important portions of the +human structure, and which controls circulation, secretion, and +nutrition, often by being impaired, plays a prominent part in the +production of baldness. Thus, it has been demonstrated by modern +investigation that the nerves of nutrition, by their defective action, +are often the cause of thinning and loss of hair. The nutritive action +of a part is known to suddenly fail, the hair-forming apparatus ceases +to act, the skin changes from a peculiar healthy hue to a white and +shining appearance, and often loses at the same time its sensibility; +the hairs drop out until very few remain, or the part becomes entirely +bald. It is the overtaxing of the physical powers, excessive brain +work, the exacting demands made by parents and teachers upon +children's mental faculties, the loss of sleep, incessant cares, +anxiety, grief, excitement, the sudden depression and exaltation of +spirits, irregular and hastily bolted meals, the lack of rest and +recreation, the abuse of tobacco, spirits, tea, coffee, and drugs of +all forms, that are fruitful sources of this defective action of the +nerves of nutrition, and consequent general thinning and loss of hair. + +The hair, particularly of the head, should also receive marked local +attention. In reference to the use of coverings for it, I know of no +better rules than those which I laid down in my chapter on clothing in +"Household Practice of Medicine" (vol. i., p. 218, William Wood & Co., +New York), in which I state that the head is the only part of the body +so protected by nature as to need no artificial covering. + +The stiff hats so extensively worn by men produce more or less injury. +Premature baldness most frequently first attacks that part of the head +where pressure is made by the hat. It is, indeed, a pity that custom +has so rigidly decreed that men and women must not appear out of doors +with heads uncovered. It would be far better for the hair if to be +bare-headed were the rule, and to wear a hat the exception. + +Since we can not change our social regulations in this respect, we +should endeavor to render them as harmless as possible. + +The forms of hats that are least injurious are: for Winter, soft hats +of light weight, having an open structure, or pierced with numerous +holes; for Summer, light straws, also of open structure. + +As regards the head-covering of women, the fashions have been for +several years favorable to proper form. The bonnet and hat have become +quite small, and cover but little of the head. This beneficial +condition, however, is in part counterbalanced by the weight of false +curls, switches, puffs, etc., by the aid of which women dress the +head. These, by interfering with evaporation of the secretions, +prevent proper regulations of the temperature of the scalp, and +likewise lead to the retention of a certain amount of excrementitious +matter, both of which are prolific sources of rapid thinning and loss +of hair in women. + +False hair has likewise sometimes been the means of introducing +parasites, which give rise to obstinate affections of the scalp. + +Cleanliness of the entire surface of the skin should next demand +attention, and that should be done by using water as the medium of +ablution. It is a well-known physiological law that it is necessary, +in order to enable the skin to carry on its healthful action, to have +washed off with water the constant cast of scales which become mingled +with the unctuous and saline products, together with particles of dirt +which coat over the pores, and thus interfere with the development of +the hairs. Water for ablution can be of any temperature that may be +acceptable and agreeable, according to the custom and condition of the +bather's health. Many chemical substances can be combined with water +to cleanse these effete productions from the skin. Soap is the most +efficacious of all for cleanliness, health, and the avoidance of +disease. Soap combines better with water to render these unctuous +products miscible, and readily removes them thoroughly from the skin. +The best variety of soap to use is the pure white soap, which cannot +be so easily adulterated by coloring material, or disguised by some +perfume or medicinal substance. Ablution with soap and water should be +performed once or twice a week at least, particularly to the head and +beard, in order to keep open the hair tubes so that they may take in +oxygen, give out carbon, carry on their nutrition, and maintain the +hairs in a fine, polished, and healthy condition. In using water to +the scalp and beard, care should be taken not to use soap-water too +frequently, as it often causes irritation of the glands, and leads to +the formation of scurf. It is equally important to avoid using on the +head, the daily shower-bath, which, by its sudden, rapid, and heavy +fall, excites local irritation, and, as a result, loss of hair quickly +follows. In case the health demands the shower-bath, the hair should +be protected by a bathing cap. The most acceptable time to wash the +hair, to those not accustomed to doing it with their morning bath, is +just before retiring, in order to avoid going into the open air or +getting into a draught and taking cold. After washing, the hair should +be briskly rubbed with rough towels, the Turkish towel heated being +particularly serviceable. Those who are delicate or sick, and fear +taking cold or being chilled from the wet or damp hairs, should rub +into the scalp a little bay rum, alcohol, or oil, a short time after +the parts have been well chafed with towels. The oil is particularly +serviceable at this period, as it is better absorbed, and at the same +time overcomes any dryness of the skin which often follows washing. + +It might be well to add in this connection that I have frequently been +consulted, by those taking salt-water baths, as to the care of the +hair during and after the bath. If the bather is in good health, and +the hair is normal, the bather can go into the surf and remain at +least fifteen minutes, and on coming out should rub the hair +thoroughly dry with towels. + +Ladies should permit it remain loose while doing so, after which it +can be advantageously dressed. + +It is, however, often injurious to both men and women having some +wasting of the hair to go into the surf without properly protecting +the head; the sea water has not, as is often thought, a tonic action +on the scalp; on the contrary, it often excites irritation and general +thinning. Again, it is most decidedly injurious to the hair for +persons to remain in the surf one or two hours, the hair wet, and the +head unprotected from the rays of the sun. This latter class of +bathers, and those who hurriedly dress the hair wet, which soon +becomes mouldy and emits a disagreeable odor, are frequent sufferers +from general loss and thinning of the hair. + +An agreeable and efficient adjunct after ablution, which I have +already referred to, is oil. Oil has not only a cleansing action upon +the scalp, but it also overcomes any rough or uneven state of the +hair, and gives it a soft and glossy appearance. + +The oil of ergot is particularly serviceable in fulfilling these +indications, and, at the same time, by its soothing and slight +astringent action upon the glands, will arrest the formation of scurf. +In using oil, the animal and vegetable oils should always be +preferred, as mineral oils, especially the petroleum products, have a +very poor affinity for animal tissues. + +Pomatum is largely used by many in place of oil, as it remains on the +surface and gives a full appearance to the hairs, thus hiding, +sometimes, the thinness of the hair. + +It will do no harm or no special good if it contains pure grease, wax, +harmless perfume, and coloring matter, but it is often highly +adulterated, or, the fat in it decomposing, sets up irritation on the +part to which it is applied. I therefore always advise against its +use. + +The comb and brush are also agents of the toilet by which the hair is +kept clean, vigorous, and healthy. The comb should be of flexible gum, +with large, broad, blunt, round, and coarse teeth, having plenty of +elasticity. It should be used to remove from the hairs any scurf or +dirt that may have become entangled in them, to separate the hairs and +prevent them from becoming matted and twisted together. + +The fine-tooth comb, made with the teeth much closer together, can be +used in place of the regular toilet comb just named when the hair is +filled with very fine particles of scurf, dirt, or when parasites and +their eggs infest the hairs. It should, however, always be borne in +mind that combs are only for the hair, and not for the scalp or the +skin, which is too often torn and dug up by carelessly and roughly +pulling these valuable and important articles of toilet through the +skin as well as the hair. + +The brush with moderately stiff whalebone bristles may be passed +gently over the hair several times during the day, to brush out the +dust and the dandruff, and to keep the hair smooth, soft, and clean; +rough and hard brushing the hair with brushes having very stiff +bristles in them, especially the metal or wire bristles, is of no +service, but often irritates the parts and causes the hair to fall +out. [Dr. Shoemaker then denounced the use of the so-called electric +brush, saying its use was injurious, as also was the effort to remove +dandruff by the aid of the comb and brush. Continuing, he remarked:] +And now the question arises, Should the hair be periodically cut? It +may be that cutting and shaving may for the time increase the action +of the growth, but it has no permanent effect either upon the +hair-bulb or the hair sac, and will not in any way add to the life of +the hair. + +On the contrary, cutting and shaving will cause the hair to grow +longer for the time being, but in the end will inevitably shorten its +term of life by exhausting the nutritive action of the hair-forming +apparatus. When the hairs are frequently cut, they will usually become +coarser, often losing the beautiful gloss of the fine and delicate +hairs. The pigment will likewise change--brown, for instance, becoming +chestnut, and black changing to a dark brown. In addition, the ends of +very many will be split and ragged, presenting a brush like +appearance. If the hairs appear stunted in their growth upon portions +of the scalp or beard, or gray hairs crop up here and there, the +method of clipping off the ends of the short hairs, of plucking out +the ragged, withered, and gray hairs, will allow them to grow +stronger, longer, and thicker. + +Mothers, in rearing their children, should not cut their hair at +certain periods of the year (during the superstitious time of full +moon), in order to increase its length and luxuriance as they bloom +into womanhood, and manhood. This habit of cutting the hair of +children brings evil in place of good, and is also condemned by the +distinguished worker in this department, Professor Kaposi, of Vienna, +who states that it is well known that the hair of women who possess +luxuriant locks from the time of girlhood never again attains its +original length after having once been cut. + +Pincus has made the same observation by frequent experiment, and he +adds that there is a general opinion that frequent cutting of the hair +increases its length; but the effect is different from that generally +supposed. Thus, upon one occasion he states that he cut off circles of +hair an inch in diameter on the heads of healthy men, and from week to +week compared the intensity of growth of the shorn place with the rest +of the hair. The result was surprising to this close and careful +observer, as he found in some cases the numbers were equal, but +generally the growth became slower after cutting, and he has never +observed an increase in rapidity. + +I might also add that I believe many beardless faces and bald heads in +middle and advancing age are often due to constant cutting and shaving +in early life. The young girls and boys seen daily upon our streets +with their closely cropped heads, and the young men with their +clean-shaven faces, are, year by year, by this fashion, having their +hair-forming apparatus overstrained. + +I also must condemn the modern practice of curling and crimping, the +use of bandoline, powders, and all varieties of gum solutions, sharp +hair-pins, long-pointed metal ornaments and hair combs, the wearing of +chignons, false plaits, curls, and frizzes, as the latter are liable +to cause headaches and tend to congestion. Likewise I protest against +the use of castor-oil and the various mixtures extolled as the best +hair-tonics, restoratives, vegetable hair-dyes, or depilatories, as +they are highly injurious instead of beneficial, the majority of +hair-dyes being largely composed of lead salts. But, should your +patients wish to hide their gray hairs, probably the best hair-dye +that can be used safely is pyrogallic acid or walnut juice, the hairs +being first washed with an alkaline solution to get rid of the grease. +Nitrate of silver is also a good and safe hair-dye, but its +application should be done by one experienced in its use. The +judicious use of these hair-dyes will give the hair above the surface +of the skin a brownish-black appearance, the intensity of the color of +which depends upon the strength of the solution. But hair-dyeing for +premature grayness should be avoided, as the diseased condition may be +averted by the proper remedies. Never permit the hair to be bleached +for the purpose of obtaining the fashionable golden hue, as the +arsenical solution generally used is highly dangerous; but, if your +patients must have their hair of a golden color, insist upon their +hairdresser using the peroxide of hydrogen, which is less dangerous +than the preparation first mentioned. + +Perhaps one of the most pernicious compounds used for the hair at the +present day is that which is sold in the shops as a depilatory. It is +usually a mixture of quicklime and arsenic, and is wrongly used and +recommended at this time by many physicians to remove hairy moles and +an excessive growth of hair upon ladies' faces. Its application +excites inflammation of the skin; and, while it removes the hair from +the surface for a time, it often leaves a scar, or makes the part +rough, congested, and deformed. + +In the meantime, the hair will grow after a short period stronger, +coarser, and changed in color, which will even more disfigure the +person's countenance. With the present scientific knowledge of the +application of electrolysis, hairs can be removed from the face of +ladies or children, or in any improper situation, in the most harmless +manner without using such obnoxious and injurious compounds as +depilatories. + +In conclusion, let me add that, if the hair becomes altered in +texture, or falls out gradually or suddenly, or changes in color, a +disease of the hair, either locally or generally, has set in, and the +hair, and perhaps the constitution, now needs, as in any other +disease, the constant care of the physician. + +A general remedy for this or that hair disease that may develop will +not answer, as hair diseases, like other affections, have no one +remedy which will overcome wasting, thinning, or loss of color. +Patients reasoning upon this belief, frequently apply to me for a +remedy to restore their hair to its full vigor or give them back its +color. I always reply that I have no such remedy. + +The general health, as well as the scalp and hairs, must be examined +carefully, particularly the latter, with the lens and microscope. All +changes must be watched, and the treatment varied from time to time +according to the indications. + +No one remedy can, therefore, under any circumstances, suit, as the +remedy used to-day may be changed at the next or succeeding visit. No +remedy for the hair will be necessary if the foregoing advice be +followed which I have just narrated, and which is the result of some +seven years of labor and experience. + +The proper consideration and putting into practice of these +suggestions will most certainly secure to the rising generation fewer +bald heads and more luxuriant hair than is possessed at the present +day. + + * * * * * + + [Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 387, page 6179.] + + + + +THE INFLUENCE OF EFFECTIVE BREATHING IN DELAYING THE PHYSICAL +CHANGES INCIDENT TO THE DECLINE OF LIFE, AND IN THE PREVENTION OF +PNEUMONIA, CONSUMPTION, AND DISEASES OF WOMEN. + +By DAVID WARK, M.D., 9 East 12th Street, New York. + + +PNEUMONIA. + +During the past winter inflammation of the lungs has destroyed the +lives of many persons who, although they were in most cases past the +meridian of life, yet still apparently enjoyed vigorous health, and, I +have little doubt, would still have been alive and well had the +preventive means here laid down against the occurrence of the disease +from which they perished been effectively practiced at the proper +time. + +The most important anatomical change occurring during the progress of +pneumonia is the solidification of a larger or smaller part of one or +both lungs by the deposit in the terminal bronchial tubes and in the +air cells of a substance by which the spongy lungs are rendered as +solid and heavy as a piece of liver. The access of the respired air to +the solidified part being totally prevented, life is inevitably +destroyed if a sufficiently large portion of the lungs be invaded. + +This deposit succeeds the first or congestive stage, and it occurs +with great rapidity; an entire lobe of the lung may be rendered +perfectly solid by the exudation from the blood of fully two pounds of +solid matter in the short space of twelve hours or even less. The +rapidity with which the lungs become solidified amply accounts for the +promptly fatal results that often attend attacks of acute pneumonia. +If recovery takes place, the foreign matter by which the lung tissue +has been solidified is perfectly absorbed and the diseased portion is +found to be quite uninjured. The only natural method by which the +blood can be freed from the presence of foreign matter is by the +oxidation--the burning--of such impure matters; the results being +carbonic acid gas that escapes by the lungs and certain materials that +are eliminated chiefly by the kidneys. But when these blood impurities +exist in the vital fluid in unusually large quantities, or if the +respiratory capacity be inadequate, the natural internal crematory +operations are a partial failure. But nature will not tolerate the +presence of such impurities in the vital fluid; if they cannot be +eliminated by natural means they must by unnatural means; therefore +such material is very frequently deposited in various parts of the +body, the point of deposit being often determined by some local +disturbance or irritation. + +For instance, if a person whose blood is in fairly good condition +takes a cold that settles on his lungs, he either recovers of it +spontaneously or is readily cured by means of some cough mixture; but +if his blood be loaded with tubercular matter, the latter is extremely +liable to be deposited in his lungs; the cough that was excited in the +first place by a simple cold becomes worse and persistent, in a few +months his lungs show signs of disorganization, and he has consumption +of the acute or chronic type, as the case may be. + +On the other hand, if the impure matter by which the blood is loaded +be of the kind that causes the pulmonary solidifications of pneumonia, +the latter disease is very likely to be developed if a cold on the +lungs be caught. + +The liability of any individual to attacks of acute pneumonia is +therefore determined very largely by the presence or absence in his +blood of the matter already alluded to. If his blood be free from it, +no cold, however severe, is competent to originate the disease. + +There can be no question but that good living and sedentary habits +have a strong tendency to befoul the blood; the former renders +effective respiration all the more necessary for the removal from the +blood of whatever nutritive matter has been taken beyond the needs of +the system, and the latter inevitably diminishes the respiratory +motions to the lowest point consistent with physical comfort. From +these conditions originates the active predisposing cause of +pneumonia, to which we have already alluded. + +The disease is more fatal in the very young and in the aged; the +mortality seems to bear a direct ratio to the respiratory capacity; in +young subjects the breathing powers have not been fully developed like +the other physical capacities, while in the old the respiratory volume +has been diminished by the stiffening of the chest walls and of the +lungs by the senile changes already detailed. + +There can be no question but that protection from cold and judicious +attention to the health generally, by suitable exercise and diet, has +a powerful tendency to prevent that overloaded condition of the blood +to which I believe acute pneumonia to be chiefly due; still I have no +doubt but that the most active preventive measure that can be adopted +is keeping up the respiratory capacity to the full requirements of the +system, a precaution which is specially necessary to ease-loving and +high-living gentlemen who are past the prime of life. I am of the +opinion that if such persons would cultivate their breathing powers by +the simple means here recommended, their liability to pneumonia would +be notably reduced. + + +THE TRUE FIRST STAGE OF CONSUMPTION. + +The progress of tubercular consumption has been divided by pathologists +into three stages. The first stage being that in which a deposit of +tubercular matter occurs in the lung tissue, the second is entered on +when the tubercles soften, and the third when they have melted down, +been expectorated, and cavities have formed. But the real beginning of +this most insidious and justly dreaded disease not infrequently +antedates for a long time, often for several years, the deposit of any +tubercular matter. During all this time an expert examiner can detect +the slight but very significant changes already taking place in the +pulmonary organs. Physicians determine the condition of the lungs +chiefly through the sounds elicited by percussion of the chest walls +by the end of the middle finger, or a small rubber hammer adapted to +the purpose, and by those produced by the respired air rushing in to +and out of the bronchial tubes and air vesicles. The percussion sounds +yielded by the chest during what has been aptly called the +pre-tubercular stage do not differ from those elicited in health, +because it is only when some morbid matter exists in the lungs that +the percussion note is altered, therefore negative results only are +obtained in the real first stage by this mode of examination. But +important information can be obtained by interrogating the sounds due +to the inspired air rushing into and distending the air vesicles. When +the lungs are perfectly healthy, these are breezy and almost musical. +During the pre-tubercular stage they become drier and harsher; +qualities of evil omen that continue to increase as time passes, if +properly directed means be not adopted to correct the evil; but so far +none of the symptoms that indicate the slightest deposit of tubercle +can be detected, but the breathing capacity of such persons is never +up to the full requirements of the system. The reader is referred to +the table already given, which exhibits the decline of the breathing +capacity of persons suffering from consumption in its several stages. +When the disease has made such decided progress that tubercles are +already deposited in the lungs in sufficient quantity to give rise to +the physical signs by which their presence is proved, this carefully +compiled table shows that the diminution of the vital capacity already +amounts to one-third of that considered by Dr. Hutchinson to be +necessary to the maintenance of health. + +During the pre-tubercular stage the breathing capacity rarely falls so +much as 33 per cent. below the healthy standard, but it is never up to +the normal vital volume. This fact is most significant, especially +when it occurs in an individual whose relatives have succumbed to this +disease; but it rarely attracts sufficient attention from such persons +as to induce them to have their breathing capacity measured, much less +to take effective measures to bring and keep it up to the healthy +standard. So long as there are, to them, no tangible symptoms of +approaching mischief, and they feel fairly well, they act as if they +thought "that all men were mortal but themselves." Yet it is from +among persons who have an inherited but latent tendency to tubercular +disease, and whose lung power is below par, that the great army of +consumptives who die every year is recruited. It is very difficult to +induce persons who ought to be interested in this matter to take +effective measures for their future safety when the terrible symptoms +accompanying the last stages of the disease often fail to shake the +sufferer's confident expectation of recovery; and we sometimes see +them engaged in laying plans for the future when death is imminent. I +regret deeply to be obliged to make these statements, because I am +convinced that if the suggestions laid down in this work were +generally reduced to practice by those who have reason to dread the +development of tubercular disease, many valuable lives would be saved. + + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF TUBERCULAR MATTER IN THE BLOOD. + +During the digestive processes the starchy, saccharine, and albuminoid +elements of food are dissolved, and the fatty matters are emulsified. +A uniform milky solution is thus formed, which is rapidly absorbed +into the general circulation; some of it passes directly through the +walls of the vessels into the blood, and some is taken up by the +lacteals and reaches the vital fluid by traversing the complicated +series of tubes known as the absorbent system, and the numerous glands +connected with it. The chief function of the starchy and fatty food +elements is to keep up the physical temperature, by being submitted to +oxidation in the organism; therefore it is not necessary that they +should experience any vitalizing change, but are fitted to discharge +their duties in the vital domain by simply undergoing the solution +that fits them for absorption. But the materials intended to enter +into the composition of the body must be developed into living blood, +in order to be fitted to become part and parcel of the organs by which +power is evolved, and through the use of which we see, hear, feel, +think, and move. This wonderful process begins and is carried forward +in the absorbent system, which has been described by Dr. Carpenter as +a great blood-making gland. But the vital transformation is not +completed until the nutritive materials have been submitted to the +action of the liver, and afterward to the influence of oxygen in the +capillaries of the lungs. The food that was eaten a few hours before +is thus converted into rich scarlet arterial blood, if every part of +the complex vitalizing processes has been properly conducted. But the +influence of oxygen is requisite, not only to complete the +vitalization of the embryo blood in the lungs, it is an absolutely +essential element in every step of the vitalizing process in the +absorbents. + +The average quantity of food required to sustain an ordinary man in +health and strength, I have previously stated, is about two pounds +avoirdupois daily, and an equal weight of oxygen is necessary to the +integrity of the vitalizing processes undergone by the food, and to +maintain the physical temperature. When the requisite supply of oxygen +is reduced, the extrication of heat within the system is promptly +diminished, but the vitalization of digested food is unfavorably +affected much more slowly, but with equal certainty. If the quota of +oxygen existing in the arterial blood of the vessels whose duty it is +to supply the vital fluid to the absorbent system, be inadequate to +enable these operations to go on properly, the life-giving processes +must necessarily be imperfectly accomplished. Under these +circumstances the digested material is imperfectly vitalized, and is +therefore inadequately fitted to be used in building up and repairing +the living body. But its course in the system cannot be delayed, much +less stopped. + +The blood possesses a definite constitution, which cannot be +materially altered without the rapid development of grave, perhaps +fatal consequences. The nutritive matters received into the blood must +be given up by it to the tissues for their repair, whether such +materials are well or ill fitted for the vital purposes. Dr. B.W. +Carpenter, of London, the celebrated physiologist, makes the following +pertinent statements on this subject, which I condense from his great +work on physiology: "We frequently find an imperfectly organizable +product, known by the designation of tubercular matter, taking the +place of the normal elements of tissue, both in the ordinary process +of nutrition, and still more when inflammation is set up. + +From the examination of the blood of tuberculous subjects it appears +that, although the bulk of the coagulum obtained by stirring or +beating is usually greater than that of healthy blood, yet this +coagulum is not composed or well elaborated fibriae, for it is soft +and loose, and contains an unusually large number of colorless blood +corpuscles, while the red corpuscles form an abnormally small +proportion of it. We can understand, therefore, that such a constant +deficiency in capacity for organization must unfavorably affect the +ordinary nutritive processes; and that there will be a liability to +the deposit of imperfectly vitalized matter, instead of the normal +elements of tissue, even without any inflammation. Such appears to be +the history of the formation of tubercles in the lungs and other +organs. + +When it occurs as a kind of metamorphosis of the ordinary nutritive +processes and in this manner, it may proceed insidiously for a long +period, so that a large part of the tissue of the lungs shall be +replaced by tubercular deposit without any other sign than an +increasing difficulty of respiration." These views are strongly +corroborated by the following facts: + +In making post mortem examinations of persons who have died of +consumption, tubercles of different kinds are found in the same +subject; some of these, having been deposited during what is called +the first stage of the disease before the breathing powers were much +impaired, bear evident traces of organization in the form of cells and +fibers more or less obvious, these being sometimes almost as perfectly +formed as living matter, at least on the superficial part of the +deposit, which is in immediate contact with the living structures +around. + +This variety of tubercle has a tendency to contract and remain in the +lungs without doing much injury. But as the disease progressed, and +the breathing capacity progressively diminished, tubercular matter +occurs, evincing less and less organization, showing a tendency to +break down and cause inflammation in the surrounding lung tissue, +until at last we find crude yellow tubercles that have become +softened, and formed cavities almost as soon as they were deposited. + +Some cases of chronic consumption pass in a few months through the +various stages from the deposit of the first tubercle to a fatal +termination. + +The progress of the disease is determined largely by the nature of the +tubercular matter at the time it is deposited. + +The variety of matter which has been partially vitalized commonly +exists in small quantity, has a strong tendency to maintain its +semi-organized condition unchanged by time, and rarely causes +inflammation. + +A small or moderate quantity of this sort of tubercle exists in the +lungs of many persons, in whom it produces no tangible symptoms, and +who are therefore quite unconscious of its presence; and even when it +does exist in sufficient quantity to develop the symptoms of lung +disorder, the progress of the disease is slow, often continuing for +many years. It constitutes a variety of consumption which is specially +amenable to proper treatment. On the other hand, the soft, yellow, +cheesy, tubercular matter, which is totally destitute of any vitality, +is too often deposited in large quantities, acts on the adjacent lung +tissue as an active irritant, causes inflammation, undergoes +softening, forms cavities, defies treatment, and rapidly hurries the +sufferers to a premature grave. These facts, taken in connection with +the immunity from lung diseases enjoyed by those whose respiratory +capacity is well developed and properly used, as well as the +beneficial effects that are promptly secured in the favorable +varieties of consumption by any important increase in the vital +volume, I believe fully justify the statement that _tubercles are the +results of defective nutrition directly traceable to inadequate +respiratory capacity_, either congenital or acquired--in other words, +tubercles are composed of particles of food which have failed to +acquire sufficient life while undergoing the vital processes, because +the person in whom they occur habitually breathed too little fresh +air. + +Persons who possess what is called the scrofulous constitution are +specially liable to the occurrence of tubercular matter when their +respiration is defective, or they are exposed to any other influences +that favor its development in the organism. But habitually defective +respiration, or the breathing of an atmosphere containing too little +oxygen, which practically amounts to the same thing, has a very +powerful tendency in the same direction, in persons who are apparently +as free from scrofulous taint as any human being can be. + + +THE VALUE OF COD-LIVER OIL IN THE PREVENTION OF CONSUMPTION. + +There is a broad but not commonly recognized distinction between what +constitutes a medicine and a food. All the materials that normally +enter into the composition of the living body, and are necessary to +the maintenance of health and strength, may be property classed as +foods, whether they be obtained from the animal, vegetable, or mineral +kingdoms; thus the iron, sulphur, phosphorus, lime, potash, etc., +required by the system usually exist in and are organically combined +with the various foods in common use, and they are perhaps quite as +essential to the physical well-being as albuminoid, fatty, and +saccharine matters. When the system is suffering from lack of any of +the above mentioned chemicals, their administration is to be regarded +as the giving of nutritive substances, although they be prescribed by +a physician in divided doses and procured from a pharmacist. + +On the other hand, a medicine is any substance that does not naturally +enter into the composition of the body, but which has the power, when +skillfully used, to modify the physical processes so that +physiological disorder--disease, shall be replaced by physiological +harmony--health. Belladonna, hyoscyamus, opium, etc., are familiar +examples of medicaments. Therefore a food is any substance that is +capable of directly contributing to the nutrition of the body, and +medicine is a substance competent, under proper conditions, to secure +the same results indirectly. Viewed in the light of the above +definition, cod-liver oil is to be regarded as a very valuable food, +as well as a most effective remedy both for the prevention and cure of +consumption. + +I have previously stated that food is divided by physiologists into +three great classes. The albuminoids are used to build up the +organism, while the fatty and saccharine are burned in the body to +keep it warm. Although these are the chief functions devolving on the +above mentioned food elements, yet they are mutually interdependent on +each other for the proper performance of their several offices. Thus +the albuminoids cannot undergo the wonderful vitalizing process +necessary to fit them to enter into and form part of the living body, +except an adequate quantity of fatty matter be present to assist in +the vital transformation. On the other hand, the assistance of the +albuminoids is equally necessary to enable the fatty and saccharine +foods to maintain the internal heat of the body. Of all fatty matters, +whether derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, none possesses +the property of stimulating and perfecting the nutritive processes in +so high a degree as cod-liver oil; it is more readily emulsified and +fitted for absorption by the pancreatic secretion during intestinal +digestion than any other fatty matter of which we have any knowledge. +The beneficial effects of its use have been proved in myriads of cases +of confirmed consumption, and if it were used for prolonged periods by +persons who are losing weight, and whose breathing capacity is too +little, along with effective cultivation of the latter function, many +persons would escape this disease who now succumb to it. + + +THE INFLUENCE OF NORMAL BREATHING ON THE FEMALE GENERATIVE +ORGANS. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The body is divided into three separate stories by two partitions. The +diaphragm, A, separates the cavity of the chest from that of the +abdomen. The partition, _D_, forms a floor for the digestive cavity, +F, and a roof for the pelvis; the pelvic cavity is occupied mainly by +the generative organs. The upper part of the uterus is firmly fixed to +the partition, D, by which the pelvis is covered. Now, the diaphragm, +A, and the external respiratory muscles are in ceaseless motion +performing the act of breathing. The diaphragm acts like the piston of +a pump, both on the lungs above, and on the contents of the abdominal +and pelvic cavities below. When it rises from B to A, it diminishes +the size of the thoracic cavity, compresses the lungs, and assists in +the expiratory part of breathing; at the same time it acts through the +contents of the abdominal cavity on the pelvic roof, D, to which the +uterus is attached, and raises it from D to C. When the diaphragm +contracts, it descends from A to B, increases the size of the thoracic +cavity, inflates the lungs, promotes the inspiratory part of +breathing, pushes the walls of the chest and abdomen outward from F to +E, and lowers the pelvic roof at the same time the uterus sinks from C +to D. When the effect of these respiratory motions is not diminished +by muscular debility, rigidity of the thoracic walls, or by unsuitable +clothing, they have so direct an effect on the pelvic contents that +the uterus and its appendages make two distinct motions every time a +woman breathes. When the diaphragm rises and the breath is expelled, +the womb is elevated from one inch to one inch and a half, because the +roof of the pelvis, to which it is attached, is lifted about this +distance, because of gentle suction from above. The uterus and its +appendages are thus kept in constant motion, up and down, chiefly by +action of the muscles by which breathing is carried on. + +Several influences combine to maintain the circulation of the blood. +The pumping action of the heart and the affinity of the blood for the +walls of the capillary vessels require to be assisted by the motion +both of the body as a whole and of its parts in order to keep the +circulation flowing equably through every tissue. Therefore muscular +action and the resulting bodily motion play a very important part in +maintaining the general and local blood circulation. During the +contraction of a muscle, the blood current flowing through it is, for +the time being, retarded, but when relaxation occurs the blood flows +into its vessels more freely than if no momentary cessation had taken +place. When the body or any of its parts is deprived of motion, the +blood circulation stagnates, and the nutrition, general or local, as +the case may be, promptly becomes impaired. This is specially true of +the uterus. Gentle but constant motion is absolutely essential to keep +up a healthy uterine blood circulation. Nature has provided for the +automatic performance of all the ceaseless internal motions that are +necessary to the continuance of life and the preservation of health; +thus the heart beats, the respiratory muscles act, the stomach +executes a churning motion during gastric digestion, the intestines +pass on their contents by worm-like contractions, automatically +without our supervision and without causing fatigue, being under the +control of the sympathetic system of nerves chiefly. It is equally +true, but not so well recognized, that the previously described +motions that are committed to the pelvic organs from the respiratory +apparatus are absolutely necessary to the continued health of the +uterus and its appendages. But the womb is not under the control of +the voluntary muscles, therefore it cannot be directly moved by them, +nor are its necessary motions influenced by the sympathetic system of +nerves as are the heart, stomach, and intestines, etc., but it is +fortunately under the indirect but positive control of involuntary +muscles that never, as long as breathing continues, cease their work. +Nature has thus made ample provision to keep the uterus in automatic +motion. As before stated, the natural ceaseless heavings of the lungs, +chest, and diaphragm, aided by the muscles inclosing the abdomen, have +the duty assigned them of communicating automatic motion to the uterus +and the other contents of the pelvis. When the diaphragm descends from +A to B, and the lungs are filled with air, the uterus sinks in the +pelvic cavity in obedience to the downward pressure from above, as +before stated; the circulation through the uterus is then for a moment +retarded, but the next instant, when the lungs are emptied of air and +the diaphragm rises, the blood flows forward more freely than if it +had not been momentarily obstructed. Ample provision has thus been +made to maintain a healthy circulation through the uterus. + +The uterine motions I have described are fully adequate for the +purposes indicated. But when the natural stimulus of motion is +withheld, the circulation becomes sluggish causing congestion, which +may develop into inflammation. Under these conditions the uterus +gradually becomes displaced, falling backward, forward or downward as +the case may be. The blood vessels by which the uterus is supplied +thus have their caliber diminished by bending; the circulation through +them is retarded just as the flow of water in a rubber tube is +obstructed by a kink. A very good idea of what occurs in the uterus +under the conditions just described may be obtained by winding a +string around the fingers. + +As the coats of the arteries are thick, and the pressure exerted by +the ligature has less power to prevent the arterial blood flowing +outward past the string to the end of the finger than it has to +prevent the return of the venous blood toward the heart, therefore the +part beyond the ligature soon becomes congested, the blood stagnating +in the capillaries. If the ligature be sufficiently tight and kept on +long enough, mortification will take place, but if the circulation be +only moderately obstructed, the congestion will continue until +ulceration occurs. A similar condition is developed in the uterus when +the necessary natural stimulus of motion fails to be communicated to +it or when it is so far out of its proper place that the circulation +through it is obstructed. + +I believe the above described condition to be a most potent but +inadequately recognized cause of the various forms of uterine diseases +that distress so many women. + + +SHOWING HOW THE BREATHING POWERS MAY BE DEVELOPED. + +When the circumference of the chest bears a due proportion to the size +of the body generally; when its walls and the lungs possess a suitable +degree of elasticity; when the strength of the respiratory muscles is +adequate to their work, and no undue opposition is offered to the +breathing motions by the clothing--then the vital volume is always up +to the full requirements of the system. But when one or all of these +are lacking in any important degree, the breathing capacity is +proportionately diminished. If the testimony of the spirometer be +corroborated by the impaired physical condition of the individual, its +correction should be sought in part at least by enlarging the chest, +increasing the elasticity of its walls and of the lungs, and by +augmenting the strength of the respiratory muscles. These results may +commonly be secured by diligent and persevering use of the following +exercises: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +A trapeze, Fig. 2, should be suspended from the ceiling, so that the +bar shall be six inches above the head of the person who is to use it; +the toes should be placed under straps nailed to the floor to keep +them in position. Then if the bar be grasped and the body thrown +forward, the trapeze, the arms, and the body will form the segment of +a circle. + +The exercise is taken by causing the body to describe a complete +circle in the manner indicated in the cut. Little muscular effort is +required if the motion be rapid, because the momentum is sufficient to +carry the body around; but if the rotation be slow, more exertion is +required. This movement is specially adapted to the breathing powers +of weak persons, yet the most vigorous can readily get from it all the +exercise their chest and lungs require. + +By means of these exercises the chest is gently but effectively +expanded in every direction and the elasticity of its walls promoted, +the air cells are expanded, and the lungs are rendered more permeable +to the respired air, and the strength of the respiratory muscles is +developed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +Fig. 3 illustrates an exercise for the chest that is taken without any +apparatus other than an ordinary doorway. The exerciser should stand +in the position indicated in the engraving, and then step forward with +each foot alternately as far as possible without stretching the chest +too severely. The longer the step the more vigorous the exercise will +be. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +Fig. 4 shows an exercise taken between two chairs; the position +indicated in the cut having been assumed, the chest is then slowly +lowered and raised three to six times. This exercise is adapted to +strong persons only. + + +THE EFFECTS OF ADEQUATE RESPIRATION IN SPECIAL CASES. + +When the nutrition of the body is promoted by effective respiration, +and waste matters are promptly removed, the chances that tubercle will +be developed in persons who are predisposed thereto are reduced to a +minimum. + +Better materials are furnished by the nutritive processes to renew the +tissues, so that the occurrence of those degenerations that result in +various fatal affections, peculiar to the decline of life, are +rendered much less probable or are prevented altogether, and the +chances that death shall take place by old age is increased. The +system possesses much greater resisting power against the influence of +malaria and the poisons that give rise to typhoid fever, scarlatina, +diphtheria, measles, etc. + +When the motions of a woman's respiratory organs are normal and are +properly communicated to the pelvic organs, she enjoys the greatest +possible immunity attainable against the development of any diseases +peculiar to the sex. + + * * * * * + + + + +VITAL DISCOVERIES IN OBSTRUCTED AIR AND VENTILATION.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Read by Wm. C. Conant before the Polytechnic Association +of the American Institute, New York, May 10, 1883.] + + +I suppose that we all consider ourselves to be sufficiently impressed +with the importance of ventilation. If I should stop here to declaim +against foul exhalations, or to dwell upon the virtues of fresh air, +you might feel inclined to interrupt me by saying, "Oh, we know all +about that! If you have anything practical to advance, come to the +point." Gentlemen, I beg your pardon, but I must say that the great +fact concerning ventilation, as yet, is that its strongest advocates +are not conscious of one-half the seriousness of the subject; and the +second fact is that the supposed means of ventilation prescribed by +science _fail to secure it_. + +This, then, is my point to-night--the supreme necessity, still urgent, +and _universally_ urgent, for a reformation of the breath of life. I +believe in a promised time when the days of a man's life shall again +be as the days of a tree. And next to the abolition of vice and sin, I +believe that the very grandest factor of such result must be an entire +disuse of obstructed air for the lungs. I propose to bring forward +some evidence of the necessity, and likewise of the possibility, of a +reform so radical and sweeping as this. The subject is too wide for +the occasion. I shall be able to read only extracts from what I have +prepared, in the few minutes that you can give with patience to my +unpracticed lecturing. + +The best prescription that doctors have to give (when we are not too +far gone to take it) is to live out of doors. Why is this? Why is life +out of doors proverbially synonymous with robust health? Why is it +that a superior vitality, and a singular exemption from disease, +notoriously distinguish dwellers in the open air, by land or sea? +Without disparaging the virtues of exercise or of bracing temperature, +indispensable as these are for the recuperation of enfeebled +constitutions, we must admit that among the native and settled +inhabitants of the open air high health is the rule in warm climates +as well as in cold, and with the very laziest mortals that bask in the +sun, or loaf in the woods. The fact is that simple vegetative health +seems to be nearly independent of all other external conditions but +that of a pure natural diet for the lungs. Man in nature seems to +thrive as spontaneously as plants, by the free grace of air, earth, +and sun. On the other hand, the very diseases from which houses are +supposed to defend us--that most numerous class resulting from +colds--are the special scourge of the lives that are most carefully +shielded from their commonly supposed cause--exposure to the open air. +Those diseases diminish, and entirely disappear, just so far as +exposure in the pure and freely moving air becomes complete and +habitual. Soldiers, inured to camp life, catch cold if they once sleep +in a house; and, generally speaking, the inhabitants of the free air +contract colds _only_ by exposure to confined exhalations from their +own or other bodies, within the walls of houses. The explanation of +this is plain and simple: Carbonic acid detained within four walls +accumulates in place of the breath of life--oxygen--and narcotizes the +excretory function of the skin. The moment that this great and +continual vent of waste and impurity from the system is obstructed, +internal derangement ensues in every direction. All hands, so to +speak, are strained to extra duty to discharge the noxious +accumulation. The lungs labor to discharge the load thrown back upon +them, with hastened respiration, increased combustion, and feverish +heat. The pores of the mucous membrane in the nose, throat, alimentary +canal, or bronchial passages, are forced by an aggravated discharge +(or catarrh), and this congestive and inflammatory pressure is a fever +also. There is nothing of "cold" about it except as an auxiliary and +antecedent, in cases where an external chill has struck upon nerves +already half paralyzed by the universal narcotic--carbonic acid--which +house dwellers may be said to "smoke" perpetually. + +So much for nerve-poison; but blood-poisoning is a still more terrible +characteristic of house-protected existence. It is now the almost +universal opinion of the medical profession that the whole class of +malarial and zymotic diseases that make such frightful progress and +havoc in the most civilized communities, are due to living germs with +which the exhalations of organic waste and decay are everywhere loaded +in inconceivable numbers. They are known to multiply themselves many +times over, every two or three hours. They swarm into the blood by +millions, through all the absorbents, especially those of the lungs, +that drink the atmosphere in which they are suffered to linger and +propagate. Mr. Dancer, the eminent microscopist, counted in a sample +from such an atmosphere a number of organized germs equivalent to +3,700,000 in the volume of air hourly inhaled by one person. That is +over 60,000 germs per minute, and about 2,000 in every breath. In the +blood, they still propagate, and feed, and grow, consuming its oxygen, +thus defeating its purification, and turning that stream of otherwise +healthful and invigorating nutrition into a stream of effete and +corrupt matter--a sewer rather than a river of life--or at best an +impoverished and impure supply for the support of existence. + +The same pestilential but invisible hosts of bacteria, mustered and +bred in the close filthiness of Oriental cities, and jungles, swarm +out as Asiatic cholera on the wings of the wind, sweeping the wide +world with havoc. Settled on the tropical shores of the Eastern +Atlantic, they lie in wait for their victims in the sluggish and +terrible coast fever. On the western coast of the same ocean, perhaps +from some cause connected with oceanic or atmospheric currents, they +make devastating irruptions inland, as yellow fever, in every +direction where the walls of their enclosure are low enough to be +freely passed. These, let us remember, are all essentially the same +organic poison that is engendered _wherever_ life and death are plying +their perpetual game; and this, like Cleopatra's "worm, will do its +kind" in the veins of man, wherever obstructions, natural or +artificial, temporary or permanent, interfere with its prompt +diffusion in the vastness of the general atmosphere. Our "house of +life" stands generously open, for every "inmate bad" to come and go +through the absorbent, unquestioned, except in the stomach, where the +tangible poisons have to go by the act of swallowing and where they +are often challenged and ejected. It seems at first thought very +strange that we are not so well protected by natural instinct or +sensibility from the subtle poisons of the atmosphere as from those +that can affect us only by the voluntary act of swallowing. The +obvious explanation, however, of this apparent neglect is that Nature +protects us in general from gaseous poisons by her own system of +ventilation; and if, when we devise houses, necessarily excluding that +system, we fail to devise also a sufficient substitute for it, the +consequences of such negligence are as fairly due as when we swallow +tangible poison. + +I have hitherto referred only to the _dispersion_ of poisonous +exhalations, as if the best and most necessary thing the atmosphere +can do for us were to dilute the dose to a comparatively harmless +potency. But this is now known to be not the true remedial process +with respect to the zymotic germs. The most wonderful achievement of +recent investigation reveals a philosophy of both bane and antidote +that astonishes us with its simplicity as much as with its efficiency. +At the moment when humanity stands aghast at the announcement that +germs are not destroyed by disinfectants, comes the counter discovery +that they are rendered harmless by oxygen. It seems that it makes no +difference, really, of what sort or from what source are the bacteria +that we take into the blood. The only material difference to us +depends on _the sort of atmosphere_ in which their hourly generations +are bred. For example, the bacteria _developed in confined air_, from +a simple infusion of hay, are found by experiment to be as capable of +generating that most terrible of blood poisoners, the malignant +pustule, as are the bacteria taken from the pustule itself. + +On the other hand, the bacteria from the malignant pustule itself, +after propagating for a few hours in pure and free air, become a +perfectly harmless race, and are actually injected into the blood +with impunity. The explanation of the strange discovery is this--note +its extreme simplicity--bacteria bred in copious oxygen perish for +want of it as soon as they enter the blood vessels; whereas those +inured to an unventilated atmosphere for a few generations, which +means only a few hours, are prepared to thrive and propagate +infinitely within our veins; and that is the whole mystery of blood +poisoning and zymotic diseases. Taken in connection with the narcotic +or _nerve-poisoning_ power of carbonic acid (to which all the classes +of diseases resulting from colds are due), we have also in this simple +but grand discovery the whole mystery of the question with which we +set out--why free air is health, and why sickness is a purely domestic +product. The restitution of natural health to mankind demands only, +but demands absolutely, the constant diffusion in copious and +continuous floods of atmospheric oxygen, of the nerve-poisoning +carbonic acid of combustion (organic and inorganic), and of the +blood-poisoning bacteria of organic decomposition. + +We find, then, as a matter both of experience and of philosophy, that +life or death, in the main and in the long run, turns on the single +pivot of atmospheric movement or obstruction. The resistance of mere +rising ground or dense vegetation to a free movement of the air from +low-lying levels performs an obstructive office similar to that of the +walls and roofs of houses, and with like effect. The invariable +condition of unhealthy _seasons_ and _days_ is a state of rarefaction +and stagnation of the atmosphere, when the poison-freighted vapor +cannot be lifted and dispersed, and every one complains of the sultry, +close, "muggy" (meaning _murky_) feeling of the air. Few reflect, when +fretted by the boisterous winds of March, upon the vital office they +perform in dispersing and sanitating the bacteria-laden exhalations +let loose by the first warmth from the soaked soil and the macerated +deposits of the former year. + +The passing air, then, that we breathe so lightly, is on other +business, and carries a load we little think of, and that is not to be +trifled with. This grand carrier of nature, on business of life or +death, must not be detained, must not be hindered! or they who +interfere with the business by restraining walls and roofs will take +the consequences. It is a good deal like stopping a bullet, except as +to consciousness and suddenness of effect. + +That men live at all in their obstructed and therefore poison-loaded +atmosphere, is a proof of the wonderful efficiency of the protective +economy of Nature within us; so wonderful, indeed, that few can +believe the fact of living to be consistent with the real existence of +such a deadly environment as science pretends to reveal. It is a +common impression, therefore, that actual results fail to justify the +alarm sounded by sanitarians. Hence the necessity for calling +attention at the outset to an ample and manifest equivalent for the +deadly dose of confined exhalations taken daily by all civilized men. +We perceive that that dose is not lost, like the Humboldt River, in a +"sink," but reappears, like the wide-sown grass, in a perennial and +universal crop of diseases, almost numberless and ever increasing in +number, peculiar to house-dwellers. The trail of these plagues stops +nowhere else; it leads straight to the imprisoned atmosphere in our +artificial inclosures, and there it ends. That marvelous protective +economy of Nature within us, to which we have referred, is no +perpetual guaranty against the consequences of our negligence; it is +only a limited reprieve, to afford space for repentance; and unless we +hasten to improve the day of grace, the suspended sentence comes down, +upon us at last with force the more accumulated by delay. + +Now, therefore, the grand problem of sanitary science (almost +untouched, almost unrecognized) proves to be no other and no less than +this: + +What can be done to remedy the obstructive nature of an inclosure, so +that its gaseous contents shall _move off_, and be replaced by pure +air, as freely, as rapidly, and as incessantly, as in the open +atmosphere? + +It happens to be the most necessary preliminary in approaching this +problem, to show how _not_ to do it, for that, respectfully be it +spoken, is what we have hitherto practiced, as results abundantly +prove. Fallacies, both vulgar and scientific, obstruct our way. A +fundamental fallacy respects the very nature of the work, which is +supposed to be _to get in fresh air_. In point of fact, this care is +both unnecessary and comparatively useless. Take care of the bad air, +and the fresh air will take care of itself. Only make room for it, and +you cannot keep it out. On the other hand, unless you first make room +for it, you cannot keep it _in_; pump it in and blow it in as you may, +you only blow it _through_, as the Jordan flows comparatively +uncontaminated through the Dead Sea. This is a law of fluids that must +be kept in view. The pure air is quite as ready to get out as to get +in; while the air loaded with poisonous vapors is as sluggish as a +gorged serpent, and will not budge but on compulsion. Such compulsion +the grand system of wind _suction_, actuated by the sun, supplies on +the scale of the universe; and this we must imitate and adapt for our +more limited purposes. + +It would seem as if we need not pause to notice so shallow though +common a notion as that which usually comes in right here, namely, +that confined air will move off somehow of itself, if you give it +liberty; being supposed to be much like a cat in a bag, wanting only a +hole to make its escape. Air is ponderable matter--as much so as +lead--and equally requires force of some kind to set it or keep it in +motion. But applied philosophy itself relies on a fallacious, or, at +best, inadequate source of motive power for ventilation. It gravely +prescribes ventilating flues and even holes, and promises us that the +warmed air within the house will rise through these flues and holes, +carrying its impurities away with it, from the pressure of the cooler +and denser air without. But we very well know that the best of flues +and chimneys will draw only by favor of lively fires or clear weather. +They fail us utterly when most needed, in warm and murky weather, when +the barometer is low, and the thin atmosphere drops, down its damp and +dirty contents, burying us to the chimney tops in a pestilent +congregation of vapors. + +Nevertheless, so far as I can discover, these holes and flues, at best +a little fire at the bottom of the latter, are the sole and +all-sufficient expedients of science and architecture for ventilation +to this _day_, in spite of their total failure in experience. I can +find nothing in standard treatises or examples from philosophers or +architects, beyond a theoretical calculation on so much expansion of +air from so many units of heat, and hence so much ascensional force +_inferred_ in the ventilating flue--a result which never comes to +pass, yet none the less continues to be cheerfully relied on. +Unfortunately for the facts, they contradict the philosophy, and are +only to be ignored with silent contempt. A French Academician's report +on the ventilation of a large public building, lately reprinted by the +Smithsonian Institution, states with absolute assurance and exactness +the cubic feet of air changed per minute, with the precise volume and +velocity of its ascension, by burning a peck of coal at the bottom of +the trunk flue. No mention is made of the anemometer or any other +gauge of the result asserted, and we are left to the suspicion that it +is merely a matter of theoretical inference, as usual; for every one +who has had any acquaintance with practical tests in these matters +knows that no such movement of air ever takes place under such +conditions, unless by exceptional favor of the weather. + +I have seen a tall steam boiler chimney induce through a four inch +pipe a suction strong enough to exhaust the air from a large room as +fast as perfect ventilation would require. But this, it is well known, +requires four hundred or five hundred degrees of heat in the chimney. +I never saw an ordinary domestic fire of coals produce any noticeable +ventilating suction, without the use of a blower, urging the +combustion to fury, and I presume nobody else ever did. + +But, while nobody ever saw an active suction of air produced by the +mere heat of a still or unexcited fire--unless the _quantity_ of heat +were on a very large scale--everybody has seen a roaring current +sucked through the narrowed throat of a chimney or a stove by a +blazing handful of shavings, paper, or straw. It is very remarkable, +when you come to think of it, that the burning of an insignificant +piece of paper, with less heat in it, perhaps, than a pea of +anthracite, will cause a rush of air that a bushel of anthracite +cannot in the least degree imitate. It is not only a curious but a +most important fact. In short, it is _the cardinal_ fact on which +ventilation practically turns. But what is the nature of it? There are +three factors in the phenomenon. In the first place, the mechanical +peculiarity of flame, or gas in the moment of combustion, as compared +with a gas like air merely heated, is _an almost explosive velocity of +ascent._ The physical peculiarity from which this results is the +intensity of its heat--commonly stated at 2,000 degrees, as to our +common illuminating gas--acting instantaneously throughout its mass, +just as in gunpowder. The gas goes up the flue in its own flash, like +the ignited charge in the barrel of a gun: the burning coals can only +_send_, and by a leisurely messenger, namely, the moderately heated +gases, and contiguous air, that rise only by the gravitation or +pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. + +And yet it is not the small flame itself that roars in the chimney but +the rush of air induced by it. The semi-explosion of flame is but for +an instant, though constantly renewed, and its explosive impulse +cannot carry its light products of combustion very far through +stationary and resistant air. It is _the induction of air_ carried +with it by such semi-explosive impulse (under proper mechanical +conditions) that is strange to our observation and understanding, and +is the second factor in the phenomenon we are accounting for and +preparing to utilize. + +The process, as it actually is, may be clearly exhibited by a very +simple means. Let anyone take a tube, say an inch in diameter--a roll +of paper will do as well as anything--and, applying it closely to his +mouth, try the whole force of his lungs through it upon any light +object. The amount of effect will be found surprisingly small; and +unless the tube is a short one, it will be so far absorbed by friction +and atmospheric resistance as to be almost imperceptible. Then let him +hold the same tube near to the mouth, but not in contact, and repeat +the experiment. With the best adjustment, the effect may be described +as tenfold or fifty-fold, or almost any fold--the effect of the simple +blowing being merely nominal as compared with the induced current +added by blowing _into_ the tube instead of _in_ it. The blast enters +the free and open orifice with all the contiguous air which its +surface friction and the vacuum of its movement can involve in its +rolling vortex. While the entrance is thus crowded with pressure, the +exit is free; and the result at the exit is a blast of well sustained +velocity and _magnified volume;_ ready itself to repeat the miracle on +a still larger scale if provided with the apparatus for doing so. To +test this, now place a second and larger tube in such position as to +prolong the first in a straight line, but with a slight interval +between the meeting ends; so that the blast, as magnified in volume in +entering the first tube, may enter in like manner the second tube and +be magnified again. With correct adjustments this experiment will +prove more surprising than the first. Put on a third and still larger +tube in the same way, and still larger surprise will meet a still +larger volume and force of blast, like a stiff breeze set in motion by +the puny effort of a single expiration. Of course, the prime impulse +must bear a certain proportion to the result; and the inductive or +tractional friction of the initial blast, of flame or breath, will be +used up at length unless re-enforced. In ventilating practice, there +_is_ such re-enforcement, from an excess of gravity in the cooler +atmosphere outside the flue in which the flame is operating with its +heat as well as its ascensional traction; so that there has been found +no limit to the extensions and fresh inductions that may be added to +the first or trunk flue, with increase rather than diminution of power +at every point. But the terms on which such extensions must be made +have been referred to in our illustration, and must be accurately +ascertained and observed. They constitute what is, in effect, the +third factor in the phenomenon of a roaring draught, and also, +therefore, ineffective ventilation. That is, the entering or induced +current of air must always find its channel of progress and exit +certain correct degrees larger than the opening by which it entered. +Every one knows that a stove or chimney wide open admits of but little +suction in connection with even the blaze of paper or shavings. + +The mobility of air seems almost preternatural, when the proper +conditions for setting a current in motion are supplied. But without a +current established, it is surprising in turn to find how obstinately +and elusively immovable it can be. It is like tossing a feather; or +trying to drive a swarm of flies; dodging and evading every impulse +applied. But, given a flue, to define and conduct a stream; an upright +flue, to take advantage of the slighter gravity of the warmed air +within it; and a flue contracted at the inlet and expanded as it +rises, so as to free, diffuse, and lighten the column of air, toward +the exit; _then_, initiate an induced current of air at the inlet, by +the injection of a jet of gas in the state of semi-explosive action +called flame; the pressure pushing upward from the crowded entrance +finds easier way and less resistance the farther it goes in the +expanding flue; the warmth and reduced gravity of the stream comes in +as an auxiliary in overcoming friction and any exceptional obstruction +in the state of the atmosphere; and now, as the ball is once set +rolling, with a little _aid_ instead of resistance from gravitation, +its initial impulse all the while sustained by the gas jet, and +friction reduced to a very small incident--there is nothing to prevent +the current rolling on with accelerated velocity (within the +limitations imposed by increasing friction) and rolling on forever. I +might, if I had time, add a curious consideration of the law of +_vortex motion_ in elastic fluids, demonstrated by Helmholtz, which +relieves the motion of such fluids from friction, as wheels facilitate +the movement of a solid; and which also sucks into the rolling vortex +the contiguous air, thus entraining it, as we have seen, so much more +effectively than could be done by a direct and rigid current, like a +jet of water, for instance. A wheel set in motion on an almost +frictionless bearing of metalline, runs without perceptible abatement +of velocity, until one begins to involuntarily question whether it +will ever stop. In the all but free winds that roll with minimized +friction in the higher atmosphere, there seems to be a self-moving +force; so persistent is simple momentum in a mass so infinitesimally +obstructed and so infinitely wheeled. An active current of air in a +ventilating flue is only less perfect in the same conditions; and so +it is quite conceivable, and not incredible, that such a current may +be gradually established and thenceforward permanently maintained by a +small motor flame barely more than enough to overbalance the minimized +friction. This is not a supposed or theoretically inferred fact, like +the facts of ventilation sometimes alleged by theorists. On the +contrary, the theory I have offered is merely an attempt to explain +facts that I have witnessed and that anyone can verify with the +anemometer. But the _theory_ by no means covers the art and mystery of +ventilation; for ventilation is truly an _art_ as well as a mystery. +The art lies in a consummate experience of the sizes, proportions, and +forms of flues, their inlets, expansions, and exits, with many other +incidental adaptations necessary, in order to insure under _all_ +circumstances the regular exhaustion of any specific volume of air +required, per minute. And this art has by one man been achieved. It +would be a double injustice if I should neglect from any motive to +inform my audience to whom I am indebted for what I know about +ventilation practically, and even for the knowledge that there is any +such fact as a practicable ventilation of houses; one who is no +theorist, but who has felt his way experimentally with his own hands, +for a lifetime, to a practical mastery of the art to which I have +attempted to fit a theory; every one present who is well informed on +this subject must have anticipated already in mind the name of Henry +A. Gouge. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RECENT ERUPTION OF ETNA. + + +On the morning of the 20th of March, a long series of earthquakes +spread alarm throughout all the cities and numerous villages that are +scattered over the sides of Mt. Etna. The shocks followed each other +at intervals of a few minutes; dull subterranean rumblings were heard; +and a catastrophe was seen to be impending. Toward evening the ground +cracked at the lower part of the south side of the mountain, at the +limit of the cultivated zone, and at four kilometers to the north of +the village of Nicolosi. There formed on the earth a large number of +very wide fissures, through which escaped great volumes of steam and +gases which enveloped the mountain in a thick haze; and toward night, +a very bright red light, which, seen from Catania, seemed to come out +in great waves from the foot of the mountain, announced the coming of +the lava. + +[Illustration: ERUPTION OF MOUNT ETNA, MARCH 22, 1883.] + +Eleven eruptions occurred during the night, and shot into the air +fiery scoriae which, in a short time, formed three hillocks from forty +to fifty meters in height. The jet of scoriae was accompanied with +strong detonations, and the oscillations of the ground were of such +violence that the bells in the villages of Nicolosi and Pedara rang of +themselves. The general consternation was the greater in that the +locality in which the eruptive phenomena were manifesting themselves +was nearly the same as that which formed the theater of the celebrated +eruption of 1669. This locality overlooks an inclined plane which is +given up to cultivation, and in which are scattered, at a short +distance from the place of the eruption, twelve villages having a +total population of 20,000 inhabitants. On the second day the +character, of the eruption had become of a very alarming character. +New fissures showed themselves up to the vicinity of Nicolosi, and the +lava flowed in great waves over the circumjacent lands. This seemed to +indicate a lengthy eruption; but, to the surprise of those interested +in volcanic phenomena, on the third day the eruptive movement began to +decrease, and, during the night, stopped entirely. This was a very +fortunate circumstance, for this eruption would have caused immense +damages. It cannot be disguised, however, that the eruptive attendants +of this conflagration remain under conditions such as to constitute a +permanent danger for the neighboring villages. It has happened, in +fact, that in consequence of the quick cessation of the eruption, +those secondary phenomena through which nature usually provides a +solid closing of the parasitic craters have not occurred. So it is +probable that when a new eruption takes place it will be at the same +point at which manifested itself the one that has just abated.--_La +Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHYSICS WITHOUT APPARATUS. + + +Take an ordinary wine bottle and place it in front of and within a few +inches of a lighted candle. Blow against the bottle with your mouth at +about four or six inches distant from it and in a line with the flame. +Very curiously, notwithstanding the presence of the bottle and its +interception of the current of air, the candle will be immediately +extinguished as if there were no obstacle in the way. This phenomenon +is readily understood when we reflect that the bottle receives the +current of air on its polished surface and divides it into two, one of +which is guided to the right and the other to the left. These two +currents, after separating and driving back the surrounding air, meet +again at the very spot at which the flame is situated, and extinguish +the candle. + +[Illustration: MODE OF EXTINGUISHING A CANDLE PLACED BEHIND A +BOTTLE.] + +It is evident that the experiment can be reproduced by putting the +candle behind a stove pipe, a cylinder of glass or metal, a +cylindrical tin box, or any other object of the same form with a +diameter greater than that of a bottle, but not having a rough or +angular surface, since the latter would cause the current to be lost +in the surrounding air. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TRAVELS OF THE SUN. + + +Some recent discussions of the constitution of the sun have turned in +part upon what is known as the sun's proper motion in space. This is +one of the most surprising and interesting things that science has +ever brought to light, and yet it is something of which comparatively +few persons have any knowledge. It is customary to look upon the sun +as if it were the center of the universe, an immovable fiery globe +around which the earth and other planets revolve while it remains +fixed in one place. Nothing could be further from the truth. The sun +is, in fact, the most wonderful of travelers. He is flying through +space at the rate of not less than a hundred and sixty millions of +miles in a year, and the earth and her sister planets are his fellow +voyagers, which, obeying his overpowering attraction, circle about him +as he advances. In other words, if we could take up a position in open +space in advance of the sun, we should see him rushing toward us at +the rate of some 450,000 miles a day, chased by his whole family of +shining worlds and the vast swarms of meteoric bodies which obey his +attraction. + +The general direction of this motion of the solar system has been +known since the time of Sir William Herschel. It is toward the +constellation Hercules, which, at this season, may be seen in the +northeastern sky at 9 o'clock in the evening. As the line of this +motion makes an angle of fifty odd degrees with the plane of the +earth's orbit, it follows that the earth is not like a horse at a +windlass, circling around the sun forever in one beaten path, but like +a ship belonging to a fleet whose leader is continually pushing its +prow into unexplored waters. + +The path of the earth through space is spiral, so that it is all the +time advancing into new regions along with the sun. She is on a +boundless voyage of discovery, and her human crew are born and die in +widely separated tracts of space. Think of the distance over which the +travels of the sun have borne the earth only since the beginning of +human history! Six thousand years ago the earth and sun were about a +million millions of miles further from the stars in Hercules than they +are to-day. Columbus and his contemporaries lived when the earth was +in a region of the universe more than sixty thousand millions of miles +from the place where it is now, so that since his time the whole human +race has been making a voyage through space, in comparison with which +his longest voyage was as the footstep of a fly. + +Thus the great events in the history of the world may be said to have +occurred in different parts of the universe. An almost inconceivable +distance separates the spot which the earth occupied in the time of +Alexander from that which it occupied when Caesar invaded Gaul. The sun +and the earth have wandered so far from their birthplace that the mind +staggers in the attempt to guess at the stupendous distance which now +probably separates them from it. It may be that the motion of the +solar system is orbital and that our sun and many of the stars, his +fellow suns, are revolving around some common center, but if so, no +means has yet been devised of detecting the form or dimensions of his +orbit. So far as we can see, the sun is moving in a straight line. + +Since space is believed to be filled with some sort of ethereal +medium, curious consequences are seen to follow from the motions that +have been described. A solid globe like the earth rushing at great +speed through such a medium will encounter some resistance. If the +medium be exceedingly rare, as it must be in fact, the resistance will +be correspondingly small, but still there will be resistance. If the +sun stood still, the earth, owing to the inclination of its axis to +the plane of its orbit, around the sun, would encounter the resistance +of the ether principally on its northern hemisphere from summer to +winter, and on its southern hemisphere from winter to summer. But in +consequence of the motion of the sun shared by the earth, this law of +distribution is changed, and from summer to winter the earth plows +through the ether with its north pole foremost, while from winter to +summer, although the resistance of the ether is encountered more +evenly by the two hemispheres, yet it is still felt principally in the +northern hemisphere, and the south pole remains practically protected. +It follows that the southern hemisphere, and particularly the south +polar regions are more or less completely sheltered the whole year +around. It might then be supposed that the impact of the particles of +the ether shouldered aside by the earth in its swift flight and the +compression produced in front of the advancing globe would tend to +raise the temperature of the northern hemisphere as compared with the +southern hemisphere, while the south pole, being more or less directly +in the wake of the earth, and in a region of rarefaction of the ether, +would constantly possess a remarkably low temperature. + +Now, it is known that the south polar regions are more covered with +ice and snow than those of the north, and that the temperature there +the year around is lower. Whether this difference is owing to the +effects of the earth's journey through the ether, is a question. + +The sun, too, moves with his northern hemisphere foremost, and it is +worthy of remark that it has been suspected that the northern +hemisphere of the sun radiates more heat than the southern. + +But whatever effect it may or may not have upon the meteorological +condition of the earth, the fact that the solar system is thus +voyaging through space is in itself exceedingly interesting. Not the +wildest traveler's dream presents to the imagination such a voyage as +this on which every inhabitant of the earth is bound. A glance at a +star map shows that the direction in which we are going is carrying us +toward a region of the heavens exceedingly rich in stars, many, and +perhaps most, of which are greater suns than ours. There can be little +doubt that when the sun arrives in the neighborhood of those stars, he +will be surrounded by celestial scenery very different from and much +more brilliant than that of the region of space in which he now is. +The inhabitants of the globe at that distant period will certainly +behold new and far more glorious heavens, though the earth may be +unchanged.--_N.Y. Sun._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PROPAGATION OF MAPLE TREES. + + +I do not presume that all people over three score years of age are so +entirely ignorant as I am, but probably there are some. I have lived +more than sixty years almost in the woods, and I never observed, and +never heard any other person speak of, the blooming, seeding, and +maturing of the water maple. I have a beautiful low of water maple +shade trees along the street in front of my house. In March, 1882, I +observed that they were in bloom, and many bees were swarming about +them. After the bees left them I noticed the seed (specimens inclosed +of this spring's growth) in millions. As the leaves put out in April +the little knife blade seeds fell off, so thick as to almost cover the +ground. My grandson picked up three or four hatfuls, and I sent the +seed to my farm and had them drilled in like wheat, when I planted +corn. The result is I have from 300 to 500 beautiful maples from 6 +inches to three feet high. I noticed the blooms again this spring, but +a cold snap killed the blooms, and only now and then can I find a +seed. I had a sugar tree in my yard, which bloomed and bore seed which +did not fall off through the summer. My yard now has as many little +sugar trees as it has leaves of blue grass. + +It strikes me that the gathering and planting of maple seed is the +best way to wood the prairies of the West and the worn-out lands of +the Eastern and Middle States. The tree is valuable for shade and for +timber, and is as rapid in growth as any tree within my knowledge. I +noticed some trees of this sort yesterday which are from 21/2 to 31/2 feet +in diameter. The lumber from such timber makes beautiful furniture. +This is intended only for those who have been as non-observant as +myself, and not the wise, who are always posted. + + Franklin, Tenn. J.B.M. + +The seeds inclosed were the samaras of _Acer rubrum_, called the +"soft" maple in many localities, and "red" maple in others. We have +seen trees only three or four inches in diameter full of blossoms. +This is one of the earliest trees to bloom in spring, and the pretty +winged samaras soon mature and fall. The sugar maple, _Acer +saccharinum_, blossoms later, and the seeds are persistent till +autumn, and lie on the ground all winter before germinating. The +lumber from this latter is more valuable than soft maple, being +harder, heavier, and taking a better polish. Soft maple makes an +ox-yoke which is durable and not heavy. In early times a decoction of +the bark was frequently used for making a black ink.--_Country +Gentleman._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DIOSCOREA RETUSA. + + +[Illustration: FLOWERING SPRAY OF DIOSCOREA RETUSA.] + +One of the most elegant plants one can have in a greenhouse is this +twiner, a native of South Africa. It has slender stems clothed with +distinctly veined leaves, and produces a profusion of creamy white +fragrant flowers in pendulous clusters, as shown in the annexed +engraving, for which we are indebted to Messrs Veitch of Chelsea, who +distributed the plant a few years ago. On several occasions Messrs +Veitch have exhibited it trained parasol fashion and covered +abundantly with elegant drooping clusters of flowers, and as such it +has been much admired. When planted out in a warmish greenhouse and +allowed to twine at will around an upright pillar, it is seen to the +best advantage, and, though not showy, makes a pleasing contrast with +other gayly tinted flowers. It is so unlike any other ornamental plant +in cultivation, that it ought to become more widely known than it +appears to be at present.--_The Garden._ + + * * * * * + + + + +RAVAGES OF A RARE SCOLYTID BEETLE IN THE SUGAR MAPLES OF +NORTHEASTERN NEW YORK. + + +About the first of last August (1882) I noticed that a large +percentage of the undergrowth of the sugar maple (_Acer saccharinum_) +in Lewis County, Northeastern New York, seemed to be dying The leaves +drooped and withered, and finally shriveled and dried, but still clung +to the branches. + +The majority of the plants affected were bushes a centimeter or two in +thickness, and averaging from one to two meters in height, though a +few exceeded these dimensions. On attempting to pull them up they +uniformly, and almost without exception, broke off at the level of the +ground, leaving the root undisturbed. A glance at the broken end +sufficed to reveal the mystery, for it was perforated, both vertically +and horizontally, by the tubular excavations of a little Scolytid +beetle which, in most instances, was found still engaged in his work +of destruction. + +At this time the wood immediately above the part actually invaded by +the insect was still sound, but a couple of months later it was +generally found to be rotten. During September and October I dug up +and examined a large number of apparently healthy young maples of +about the size of those already mentioned, and was somewhat surprised +to discover that fully ten per cent. of them were infested with the +same beetles, though the excavations had not as yet been sufficiently +extensive to affect the outward appearance of the bush. They must all +die during the coming winter, and next spring will show that, in Lewis +County alone, hundreds of thousands of young sugar maples perished +from the ravages of this Scolytid during the summer of 1882. + +Dr. George H Horn, of Philadelphia, to whom I sent specimens for +identification, writes me that the beetle is _Corthylus +punctatissimus_, Zim, and that nothing is known of its habits. I take +pleasure, therefore, in contributing the present account, meager as it +is, of its operations, and have illustrated it with a few rough +sketches that are all of the natural size, excepting those of the +insects themselves, which are magnified about nine diameters. + +The hole which constitutes the entrance to the excavation is, without +exception, at or very near the surface of the ground, and is +invariably beneath the layer of dead and decaying leaves that +everywhere covers the soil in our Northern deciduous forests. Each +burrow consists of a primary, more or less horizontal, circular canal, +that passes completely around the bush, but does not perforate into +the entrance hole, for it generally takes a slightly spiral course, so +that when back to the starting point it falls either a little above, +or a little below it--commonly the latter (see Figs. 1 and 2). + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2--Mines of Corthylus +punctatissimus.] + +It follows the periphery so closely that the outer layer of growing +wood, separating it from the bark, does not average 0.25 mm. in +thickness, and yet I have never known it to cut entirely through this, +so as to lie in contact with the bark. + +From this primary circular excavation issue, at right angles, and +generally in both directions (up and down), a varying number of +straight tubes, parallel to the axis of the plant (see Figs. 1, 2, and +3). They average five or six millimeters in length, and commonly +terminate blindly, a mature beetle being usually found in the end of +each. Sometimes, but rarely, one or more of those vertical excavations +is found to extend farther, and, bending at a right angle, to take a +turn around the circumference of the bush, thus constituting a second +horizontal circular canal from which, as from the primary one, a +varying number of short vertical tubes branch off. And in very +exceptional cases these excavations extend still deeper, and there may +be three, or even four, more or less complete circular canals. Such an +unusual state of things exists in the specimen from which Fig 3 is +taken. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 3 and 4--Mines of Corthylus +punctatissimus.] + +It will be seen that with few exceptions, the most important of which +is shown in Fig 4, all the excavations (including both the horizontal +canals and their vertical off shoots) are made in the sap-wood +immediately under the bark, and not in the hard and comparatively dry +central portion. This is, doubtless, because the outer layers of the +wood are softer and more juicy, and therefore more easily cut, besides +containing more nutriment and being, doubt less, better relished than +the drier interior. + +This beetle does not bore, like some insects, but devours bodily all +the wood that is removed in making its burrows. The depth of each +vertical tube may be taken as an index to the length of time the +animal has been at work, and the number of these tubes generally tells +how many inhabit each bush, for as a general rule each individual +makes but one hole, and is commonly found at the bottom of it. All of +the excavations are black inside. + +The beetle is sub-cylindric in outline, and very small, measuring but +3.5 mm in length. Its color is a dark chestnut brown, some specimens +being almost black. Its head is bent down under the thorax, and cannot +be seen from above (see Fig. 5). + +[Illustration: FIG 5.--Corthylus punctatissimus.] + +Should this species become abundant and widely dispersed, it could but +exercise a disastrous influence upon the maple forests of the +future--_G. Hart Merriam, M D, in American Naturalist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RED SPIDER. + +(_Tetranyehus telarius._) + + +The red spider is not correctly speaking an insect, though it is +commonly spoken of as such, neither is it a spider, as its name would +imply, but an acarus or mite. Whether its name is correct or not, it +is a most destructive and troublesome pest wherever it makes its +presence felt, it by no means confines itself to one or only a few +kinds of plants, as many insects do, but it is very indiscriminate in +its choice of food, and it attacks both plants grown under glass and +those in the open air. When these pests are present in large numbers, +the leaves on which they feed soon present a sickly yellow or scorched +appearance, for the supply of sap is drawn off by myriads of these +little mites, which congregate on the under sides of the leaves, where +they live in a very delicate web, which they spin, and multiply very +rapidly; this web and the excrement of the red spider soon choke up +the pores of the leaves, which, deprived of their proper amount of +sap, and unable to procure the carbon from the atmosphere which they +so much need, are soon in a sorry plight. However promiscuous these +mites may be in their choice of food plants--melons, cucumbers, kidney +beans, hops, vines, apple, pear, plum, peach trees, limes, roses, +laurustinus, cactuses, clover, ferns, orchids, and various stove and +greenhouse plants being their particular favorites--they are by no +means insensible to the difference between dryness and moisture. To +the latter they have a most decided objection, and it is only in warm +and dry situations that they give much trouble, and it is nearly +always in dry seasons that plants, etc., out of doors suffer most from +these pests. Fruit trees grown against walls are particularly liable +to be attacked, since from their position the air round them is +generally warm and dry, and the cracks and boles in the walls are +favorite places for the red spider to shelter in, so that extra care +should be taken to prevent them from being infested, this may best be +effected by syringing the trees well night and morning with plain +water, directing the water particularly to the under sides of the +leaves, so as, if possible, to wash off the spiders and their webs. If +the trees be already attacked, adding soft soap and sulphur to the +water will destroy them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--Red Spider (magnified). A 1. Ditto +(natural size). 2. Underside of head. 3. Foot. 4. Spinneret.] + +Sulphur is one of the most efficient agents known for killing them, +but it will not, however, mix properly with water in its ordinary +form, but should be teated according to the following recipe: + +Boil together in four gallons of water 1 lb. of flowers of sulphur and +2 lb. of fresh lime, and add 11/2 lb. of soft soap, and, before using, 3 +gallons more of water, or mix 4 oz of sulphate of lime with half that +weight of soft soap, and, when well mixed, add 1 gallon of hot water. +Use when cool enough to bear your hand in it. Any insecticide +containing sulphur is useful. The walls should be well washed with +some insecticide of this kind. Old walls in which the pointing is bad +and the bricks full of nail holes, etc., are very difficult to keep +free from red spider. They should be painted over with a strong +solution of soot water mixed with clay to form a paint. To a gallon of +this paint add 1 lb. of flowers of sulphur and 2 oz of soft soap. + +This mixture should be thoroughly rubbed with a brush into every crack +and crevice of the walls, and if applied regularly every year would +probably prevent the trees from being badly attacked. As the red +spider passes the winter under some shelter, frequently choosing +stones, rubbish, etc., near the roots of the trees, keeping the ground +near the trees clean and well cultivated will tend greatly to diminish +their numbers. In vineries one of the best ways of destroying these +creatures is to paint the hot water pipes with one part of fresh lime +and two parts of flowers of sulphur mixed into a paint. If a flue is +painted in this way, great care should be taken that the sulphur does +not burn, or much damage may be done, as the flues may become much +hotter than hot water pipes. During the earlier stages of growth keep +the atmosphere moist and impregnated with ammonia by a layer of fresh +stable litter, or by painting the hot water pipes with guano made into +a paint, as long as the air in the house is kept moist there is not +much danger of a bad attack. As soon as the leaves are off, the canes +should be dressed with the recipe already given for painting the +walls, and two inches or so of the surface soil removed and replaced +with fresh and all the wood and iron work of the house well scrubbed. +If carnations are attacked, tying up some flowers of sulphur in a +muslin bag and sulphuring the plants liberally, and washing them well +in three days' time has been recommended. + +Tobacco water and tobacco smoke will also kill these pests, but as +neither tobacco nor sulphuring the hot water pipes can always be +resorted to with safety in houses, by far the better way is to keep a +sharp look out for this pest, and as soon as a plant is found to be +attacked to at once clean it with an insecticide which it is known the +plant will bear, and by this means prevent other plants from being +infested. These little mites breed with astonishing rapidity, so that +great care should be exercised in at once stopping an attack. A lady +friend of mine had some castor oil plants growing in pots in a window +which were badly attacked, and found that some lady-birds soon made +short work of the mites and cleared the plants. The red spider lays +its eggs among the threads of the web which it weaves over the under +sides of the leaves; the eggs are round and white; the young spiders +are hatched in about a week, and they very much resemble their parents +in general appearance, but they have only three pairs of legs instead +of four at first, and they do not acquire the fourth pair until they +have changed their skins several times; they are, of course, much +smaller in size, but are, however, in proportion just as destructive +as the older ones. They obtain the juices of the leaves by eating +through the skin with their mandibles, and then thrusting in their +probosces or suckers (Fig. 2), through which they draw out the juices. +These little creatures are so transparent, that it is very difficult +to make out all the details of their mouths accurately. The females +are very fertile, and breed with great rapidity under favorable +circumstances all the year round. + +The red spiders, as I have already stated, are not real spiders, but +belong to the family Acarina or mites, a family included in the same +class (the arachnida) as the true spiders, from which they may be +easily distinguished by the want of any apparent division between the +head and thorax and body; in the true spiders the head and thorax are +united together and form one piece, to which the body is joined by a +slender waist. The arachnidae are followed by the myriapoda +(centipedes, etc.), and these by the insectiae or true insects. The red +spiders belong to the kind of mites called spinning mites, to +distinguish them from those which do not form a web of any kind. It is +not quite certain at present whether there is only one or more species +of red spider; but this is immaterial to the horticulturist, as their +habits and the means for their destruction are the same. The red +spider (Tetranychus telarius--Fig. 1) is very minute, not measuring +more than the sixtieth of an inch in length when full grown; their +color is very variable, some individuals being nearly white, others +greenish, or various shades of orange, and red. This variation in +color probably depends somewhat on their age or food--the red ones are +generally supposed to be the most mature. The head is furnished with a +pair of pointed mandibles, between which is a pointed beak or sucker +(Fig. 2). The legs are eight in number; the two front pairs project +forward and the other two backward; they are covered with long stiff +hairs; the extremities of the feet are provided with long bent hairs, +which are each terminated by a knob. The legs and feet appear to be +only used in drawing out the threads and weaving the web. The thread +is secreted by a nipple or spinneret (Fig. 4) situated near the apex +of the body on the under side. The upper surface of the body is +sparingly covered with long stiff hairs.--_G.S.S., in The Garden._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HELODERMA HORRIDUM. + + +The discussion of the curious lizard found in our Western Territories +and in Mexico, and variously known as the "Montana alligator," "the +Gila monster," and "the Mexican heloderma," is becoming decidedly +interesting. + +As noted in a recent issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, a live specimen +was sent last summer to Sir John Lubbock, and by him presented to the +London Zoological Gardens. At first it was handled as any other lizard +would be, without special fear of its bite, although its mouth is well +armed with teeth. Subsequent investigation has convinced its keepers +that the creature is not a fit subject for careless handling; that its +native reputation is justified by fact; and that it is an exception +to all known lizards, in that its teeth are poison fangs comparable +with those of venomous serpents. + +Speaking of the Mexican reputation of the lizard, in a recent issue of +_Knowledge_, Dr. Andrew Wilson, whose opinion will be respected by all +naturalists, says that "without direct evidence of such a statement no +man of science, basing his knowledge of lizard nature on the exact +knowledge to hand, would have hesitated in rejecting the story as, at +least, improbable. Yet it is clear that the stories of the New World +may have had an actual basis of fact; for the _Heloderma horridum_ has +been, beyond doubt, proved to be poisonous in as high a degree as a +cobra or a rattlesnake. + +"At first the lizard was freely handled by those in charge at Regent's +Park, and being a lizard, was regarded as harmless. It was certainly +dull and inactive, a result probably due to its long voyage and to the +want of food. Thanks, however, to the examination of Dr. Gunther, of +the British Museum, and to actual experiment, we now know that +_Heloderma_ will require in future to be classed among the deadly +enemies of other animals. Examining its mouth, Dr. Gunther found that +its teeth formed a literal series of poison fangs. Each tooth, +apparently, possesses a poison gland; and lizards, it may be added, +are plentifully supplied with these organs as a rule. Experimenting +upon the virulence of the poison, _Heloderma_ was made to bite a frog +and a guinea pig. The frog died in one minute, and the guinea-pig in +three. The virus required to produce these effects must be of +singularly acute and powerful nature. It is to be hoped that no case +of human misadventure at the teeth of _Heloderma_ may happen. There +can be no question, judging from the analogy of serpent-bite, that the +poison of the lizard would affect man." + +[Illustration: HELODERMA HORRIDUM, OR GILA MONSTER] + +In an article in the London _Field_, Mr. W.B. Tegetmeier states that +this remarkable lizard was first described in the _Isis_, in 1829, by +the German naturalist Wiegmann, who gave it the name it bears, and +noted the ophidian character of its teeth. + +In the _Comptes Rendus_ of 1875, M.F. Sumichrast gave a much more +detailed account of the habits and mode of life of this animal, and +forwarded specimens in alcohol to Paris, where they were dissected and +carefully described. The results of these investigations have been +published in the third part of the "Mission Scientifique an Mexique," +which, being devoted to reptiles, has been edited by Messrs. Aug. +Dumeril and Becourt. + +The heloderm, according to M.F. Sumichrast, inhabits the hot zone of +Mexico--that intervening between the high mountains and the Pacific in +the districts bordering the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It is found only +where the climate is dry and hot; and on the moister eastern slopes of +the mountain chain that receive the damp winds from the Gulf of Mexico +it is entirely unknown. Of its habits but little is known, as it +appears to be, like many lizards, nocturnal, or seminocturnal, in its +movements, and, moreover, it is viewed with extreme dread by the +natives, who regard it as equally poisonous with the most venomous +serpents. It is obviously, however, a terrestrial animal, as it has +not a swimming tail flattened from side to side, nor the climbing feet +that so characteristically mark arboreal lizards. Sumichrast further +states that the animal has a strong nauseous smell, and that when +irritated it secretes a large quantity of gluey saliva. In order to +test its supposed poisonous property, he caused a young one to bite a +pullet under the wing. In a few minutes the adjacent parts became +violet in color, convulsions ensued, from which the bird partially +recovered, but it died at the expiration of twelve hours. A large cat +was also caused to be bitten in the foot by the same heloderm; it was +not killed, but the limb became swollen, and the cat continued +mewing for several hours, as if in extreme pain. The dead specimens +sent to Europe have been carefully examined as to the character of the +teeth. Sections of these have been made, which demonstrate the +existence of a canal in each, totally distinct from and anterior to +the pulp cavity; but the soft parts had not been examined with +sufficient care to determine the existence or non-existence of any +poison gland in immediate connection with these perforated teeth until +Dr. Gunther's observations were made, as described by Dr. Wilson. + +Hitherto, as noted in a previous article, American naturalists have +regarded the heloderm as quite harmless--an opinion well sustained by +the judgment of many persons in Arizona and other parts of the West by +whom the reptile has been kept as an interesting though ugly pet. +While the Indians and native Mexicans believe the creature to be +venomous, we have never heard an instance in which the bite of it has +proved fatal. + +A correspondent of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, "C.E.J.," writing from +Salt Lake City, Utah, under date of September 8, says, after referring +to the article on the heloderm in our issue of August 26: + + "Having resided in the southern part of this Territory for + seventeen years, where the mercury often reaches 110 deg. or more in + the shade, and handled a number of these 'monsters,' I can say + that I never yet knew anybody or anything to have perished from + their bite. We have often had two or three of them tied in the + door-yard by a hind leg, and the children have freely played + around them--picking them up by the nape of the neck and watching + them snap off a small bit from the end of a stick when poked at + them. We have fed them raw egg and milk; the latter they take with + great relish. At one time a small canine came too near the mouth + of our alligator (_mountain alligator_, we call them), when it + instantly caught the pup by the under jaw and held on as only it + could (they have a powerful jaw), nor would it release its hold + until choked near to death, which was done by taking it behind the + bony framework of the head, between the thumb and finger, and + pressing hard. The pup did considerable howling for half an hour, + by which time the jaw was much swollen, remaining so for two or + three days, after which it was all right again. By this I could + only conclude that the animal was but slightly poisonous. I never + knew of a human being having been bitten by one. My sister kept + one about the house for several weeks, and fed it from her hands + and with a spoon. The specimens have generally been sent (through + the Deseret Museum) to colleges and museums in the East. + + "The Indians have a great fear that these animals produce at will + good or bad weather, and will not molest them. Many times they + have come to see them, and told us that we should let them go or + they would talk to the storm spirit and send wind and water and + fire upon us. An old Indian I once talked with told me of another + who was bitten on the hand, and said it swelled up the arm badly, + but he recovered. From some reason we never find specimens less + than 12 or 14 inches long, I never saw a young one. There is a + nice stuffed specimen, 18 inches long, in our museum here." + +Sir John Lubbock's specimen, shown in the engraving herewith, for +which we are indebted to the London _Field_, is about 19 inches in +length. Its general color is a creamy buff, with dark brown markings. +The forepart of the head and muzzle is entirely dark, the upper eyelid +being indicated by a light stripe. The entire body is covered with +circular warts. It is fed upon eggs, which it eats greedily. + +It would be interesting to know whether the northern specimens, if +venomous at all, are as fully equipped with poison bags and fangs as +Dr. Gunther finds the Mexican specimen to be. Some of our Western or +Mexican readers may be able to make comparative tests. Meantime it +would be prudent to limit the use of the "monster" as a children's +pet. + +The foregoing appeared in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Oct. 7, 1882. + +We are now indebted to a correspondent, Mr. Wm. Y. Beach, of the Grand +View Mine, Grant County, Southern Arizona, for a fine specimen of this +singular reptile, just received alive. The example sent to us is about +twenty inches long, and answers very well to the description of the +monster and the engraving above given. + +In the course of an hour after opening the box in which the reptile +had been confined during its eight days' journey by rail, it became +very much at home, stretching and crawling about our office floor with +much apparent satisfaction. + +Our correspondent is located in the mountains, some nine miles distant +from the Gila River. He states that the reptile he sends was found in +one of the shops pertaining to the mine, which had been left +unoccupied for a week or so. + +Apropos to the foregoing, we have received the following letter from +another correspondent in Arizona: + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American:_ + + My attention has been called to an article in your issue of Oct. + 7, 1882, relating to the _Heloderma horridum_, or commonly known + as the Gila Monster. + + During a residence of ten years in Arizona I have had many + opportunities of learning the habits of these reptiles, and I am + satisfied their bite will produce serious effects, if not death, + of the human race. I know of one instance where a gentleman of my + acquaintance by the name of Bostick, at the Tiga Top mining camp, + in Arizona, was bitten on the fingers, and suffered all the + symptoms of poison from snake bite. He was confined to his bed for + six weeks and subsequently died. I am of the opinion his death was + in part caused by the effects of the poison of the Gila Monster. + + The Hualzar Indians are very much afraid of them, and one I showed + the picture to of the Monster in your paper remarked, "Chinamuck," + which in Hualzar language means "very bad." He said if an Indian + is bitten, he sometimes dies. + + I have seen them nearly two feet in length. Never, to my + knowledge, are they kept as pets in our portion of Arizona. They + live on mice and other small animals, and when aggravated can jump + several times their length. + + W.E. DAY, M.D. + + Huckberry, Mahone Co., Ar. T., April, 1883. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE KANGAROO. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American:_ + +In page 69 of your issue of 3d of February, 1883, I notice among the +"Challenger Notes" of Professor Mosely the statement that "Among +stockmen, and even some well educated people in Australia, there is a +conviction that the young kangaroo grows out as a sort of bud on the +teat of the mother within the pouch." Some eighteen months ago I +noticed a paragraph wherein some learned professor was reported to +have set at rest the contested point as to whether the kangaroo come +into being in the same manner as the calves of the cow and other +mammals, or whether the young grows, as alleged, upon the teat of its +dam within the pouch. The learned professor in question asserted that +it did not so grow upon the teat; but, with all due respect to the +professor's claim to credibility on other matters, I must in this +instance take the liberty of stating that he is in error. The young +kangaroo actually oozes out, if I may use such an expression, from the +teat. Strange as the statement may seem, it is a fact that the first +indication of life on the part of the kangaroo offspring is a very +slight eruption, in size not larger than an ordinary pin head. This +growth gradually resolves itself into the form of the marsupial, and +is not detached until close upon the expiring of of the fourth month. +It is carried by the mother during that period, and thenceforth exists +partially at least on herbage. Indeed, from the fourth till the +seventh month it is almost constantly in the pouch, only coming out +occasionally toward the close of evening to crop the grass. I had at +one time in my possession a specimen of the kangaroo germ which I cut +from off the teat, complete in form, whose entire weight was less than +an ounce; and, at the same time, I had a kangaroo in my possession +which measured seven feet six inches from the top of the ears to the +extremity of the tail. + +Your readers would doubtless feel interested with a few particulars as +to my life among the kangaroos in a genuine kangaroo country. I have +read somewhere about the exceeding beauty of the eyes of the gazelle; +how noted hunters have alleged that their nature so softened on +looking into the animal's eyes that they (the hunters) had no heart to +destroy the creature. Now, I have never seen a gazelle, and so cannot +indulge in comparisons; but if their eyes are more beautiful than +those of a middle-aged kangaroo, they may indeed be all that huntsmen +say of them. With respect to the old kangaroos, their eyes and face +are simply atrocious in their repulsive ugliness. + +Nothing in nature could surpass the affection which the female +kangaroo manifests for her young. There is something absolutely +touching in the anxious solicitude displayed by the dam while the +young ones are at play. On the least alarm the youngster instantly +ensconces himself in the pouch of his gentle mother, and should he, in +the exuberance of his joy, thrust his head out from his place of +refuge, it is instantly thrust back by his dam. I have, on several +occasions, by hard riding, pressed a doe to dire extremity, and it has +only been when hope had entirely forsaken her, or when her capture was +inevitable, that she has reluctantly thrown out the fawn. Their method +of warfare has often reminded me of the style of two practiced +pugilists, the aim of each being to firmly gripe his opponent by the +shoulder, upon accomplishing which, the long hind leg, with its horny +blade projecting from its toe, comes into formidable play. It is +lifted and drawn downward with a rapid movement, and one or other of +the combatants soon shows the entrails laid bare, which is usually the +_grand finale_. The sparring that takes place between the marsupials +while trying to get the advantageous gripe is marvelous--I had almost +said scientific; for the style and rapidity of the animals' movements +might excite the admiration of the Tipton Slasher. + +Strangely enough, these animals have their social distinctions almost +as well defined as in the case of the human species. Thus, one herd +will not, on any consideration, associate with another; each tribe has +its rendezvous for morning and evening reunions, and each its leader +or king, who is the first to raise an alarm on the approach of danger, +and the first to lead the way, whether in ignominious retreat, +confronting a recognized foe, or standing at bay. These leaders are +generally extremely cunning, one old stager with whom I was intimately +acquainted having baffled all attempts to effect its capture for more +than ten months. I got him at last by a stratagem. He had a knack of +always keeping near a flock of sheep, and on the approach of the dogs +dodged among them. + +By this means he had always succeeded in effecting his escape, and +more than that, this noble savage had actually drowned several of our +best dogs, for, if at any time a dog came upon him at a distance from +the sheep flocks, he would make for a neighboring swamp, on nearing +which he has been known to turn round upon the pursuing dog, seize +him, and carry him for some distance right into the swamp, and then +thrust the dog's head under water, holding him there till he was +drowned. It was amusing to see how some of our old knowing warrior +dogs gave him best when they noticed that he was approaching a flock +of sheep, well remembering, from former experience, that it was of no +use trying to get him on that occasion, and that when near the water +the attempt at his capture was both dangerous and impracticable. + +If you take a new and inexperienced dog into your hunt after an old +man, he invariably gets his throat ripped up, or is otherwise +maltreated until well used to the sport. After a dog has had one +season's experience he becomes a warrior, and it is a wonderfully +clever kangaroo that can scratch him after he has attained that +position. The young recruit, if we may so speak of a dog who has never +had any practice, is over-impetuous, rushing into the treacherous +embraces of the close hugger somewhat unadvisedly, and is fortunate if +he escapes with his life as a penalty for his rashness. The dog of +experience always gripes his marsupial adversary by the butt end of +the tail, close to the rump, or at its juncture with the spinal +vertebrae. Once the dog has thrown his kangaroo, he makes for the +throat, which he gripes firmly, while at the same time he is careful +to keep his own body as far as he conveniently can from the quarry's +dangerous hind quarters. In this position dog and kangaroo work round +and round for some time until one or the other of the combatants is +exhausted. It is noteworthy that the kangaroo will only make use of +its sharp teeth in cases of the direst extremity. On such occasions, +however, it must be conceded that the bite is one of a most formidable +character--one not to be any means underrated or despised. + +Should those few incidents prove of sufficient interest in your +estimation, I may state that I shall willingly, at some future time, +forward you particulars of the "ways peculiar" of the emirs, +bandicoots, wombats, opossums, and other remarkable animals, the +observance of which formed almost my sole amusement during a rather +lengthy sojourn in the bush of South Australia. + +SEPTIMUS FREARSON. + +Adelaide, S.A., April, 1883. + + * * * * * + + + + +JAPANESE PEPPERMINT. + + +In more than one periodical the botanical name of this plant has been +given as Mentha arvensis, var. purpurascens. It will be well, +therefore, to point out that this is an error before the statement is +further copied and the mistake perpetuated. The plant has green +foliage, with not a trace of purple, and less deserves the name +purpurascens than the true peppermint (Mentha piperita), of which a +purplish leaved form is well known. The mistake probably arose in the +first place in a printer's error. The history is as follows: + +For some years past a large quantity of a substance called menthol has +been imported into this country, and extensively used as a topical +application for the relief of neuralgia, and in some instances as an +antiseptic. This substance in appearance closely resembles Epsom +salts, and consists of crystals deposited in the oil of peppermint +distilled from the Japanese peppermint plant. This oil, when separated +from the crystals, is now largely used to flavor cheap peppermint +lozenges, being less expensive than the English oil. The crystals +deposit naturally in the oil upon keeping, but the Japanese extract +the whole of it by submitting the oil several times in succession to a +low temperature, when all the menthol crystallizes out from the oil +and falls to the bottom of the vessel. The source of the Japanese +peppermint oil has been stated to be Mentha arvensis, var. javanica. +On examining several specimens of this plant in our national herbaria +I found that the leaves tasted like those of the common garden mint +(Mentha viridis), and not at all like peppermint, and that therefore +the oil and menthol could not possibly be derived from this plant. + +I then asked my friend, Mr. T. Christy, who takes great interest in +medicinal plants, to endeavor to get specimens from Japan of the plant +yielding the oil. After many vain attempts, he at last succeeded in +obtaining live plants. These were cultivated in his garden at Malvern +House, Sydenham, and when they flowered I examined the plant and found +that it differed from other forms of M. arvensis in the taste, in the +acuminate segments of the calyx of the flower, and in the longer leaf +stalks; the leaves also taper more toward the base. Dr. Franchet, the +greatest living authority on Japanese plants, to whom I sent +specimens, confirmed my opinion as to the variety deserving a special +name, and M. Malinvaud, a well known authority on mints, suggested the +name piperascens, which I adopted, calling the plant Mentha arvensis, +var. piperascens. Specimens of the plant kindly lent by Mr. Christy +for the purpose were exhibited by me at an evening meeting of the +Linnaean Society, and by a printer's error in the report of the remarks +then made, the name of the plant appeared in print as Mentha arvensis, +var. purpurascens. + +I trust that the present note, through the medium of _The Garden_, +will prevent the perpetuation of this error. This is the more +important, as I hope that the plant will come into cultivation in this +country. It is a robust plant of rapid growth, as easily cultivated as +the English peppermint, and seems to require less moisture, and is +therefore capable of cultivation in a great variety of localities. The +increasing demand for menthol, which can only be procured in small +quantities from the English peppermint, and the high price of English +peppermint oil, lead to the hope that instead of importing menthol +from Japan, it will be prepared in this country from the Japanese +plant. + +With the appliances of more advanced civilization, it ought to be +possible for the oil and menthol to be made in this country at less +price than the Japanese products now cost. + +At the present time large quantities of cheap peppermint oil are +imported into this country from the United States, and Chinese oil is +imported into Bombay for use in the Government medical stores. There +is no reason why this should be the case if the Japanese plant were +cultivated in this country. In Ireland, where labor is cheap and the +climate moist, this crop might afford a valuable source of income to +enterprising cultivators. It may be interesting to note here that the +plant used in China closely resembles the Japanese one, differing +chiefly in the narrower and more glabrous leaves. I have therefore +named it Mentha arvensis f. glabrata, from specimens sent to me from +Hong Kong, by Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic Gardens there. + +E.M. HOLMES. + + * * * * * + + + + +GLADIOLUS. + + +The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in +early spring in pots of rich soil placed in heat, the pots being kept +near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants being +gradually hardened to permit their being placed out of doors in a +sheltered spot for the summer. In October they will have ripened off, +and must be taken out of the soil and stored in paper bags in a dry +room secure from frost. They will have made little bulbs, from the +size of a hazel nut downward, according to their vigor. In the +subsequent spring they should be planted like the old bulbs, and the +larger ones will flower during the season, while the smaller specimens +must be again harvested and planted out as above described. + + * * * * * + + +A catalogue containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at +this office. + + * * * * * + + +The + +Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + + * * * * * + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + + * * * * * + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers. + + * * * * * + +COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + + MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y. + + * * * * * + + +PATENTS. + +In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 38 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. +Patents are obtained on the best terms. + +A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all +Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence +of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public +attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or +introduction often easily effected. + +Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, +free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing +to MUNN & CO. + +We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address + + MUNN & CO.. 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, Vol. +XV., No. 388, June 9, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 15417.txt or 15417.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/4/1/15417/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/15417.zip b/15417.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e27a18b --- /dev/null +++ b/15417.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..db4a17f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #15417 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15417) |
