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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/16510-8.txt b/16510-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f49aaa --- /dev/null +++ b/16510-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14310 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays on Education and Kindred Subjects +by Herbert Spencer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Essays on Education and Kindred Subjects + Everyman's Library + +Author: Herbert Spencer + +Commentator: Charles W. Eliot + +Release Date: August 11, 2005 [EBook #16510] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS ON EDUCATION *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Joel Schlosberg and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +_EVERYMAN, I will go with thee, +and be thy guide, +In thy most need to go by thy side_ + + + + +HERBERT SPENCER + + +Born at Derby in 1820, the son of a teacher, +from whom he received most of his education. +Obtained employment on the London and +Birmingham Railway. After the strike of 1846 +he devoted himself to journalism, and in +1848 was sub-editor of _The Economist_. + +He died in 1903. + + + + +HERBERT SPENCER + +Essays on Education +AND KINDRED SUBJECTS + +INTRODUCTION BY +CHARLES W. ELIOT + +DENT: LONDON +EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY +DUTTON: NEW YORK + + + + +_Made in Great Britain +at the +Aldine Press · Letchworth · Herts +for +J.M. DENT & SONS LTD +Aldine House · Bedford Street · London +First published in Everyman's Library 1911 +Last reprinted 1963_ + +NO. _504_ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The four essays on education which Herbert Spencer published in a single +volume in 1861 were all written and separately published between 1854 +and 1859. Their tone was aggressive and their proposals revolutionary; +although all the doctrines--with one important exception--had already +been vigorously preached by earlier writers on education, as Spencer +himself was at pains to point out. The doctrine which was comparatively +new ran through all four essays; but was most amply stated in the essay +first published in 1859 under the title "What Knowledge is of Most +Worth?" In this essay Spencer divided the leading kinds of human +activity into those which minister to self-preservation, those which +secure the necessaries of life, those whose end is the care of +offspring, those which make good citizens, and those which prepare +adults to enjoy nature, literature, and the fine arts; and he then +maintained that in each of these several classes, knowledge of science +was worth more than any other knowledge. He argued that everywhere +throughout creation faculties are developed through the performance of +the appropriate functions; so that it would be contrary to the whole +harmony of nature "if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of +information, and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic." He +then maintained that the sciences are superior in all respects to +languages as educational material; they train the memory better, and a +superior kind of memory; they cultivate the judgment, and they impart an +admirable moral and religious discipline. He concluded that "for +discipline, as well as for guidance, science is of chiefest value. In +all its effects, learning the meaning of things is better than learning +the meaning of words." He answered the question "what knowledge is of +most worth?" with the one word--science. + +This doctrine was extremely repulsive to the established profession of +education in England, where Latin, Greek, and mathematics had been the +staples of education for many generations, and were believed to afford +the only suitable preparation for the learned professions, public life, +and cultivated society. In proclaiming this doctrine with ample +illustration, ingenious argument, and forcible reiteration, Spencer was +a true educational pioneer, although some of his scientific +contemporaries were really preaching similar doctrines, each in his own +field. + +The profession of teaching has long been characterised by certain +habitual convictions, which Spencer undertook to shake rudely, and even +to deride. The first of these convictions is that all education, +physical, intellectual, and moral, must be authoritative, and need take +no account of the natural wishes, tendencies, and motives of the +ignorant and undeveloped child. The second dominating conviction is that +to teach means to tell, or show, children what they ought to see, +believe, and utter. Expositions by the teacher and books are therefore +the true means of education. The third and supreme conviction is that +the method of education which produced the teacher himself and the +contemporary or earlier scholars, authors, and publicists, must be the +righteous and sufficient method. Its fruits demonstrate its soundness, +and make it sacred. Herbert Spencer, in the essays included in the +present volume, assaulted all three of these firm convictions. +Accordingly, the ideas on education which he put forth more than fifty +years ago have penetrated educational practice very slowly--particularly +in England; but they are now coming to prevail in most civilised +countries, and they will prevail more and more. Through him, the +thoughts on education of Comenius, Montaigne, Locke, Milton, Rousseau, +Pestalozzi, and other noted writers on this neglected subject are at +last winning their way into practice, with the modifications or +adaptations which the immense gains of the human race in knowledge and +power since the nineteenth century opened have shown to be wise. + +For teachers and educational administrators it is interesting to observe +the steps by which Spencer's doctrines--and especially his doctrine of +the supreme value of science--have advanced towards acceptance in +practice. In general, the advance has been brought about through the +indirect effects of the enormous industrial, social, and political +changes of the last fifty years. The first practical step was the +introduction of laboratory teaching of one or more of the sciences into +the secondary schools and colleges. Chemistry and physics were the +commonest subjects selected. These two subjects had been taught from +books even earlier; but memorising science out of books is far less +useful as training than memorising grammars and vocabularies. The +characteristic discipline of science can be imparted only through the +laboratory method. The schoolmasters and college faculties who took this +step by no means admitted Spencer's contention that science should be +the universal staple at all stages of child development. On the +contrary, they believed, as most people do to-day, that the mind of the +young child cannot grasp the processes and generalisations of science, +and that science is no more universally fitted to develop mental power +than the classics or mathematics. Indeed, experience during the past +fifty years seems to have proved that fewer minds are naturally inclined +to scientific study than to linguistic or historical study; so that if +some science is to be learnt by everybody, the amount of such study +should be limited to acquiring in one or two sciences knowledge of the +scientific method in general. So much scientific training is indeed +universally desirable; because good training of the senses to observe +accurately is universally desirable, and the collecting, comparing, and +grouping of many facts teach orderliness in thinking, and lead up to +something which Spencer valued highly in education--"a rational +explanation of phenomena." + +Science having obtained a foothold in secondary schools and colleges, an +adequate development of science-teaching resulted from the introduction +of options or elections for the pupils among numerous different courses, +in place of a curriculum prescribed for all. The elaborate teaching of +many sciences was thus introduced. The pupil or student saw and recorded +for himself; used books only as helps and guides in seeing, recording, +and generalising; proceeded from the known to the unknown; and in short, +made numerous applications of the doctrines which pervade all Spencer's +writings on education. In the United States these methods were +introduced earlier and have been carried farther than in England; but +within the last few years the changes made in education have been more +extensive and rapid in England than in any other country;--witness the +announcements of the new high schools and the re-organised grammar +schools, of such colleges as South Kensington, Armstrong, King's, the +University College (London), and Goldsmiths', and of the new municipal +universities such as Victoria, Bristol, Sheffield, Birmingham, +Liverpool, and Leeds. The new technical schools also illustrate the +advent of instruction in applied science as an important element in +advanced education. Such institutions as the Seafield Park Engineering +College, the City Guilds of London Institute, the City of London +College, and the Battersea Polytechnic are instances of the same +development. Some endowed institutions for girls illustrate the same +tendencies, as, for example, the Bedford College for Women and the Royal +Holloway College. All these institutions teach sciences in considerable +variety, and in the way that Spencer advocated,--not so much because +they have distinctly accepted his views, as because modern industrial +and social conditions compel the preparation in science of young people +destined for various occupations and services indispensable to modern +society. The method of the preparation is essentially that which he +advocated. + +Spencer's propositions to the effect that the study of science was +desirable for artisans, artists, and, in general, for people who were to +get their livings through various skills of hand and eye, were received +with great incredulity, not to say derision--particularly when he +maintained that some knowledge of the theory which underlies an art was +desirable for manual practitioners of the art; but the changes of the +last fifty years in the practice of the arts and trades may be said to +have demonstrated that his views were thoroughly sound. The applications +of science in the arts and trades have been so numerous and productive, +that widespread training in science has become indispensable to any +nation which means to excel in the manufacturing industries, whether of +large scale or small scale. The extraordinary popularity of evening +schools and correspondence schools in the United States rests on the +need which young people employed in the various industries of the +country feel of obtaining more theoretical knowledge about the physical +or chemical processes through which they are earning a livelihood. The +Young Men's Christian Associations in the American cities have become +great centres of evening instruction for just such young persons. The +correspondence schools are teaching hundreds of thousands of young +people at work in machine-shops, mills, mines, and factories, who +believe that they can advance themselves in their several occupations by +supplementing their elementary education with correspondence courses, +taken while they are at work earning a livelihood in industries that +rest ultimately on applications of science. + +Spencer's objection to the constant exercise of authority and compulsion +in schools, families, and the State is felt to-day much more widely than +it was in 1858, when he wrote his essay on moral education. His proposal +that children should be allowed to suffer the natural consequences of +their foolish or wrong acts does not seem to the present generation--any +more than it did to him--to be applicable to very young children, who +need protection from the undue severity of many natural penalties; but +the soundness of his general doctrine that it is the true function of +parents and teachers to see that children habitually experience the +normal consequences of their conduct, without putting artificial +consequences in place of them, now commands the assent of most persons +whose minds have been freed from the theological dogmas of original sin +and total depravity. Spencer did not expect the immediate adoption of +this principle; because society as a whole was not yet humane enough. He +admitted that the uncontrollable child of ill-controlled adults might +sometimes have to be scolded or beaten, and that these barbarous methods +might be "perhaps the best preparation such children can have for the +barbarous society in which they are presently to play a part." He hoped, +however, that the civilised members of society would by and by +spontaneously use milder measures; and this hope has been realised in +good degree, with the result that happiness in childhood is much +commoner and more constant than it used to be. Parents and teachers are +beginning to realise that self-control is a prime object in moral +education, and that this self-control cannot be practised under a regime +of constant supervision, unexplained commands, and painful punishments, +but must be gained in freedom. Some large-scale experience with American +secondary schools which prepare boys for admission to college has been +edifying in this respect. The American colleges, as a rule, do not +undertake to exercise much supervision over their students, but leave +them free to regulate their own lives in regard to both work and play. +Now it is the boys who come from the secondary schools where the +closest supervision is maintained that are in most danger of falling +into evil ways when they first go to college. + +Spencer put very forcibly a valuable doctrine for which many earlier +writers on the theory of education had failed to get a hearing--the +doctrine, namely, that all instruction should be pleasurable and +interesting. Fifty years ago almost all teachers believed that it was +impossible to make school-work interesting, or life-work either; so that +the child must be forced to grind without pleasure, in preparation for +life's grind; and the forcing was to be done by experience of the +teacher's displeasure and the infliction of pain. Through the slow +effects of Spencer's teaching and of the experience of practical +teachers who have demonstrated that instruction can be made pleasurable, +and that the very hardest work is done by interested pupils because they +are interested, it has gradually come to pass that his heresy has become +the prevailing judgment among sensible and humane teachers. The +experience of many adults, hard at work in the modern industrial, +commercial, and financial world, has taught them that human beings can +make their intensest application only to problems in which they are +personally interested for one reason or another, and that freemen work +much harder than slaves, because they feel within themselves strong +motives for exertion which slaves cannot possibly feel. So, many +intelligent adults, including many parents and teachers, have come to +believe it possible that children will learn to do hard work, both in +school and in after life, through the free play of interior motives +which appeal to them, and prompt them to persistent exertion. + +The justice of Spencer's views about training through pleasurable +sensation and achievement in freedom rather than through uninterested +work and pain inflicted by despotic government, is well illustrated by +the recent improvements in the discipline of reformatories for boys and +girls and young men and women. It has been demonstrated that the only +useful reformatories are those which diminish the criminal's liberty of +action as little as possible, require him to perform productive labour, +educate him for a trade or other useful occupation, and offer him the +reward of an abridgment of sentence in return for industry and +self-control. Repression and compulsion under penalties however severe +fail to reform, and often make bad moral conditions worse. Instruction, +as much freedom as is consistent with the safety of society, and an +appeal to the ordinary motives of emulation, satisfaction in +achievement, and the desire to win credit, can, and do, reform. + +Many schools, both public and private, have now adopted--in most cases +unconsciously--many of Spencer's more detailed suggestions. The +laboratory method of instruction, for example, now common for scientific +subjects in good schools, is an application of his doctrines of concrete +illustration, training in the accurate use of the senses, and +subordination of book-work. Many schools realise, too, that learning by +heart and, in general, memorising from books are not the only means of +storing the mind of a child. They should make parts of a sound +education, but should not be used to the exclusion of learning through +eye, ear, and hand. Spencer pointed out with much elaboration that +children acquire in their early years a vast amount of information +exclusively through the incessant use of their senses. To-day teachers +know this fact, and realise much better than the teachers of fifty years +ago did, that all through the school and college period the pupils +should be getting a large part of their new knowledge through the +careful application of their own powers of observation, aided, indeed, +by books and pictures which record the observations, old and new, of +other people. The young human being, unlike the puppy or the kitten, is +not confined to the use of his own senses as sources of information and +discovery; but can enjoy the fruits of a prodigious width and depth of +observation acquired by preceding generations and adult members of his +own generation. A recent illustration of this extension of the method of +observation in teaching to observations made by other people is the new +method of giving moral instruction to school children through +photographs of actual scenes which illustrate both good morals and bad, +the exhibition of the photographs being accompanied by a running oral +comment from the teacher. In this kind of moral instruction it seems to +be possible to interest all kinds of children, both civilised and +barbarous, both ill-bred and well-bred. The teaching comes through the +eye, for the children themselves observe intently the pictures which the +lantern throws on the screen; but the striking scenes thus put before +them probably lie in most instances quite outside the region of their +own experiences. + +The essay on "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" contains a hot +denunciation of that kind of information which in most schools used to +usurp the name of history. It is enough to say of this part of Spencer's +educational doctrine that all the best historical writers since the +middle of the nineteenth century seem to have adopted the principles +which he declared should govern the writing of history. As a result, the +teaching of history in schools and colleges has undergone a profound +change. It now deals with the nature and action of government, central, +local, and ecclesiastical, with social observances, industrial systems, +and the customs which regulate popular life, out-of-doors and indoors. +It depicts also the intellectual condition of the nation and the +progress it has made in applied science, the fine arts, and legislation, +and includes descriptions of the peoples' food, shelters, and +amusements. To this result many authors and teachers have contributed; +but Spencer's violent denunciation of history as it was taught in his +time has greatly promoted this important reform. + +Many twentieth-century teachers are sure to put in practice Spencer's +exhortation to teach children to draw with pen and pencil, and to use +paints and brush. He maintained that the common omission of drawing as +an important element in the training of children was in contempt of some +of the most obvious of nature's suggestions with regard to the natural +development of human faculties; and the better recent practice in some +English and American schools verifies his statement; nevertheless some +of the best secondary schools in both countries still fail to recognise +drawing and painting as important elements in liberal education. + +Modern society as yet hardly approaches the putting into effective +practice of the sound views which Spencer set forth with great detail in +his essay on "Physical Education." The instruction given in schools and +colleges on the care of the body and the laws of health is still very +meagre; and in certain subjects of the utmost importance no instruction +whatever is given, as, for example, in the normal methods of +reproduction in plants and animals, in eugenics, and in the ruinous +consequences of disregarding sexual purity and honour. In one respect +his fundamental doctrine of freedom, carried into the domain of physical +exercise, has been extensively adopted in England, on the Continent, +and in America. He taught that although gymnastics, military drill, and +formal exercises of the limbs are better than nothing, they can never +serve in place of the plays prompted by nature. He maintained that "for +girls as well as boys the sportive activities to which the instincts +impel are essential to bodily welfare." This principle is now being +carried into practice not only for school-children, but for operatives +in factories, clerks, and other young persons whose occupations are +sedentary and monotonous. For all such persons, free plays are vastly +better than formal exercises of any sort. + +The wide adoption of Spencer's educational ideas has had to await the +advent of the new educational administration and the new public interest +therein. It awaited the coming of the state university in the United +States and of the city university in England, the establishment of +numerous technical schools, the profound modifications made in grammar +schools and academies, and the multiplication in both countries of the +secondary schools called high schools. In other words, his ideas +gradually gained admission to a vast number of new institutions of +education, which were created and maintained because both the +governments and the nations felt a new sense of responsibility for the +training of the future generations. These new agencies have been created +in great variety, and the introduction of Spencer's ideas has been much +facilitated by this variety. These institutions were national, state, or +municipal. They were tax-supported or endowed. They charged tuition +fees, or were open to competent children or adults without fee. They +undertook to meet alike the needs of the individual and the needs of the +community; and this undertaking involved the introduction of many new +subjects of instruction and many new methods. Through their variety they +could be sympathetic with both individualism and collectivism. The +variety of instruction offered is best illustrated in the strongest +American universities, some of which are tax-supported and some endowed. +These universities maintain a great variety of courses of instruction in +subjects none of which was taught with the faintest approach to adequacy +in American universities sixty years ago; but in making these extensions +the universities have not found it necessary to reduce the instruction +offered in the classics and mathematics. The traditional cultural +studies are still provided; but they represent only one programme among +many, and no one is compelled to follow it. The domination of the +classics is at an end; but any student who prefers the traditional path +to culture, or whose parents choose that path for him, will find in +several American universities much richer provisions of classical +instruction than any university in the country offered sixty years ago. +The present proposals to widen the influence of Oxford University do not +mean, therefore, that the classics, history, and philosophy are to be +taught less there, but only that other subjects are to be taught more, +and that a greater number and variety of young men will be prepared +there for the service of the nation. + +The new public interest in education as a necessary of modern industrial +and political life has gradually brought about a great increase in the +proportional number of young men and women whose education is prolonged +beyond the period of primary or elementary instruction; and this +multitude of young people is preparing for a great variety of callings, +many of which are new within sixty years, having been brought into being +by the extraordinary advances of applied science. The advent of these +new callings has favoured the spread of Spencer's educational ideas. The +recent agitation in favour of what is called vocational training is a +vivid illustration of the wide acceptance of his arguments. Even the +farmers, their farm-hands, and their children must nowadays be offered +free instruction in agriculture; because the public, and especially the +urban public, believes that by disseminating better methods of tillage, +better seed, and appropriate manures, the yield of the farms can be +improved in quality and multiplied in quantity. In regard to all +material interests, the free peoples are acting on the principle that +science is the knowledge of most worth. Spencer's doctrine of natural +consequences in place of artificial penalties, his view that all young +people should be taught how to be wise parents and good citizens, and +his advocacy of instruction in public and private hygiene, lie at the +roots of many of the philanthropic and reformatory movements of the day. + +On the whole, Herbert Spencer has been fortunate among educational +philosophers. He has not had to wait so long for the acceptance of his +teachings as Comenius, Montaigne, or Rousseau waited. His ideas have +been floated on a prodigious tide of industrial and social change, which +necessarily involved wide-spread and profound educational reform. + +This introduction deals with Spencer's four essays on education; but in +the present volume are included three other famous essays written by him +during the same period (1854-59) which produced the essays on education. +All three are germane to the educational essays, because they deal with +the general law of human progress, with the genesis of that science +which Spencer thought to be the knowledge of most worth, and with the +origin and function of music, a subject which he maintained should play +an important part in any scheme of education. + + CHARLES W. ELIOT. + + + + +SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY + +WORKS. _The Proper Sphere of Government_, 1843; _Social Statics_, 1850; +_Theory of Population_ (_Westminster Review_), April 1852; _The +Development of Hypothesis_ (_The Leader_), 20th March 1852; _The +Ultimate Laws of Physiology_ (_National Review_), April 1857; _Essays, +Scientific, Political and Speculative_, 2 vols., 1858-63; _Education_, +1861; _A System of Synthetic Philosophy_ (12 vols., 1862-96), made up as +follows: _First Principles_, 1862; _Principles of Biology_, 2 vols., +1864-7; _Principles of Psychology_, 2 vols., 1870-2; _Principles of +Sociology_, 3 vols., 1876-96; _Ceremonial Institutions_, 1879; +_Principles of Morality_, 2 vols., 1879-93 (vol. i, part I published as +_Data of Ethics_, 1879; part 4 as _Justice_, 1891); _Political +Institutions_, 1882. Meanwhile the following works were also published: +_The Classification of the Sciences_, 1864; _The Study of Sociology_, +1872; _Descriptive Sociology_, 1873; _The Man versus the State_, 1884; +_The Factors of Organic Evolution_, 1887; _The Inadequacy of Natural +Selection_, 1893. Spencer's _Autobiography_ appeared posthumously, 2 +vols., 1904. + +COLLECTED EDITION. Nineteen volumes, 1861-1902. + +BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM. T. Funk-Brentano, _Les Sophistes grecs et les +Sophistes contemporains_ (Mill and Spencer), 1879; F.H. Collins, _An +Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy_, 1889; H. Sidgwick, _Lectures on +the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau_, 1902; 'The Philosophy of +Herbert Spencer' (in _The Philosophy of Kant and Other Lectures_, 1905); +D. Duncan, _An Introduction to the Philosophy of Spencer_, 1904; _Life +and Letters of Herbert Spencer_, 1908; J. Royce, _Herbert Spencer. An +Estimate and a Review_, 1904; J.A. Thomson, _Herbert Spencer_, 1906; +W.H. Hudson, _Herbert Spencer_, 1916; J. Rumney, _Herbert Spencer's +Sociology_, 1934; R.C.K. Ensor, _Some Reflections on Herbert Spencer's +Doctrine_, 1946. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE +_Introduction_ by Charles W. Eliot vii + +PART I + +EDUCATION: INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND PHYSICAL + +WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH? 1 + +INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 45 + +MORAL EDUCATION 84 + +PHYSICAL EDUCATION 116 + +PART II + +ESSAYS ON KINDRED SUBJECTS + +PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 153 + +ON MANNERS AND FASHION 198 + +ON THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 239 + +ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAUGHTER 298 + +ON THE ORIGIN AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC 310 + + + + +ORIGINAL PREFACE + +TO + +EDUCATION: INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND PHYSICAL + + +The four chapters of which this work consists, originally appeared as +four Review-articles: the first in the _Westminster Review_ for July +1859; the second in the _North British Review_ for May 1854; and the +remaining two in the _British Quarterly Review_ for April 1858 and for +April 1859. Severally treating different divisions of the subject, but +together forming a tolerably complete whole, I originally wrote them +with a view to their republication in a united form; and they would some +time since have thus been issued, had not a legal difficulty stood in +the way. This difficulty being now removed, I hasten to fulfil the +intention with which they were written. + +That in their first shape these chapters were severally independent, is +the reason to be assigned for some slight repetitions which occur in +them: one leading idea, more especially, reappearing twice. As, however, +this idea is on each occasion presented under a new form, and as it can +scarcely be too much enforced, I have not thought well to omit any of +the passages embodying it. + +Some additions of importance will be found in the chapter on +Intellectual Education; and in the one on Physical Education there are a +few minor alterations. But the chief changes which have been made, are +changes of expression: all of the essays having undergone a careful +verbal revision. + + H.S. +LONDON, _May 1861_ + + + + +SPENCER'S ESSAYS + + + + +PART I--ON EDUCATION + +WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH? + + +It has been truly remarked that, in order of time, decoration precedes +dress. Among people who submit to great physical suffering that they may +have themselves handsomely tattooed, extremes of temperature are borne +with but little attempt at mitigation. Humboldt tells us that an Orinoco +Indian, though quite regardless of bodily comfort, will yet labour for a +fortnight to purchase pigment wherewith to make himself admired; and +that the same woman who would not hesitate to leave her hut without a +fragment of clothing on, would not dare to commit such a breach of +decorum as to go out unpainted. Voyagers find that coloured beads and +trinkets are much more prized by wild tribes than are calicoes or +broadcloths. And the anecdotes we have of the ways in which, when shirts +and coats are given, savages turn them to some ludicrous display, show +how completely the idea of ornament predominates over that of use. Nay, +there are still more extreme illustrations: witness the fact narrated by +Capt. Speke of his African attendants, who strutted about in their +goat-skin mantles when the weather was fine, but when it was wet, took +them off, folded them up, and went about naked, shivering in the rain! +Indeed, the facts of aboriginal life seem to indicate that dress is +developed out of decorations. And when we remember that even among +ourselves most think more about the fineness of the fabric than its +warmth, and more about the cut than the convenience--when we see that +the function is still in great measure subordinated to the +appearance--we have further reason for inferring such an origin. + +It is curious that the like relations hold with the mind. Among mental +as among bodily acquisitions, the ornamental comes before the useful. +Not only in times past, but almost as much in our own era, that +knowledge which conduces to personal well-being has been postponed to +that which brings applause. In the Greek schools, music, poetry, +rhetoric, and a philosophy which, until Socrates taught, had but little +bearing upon action, were the dominant subjects; while knowledge aiding +the arts of life had a very subordinate place. And in our own +universities and schools at the present moment, the like antithesis +holds. We are guilty of something like a platitude when we say that +throughout his after-career, a boy, in nine cases out of ten, applies +his Latin and Greek to no practical purposes. The remark is trite that +in his shop, or his office, in managing his estate or his family, in +playing his part as director of a bank or a railway, he is very little +aided by this knowledge he took so many years to acquire--so little, +that generally the greater part of it drops out of his memory; and if he +occasionally vents a Latin quotation, or alludes to some Greek myth, it +is less to throw light on the topic in hand than for the sake of effect. +If we inquire what is the real motive for giving boys a classical +education, we find it to be simply conformity to public opinion. Men +dress their children's minds as they do their bodies, in the prevailing +fashion. As the Orinoco Indian puts on paint before leaving his hut, not +with a view to any direct benefit, but because he would be ashamed to be +seen without it; so, a boy's drilling in Latin and Greek is insisted on, +not because of their intrinsic value, but that he may not be disgraced +by being found ignorant of them--that he may have "the education of a +gentleman"--the badge marking a certain social position, and bringing a +consequent respect. + +This parallel is still more clearly displayed in the case of the other +sex. In the treatment of both mind and body, the decorative element has +continued to predominate in a greater degree among women than among men. +Originally, personal adornment occupied the attention of both sexes +equally. In these latter days of civilisation, however, we see that in +the dress of men the regard for appearance has in a considerable degree +yielded to the regard for comfort; while in their education the useful +has of late been trenching on the ornamental. In neither direction has +this change gone so far with women. The wearing of earrings, +finger-rings, bracelets; the elaborate dressings of the hair; the still +occasional use of paint; the immense labour bestowed in making +habiliments sufficiently attractive; and the great discomfort that will +be submitted to for the sake of conformity; show how greatly, in the +attiring of women, the desire of approbation overrides the desire for +warmth and convenience. And similarly in their education, the immense +preponderance of "accomplishments" proves how here, too, use is +subordinated to display. Dancing, deportment, the piano, singing, +drawing--what a large space do these occupy! If you ask why Italian and +German are learnt, you will find that, under all the sham reasons given, +the real reason is, that a knowledge of those tongues is thought +ladylike. It is not that the books written in them may be utilised, +which they scarcely ever are; but that Italian and German songs may be +sung, and that the extent of attainment may bring whispered admiration. +The births, deaths, and marriages of kings, and other like historic +trivialities, are committed to memory, not because of any direct +benefits that can possibly result from knowing them: but because society +considers them parts of a good education--because the absence of such +knowledge may bring the contempt of others. When we have named reading, +writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, and sewing, we have named about +all the things a girl is taught with a view to their actual uses in +life; and even some of these have more reference to the good opinion of +others than to immediate personal welfare. + +Thoroughly to realise the truth that with the mind as with the body the +ornamental precedes the useful, it is requisite to glance at its +rationale. This lies in the fact that, from the far past down even to +the present, social needs have subordinated individual needs, and that +the chief social need has been the control of individuals. It is not, as +we commonly suppose, that there are no governments but those of +monarchs, and parliaments, and constituted authorities. These +acknowledged governments are supplemented by other unacknowledged ones, +that grow up in all circles, in which every man or woman strives to be +king or queen or lesser dignitary. To get above some and be reverenced +by them, and to propitiate those who are above us, is the universal +struggle in which the chief energies of life are expended. By the +accumulation of wealth, by style of living, by beauty of dress, by +display of knowledge or intellect, each tries to subjugate others; and +so aids in weaving that ramified network of restraints by which society +is kept in order. It is not the savage chief only, who, in formidable +war-paint, with scalps at his belt, aims to strike awe into his +inferiors; it is not only the belle who, by elaborate toilet, polished +manners, and numerous accomplishments, strives to "make conquests;" but +the scholar, the historian, the philosopher, use their acquirements to +the same end. We are none of us content with quietly unfolding our own +individualities to the full in all directions; but have a restless +craving to impress our individualities upon others, and in some way +subordinate them. And this it is which determines the character of our +education. Not what knowledge is of most real worth, is the +consideration; but what will bring most applause, honour, respect--what +will most conduce to social position and influence--what will be most +imposing. As, throughout life, not what we are, but what we shall be +thought, is the question; so in education, the question is, not the +intrinsic value of knowledge, so much as its extrinsic effects on +others. And this being our dominant idea, direct utility is scarcely +more regarded than by the barbarian when filing his teeth and staining +his nails. + + * * * * * + +If there requires further evidence of the rude, undeveloped character of +our education, we have it in the fact that the comparative worths of +different kinds of knowledge have been as yet scarcely even +discussed--much less discussed in a methodic way with definite results. +Not only is it that no standard of relative values has yet been agreed +upon; but the existence of any such standard has not been conceived in a +clear manner. And not only is it that the existence of such a standard +has not been clearly conceived; but the need for it seems to have been +scarcely even felt. Men read books on this topic, and attend lectures on +that; decide that their children shall be instructed in these branches +of knowledge, and shall not be instructed in those; and all under the +guidance of mere custom, or liking, or prejudice; without ever +considering the enormous importance of determining in some rational way +what things are really most worth learning. It is true that in all +circles we hear occasional remarks on the importance of this or the +other order of information. But whether the degree of its importance +justifies the expenditure of the time needed to acquire it; and whether +there are not things of more importance to which such time might be +better devoted; are queries which, if raised at all, are disposed of +quite summarily, according to personal predilections. It is true also, +that now and then, we hear revived the standing controversy respecting +the comparative merits of classics and mathematics. This controversy, +however, is carried on in an empirical manner, with no reference to an +ascertained criterion; and the question at issue is insignificant when +compared with the general question of which it is part. To suppose that +deciding whether a mathematical or a classical education is the best is +deciding what is the proper _curriculum_, is much the same thing as to +suppose that the whole of dietetics lies in ascertaining whether or not +bread is more nutritive than potatoes! + +The question which we contend is of such transcendent moment, is, not +whether such or such knowledge is of worth but what is its _relative_ +worth? When they have named certain advantages which a given course of +study has secured them, persons are apt to assume that they have +justified themselves; quite forgetting that the adequateness of the +advantages is the point to be judged. There is, perhaps, not a subject +to which men devote attention that has not _some_ value. A year +diligently spent in getting up heraldry, would very possibly give a +little further insight into ancient manners and morals. Any one who +should learn the distances between all the towns in England, might, in +the course of his life, find one or two of the thousand facts he had +acquired of some slight service when arranging a journey. Gathering +together all the small gossip of a county, profitless occupation as it +would be, might yet occasionally help to establish some useful +fact--say, a good example of hereditary transmission. But in these +cases, every one would admit that there was no proportion between the +required labour and the probable benefit. No one would tolerate the +proposal to devote some years of a boy's time to getting such +information, at the cost of much more valuable information which he +might else have got. And if here the test of relative value is appealed +to and held conclusive, then should it be appealed to and held +conclusive throughout. Had we time to master all subjects we need not be +particular. To quote the old song:-- + + Could a man be secure + That his day would endure + As of old, for a thousand long years, + What things might he know! + What deeds might he do! + And all without hurry or care. + +"But we that have but span-long lives" must ever bear in mind our +limited time for acquisition. And remembering how narrowly this time is +limited, not only by the shortness of life, but also still more by the +business of life, we ought to be especially solicitous to employ what +time we have to the greatest advantage. Before devoting years to some +subject which fashion or fancy suggests, it is surely wise to weigh +with great care the worth of the results, as compared with the worth of +various alternative results which the same years might bring if +otherwise applied. + +In education, then, this is the question of questions, which it is high +time we discussed in some methodic way. The first in importance, though +the last to be considered, is the problem--how to decide among the +conflicting claims of various subjects on our attention. Before there +can be a rational _curriculum_, we must settle which things it most +concerns us to know; or, to use a word of Bacon's, now unfortunately +obsolete--we must determine the relative values of knowledges. + + * * * * * + +To this end, a measure of value is the first requisite. And happily, +respecting the true measure of value, as expressed in general terms, +there can be no dispute. Every one in contending for the worth of any +particular order of information, does so by showing its bearing upon +some part of life. In reply to the question--"Of what use is it?" the +mathematician, linguist, naturalist, or philosopher, explains the way in +which his learning beneficially influences action--saves from evil or +secures good--conduces to happiness. When the teacher of writing has +pointed out how great an aid writing is to success in business--that is, +to the obtainment of sustenance--that is, to satisfactory living; he is +held to have proved his case. And when the collector of dead facts (say +a numismatist) fails to make clear any appreciable effects which these +facts can produce on human welfare, he is obliged to admit that they are +comparatively valueless. All then, either directly or by implication, +appeal to this as the ultimate test. + +How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in +the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general +problem which comprehends every special problem is--the right ruling of +conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat +the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our +affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a +citizen; in what way to utilise those sources of happiness which nature +supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of +ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great +thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which +education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the +function which education has to discharge; and the only rational mode +of judging of an educational course is, to judge in what degree it +discharges such function. + +This test, never used in its entirety, but rarely even partially used, +and used then in a vague, half conscious way, has to be applied +consciously, methodically, and throughout all cases. It behoves us to +set before ourselves, and ever to keep clearly in view, complete living +as the end to be achieved; so that in bringing up our children we may +choose subjects and methods of instruction, with deliberate reference to +this end. Not only ought we to cease from the mere unthinking adoption +of the current fashion in education, which has no better warrant than +any other fashion; but we must also rise above that rude, empirical +style of judging displayed by those more intelligent people who do +bestow some care in overseeing the cultivation of their children's +minds. It must not suffice simply to _think_ that such or such +information will be useful in after life, or that this kind of knowledge +is of more practical value than that; but we must seek out some process +of estimating their respective values, so that as far as possible we may +positively _know_ which are most deserving of attention. + +Doubtless the task is difficult--perhaps never to be more than +approximately achieved. But, considering the vastness of the interests +at stake, its difficulty is no reason for pusillanimously passing it by; +but rather for devoting every energy to its mastery. And if we only +proceed systematically, we may very soon get at results of no small +moment. + +Our first step must obviously be to classify, in the order of their +importance, the leading kinds of activity which constitute human life. +They may be naturally arranged into:--1. those activities which directly +minister to self-preservation; 2. those activities which, by securing +the necessaries of life, indirectly minister to self-preservation; 3. +those activities which have for their end the rearing and discipline of +offspring; 4. those activities which are involved in the maintenance of +proper social and political relations; 5. those miscellaneous activities +which fill up the leisure part of life, devoted to the gratification of +the tastes and feelings. + +That these stand in something like their true order of subordination, it +needs no long consideration to show. The actions and precautions by +which, from moment to moment, we secure personal safety, must clearly +take precedence of all others. Could there be a man, ignorant as an +infant of surrounding objects and movements, or how to guide himself +among them, he would pretty certainly lose his life the first time he +went into the street; notwithstanding any amount of learning he might +have on other matters. And as entire ignorance in all other directions +would be less promptly fatal than entire ignorance in this direction, it +must be admitted that knowledge immediately conducive to +self-preservation is of primary importance. + +That next after direct self-preservation comes the indirect +self-preservation which consists in acquiring the means of living, none +will question. That a man's industrial functions must be considered +before his parental ones, is manifest from the fact that, speaking +generally, the discharge of the parental functions is made possible only +by the previous discharge of the industrial ones. The power of +self-maintenance necessarily preceding the power of maintaining +offspring, it follows that knowledge needful for self-maintenance has +stronger claims than knowledge needful for family welfare--is second in +value to none save knowledge needful for immediate self-preservation. + +As the family comes before the State in order of time--as the bringing +up of children is possible before the State exists, or when it has +ceased to be, whereas the State is rendered possible only by the +bringing up of children; it follows that the duties of the parent demand +closer attention than those of the citizen. Or, to use a further +argument--since the goodness of a society ultimately depends on the +nature of its citizens; and since the nature of its citizens is more +modifiable by early training than by anything else; we must conclude +that the welfare of the family underlies the welfare of society. And +hence knowledge directly conducing to the first, must take precedence of +knowledge directly conducing to the last. + +Those various forms of pleasurable occupation which fill up the leisure +left by graver occupations--the enjoyments of music, poetry, painting, +etc.--manifestly imply a pre-existing society. Not only is a +considerable development of them impossible without a long-established +social union; but their very subject-matter consists in great part of +social sentiments and sympathies. Not only does society supply the +conditions to their growth; but also the ideas and sentiments they +express. And, consequently, that part of human conduct which constitutes +good citizenship, is of more moment than that which goes out in +accomplishments or exercise of the tastes; and, in education, +preparation for the one must rank before preparation for the other. + +Such then, we repeat, is something like the rational order of +subordination:--That education which prepares for direct +self-preservation; that which prepares for indirect self-preservation; +that which prepares for parenthood; that which prepares for citizenship; +that which prepares for the miscellaneous refinements of life. We do not +mean to say that these divisions are definitely separable. We do not +deny that they are intricately entangled with each other, in such way +that there can be no training for any that is not in some measure a +training for all. Nor do we question that of each division there are +portions more important than certain portions of the preceding +divisions: that, for instance, a man of much skill in business but +little other faculty, may fall further below the standard of complete +living than one of but moderate ability in money-getting but great +judgment as a parent; or that exhaustive information bearing on right +social action, joined with entire want of general culture in literature +and the fine arts, is less desirable than a more moderate share of the +one joined with some of the other. But, after making due qualifications, +there still remain these broadly-marked divisions; and it still +continues substantially true that these divisions subordinate one +another in the foregoing order, because the corresponding divisions of +life make one another _possible_ in that order. + +Of course the ideal of education is--complete preparation in all these +divisions. But failing this ideal, as in our phase of civilisation every +one must do more or less, the aim should be to maintain _a due +proportion_ between the degrees of preparation in each. Not exhaustive +cultivation in any one, supremely important though it may be--not even +an exclusive attention to the two, three, or four divisions of greatest +importance; but an attention to all:--greatest where the value is +greatest; less where the value is less; least where the value is least. +For the average man (not to forget the cases in which peculiar aptitude +for some one department of knowledge, rightly makes pursuit of that one +the bread-winning occupation)--for the average man, we say, the +desideratum is, a training that approaches nearest to perfection in the +things which most subserve complete living, and falls more and more +below perfection in the things that have more and more remote bearings +on complete living. + +In regulating education by this standard, there are some general +considerations that should be ever present to us. The worth of any kind +of culture, as aiding complete living, may be either necessary or more +or less contingent. There is knowledge of intrinsic value; knowledge of +quasi-intrinsic value; and knowledge of conventional value. Such facts +as that sensations of numbness and tingling commonly precede paralysis, +that the resistance of water to a body moving through it varies as the +square of the velocity, that chlorine is a disinfectant,--these, and the +truths of Science in general, are of intrinsic value: they will bear on +human conduct ten thousand years hence as they do now. The extra +knowledge of our own language, which is given by an acquaintance with +Latin and Greek, may be considered to have a value that is +quasi-intrinsic: it must exist for us and for other races whose +languages owe much to these sources; but will last only as long as our +languages last. While that kind of information which, in our schools, +usurps the name History--the mere tissue of names and dates and dead +unmeaning events--has a conventional value only: it has not the remotest +bearing on any of our actions; and is of use only for the avoidance of +those unpleasant criticisms which current opinion passes upon its +absence. Of course, as those facts which concern all mankind throughout +all time must be held of greater moment than those which concern only a +portion of them during a limited era, and of far greater moment than +those which concern only a portion of them during the continuance of a +fashion; it follows that in a rational estimate, knowledge of intrinsic +worth must, other things equal, take precedence of knowledge that is of +quasi-intrinsic or conventional worth. + +One further preliminary. Acquirement of every kind has two values--value +as _knowledge_ and value as _discipline_. Besides its use for guiding +conduct, the acquisition of each order of facts has also its use as +mental exercise; and its effects as a preparative for complete living +have to be considered under both these heads. + +These, then, are the general ideas with which we must set out in +discussing a _curriculum_:--Life as divided into several kinds of +activity of successively decreasing importance; the worth of each order +of facts as regulating these several kinds of activity, intrinsically, +quasi-intrinsically, and conventionally; and their regulative influences +estimated both as knowledge and discipline. + + * * * * * + +Happily, that all-important part of education which goes to secure +direct self-preservation, is in great part already provided for. Too +momentous to be left to our blundering, Nature takes it into her own +hands. While yet in its nurse's arms, the infant, by hiding its face +and crying at the sight of a stranger, shows the dawning instinct to +attain safety by flying from that which is unknown and may be dangerous; +and when it can walk, the terror it manifests if an unfamiliar dog comes +near, or the screams with which it runs to its mother after any +startling sight or sound, shows this instinct further developed. +Moreover, knowledge subserving direct self-preservation is that which it +is chiefly busied in acquiring from hour to hour. How to balance its +body; how to control its movements so as to avoid collisions; what +objects are hard, and will hurt if struck; what objects are heavy, and +injure if they fall on the limbs; which things will bear the weight of +the body, and which not; the pains inflicted by fire, by missiles, by +sharp instruments--these, and various other pieces of information +needful for the avoidance of death or accident, it is ever learning. And +when, a few years later, the energies go out in running, climbing, and +jumping, in games of strength and games of skill, we see in all these +actions by which the muscles are developed, the perceptions sharpened, +and the judgment quickened, a preparation for the safe conduct of the +body among surrounding objects and movements; and for meeting those +greater dangers that occasionally occur in the lives of all. Being thus, +as we say, so well cared for by Nature, this fundamental education needs +comparatively little care from us. What we are chiefly called upon to +see, is, that there shall be free scope for gaining this experience and +receiving this discipline--that there shall be no such thwarting of +Nature as that by which stupid schoolmistresses commonly prevent the +girls in their charge from the spontaneous physical activities they +would indulge in; and so render them comparatively incapable of taking +care of themselves in circumstances of peril. + +This, however, is by no means all that is comprehended in the education +that prepares for direct self-preservation. Besides guarding the body +against mechanical damage or destruction, it has to be guarded against +injury from other causes--against the disease and death that follow +breaches of physiologic law. For complete living it is necessary, not +only that sudden annihilations of life shall be warded off; but also +that there shall be escaped the incapacities and the slow annihilation +which unwise habits entail. As, without health and energy, the +industrial, the parental, the social, and all other activities become +more or less impossible; it is clear that this secondary kind of direct +self-preservation is only less important than the primary kind; and +that knowledge tending to secure it should rank very high. + +It is true that here, too, guidance is in some measure ready supplied. +By our various physical sensations and desires, Nature has insured a +tolerable conformity to the chief requirements. Fortunately for us, want +of food, great heat, extreme cold, produce promptings too peremptory to +be disregarded. And would men habitually obey these and all like +promptings when less strong, comparatively few evils would arise. If +fatigue of body or brain were in every case followed by desistance; if +the oppression produced by a close atmosphere always led to ventilation; +if there were no eating without hunger, or drinking without thirst; then +would the system be but seldom out of working order. But so profound an +ignorance is there of the laws of life, that men do not even know that +their sensations are their natural guides, and (when not rendered morbid +by long--continued disobedience) their trustworthy guides. So that +though, to speak teleologically, Nature has provided efficient +safeguards to health, lack of knowledge makes them in a great measure +useless. + +If any one doubts the importance of an acquaintance with the principles +of physiology, as a means to complete living, let him look around and +see how many men and women he can find in middle or later life who are +thoroughly well. Only occasionally do we meet with an example of +vigorous health continued to old age; hourly do we meet with examples of +acute disorder, chronic ailment, general debility, premature +decrepitude. Scarcely is there one to whom you put the question, who has +not, in the course of his life, brought upon himself illnesses which a +little information would have saved him from. Here is a case of +heart-disease consequent on a rheumatic fever that followed reckless +exposure. There is a case of eyes spoiled for life by over-study. +Yesterday the account was of one whose long-enduring lameness was +brought on by continuing, spite of the pain, to use a knee after it had +been slightly injured. And to-day we are told of another who has had to +lie by for years, because he did not know that the palpitation he +suffered under resulted from overtaxed brain. Now we hear of an +irremediable injury which followed some silly feat of strength; and, +again, of a constitution that has never recovered from the effects of +excessive work needlessly undertaken. While on every side we see the +perpetual minor ailments which accompany feebleness. Not to dwell on the +pain, the weariness, the gloom, the waste of time and money thus +entailed, only consider how greatly ill-health hinders the discharge of +all duties--makes business often impossible, and always more difficult; +produces an irritability fatal to the right management of children; puts +the functions of citizenship out of the question; and makes amusement a +bore. Is it not clear that the physical sins--partly our forefathers' +and partly our own--which produce this ill-health, deduct more from +complete living than anything else? and to a great extent make life a +failure and a burden instead of a benefaction and a pleasure? + +Nor is this all. Life, besides being thus immensely deteriorated, is +also cut short. It is not true, as we commonly suppose, that after a +disorder or disease from which we have recovered, we are as before. No +disturbance of the normal course of the functions can pass away and +leave things exactly as they were. A permanent damage is done--not +immediately appreciable, it may be, but still there; and along with +other such items which Nature in her strict account-keeping never drops, +it will tell against us to the inevitable shortening of our days. +Through the accumulation of small injuries it is that constitutions are +commonly undermined, and break down, long before their time. And if we +call to mind how far the average duration of life falls below the +possible duration, we see how immense is the loss. When, to the numerous +partial deductions which bad health entails, we add this great final +deduction, it results that ordinarily one-half of life is thrown away. + +Hence, knowledge which subserves direct self-preservation by preventing +this loss of health, is of primary importance. We do not contend that +possession of such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. +It is clear that in our present phase of civilisation, men's necessities +often compel them to transgress. And it is further clear that, even in +the absence of such compulsion, their inclinations would frequently lead +them, spite of their convictions, to sacrifice future good to present +gratification. But we _do_ contend that the right knowledge impressed in +the right way would effect much; and we further contend that as the laws +of health must be recognised before they can be fully conformed to, the +imparting of such knowledge must precede a more rational living--come +when that may. We infer that as vigorous health and its accompanying +high spirits are larger elements of happiness than any other things +whatever, the teaching how to maintain them is a teaching that yields in +moment to no other whatever. And therefore we assert that such a course +of physiology as is needful for the comprehension of its general truths, +and their bearings on daily conduct, is an all-essential part of a +rational education. + +Strange that the assertion should need making! Stranger still that it +should need defending! Yet are there not a few by whom such a +proposition will be received with something approaching to derision. Men +who would blush if caught saying Iphigénia instead of Iphigenía, or +would resent as an insult any imputation of ignorance respecting the +fabled labours of a fabled demi-god, show not the slightest shame in +confessing that they do not know where the Eustachian tubes are, what +are the actions of the spinal cord, what is the normal rate of +pulsation, or how the lungs are inflated. While anxious that their sons +should be well up in the superstitions of two thousand years ago, they +care not that they should be taught anything about the structure and +functions of their own bodies--nay, even wish them not to be so taught. +So overwhelming is the influence of established routine! So terribly in +our education does the ornamental over-ride the useful! + + * * * * * + +We need not insist on the value of that knowledge which aids indirect +self-preservation by facilitating the gaining of a livelihood. This is +admitted by all; and, indeed, by the mass is perhaps too exclusively +regarded as the end of education. But while every one is ready to +endorse the abstract proposition that instruction fitting youths for the +business of life is of high importance, or even to consider it of +supreme importance; yet scarcely any inquire what instruction will so +fit them. It is true that reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught +with an intelligent appreciation of their uses. But when we have said +this we have said nearly all. While the great bulk of what else is +acquired has no bearing on the industrial activities, an immensity of +information that has a direct bearing on the industrial activities is +entirely passed over. + +For, leaving out only some very small classes, what are all men employed +in? They are employed in the production, preparation, and distribution +of commodities. And on what does efficiency in the production, +preparation, and distribution of commodities depend? It depends on the +use of methods fitted to the respective natures of these commodities; it +depends on an adequate acquaintance with their physical, chemical, or +vital properties, as the case may be; that is, it depends on Science. +This order of knowledge which is in great part ignored in our +school-courses, is the order of knowledge underlying the right +performance of those processes by which civilised life is made possible. +Undeniable as is this truth, there seems to be no living consciousness +of it: its very familiarity makes it unregarded. To give due weight to +our argument, we must, therefore, realise this truth to the reader by a +rapid review of the facts. + +Passing over the most abstract science, Logic, on the due guidance by +which, however, the large producer or distributor depends, knowingly or +unknowingly, for success in his business-forecasts, we come first to +Mathematics. Of this, the most general division, dealing with number, +guides all industrial activities; be they those by which processes are +adjusted, or estimates framed, or commodities bought and sold, or +accounts kept. No one needs to have the value of this division of +abstract science insisted upon. + +For the higher arts of construction, some acquaintance with the more +special division of Mathematics is indispensable. The village carpenter, +who lays out his work by empirical rules, equally with the builder of a +Britannia Bridge, makes hourly reference to the laws of space-relations. +The surveyor who measures the land purchased; the architect in designing +a mansion to be built on it; the builder when laying out the +foundations; the masons in cutting the stones; and the various artizans +who put up the fittings; are all guided by geometrical truths. +Railway-making is regulated from beginning to end by geometry: alike in +the preparation of plans and sections; in staking out the line; in the +mensuration of cuttings and embankments; in the designing and building +of bridges, culverts, viaducts, tunnels, stations. Similarly with the +harbours, docks, piers, and various engineering and architectural works +that fringe the coasts and overspread the country, as well as the mines +that run underneath it. And now-a-days, even the farmer, for the correct +laying-out of his drains, has recourse to the level--that is, to +geometrical principles. + +Turn next to the Abstract-Concrete sciences. On the application of the +simplest of these, Mechanics, depends the success of modern +manufactures. The properties of the lever, the wheel-and-axle, etc., are +recognised in every machine, and to machinery in these times we owe all +production. Trace the history of the breakfast-roll. The soil out of +which it came was drained with machine-made tiles; the surface was +turned over by a machine; the wheat was reaped, thrashed, and winnowed +by machines; by machinery it was ground and bolted; and had the flour +been sent to Gosport, it might have been made into biscuits by a +machine. Look round the room in which you sit. If modern, probably the +bricks in its walls were machine-made; and by machinery the flooring was +sawn and planed, the mantel-shelf sawn and polished, the paper-hangings +made and printed. The veneer on the table, the turned legs of the +chairs, the carpet, the curtains, are all products of machinery. Your +clothing--plain, figured, or printed--is it not wholly woven, nay, +perhaps even sewed, by machinery? And the volume you are reading--are +not its leaves fabricated by one machine and covered with these words by +another? Add to which that for the means of distribution over both land +and sea, we are similarly indebted. And then observe that according as +knowledge of mechanics is well or ill applied to these ends, comes +success or failure. The engineer who miscalculates the strength of +materials, builds a bridge that breaks down. The manufacturer who uses a +bad machine cannot compete with another whose machine wastes less in +friction and inertia. The ship-builder adhering to the old model is +out-sailed by one who builds on the mechanically-justified wave-line +principle. And as the ability of a nation to hold its own against other +nations, depends on the skilled activity of its units, we see that on +mechanical knowledge may turn the national fate. + +On ascending from the divisions of Abstract-Concrete science dealing +with molar forces, to those divisions of it which deal with molecular +forces, we come to another vast series of applications. To this group of +sciences joined with the preceding groups we owe the steam-engine, which +does the work of millions of labourers. That section of physics which +formulates the laws of heat, has taught us how to economise fuel in +various industries; how to increase the produce of smelting furnaces by +substituting the hot for the cold blast; how to ventilate mines; how to +prevent explosions by using the safety-lamp; and, through the +thermometer, how to regulate innumerable processes. That section which +has the phenomena of light for its subject, gives eyes to the old and +the myopic; aids through the microscope in detecting diseases and +adulterations; and, by improved lighthouses, prevents shipwrecks. +Researches in electricity and magnetism have saved innumerable lives and +incalculable property through the compass; have subserved many arts by +the electrotype; and now, in the telegraph, have supplied us with an +agency by which for the future, mercantile transactions will be +regulated and political intercourse carried on. While in the details of +in-door life, from the improved kitchen-range up to the stereoscope on +the drawing-room table, the applications of advanced physics underlie +our comforts and gratifications. + +Still more numerous are the applications of Chemistry. The bleacher, the +dyer, the calico-printer, are severally occupied in processes that are +well or ill done according as they do or do not conform to chemical +laws. Smelting of copper, tin, zinc, lead, silver, iron, must be guided +by chemistry. Sugar-refining, gas-making, soap-boiling, +gunpowder-manufacture, are operations all partly chemical; as are +likewise those which produce glass and porcelain. Whether the +distiller's wort stops at the alcoholic fermentation or passes into the +acetous, is a chemical question on which hangs his profit or loss; and +the brewer, if his business is extensive, finds it pay to keep a chemist +on his premises. Indeed, there is now scarcely any manufacture over some +part of which chemistry does not preside. Nay, in these times even +agriculture, to be profitably carried on, must have like guidance. The +analysis of manures and soils; the disclosure of their respective +adaptations; the use of gypsum or other substance for fixing ammonia; +the utilisation of coprolites; the production of artificial manures--all +these are boons of chemistry which it behoves the farmer to acquaint +himself with. Be it in the lucifer match, or in disinfected sewage, or +in photographs--in bread made without fermentation, or perfumes +extracted from refuse, we may perceive that chemistry affects all our +industries; and that, therefore, knowledge of it concerns every one who +is directly or indirectly connected with our industries. + +Of the Concrete sciences, we come first to Astronomy. Out of this has +grown that art of navigation which has made possible the enormous +foreign commerce that supports a large part of our population, while +supplying us with many necessaries and most of our luxuries. + +Geology, again, is a science knowledge of which greatly aids industrial +success. Now that iron ores are so large a source of wealth; now that +the duration of our coal-supply has become a question of great interest; +now that we have a College of Mines and a Geological Survey; it is +scarcely needful to enlarge on the truth that the study of the Earth's +crust is important to our material welfare. + +And then the science of life--Biology: does not this, too, bear +fundamentally on these processes of indirect self-preservation? With +what we ordinarily call manufactures, it has, indeed, little connection; +but with the all-essential manufacture--that of food--it is inseparably +connected. As agriculture must conform its methods to the phenomena of +vegetal and animal life, it follows that the science of these phenomena +is the rational basis of agriculture. Various biological truths have +indeed been empirically established and acted upon by farmers, while yet +there has been no conception of them as science; such as that particular +manures are suited to particular plants; that crops of certain kinds +unfit the soil for other crops; that horses cannot do good work on poor +food; that such and such diseases of cattle and sheep are caused by such +and such conditions. These, and the every-day knowledge which the +agriculturist gains by experience respecting the management of plants +and animals, constitute his stock of biological facts; on the largeness +of which greatly depends his success. And as these biological facts, +scanty, indefinite, rudimentary, though they are, aid him so +essentially; judge what must be the value to him of such facts when they +become positive, definite, and exhaustive. Indeed, even now we may see +the benefits that rational biology is conferring on him. The truth that +the production of animal heat implies waste of substance, and that, +therefore, preventing loss of heat prevents the need for extra food--a +purely theoretical conclusion--now guides the fattening of cattle: it is +found that by keeping cattle warm, fodder is saved. Similarly with +respect to variety of food. The experiments of physiologists have shown +that not only is change of diet beneficial, but that digestion is +facilitated by a mixture of ingredients in each meal. The discovery that +a disorder known as "the staggers," of which many thousands of sheep +have died annually, is caused by an entozoon which presses on the brain, +and that if the creature is extracted through the softened place in the +skull which marks its position, the sheep usually recovers, is another +debt which agriculture owes to biology. + +Yet one more science have we to note as bearing directly on industrial +success--the Science of Society. Men who daily look at the state of the +money-market glance over prices current; discuss the probable crops of +corn, cotton, sugar, wool, silk; weigh the chances of war; and from +these data decide on their mercantile operations; are students of social +science: empirical and blundering students it may be; but still, +students who gain the prizes or are plucked of their profits, according +as they do or do not reach the right conclusion. Not only the +manufacturer and the merchant must guide their transactions by +calculations of supply and demand, based on numerous facts, and tacitly +recognising sundry general principles of social action; but even the +retailer must do the like: his prosperity very greatly depending upon +the correctness of his judgments respecting the future wholesale prices +and the future rates of consumption. Manifestly, whoever takes part in +the entangled commercial activities of a community, is vitally +interested in understanding the laws according to which those activities +vary. + +Thus, to all such as are occupied in the production, exchange, or +distribution of commodities, acquaintance with Science in some of its +departments, is of fundamental importance. Each man who is immediately +or remotely implicated in any form of industry (and few are not) has in +some way to deal with the mathematical, physical, and chemical +properties of things; perhaps, also, has a direct interest in biology; +and certainly has in sociology. Whether he does or does not succeed well +in that indirect self-preservation which we call getting a good +livelihood, depends in a great degree on his knowledge of one or more of +these sciences: not, it may be, a rational knowledge; but still a +knowledge, though empirical. For what we call learning a business, +really implies learning the science involved in it; though not perhaps +under the name of science. And hence a grounding in science is of great +importance, both because it prepares for all this, and because rational +knowledge has an immense superiority over empirical knowledge. Moreover, +not only is scientific culture requisite for each, that he may +understand the _how_ and the _why_ of the things and processes with +which he is concerned as maker or distributor; but it is often of much +moment that he should understand the _how_ and the _why_ of various +other things and processes. In this age of joint-stock undertakings, +nearly every man above the labourer is interested as capitalist in some +other occupation than his own; and, as thus interested, his profit or +loss often depends on his knowledge of the sciences bearing on this +other occupation. Here is a mine, in the sinking of which many +shareholders ruined themselves, from not knowing that a certain fossil +belonged to the old red sandstone, below which no coal is found. +Numerous attempts have been made to construct electromagnetic engines, +in the hope of superseding steam; but had those who supplied the money +understood the general law of the correlation and equivalence of +forces, they might have had better balances at their bankers. Daily are +men induced to aid in carrying out inventions which a mere tyro in +science could show to be futile. Scarcely a locality but has its history +of fortunes thrown away over some impossible project. + +And if already the loss from want of science is so frequent and so +great, still greater and more frequent will it be to those who hereafter +lack science. Just as fast as productive processes become more +scientific, which competition will inevitably make them do; and just as +fast as joint-stock undertakings spread, which they certainly will; so +fast must scientific knowledge grow necessary to every one. + +That which our school-courses leave almost entirely out, we thus find to +be that which most nearly concerns the business of life. Our industries +would cease, were it not for the information which men begin to acquire, +as they best may, after their education is said to be finished. And were +it not for this information, from age to age accumulated and spread by +unofficial means, these industries would never have existed. Had there +been no teaching but such as goes on in our public schools, England +would now be what it was in feudal times. That increasing acquaintance +with the laws of phenomena, which has through successive ages enabled us +to subjugate Nature to our needs, and in these days gives the common +labourer comforts which a few centuries ago kings could not purchase, is +scarcely in any degree owed to the appointed means of instructing our +youth. The vital knowledge--that by which we have grown as a nation to +what we are, and which now underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge +that has got itself taught in nooks and corners; while the ordained +agencies for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas. + + * * * * * + +We come now to the third great division of human activities--a division +for which no preparation whatever is made. If by some strange chance not +a vestige of us descended to the remote future save a pile of our +school-books or some college examination papers, we may imagine how +puzzled an antiquary of the period would be on finding in them no sign +that the learners were ever likely to be parents. "This must have been +the _curriculum_ for their celibates," we may fancy him concluding. "I +perceive here an elaborate preparation for many things; especially for +reading the books of extinct nations and of co-existing nations (from +which indeed it seems clear that these people had very little worth +reading in their own tongue); but I find no reference whatever to the +bringing up of children. They could not have been so absurd as to omit +all training for this gravest of responsibilities. Evidently then, this +was the school-course of one of their monastic orders." + +Seriously, is it not an astonishing fact, that though on the treatment +of offspring depend their lives or deaths, and their moral welfare or +ruin; yet not one word of instruction on the treatment of offspring is +ever given to those who will by and by be parents? Is it not monstrous +that the fate of a new generation should be left to the chances of +unreasoning custom, impulse, fancy--joined with the suggestions of +ignorant nurses and the prejudiced counsel of grandmothers? If a +merchant commenced business without any knowledge of arithmetic and +book-keeping, we should exclaim at his folly, and look for disastrous +consequences. Or if, before studying anatomy, a man set up as a surgical +operator, we should wonder at his audacity and pity his patients. But +that parents should begin the difficult task of rearing children, +without ever having given a thought to the principles--physical, moral, +or intellectual--which ought to guide them, excites neither surprise at +the actors nor pity for their victims. + +To tens of thousands that are killed, add hundreds of thousand that +survive with feeble constitutions, and millions that grow up with +constitutions not so strong as they should be; and you will have some +idea of the curse inflicted on their offspring by parents ignorant of +the laws of life. Do but consider for a moment that the regimen to which +children are subject, is hourly telling upon them to their life-long +injury or benefit; and that there are twenty ways of going wrong to one +way of going right; and you will get some idea of the enormous mischief +that is almost everywhere inflicted by the thoughtless, haphazard system +in common use. Is it decided that a boy shall be clothed in some flimsy +short dress, and be allowed to go playing about with limbs reddened by +cold? The decision will tell on his whole future existence--either in +illnesses; or in stunted growth; or in deficient energy; or in a +maturity less vigorous than it ought to have been, and in consequent +hindrances to success and happiness. Are children doomed to a monotonous +dietary, or a dietary that is deficient in nutritiveness? Their ultimate +physical power, and their efficiency as men and women, will inevitably +be more or less diminished by it. Are they forbidden vociferous play, or +(being too ill-clothed to bear exposure) are they kept indoors in cold +weather? They are certain to fall below that measure of health and +strength to which they would else have attained. When sons and daughters +grow up sickly and feeble, parents commonly regard the event as a +misfortune--as a visitation of Providence. Thinking after the prevalent +chaotic fashion, they assume that these evils come without causes; or +that the causes are supernatural. Nothing of the kind. In some cases the +causes are doubtless inherited; but in most cases foolish regulations +are the causes. Very generally, parents themselves are responsible for +all this pain, this debility, this depression, this misery. They have +undertaken to control the lives of their offspring from hour to hour; +with cruel carelessness they have neglected to learn anything about +these vital processes which they are unceasingly affecting by their +commands and prohibitions; in utter ignorance of the simplest +physiologic laws, they have been year by year undermining the +constitutions of their children; and have so inflicted disease and +premature death, not only on them but on their descendants. + +Equally great are the ignorance and the consequent injury, when we turn +from physical training to moral training. Consider the young mother and +her nursery-legislation. But a few years ago she was at school, where +her memory was crammed with words, and names, and dates, and her +reflective faculties scarcely in the slightest degree exercised--where +not one idea was given her respecting the methods of dealing with the +opening mind of childhood; and where her discipline did not in the least +fit her for thinking out methods of her own. The intervening years have +been passed in practising music, in fancy-work, in novel-reading, and in +party-going: no thought having yet been given to the grave +responsibilities of maternity; and scarcely any of that solid +intellectual culture obtained which would be some preparation for such +responsibilities. And now see her with an unfolding human character +committed to her charge--see her profoundly ignorant of the phenomena +with which she has to deal, undertaking to do that which can be done but +imperfectly even with the aid of the profoundest knowledge. She knows +nothing about the nature of the emotions, their order of evolution, +their functions, or where use ends and abuse begins. She is under the +impression that some of the feelings are wholly bad, which is not true +of any one of them; and that others are good however far they may be +carried, which is also not true of any one of them. And then, ignorant +as she is of the structure she has to deal with, she is equally +ignorant of the effects produced on it by this or that treatment. What +can be more inevitable than the disastrous results we see hourly +arising? Lacking knowledge of mental phenomena, with their cause and +consequences, her interference is frequently more mischievous than +absolute passivity would have been. This and that kind of action, which +are quite normal and beneficial, she perpetually thwarts; and so +diminishes the child's happiness and profit, injures its temper and her +own, and produces estrangement. Deeds which she thinks it desirable to +encourage, she gets performed by threats and bribes, or by exciting a +desire for applause: considering little what the inward motive may be, +so long as the outward conduct conforms; and thus cultivating hypocrisy, +and fear, and selfishness, in place of good feeling. While insisting on +truthfulness, she constantly sets an example of untruth by threatening +penalties which she does not inflict. While inculcating self-control, +she hourly visits on her little ones angry scoldings for acts +undeserving of them. She has not the remotest idea that in the nursery, +as in the world, that alone is the truly salutary discipline which +visits on all conduct, good and bad, the natural consequences--the +consequences, pleasurable or painful, which in the nature of things such +conduct tends to bring. Being thus without theoretic guidance, and quite +incapable of guiding herself by tracing the mental processes going on in +her children, her rule is impulsive, inconsistent, mischievous; and +would indeed be generally ruinous were it not that the overwhelming +tendency of the growing mind to assume the moral type of the race +usually subordinates all minor influences. + +And then the culture of the intellect--is not this, too, mismanaged in a +similar manner? Grant that the phenomena of intelligence conform to +laws; grant that the evolution of intelligence in a child also conforms +to laws; and it follows inevitably that education cannot be rightly +guided without a knowledge of these laws. To suppose that you can +properly regulate this process of forming and accumulating ideas, +without understanding the nature of the process, is absurd. How widely, +then, must teaching as it is differ from teaching as it should be; when +hardly any parents, and but few tutors, know anything about psychology. +As might be expected, the established system is grievously at fault, +alike in matter and in manner. While the right class of facts is +withheld, the wrong class is forcibly administered in the wrong way and +in the wrong order. Under that common limited idea of education which +confines it to knowledge gained from books, parents thrust primers into +the hands of their little ones years too soon, to their great injury. +Not recognising the truth that the function of books is +supplementary--that they form an indirect means to knowledge when direct +means fail--a means of seeing through other men what you cannot see for +yourself; teachers are eager to give second-hand facts in place of +first-hand facts. Not perceiving the enormous value of that spontaneous +education which goes on in early years--not perceiving that a child's +restless observation, instead of being ignored or checked, should be +diligently ministered to, and made as accurate and complete as possible; +they insist on occupying its eyes and thoughts with things that are, for +the time being, incomprehensible and repugnant. Possessed by a +superstition which worships the symbols of knowledge instead of the +knowledge itself, they do not see that only when his acquaintance with +the objects and processes of the household, the streets, and the fields, +is becoming tolerably exhaustive--only then should a child be introduced +to the new sources of information which books supply: and this, not only +because immediate cognition is of far greater value than mediate +cognition; but also, because the words contained in books can be rightly +interpreted into ideas, only in proportion to the antecedent experience +of things. Observe next, that this formal instruction, far too soon +commenced, is carried on with but little reference to the laws of mental +development. Intellectual progress is of necessity from the concrete to +the abstract. But regardless of this, highly abstract studies, such as +grammar, which should come quite late, are begun quite early. Political +geography, dead and uninteresting to a child, and which should be an +appendage of sociological studies, is commenced betimes; while physical +geography, comprehensible and comparatively attractive to a child, is in +great part passed over. Nearly every subject dealt with is arranged in +abnormal order: definitions and rules and principles being put first, +instead of being disclosed, as they are in the order of nature, through +the study of cases. And then, pervading the whole, is the vicious system +of rote learning--a system of sacrificing the spirit to the letter. See +the results. What with perceptions unnaturally dulled by early +thwarting, and a coerced attention to books--what with the mental +confusion produced by teaching subjects before they can be understood, +and in each of them giving generalisations before the facts of which +they are the generalisations--what with making the pupil a mere passive +recipient of other's ideas, and not in the least leading him to be an +active inquirer or self-instructor--and what with taxing the faculties +to excess; there are very few minds that become as efficient as they +might be. Examinations being once passed, books are laid aside; the +greater part of what has been acquired, being unorganised, soon drops +out of recollection; what remains is mostly inert--the art of applying +knowledge not having been cultivated; and there is but little power +either of accurate observation or independent thinking. To all which +add, that while much of the information gained is of relatively small +value, an immense mass of information of transcendent value is entirely +passed over. + +Thus we find the facts to be such as might have been inferred _à +priori_. The training of children--physical, moral, and intellectual--is +dreadfully defective. And in great measure it is so because parents are +devoid of that knowledge by which this training can alone be rightly +guided. What is to be expected when one of the most intricate of +problems is undertaken by those who have given scarcely a thought to the +principles on which its solution depends? For shoe-making or +house-building, for the management of a ship or a locomotive engine, a +long apprenticeship is needful. Is it, then, that the unfolding of a +human being in body and mind is so comparatively simple a process that +any one may superintend and regulate it with no preparation whatever? If +not--if the process is, with one exception, more complex than any in +Nature, and the task of ministering to it one of surpassing difficulty; +is it not madness to make no provision for such a task? Better sacrifice +accomplishments than omit this all-essential instruction. When a father, +acting on false dogmas adopted without examination, has alienated his +sons, driven them into rebellion by his harsh treatment, ruined them, +and made himself miserable; he might reflect that the study of Ethology +would have been worth pursuing, even at the cost of knowing nothing +about Æschylus. When a mother is mourning over a first-born that has +sunk under the sequelæ of scarlet-fever--when perhaps a candid medical +man has confirmed her suspicion that her child would have recovered had +not its system been enfeebled by over-study--when she is prostrate under +the pangs of combined grief and remorse; it is but a small consolation +that she can read Dante in the original. + +Thus we see that for regulating the third great division of human +activities, a knowledge of the laws of life is the one thing needful. +Some acquaintance with the first principles of physiology and the +elementary truths of psychology, is indispensable for the right bringing +up of children. We doubt not that many will read this assertion with a +smile. That parents in general should be expected to acquire a knowledge +of subjects so abstruse will seem to them an absurdity. And if we +proposed that an exhaustive knowledge of these subjects should be +obtained by all fathers and mothers, the absurdity would indeed be +glaring enough. But we do not. General principles only, accompanied by +such illustrations as may be needed to make them understood, would +suffice. And these might be readily taught--if not rationally, then +dogmatically. Be this as it may, however, here are the indisputable +facts:--that the development of children in mind and body follows +certain laws; that unless these laws are in some degree conformed to by +parents, death is inevitable; that unless they are in a great degree +conformed to, there must result serious physical and mental defects; and +that only when they are completely conformed to, can a perfect maturity +be reached. Judge, then, whether all who may one day be parents, should +not strive with some anxiety to learn what these laws are. + + * * * * * + +From the parental functions let us pass now to the functions of the +citizen. We have here to inquire what knowledge fits a man for the +discharge of these functions. It cannot be alleged that the need for +knowledge fitting him for these functions is wholly overlooked; for our +school-courses contain certain studies, which, nominally at least, bear +upon political and social duties. Of these the only one that occupies a +prominent place is History. + +But, as already hinted, the information commonly given under this head, +is almost valueless for purposes of guidance. Scarcely any of the facts +set down in our school-histories, and very few of those contained in the +more elaborate works written for adults, illustrate the right principles +of political action. The biographies of monarchs (and our children learn +little else) throw scarcely any light upon the science of society. +Familiarity with court intrigues, plots, usurpations, or the like, and +with all the personalities accompanying them, aids very little in +elucidating the causes of national progress. We read of some squabble +for power, that it led to a pitched battle; that such and such were the +names of the generals and their leading subordinates; that they had each +so many thousand infantry and cavalry, and so many cannon; that they +arranged their forces in this and that order; that they manoeuvred, +attacked, and fell back in certain ways; that at this part of the day +such disasters were sustained, and at that such advantages gained; that +in one particular movement some leading officer fell, while in another a +certain regiment was decimated; that after all the changing fortunes of +the fight, the victory was gained by this or that army; and that so many +were killed and wounded on each side, and so many captured by the +conquerors. And now, out of the accumulated details making up the +narrative, say which it is that helps you in deciding on your conduct as +a citizen. Supposing even that you had diligently read, not only _The +Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World_, but accounts of all other +battles that history mentions; how much more judicious would your vote +be at the next election? "But these are facts--interesting facts," you +say. Without doubt they are facts (such, at least, as are not wholly or +partially fictions); and to many they may be interesting facts. But this +by no means implies that they are valuable. Factitious or morbid opinion +often gives seeming value to things that have scarcely any. A +tulipomaniac will not part with a choice bulb for its weight in gold. To +another man an ugly piece of cracked old china seems his most desirable +possession. And there are those who give high prices for the relics of +celebrated murderers. Will it be contended that these tastes are any +measures of value in the things that gratify them? If not, then it must +be admitted that the liking felt for certain classes of historical facts +is no proof of their worth; and that we must test their worth, as we +test the worth of other facts, by asking to what uses they are +applicable. Were some one to tell you that your neighbour's cat kittened +yesterday, you would say the information was valueless. Fact though it +might be, you would call it an utterly useless fact--a fact that could +in no way influence your actions in life--a fact that would not help you +in learning how to live completely. Well, apply the same test to the +great mass of historical facts, and you will get the same result. They +are facts from which no conclusions can be drawn--_unorganisable_ facts; +and therefore facts of no service in establishing principles of conduct, +which is the chief use of facts. Read them, if you like, for amusement; +but do not flatter your self they are instructive. + +That which constitutes History, properly so called, is in great part +omitted from works on the subject. Only of late years have historians +commenced giving us, in any considerable quantity, the truly valuable +information. As in past ages the king was everything and the people +nothing; so, in past histories the doings of the king fill the entire +picture, to which the national life forms but an obscure background. +While only now, when the welfare of nations rather than of rulers is +becoming the dominant idea, are historians beginning to occupy +themselves with the phenomena of social progress. The thing it really +concerns us to know is the natural history of society. We want all facts +which help us to understand how a nation has grown and organised itself. +Among these, let us of course have an account of its government; with as +little as may be of gossip about the men who officered it, and as much +as possible about the structure, principles, methods, prejudices, +corruptions, etc., which it exhibited: and let this account include not +only the nature and actions of the central government, but also those of +local governments, down to their minutest ramifications. Let us of +course also have a parallel description of the ecclesiastical +government--its organisation, its conduct, its power, its relations to +the State; and accompanying this, the ceremonial, creed, and religious +ideas--not only those nominally believed, but those really believed and +acted upon. Let us at the same time be informed of the control exercised +by class over class, as displayed in social observances--in titles, +salutations, and forms of address. Let us know, too, what were all the +other customs which regulated the popular life out of doors and +in-doors: including those concerning the relations of the sexes, and the +relations of parents to children. The superstitions, also, from the more +important myths down to the charms in common use, should be indicated. +Next should come a delineation of the industrial system: showing to what +extent the division of labour was carried; how trades were regulated, +whether by caste, guilds, or otherwise; what was the connection between +employers and employed; what were the agencies for distributing +commodities; what were the means of communication; what was the +circulating medium. Accompanying all which should be given an account of +the industrial arts technically considered: stating the processes in +use, and the quality of the products. Further, the intellectual +condition of the nation in its various grades should be depicted; not +only with respect to the kind and amount of education, but with respect +to the progress made in science, and the prevailing manner of thinking. +The degree of æsthetic culture, as displayed in architecture, sculpture, +painting, dress, music, poetry, and fiction, should be described. Nor +should there be omitted a sketch of the daily lives of the +people--their food, their homes, and their amusements. And lastly, to +connect the whole, should be exhibited the morals, theoretical and +practical, of all classes: as indicated in their laws, habits, proverbs, +deeds. These facts, given with as much brevity as consists with +clearness and accuracy, should be so grouped and arranged that they may +be comprehended in their _ensemble_, and contemplated as +mutually-dependent parts of one great whole. The aim should be so to +present them that men may readily trace the _consensus_ subsisting among +them; with the view of learning what social phenomena co-exist with what +other. And then the corresponding delineations of succeeding ages should +be so managed as to show how each belief, institution, custom, and +arrangement was modified; and how the _consensus_ of preceding +structures and functions was developed into the _consensus_ of +succeeding ones. Such alone is the kind of information respecting past +times which can be of service to the citizen for the regulation of his +conduct. The only history that is of practical value is what may be +called Descriptive Sociology. And the highest office which the historian +can discharge, is that of so narrating the lives of nations, as to +furnish materials for a Comparative Sociology; and for the subsequent +determination of the ultimate laws to which social phenomena conform. + +But now mark, that even supposing an adequate stock of this truly +valuable historical knowledge has been acquired, it is of comparatively +little use without the key. And the key is to be found only in Science. +In the absence of the generalisations of biology and psychology, +rational interpretation of social phenomena is impossible. Only in +proportion as men draw certain rude, empirical inferences respecting +human nature, are they enabled to understand even the simplest facts of +social life: as, for instance, the relation between supply and demand. +And if the most elementary truths of sociology cannot be reached until +some knowledge is obtained of how men generally think, feel, and act +under given circumstances; then it is manifest that there can be nothing +like a wide comprehension of sociology, unless through a competent +acquaintance with man in all his faculties, bodily, and mental. Consider +the matter in the abstract, and this conclusion is self-evident. +Thus:--Society is made up of individuals; all that is done in society is +done by the combined actions of individuals; and therefore, in +individual actions only can be found the solutions of social phenomena. +But the actions of individuals depend on the laws of their natures; and +their actions cannot be understood until these laws are understood. +These laws, however, when reduced to their simplest expressions, prove +to be corollaries from the laws of body and mind in general. Hence it +follows, that biology and psychology are indispensable as interpreters +of sociology. Or, to state the conclusions still more simply:--all +social phenomena are phenomena of life--are the most complex +manifestations of life--must conform to the laws of life--and can be +understood only when the laws of life are understood. Thus, then, for +the regulation of this fourth division of human activities, we are, as +before, dependent on Science. Of the knowledge commonly imparted in +educational courses, very little is of service for guiding a man in his +conduct as a citizen. Only a small part of the history he reads is of +practical value; and of this small part he is not prepared to make +proper use. He lacks not only the materials for, but the very conception +of, descriptive sociology; and he also lacks those generalisations of +the organic sciences, without which even descriptive sociology can give +him but small aid. + + * * * * * + +And now we come to that remaining division of human life which includes +the relaxations and amusements filling leisure hours. After considering +what training best fits for self-preservation, for the obtainment of +sustenance, for the discharge of parental duties, and for the regulation +of social and political conduct; we have now to consider what training +best fits for the miscellaneous ends not included in these--for the +enjoyment of Nature, of Literature, and of the Fine Arts, in all their +forms. Postponing them as we do to things that bear more vitally upon +human welfare; and bringing everything, as we have, to the test of +actual value; it will perhaps be inferred that we are inclined to slight +these less essential things. No greater mistake could be made, however. +We yield to none in the value we attach to aesthetic culture and its +pleasures. Without painting, sculpture, music, poetry, and the emotions +produced by natural beauty of every kind, life would lose half its +charm. So far from regarding the training and gratification of the +tastes as unimportant, we believe that in time to come they will occupy +a much larger share of human life than now. When the forces of Nature +have been fully conquered to man's use--when the means of production +have been brought to perfection--when labour has been economised to the +highest degree--when education has been so systematised that a +preparation for the more essential activities may be made with +comparative rapidity--and when, consequently, there is a great increase +of spare time; then will the beautiful, both in Art and Nature, rightly +fill a large space in the minds of all. + +But it is one thing to approve of æsthetic culture as largely conducive +to human happiness; and another thing to admit that it is a fundamental +requisite to human happiness. However important it may be, it must yield +precedence to those kinds of culture which bear directly upon daily +duties. As before hinted, literature and the fine arts are made possible +by those activities which make individual and social life possible; and +manifestly, that which is made possible, must be postponed to that which +makes it possible. A florist cultivates a plant for the sake of its +flower; and regards the roots and leaves as of value, chiefly because +they are instrumental in producing the flower. But while, as an ultimate +product, the flower is the thing to which everything else is +subordinate, the florist has learnt that the root and leaves are +intrinsically of greater importance; because on them the evolution of +the flower depends. He bestows every care in rearing a healthy plant; +and knows it would be folly if, in his anxiety to obtain the flower, he +were to neglect the plant. Similarly in the case before us. +Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry, may truly be +called the efflorescence of civilised life. But even supposing they are +of such transcendent worth as to subordinate the civilised life out of +which they grow (which can hardly be asserted), it will still be +admitted that the production of a healthy civilised life must be the +first consideration; and that culture subserving this must occupy the +highest place. + +And here we see most distinctly the vice of our educational system. It +neglects the plant for the sake of the flower. In anxiety for elegance, +it forgets substance. While it gives no knowledge conducive to +self-preservation--while of knowledge that facilitates gaining a +livelihood it gives but the rudiments, and leaves the greater part to be +picked up any how in after life--while for the discharge of parental +functions it makes not the slightest provision--and while for the duties +of citizenship it prepares by imparting a mass of facts, most of which +are irrelevant, and the rest without a key; it is diligent in teaching +whatever adds to refinement, polish, éclat. Fully as we may admit that +extensive acquaintance with modern languages is a valuable +accomplishment, which, through reading, conversation, and travel, aids +in giving a certain finish; it by no means follows that this result is +rightly purchased at the cost of the vitally important knowledge +sacrificed to it. Supposing it true that classical education conduces +to elegance and correctness of style; it cannot be said that elegance +and correctness of style are comparable in importance to a familiarity +with the principles that should guide the rearing of children. Grant +that the taste may be improved by reading the poetry written in extinct +languages; yet it is not to be inferred that such improvement of taste +is equivalent in value to an acquaintance with the laws of health. +Accomplishments, the fine arts, _belles-lettres_, and all those things +which, as we say, constitute the efflorescence of civilisation, should +be wholly subordinate to that instruction and discipline in which +civilisation rests. _As they occupy the leisure part of life, so should +they occupy the leisure part of education._ + +Recognising thus the true position of aesthetics, and holding that while +the cultivation of them should form a part of education from its +commencement, such cultivation should be subsidiary; we have now to +inquire what knowledge is of most use to this end--what knowledge best +fits for this remaining sphere of activity? To this question the answer +is still the same as heretofore. Unexpected though the assertion may be, +it is nevertheless true, that the highest Art of every kind is based on +Science--that without Science there can be neither perfect production +nor full appreciation. Science, in that limited acceptation current in +society, may not have been possessed by various artists of high repute; +but acute observers as such artists have been, they have always +possessed a stock of those empirical generalisations which constitute +science in its lowest phase; and they have habitually fallen far below +perfection, partly because their generalisations were comparatively few +and inaccurate. That science necessarily underlies the fine arts, +becomes manifest, _à priori_, when we remember that art-products are all +more or less representative of objective or subjective phenomena; that +they can be good only in proportion as they conform to the laws of these +phenomena; and that before they can thus conform, the artist must know +what these laws are. That this _à priori_ conclusion tallies with +experience, we shall soon see. + +Youths preparing for the practice of sculpture have to acquaint +themselves with the bones and muscles of the human frame in their +distribution, attachments, and movements. This is a portion of science; +and it has been found needful to impart it for the prevention of those +many errors which sculptors who do not possess it commit. A knowledge of +mechanical principles is also requisite; and such knowledge not being +usually possessed, grave mechanical mistakes are frequently made. Take +an instance. For the stability of a figure it is needful that the +perpendicular from the centre of gravity--"the line of direction," as it +is called--should fall within the base of support; and hence it happens, +that when a man assumes the attitude known as "standing at ease," in +which one leg is straightened and the other relaxed, the line of +direction falls within the foot of the straightened leg. But sculptors +unfamiliar with the theory of equilibrium, not uncommonly so represent +this attitude, that the line of direction falls midway between the feet. +Ignorance of the law of momentum leads to analogous blunders: as witness +the admired Discobolus, which, as it is posed, must inevitably fall +forward the moment the quoit is delivered. + +In painting, the necessity for scientific information, empirical if not +rational, is still more conspicuous. What gives the grotesqueness of +Chinese pictures, unless their utter disregard of the laws of +appearances--their absurd linear perspective, and their want of aerial +perspective? In what are the drawings of a child so faulty, if not in a +similar absence of truth--an absence arising, in great part, from +ignorance of the way in which the aspects of things vary with the +conditions? Do but remember the books and lectures by which students are +instructed; or consider the criticisms of Ruskin; or look at the doings +of the Pre-Raffaelites; and you will see that progress in painting +implies increasing knowledge of how effects in Nature are produced. The +most diligent observation, if unaided by science, fails to preserve from +error. Every painter will endorse the assertion that unless it is known +what appearances must exist under given circumstances, they often will +not be perceived; and to know what appearances must exist, is, in so +far, to understand the science of appearances. From want of science Mr. +J. Lewis, careful painter as he is, casts the shadow of a lattice-window +in sharply-defined lines upon an opposite wall; which he would not have +done, had he been familiar with the phenomena of penumbræ. From want of +science, Mr. Rosetti, catching sight of a peculiar iridescence displayed +by certain hairy surfaces under particular lights (an iridescence caused +by the diffraction of light in passing the hairs), commits the error of +showing this iridescence on surfaces and in positions where it could not +occur. + +To say that music, too, has need of scientific aid will cause still more +surprise. Yet it may be shown that music is but an idealisation of the +natural language of emotion; and that consequently, music must be good +or bad according as it conforms to the laws of this natural language. +The various inflections of voice which accompany feelings of different +kinds and intensities, are the germs out of which music is developed. It +is demonstrable that these inflections and cadences are not accidental +or arbitrary; but that they are determined by certain general principles +of vital action; and that their expressiveness depends on this. Whence +it follows that musical phrases and the melodies built of them, can be +effective only when they are in harmony with these general principles. +It is difficult here properly to illustrate this position. But perhaps +it will suffice to instance the swarms of worthless ballads that infest +drawing-rooms, as compositions which science would forbid. They sin +against science by setting to music ideas that are not emotional enough +to prompt musical expression; and they also sin against science by using +musical phrases that have no natural relations to the ideas expressed: +even where these are emotional. They are bad because they are untrue. +And to say they are untrue, is to say they are unscientific. + +Even in poetry the same thing holds. Like music, poetry has its root in +those natural modes of expression which accompany deep feeling. Its +rhythm, its strong and numerous metaphors, its hyperboles, its violent +inversions, are simply exaggerations of the traits of excited speech. To +be good, therefore, poetry must pay attention to those laws of nervous +action which excited speech obeys. In intensifying and combining the +traits of excited speech, it must have due regard to proportion--must +not use its appliances without restriction; but, where the ideas are +least emotional, must use the forms of poetical expression sparingly; +must use them more freely as the emotion rises; and must carry them to +their greatest extent, only where the emotion reaches a climax. The +entire contravention of these principles results in bombast or doggerel. +The insufficient respect for them is seen in didactic poetry. And it is +because they are rarely fully obeyed, that so much poetry is inartistic. + +Not only is it that the artist, of whatever kind, cannot produce a +truthful work without he understands the laws of the phenomena he +represents; but it is that he must also understand how the minds of +spectators or listeners will be affected by the several peculiarities of +his work--a question in psychology. What impression any art-product +generates, manifestly depends upon the mental natures of those to whom +it is presented; and as all mental natures have certain characteristics +in common, there must result certain corresponding general principles on +which alone art-products can be successfully framed. These general +principles cannot be fully understood and applied, unless the artist +sees how they follow from the laws of mind. To ask whether the +composition of a picture is good is really to ask how the perceptions +and feelings of observers will be affected by it. To ask whether a drama +is well constructed, is to ask whether its situations are so arranged as +duly to consult the power of attention of an audience, and duly to avoid +overtaxing any one class of feelings. Equally in arranging the leading +divisions of a poem or fiction, and in combining the words of a single +sentence, the goodness of the effect depends upon the skill with which +the mental energies and susceptibilities of the reader are economised. +Every artist, in the course of his education and after-life, accumulates +a stock of maxims by which his practice is regulated. Trace such maxims +to their roots, and they inevitably lead you down to psychological +principles. And only when the artist understands these psychological +principles and their various corollaries can he work in harmony with +them. + +We do not for a moment believe that science will make an artist. While +we contend that the leading laws both of objective and subjective +phenomena must be understood by him, we by no means contend that +knowledge of such laws will serve in place of natural perception. Not +the poet only, but the artist of every type, is born, not made. What we +assert is, that innate faculty cannot dispense with the aid of organised +knowledge. Intuition will do much, but it will not do all. Only when +Genius is married to Science can the highest results be produced. + +As we have above asserted, Science is necessary not only for the most +successful production, but also for the full appreciation, of the fine +arts. In what consists the greater ability of a man than of a child to +perceive the beauties of a picture; unless it is in his more extended +knowledge of those truths in nature or life which the picture renders? +How happens the cultivated gentleman to enjoy a fine poem so much more +than a boor does; if it is not because his wider acquaintance with +objects and actions enables him to see in the poem much that the boor +cannot see? And if, as is here so obvious, there must be some +familiarity with the things represented, before the representation can +be appreciated, then, the representation can be completely appreciated +only when the things represented are completely understood. The fact is, +that every additional truth which a word of art expresses, gives an +additional pleasure to the percipient mind--a pleasure that is missed by +those ignorant of this truth. The more realities an artist indicates in +any given amount of work, the more faculties does he appeal to; the more +numerous ideas does he suggest; the more gratification does he afford. +But to receive this gratification the spectator, listener, or reader, +must know the realities which the artist has indicated; and to know +these realities is to have that much science. + +And now let us not overlook the further great fact, that not only does +science underlie sculpture, painting, music, poetry, but that science is +itself poetic. The current opinion that science and poetry are opposed, +is a delusion. It is doubtless true that as states of consciousness, +cognition and emotion tend to exclude each other. And it is doubtless +also true that an extreme activity of the reflective powers tends to +deaden the feelings; while an extreme activity of the feelings tends to +deaden the reflective powers: in which sense, indeed, all orders of +activity are antagonistic to each other. But it is not true that the +facts of science are unpoetical; or that the cultivation of science is +necessarily unfriendly to the exercise of imagination and the love of +the beautiful. On the contrary, science opens up realms of poetry where +to the unscientific all is a blank. Those engaged in scientific +researches constantly show us that they realise not less vividly, but +more vividly, than others, the poetry of their subjects. Whoso will dip +into Hugh Miller's works of geology, or read Mr. Lewes's _Sea-side +Studies_, will perceive that science excites poetry rather than +extinguishes it. And he who contemplates the life of Goethe, must see +that the poet and the man of science can co-exist in equal activity. Is +it not, indeed, an absurd and almost a sacrilegious belief, that the +more a man studies Nature the less he reveres it? Think you that a drop +of water, which to the vulgar eye is but a drop of water, loses anything +in the eye of the physicist who knows that its elements are held +together by a force which, if suddenly liberated, would produce a flash +of lightning? Think you that what is carelessly looked upon by the +uninitiated as a mere snow-flake, does not suggest higher associations +to one who had seen through a microscope the wondrously-varied and +elegant forms of snow-crystals? Think you that the rounded rock marked +with parallel scratches, calls up as much poetry in an ignorant mind as +in the mind of a geologist, who knows that over this rock a glacier slid +a million years ago? The truth is, that those who have never entered +upon scientific pursuits are blind to most of the poetry by which they +are surrounded. Whoever has not in youth collected plants and insects, +knows not half the halo of interest which lanes and hedge-rows can +assume. Whoever has not sought for fossils, has little idea of the +poetical associations that surround the places where imbedded treasures +were found. Whoever at the sea-side has not had a microscope and +aquarium, has yet to learn what the highest pleasures of the sea-side +are. Sad, indeed, is it to see how men occupy themselves with +trivialities, and are indifferent to the grandest phenomena--care not to +understand the architecture of the Heavens, but are deeply interested in +some contemptible controversy about the intrigues of Mary Queen of +Scots!--are learnedly critical over a Greek ode, and pass by without a +glance that grand epic written by the finger of God upon the strata of +the Earth! + +We find, then, that even for this remaining division of human +activities, scientific culture is the proper preparation. We find that +aesthetics in general are necessarily based upon scientific principles; +and can be pursued with complete success only through an acquaintance +with these principles. We find that for the criticism and due +appreciation of works of art, a knowledge of the constitution of things, +or in other words, a knowledge of science, is requisite. And we not only +find that science is the handmaid to all forms of art and poetry, but +that, rightly regarded, science is itself poetic. + + * * * * * + +Thus far our question has been, the worth of knowledge of this or that +kind for purposes of guidance. We have now to judge the relative value +of different kinds of knowledge for purposes of discipline. This +division of our subject we are obliged to treat with comparative +brevity; and happily, no very lengthened treatment of it is needed. +Having found what is best for the one end, we have by implication found +what is best for the other. We may be quite sure that the acquirement of +those classes of facts which are most useful for regulating conduct, +involves a mental exercise best fitted for strengthening the faculties. +It would be utterly contrary to the beautiful economy of Nature, if one +kind of culture were needed for the gaining of information and another +kind were needed as a mental gymnastic. Everywhere throughout creation +we find faculties developed through the performance of those functions +which it is their office to perform; not through the performance of +artificial exercises devised to fit them for those functions. The Red +Indian acquires the swiftness and agility which make him a successful +hunter, by the actual pursuit of animals; and through the miscellaneous +activities of his life, he gains a better balance of physical powers +than gymnastics ever give. That skill in tracking enemies and prey which +he had reached after long practice, implies a subtlety of perception far +exceeding anything produced by artificial training. And similarly in all +cases. From the Bushman whose eye, habitually employed in identifying +distant objects that are to be pursued or fled from, has acquired a +telescopic range, to the accountant whose daily practice enables him to +add up several columns of figures simultaneously; we find that the +highest power of a faculty results from the discharge of those duties +which the conditions of life require it to discharge. And we may be +certain, _à priori_, that the same law holds throughout education. The +education of most value for guidance, must at the same time be the +education of most value for discipline. Let us consider the evidence. + +One advantage claimed for that devotion to language-learning which forms +so prominent a feature in the ordinary _curriculum_, is, that the memory +is thereby strengthened. This is assumed to be an advantage peculiar to +the study of words. But the truth is, that the sciences afford far wider +fields for the exercise of memory. It is no slight task to remember +everything about our solar system; much more to remember all that is +known concerning the structure of our galaxy. The number of compound +substances, to which chemistry daily adds, is so great that few, save +professors, can enumerate them; and to recollect the atomic +constitutions and affinities of all these compounds, is scarcely +possible without making chemistry the occupation of life. In the +enormous mass of phenomena presented by the Earth's crust, and in the +still more enormous mass of phenomena presented by the fossils it +contains, there is matter which it takes the geological student years of +application to master. Each leading division of physics--sound, heat, +light, electricity--includes facts numerous enough to alarm any one +proposing to learn them all. And when we pass to the organic sciences, +the effort of memory required becomes still greater. In human anatomy +alone, the quantity of detail is so great, that the young surgeon has +commonly to get it up half-a-dozen times before he can permanently +retain it. The number of species of plants which botanists distinguish, +amounts to some 320,000; while the varied forms of animal life with +which the zoologist deals, are estimated at some 2,000,000. So vast is +the accumulation of facts which men of science have before them, that +only by dividing and subdividing their labours can they deal with it. To +a detailed knowledge of his own division, each adds but a general +knowledge of the allied ones; joined perhaps to a rudimentary +acquaintance with some others. Surely, then, science, cultivated even to +a very moderate extent, affords adequate exercise for memory. To say the +very least, it involves quite as good a discipline for this faculty as +language does. + +But now mark that while, for the training of mere memory, science is as +good as, if not better than, language; it has an immense superiority in +the kind of memory it trains. In the acquirement of a language, the +connections of ideas to be established in the mind correspond to facts +that are in great measure accidental; whereas, in the acquirement of +science, the connections of ideas to be established in the mind +correspond to facts that are mostly necessary. It is true that the +relations of words to their meanings are in one sense natural; that the +genesis of these relations may be traced back a certain distance, though +rarely to the beginning; and that the laws of this genesis form a branch +of mental science--the science of philology. But since it will not be +contended that in the acquisition of languages, as ordinarily carried +on, these natural relations between words and their meanings are +habitually traced, and their laws explained; it must be admitted that +they are commonly learned as fortuitous relations. On the other hand, +the relations which science presents are causal relations; and, when +properly taught, are understood as such. While language familiarises +with non-rational relations, science familiarises with rational +relations. While the one exercises memory only, the other exercises both +memory and understanding. + +Observe next, that a great superiority of science over language as a +means of discipline, is, that it cultivates the judgment. As, in a +lecture on mental education delivered at the Royal Institution, +Professor Faraday well remarks, the most common intellectual fault is +deficiency of judgment. "Society, speaking generally," he says, "is not +only ignorant as respects education of the judgment, but it is also +ignorant of its ignorance." And the cause to which he ascribes this +state, is want of scientific culture. The truth of his conclusion is +obvious. Correct judgment with regard to surrounding objects, events, +and consequences, becomes possible only through knowledge of the way in +which surrounding phenomena depend on each other. No extent of +acquaintance with the meanings of words, will guarantee correct +inferences respecting causes and effects. The habit of drawing +conclusions from data, and then of verifying those conclusions by +observation and experiment, can alone give the power of judging +correctly. And that it necessitates this habit is one of the immense +advantages of science. + +Not only, however, for intellectual discipline is science the best; but +also for _moral_ discipline. The learning of languages tends, if +anything, further to increase the already undue respect for authority. +Such and such are the meanings of these words, says the teacher of the +dictionary. So and so is the rule in this case, says the grammar. By the +pupil these dicta are received as unquestionable. His constant attitude +of mind is that of submission to dogmatic teaching. And a necessary +result is a tendency to accept without inquiry whatever is established. +Quite opposite is the mental tone generated by the cultivation of +science. Science makes constant appeal to individual reason. Its truths +are not accepted on authority alone; but all are at liberty to test +them--nay, in many cases, the pupil is required to think out his own +conclusions. Every step in a scientific investigation is submitted to +his judgment. He is not asked to admit it without seeing it to be true. +And the trust in his own powers thus produced is further increased by +the uniformity with which Nature justifies his inferences when they are +correctly drawn. From all which there flows that independence which is a +most valuable element in character. Nor is this the only moral benefit +bequeathed by scientific culture. When carried on, as it should always +be, as much as possible under the form of original research, it +exercises perseverance and sincerity. As says Professor Tyndall of +inductive inquiry, "It requires patient industry, and an humble and +conscientious acceptance of what Nature reveals. The first condition of +success is an honest receptivity and a willingness to abandon all +preconceived notions, however cherished, if they be found to contradict +the truth. Believe me, a self-renunciation which has something noble in +it, and of which the world never hears, is often enacted in the private +experience of the true votary of science." + +Lastly we have to assert--and the assertion will, we doubt not, cause +extreme surprise--that the discipline of science is superior to that of +our ordinary education, because of the _religious_ culture that it +gives. Of course we do not here use the words scientific and religious +in their ordinary limited acceptations; but in their widest and highest +acceptations. Doubtless, to the superstitions that pass under the name +of religion, science is antagonistic; but not to the essential religion +which these superstitions merely hide. Doubtless, too, in much of the +science that is current, there is a pervading spirit of irreligion; but +not in that true science which had passed beyond the superficial into +the profound. + + "True science and true religion," says Professor Huxley at the + close of a recent course of lectures, "are twin-sisters, and the + separation of either from the other is sure to prove the death of + both. Science prospers exactly in proportion as it is religious; + and religion flourishes in exact proportion to the scientific depth + and firmness of its basis. The great deeds of philosophers have + been less the fruit of their intellect than of the direction of + that intellect by an eminently religious tone of mind. Truth has + yielded herself rather to their patience, their love, their + single-heartedness, and their self-denial, than to their logical + acumen." + +So far from science being irreligious, as many think, it is the neglect +of science that is irreligious--it is the refusal to study the +surrounding creation that is irreligious. Take a humble simile. Suppose +a writer were daily saluted with praises couched in superlative +language. Suppose the wisdom, the grandeur, the beauty of his works, +were the constant topics of the eulogies addressed to him. Suppose those +who unceasingly uttered these eulogies on his works were content with +looking at the outsides of them; and had never opened them, much less +tried to understand them. What value should we put upon their praises? +What should we think of their sincerity? Yet, comparing small things to +great, such is the conduct of mankind in general, in reference to the +Universe and its Cause. Nay, it is worse. Not only do they pass by +without study, these things which they daily proclaim to be so +wonderful; but very frequently they condemn as mere triflers those who +give time to the observation of Nature--they actually scorn those who +show any active interest in these marvels. We repeat, then, that not +science, but the neglect of science, is irreligious. Devotion to +science, is a tacit worship--a tacit recognition of worth in the things +studied; and by implication in their Cause. It is not a mere lip-homage, +but a homage expressed in actions--not a mere professed respect, but a +respect proved by the sacrifice of time, thought, and labour. + +Nor is it thus only that true science is essentially religious. It is +religious, too, inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an +implicit faith in, those uniformities of action which all things +disclose. By accumulated experiences the man of science acquires a +thorough belief in the unchanging relations of phenomena--in the +invariable connection of cause and consequence--in the necessity of good +or evil results. Instead of the rewards and punishments of traditional +belief, which people vaguely hope they may gain, or escape, spite of +their disobedience; he finds that there are rewards and punishments in +the ordained constitution of things; and that the evil results of +disobedience are inevitable. He sees that the laws to which we must +submit are both inexorable and beneficent. He sees that in conforming to +them, the process of things is ever towards a greater perfection and a +higher happiness. Hence he is led constantly to insist on them, and is +indignant when they are disregarded. And thus does he, by asserting the +eternal principles of things and the necessity of obeying them, prove +himself intrinsically religious. + +Add lastly the further religious aspect of science, that it alone can +give us true conceptions of ourselves and our relation to the mysteries +of existence. At the same time that it shows us all which can be known, +it shows us the limits beyond which we can know nothing. Not by dogmatic +assertion, does it teach the impossibility of comprehending the Ultimate +Cause of things; but it leads us clearly to recognise this impossibility +by bringing us in every direction to boundaries we cannot cross. It +realises to us in a way which nothing else can, the littleness of human +intelligence in the face of that which transcends human intelligence. +While towards the traditions and authorities of men its attitude may be +proud, before the impenetrable veil which hides the Absolute its +attitude is humble--a true pride and a true humility. Only the sincere +man of science (and by this title we do not mean the mere calculator of +distances, or analyser of compounds, or labeller of species; but him who +through lower truths seeks higher, and eventually the highest)--only the +genuine man of science, we say, can truly know how utterly beyond, not +only human knowledge but human conception, is the Universal Power of +which Nature, and Life, and Thought are manifestations. + +We conclude, then, that for discipline, as well as for guidance, science +is of chiefest value. In all its effects, learning the meanings of +things, is better than learning the meanings of words. Whether for +intellectual, moral, or religious training, the study of surrounding +phenomena is immensely superior to the study of grammars and lexicons. + + * * * * * + +Thus to the question we set out with--What knowledge is of most +worth?--the uniform reply is--Science. This is the verdict on all the +counts. For direct self-preservation, or the maintenance of life and +health, the all-important knowledge is--Science. For that indirect +self-preservation which we call gaining a livelihood, the knowledge of +greatest value is--Science. For the due discharge of parental functions, +the proper guidance is to be found only in--Science. For that +interpretation of national life, past and present, without which the +citizen cannot rightly regulate his conduct, the indispensable key +is--Science. Alike for the most perfect production and highest enjoyment +of art in all its forms, the needful preparation is still--Science. And +for purposes of discipline--intellectual, moral, religious--the most +efficient study is, once more--Science. The question which at first +seemed so perplexed, has become, in the course of our inquiry, +comparatively simple. We have not to estimate the degrees of importance +of different orders of human activity, and different studies as +severally fitting us for them; since we find that the study of Science, +in its most comprehensive meaning, is the best preparation for all these +orders of activity. We have not to decide between the claims of +knowledge of great though conventional value, and knowledge of less +though intrinsic value; seeing that the knowledge which proves to be of +most value in all other respects, is intrinsically most valuable: its +worth is not dependent upon opinion, but is as fixed as is the relation +of man to the surrounding world. Necessary and eternal as are its +truths, all Science concerns all mankind for all time. Equally at +present and in the remotest future, must it be of incalculable +importance for the regulation of their conduct, that men should +understand the science of life, physical, mental, and social; and that +they should understand all other science as a key to the science of +life. + +And yet this study, immensely transcending all other in importance, is +that which, in an age of boasted education, receives the least +attention. While what we call civilisation could never have arisen had +it not been for science, science forms scarcely an appreciable element +in our so-called civilised training. Though to the progress of science +we owe it, that millions find support where once there was food only for +thousands; yet of these millions but a few thousands pay any respect to +that which has made their existence possible. Though increasing +knowledge of the properties and relations of things has not only enabled +wandering tribes to grow into populous nations, but has given to the +countless members of these populous nations, comforts and pleasures +which their few naked ancestors never even conceived, or could have +believed, yet is this kind of knowledge only now receiving a grudging +recognition in our highest educational institutions. To the slowly +growing acquaintance with the uniform co-existences and sequences of +phenomena--to the establishment of invariable laws, we owe our +emancipation from the grossest superstitions. But for science we should +be still worshipping fetishes; or, with hecatombs of victims, +propitiating diabolical deities. And yet this science, which, in place +of the most degrading conceptions of things, has given us some insight +into the grandeurs of creation, is written against in our theologies and +frowned upon from our pulpits. + +Paraphrasing an Eastern fable, we may say that in the family of +knowledges, Science is the household drudge, who, in obscurity, hides +unrecognised perfections. To her has been committed all the works; by +her skill, intelligence, and devotion, have all conveniences and +gratifications been obtained; and while ceaselessly ministering to the +rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters +might flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel +holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the _dénouement_, when the +positions will be changed; and while these haughty sisters sink into +merited neglect, Science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth and +beauty, will reign supreme. + + + + +INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION + + +There cannot fail to be a relationship between the successive systems of +education, and the successive social states with which they have +co-existed. Having a common origin in the national mind, the +institutions of each epoch, whatever be their special functions, must +have a family likeness. When men received their creed and its +interpretations from an infallible authority deigning no explanations, +it was natural that the teaching of children should be purely dogmatic. +While "believe and ask no questions" was the maxim of the Church, it was +fitly the maxim of the school. Conversely, now that Protestantism has +gained for adults a right of private judgment and established the +practice of appealing to reason, there is harmony in the change that has +made juvenile instruction a process of exposition addressed to the +understanding. Along with political despotism, stern in its commands, +ruling by force of terror, visiting trifling crimes with death, and +implacable in its vengeance on the disloyal, there necessarily grew up +an academic discipline similarly harsh--a discipline of multiplied +injunctions and blows for every breach of them--a discipline of +unlimited autocracy upheld by rods, and ferules, and the black-hole. On +the other hand, the increase of political liberty, the abolition of laws +restricting individual action, and the amelioration of the criminal +code, have been accompanied by a kindred progress towards non-coercive +education: the pupil is hampered by fewer restraints, and other means +than punishments are used to govern him. In those ascetic days when men, +acting on the greatest-misery principle, held that the more +gratifications they denied themselves the more virtuous they were, they, +as a matter of course, considered that the best education which most +thwarted the wishes of their children, and cut short all spontaneous +activity with--"You mustn't do so." While, on the contrary, now that +happiness is coming to be regarded as a legitimate aim--now that hours +of labour are being shortened and popular recreations provided--parents +and teachers are beginning to see that most childish desires may rightly +be gratified, that childish sports should be encouraged, and that the +tendencies of the growing mind are not altogether so diabolical as was +supposed. The age in which all believed that trades must be established +by bounties and prohibitions; that manufacturers needed their materials +and qualities and prices to be prescribed; and that the value of money +could be determined by law; was an age which unavoidably cherished the +notions that a child's mind could be made to order; that its powers were +to be imparted by the schoolmaster; that it was a receptacle into which +knowledge was to be put, and there built up after the teacher's ideal. +In this free-trade era, however, when we are learning that there is much +more self-regulation in things than was supposed; that labour, and +commerce, and agriculture, and navigation, can do better without +management than with it; that political governments, to be efficient, +must grow up from within and not be imposed from without; we are also +being taught that there is a natural process of mental evolution which +is not to be disturbed without injury; that we may not force on the +unfolding mind our artificial forms; but that psychology, also, +discloses to us a law of supply and demand to which, if we would not do +harm, we must conform. Thus, alike in its oracular dogmatism, in its +harsh discipline, in its multiplied restrictions, in its professed +asceticism, and in its faith in the devices of men, the old educational +regime was akin to the social systems with which it was contemporaneous; +and similarly, in the reverse of these characteristics, our modern modes +of culture correspond to our more liberal religious and political +institutions. + +But there remain further parallelisms to which we have not yet adverted: +that, namely, between the processes by which these respective changes +have been wrought out; and that between the several states of +heterogeneous opinion to which they have led. Some centuries ago there +was uniformity of belief--religious, political, and educational. All men +were Romanists, all were Monarchists, all were disciples of Aristotle; +and no one thought of calling in question that grammar-school routine +under which all were brought up. The same agency has in each case +replaced this uniformity by a constantly-increasing diversity. That +tendency towards assertion of the individuality, which, after +contributing to produce the great Protestant movement, has since gone on +to produce an ever-increasing number of sects--that tendency which +initiated political parties, and out of the two primary ones has, in +these modern days, evolved a multiplicity to which every year adds--that +tendency which led to the Baconian rebellion against the schools, and +has since originated here and abroad, sundry new systems of thought--is +a tendency which, in education also, has caused divisions and the +accumulation of methods. As external consequences of the same internal +change, these processes have necessarily been more or less simultaneous. +The decline of authority, whether papal, philosophic, kingly, or +tutorial, is essentially one phenomenon; in each of its aspects a +leaning towards free action is seen alike in the working out of the +change itself, and in the new forms of theory and practice to which the +change has given birth. + +While many will regret this multiplication of schemes of juvenile +culture, the catholic observer will discern in it a means of ensuring +the final establishment of a rational system. Whatever may be thought of +theological dissent, it is clear that dissent in education results in +facilitating inquiry by the division in labour. Were we in possession of +the true method, divergence from it would, of course, be prejudicial; +but the true method having to be found, the efforts of numerous +independent seekers carrying out their researches in different +directions, constitute a better agency for finding it than any that +could be devised. Each of them struck by some new thought which probably +contains more or less of basis in facts--each of them zealous on behalf +of his plan, fertile in expedients to test its correctness, and untiring +in his efforts to make known its success--each of them merciless in his +criticism on the rest; there cannot fail, by composition of forces, to +be a gradual approximation of all towards the right course. Whatever +portion of the normal method any one has discovered, must, by the +constant exhibition of its results, force itself into adoption; whatever +wrong practices he has joined with it must, by repeated experiment and +failure, be exploded. And by this aggregation of truths and elimination +of errors, there must eventually be developed a correct and complete +body of doctrine. Of the three phases through which human opinion +passes--the unanimity of the ignorant, the disagreement of the +inquiring, and the unanimity of the wise--it is manifest that the second +is the parent of the third. They are not sequences in time only, they +are sequences in causation. However impatiently, therefore, we may +witness the present conflict of educational systems, and however much we +may regret its accompanying evils, we must recognise it as a transition +stage needful to be passed through, and beneficent in its ultimate +effects. + +Meanwhile, may we not advantageously take stock of our progress? After +fifty years of discussion, experiment, and comparison of results, may +we not expect a few steps towards the goal to be already made good? Some +old methods must by this time have fallen out of use; some new ones must +have become established; and many others must be in process of general +abandonment or adoption. Probably we may see in these various changes, +when put side by side, similar characteristics--may find in them a +common tendency; and so, by inference, may get a clue to the direction +in which experience is leading us, and gather hints how we may achieve +yet further improvements. Let us then, as a preliminary to a deeper +consideration of the matter, glance at the leading contrasts between the +education of the past and that of the present. + + * * * * * + +The suppression of every error is commonly followed by a temporary +ascendency of the contrary one; and so it happened, that after the ages +when physical development alone was aimed at, there came an age when +culture of the mind was the sole solicitude--when children had +lesson-books put before them at between two and three years old, and the +getting of knowledge was thought the one thing needful. As, further, it +usually happens that after one of these reactions the next advance is +achieved by co-ordinating the antagonist errors, and perceiving that +they are opposite sides of one truth; so, we are now coming to the +conviction that body and mind must both be cared for, and the whole +thing being unfolded. The forcing-system has been, by many, given up; +and precocity is discouraged. People are beginning to see that the first +requisite to success in life, is to be a good animal. The best brain is +found of little service, if there be not enough vital energy to work it; +and hence to obtain the one by sacrificing the source of the other, is +now considered a folly--a folly which the eventual failure of juvenile +prodigies constantly illustrates. Thus we are discovering the wisdom of +the saying, that one secret in education is "to know how wisely to lose +time." + +The once universal practice of learning by rote, is daily falling more +into discredit. All modern authorities condemn the old mechanical way of +teaching the alphabet. The multiplication table is now frequently taught +experimentally. In the acquirement of languages, the grammar-school plan +is being superseded by plans based on the spontaneous process followed +by the child in gaining its mother tongue. Describing the methods there +used, the "Reports on the Training School at Battersea" say:--"The +instruction in the whole preparatory course is chiefly oral, and is +illustrated as much as possible by appeals to nature." And so +throughout. The rote-system, like ether systems of its age, made more of +the forms and symbols than of the things symbolised. To repeat the words +correctly was everything; to understand their meaning nothing; and thus +the spirit was sacrificed to the letter. It is at length perceived that, +in this case as in others, such a result is not accidental but +necessary--that in proportion as there is attention to the signs, there +must be inattention to the things signified; or that, as Montaigne long +ago said--_Sçavoir par coeur n'est pas sçavoir_. + +Along with rote-teaching, is declining also the nearly-allied teaching +by rules. The particulars first, and then the generalisation, is the new +method--a method, as the Battersea School Reports remarks, which, though +"the reverse of the method usually followed, which consists in giving +the pupil the rule first," is yet proved by experience to be the right +one. Rule-teaching is now condemned as imparting a merely empirical +knowledge--as producing an appearance of understanding without the +reality. To give the net product of inquiry, without the inquiry that +leads to it, is found to be both enervating and inefficient. General +truths to be of due and permanent use, must be earned. "Easy come easy +go," is a saying as applicable to knowledge as to wealth. While rules, +lying isolated in the mind--not joined to its other contents as +out-growths from them--are continually forgotten; the principles which +those rules express piecemeal, become, when once reached by the +understanding, enduring possessions. While the rule-taught youth is at +sea when beyond his rules, the youth instructed in principles solves a +new case as readily as an old one. Between a mind of rules and a mind of +principles, there exists a difference such as that between a confused +heap of materials, and the same materials organised into a complete +whole, with all its parts bound together. Of which types this last has +not only the advantage that its constituent parts are better retained, +but the much greater advantage that it forms an efficient agent for +inquiry, for independent thought, for discovery--ends for which the +first is useless. Nor let it be supposed that this is a simile only: it +is the literal truth. The union of facts into generalisations _is_ the +organisation of knowledge, whether considered as an objective phenomenon +or a subjective one; and the mental grasp may be measured by the extent +to which this organisation is carried. + +From the substitution of principles for rules, and the necessarily +co-ordinate practice of leaving abstractions untaught till the mind has +been familiarised with the facts from which they are abstracted, has +resulted the postponement of some once early studies to a late period. +This is exemplified in the abandonment of that intensely stupid custom, +the teaching of grammar to children. As M. Marcel says:--"It may without +hesitation be affirmed that grammar is not the stepping-stone, but the +finishing instrument." As Mr. Wyse argues:--"Grammar and Syntax are a +collection of laws and rules. Rules are gathered from practice; they are +the results of induction to which we come by long observation and +comparison of facts. It is, in fine, the science, the philosophy of +language. In following the process of nature, neither individuals nor +nations ever arrive at the science _first_. A language is spoken, and +poetry written, many years before either a grammar or prosody is even +thought of. Men did not wait till Aristotle had constructed his logic, +to reason." In short, as grammar was made after language, so ought it to +be taught after language: an inference which all who recognise the +relationship between the evolution of the race and that of the +individual, will see to be unavoidable. + +Of new practices that have grown up during the decline of these old +ones, the most important is the systematic culture of the powers of +observation. After long ages of blindness, men are at last seeing that +the spontaneous activity of the observing faculties in children has a +meaning and a use. What was once thought mere purposeless action, or +play, or mischief, as the case might be, is now recognised as the +process of acquiring a knowledge on which all after-knowledge is based. +Hence the well-conceived but ill-conducted system of _object-lessons_. +The saying of Bacon, that physics is the mother of the sciences, has +come to have a meaning in education. Without an accurate acquaintance +with the visible and tangible properties of things, our conceptions must +be erroneous, our inferences fallacious, and our operations +unsuccessful. "The education of the senses neglected, all after +education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, an insufficiency, which +it is impossible to cure." Indeed, if we consider it, we shall find that +exhaustive observation is an element in all great success. It is not to +artists, naturalists, and men of science only, that it is needful; it is +not only that the physician depends on it for the correctness of his +diagnosis, and that to the engineer it is so important that some years +in the workshop are prescribed for him; but we may see that the +philosopher, also, is fundamentally one who _observes_ relationships of +things which others had overlooked, and that the poet, too, is one who +_sees_ the fine facts in nature which all recognise when pointed out, +but did not before remark. Nothing requires more to be insisted on than +that vivid and complete impressions are all-essential. No sound fabric +of wisdom can be woven out of a rotten raw-material. + +While the old method of presenting truths in the abstract has been +falling out of use, there has been a corresponding adoption of the new +method of presenting them in the concrete. The rudimentary facts of +exact science are now being learnt by direct intuition, as textures, and +tastes, and colours are learnt. Employing the ball-frame for first +lessons in arithmetic exemplifies this. It is well illustrated, too, in +Professor De Morgan's mode of explaining the decimal notation. M. +Marcel, rightly repudiating the old system of tables, teaches weights +and measures by referring to the actual yard and foot, pound and ounce, +gallon and quart; and lets the discovery of their relationships be +experimental. The use of geographical models and models of the regular +bodies, etc., as introductory to geography and geometry respectively, +are facts of the same class. Manifestly, a common trait of these methods +is, that they carry each child's mind through a process like that which +the mind of humanity at large has gone through. The truths of number, of +form, of relationship in position, were all originally drawn from +objects; and to present these truths to the child in the concrete is to +let him learn them as the race learnt them. By and by, perhaps, it will +be seen that he cannot possibly learn them in any other way; for that if +he is made to repeat them as abstractions, the abstractions can have no +meaning for him, until he finds that they are simply statements of what +he intuitively discerns. + +But of all the changes taking place, the most significant is the growing +desire to make the acquirement of knowledge pleasurable rather than +painful--a desire based on the more or less distinct perception, that at +each age the intellectual action which a child likes is a healthful one +for it; and conversely. There is a spreading opinion that the rise of an +appetite for any kind of information implies that the unfolding mind has +become fit to assimilate it, and needs it for purposes of growth; and +that, on the other hand, the disgust felt towards such information is a +sign either that it is prematurely presented, or that it is presented in +an indigestible form. Hence the efforts to make early education amusing, +and all education interesting. Hence the lectures on the value of play. +Hence the defence of nursery rhymes and fairy tales. Daily we more and +more conform our plans to juvenile opinion. Does the child like this or +that kind of teaching?--does he take to it? we constantly ask. "His +natural desire of variety should be indulged," says M. Marcel; "and the +gratification of his curiosity should be combined with his improvement." +"Lessons," he again remarks, "should cease before the child evinces +symptoms of weariness." And so with later education. Short breaks during +school-hours, excursions into the country, amusing lectures, choral +songs--in these and many like traits the change may be discerned. +Asceticism is disappearing out of education as out of life; and the +usual test of political legislation--its tendency to promote +happiness--is beginning to be, in a great degree, the test of +legislation for the school and the nursery. + +What now is the common characteristic of these several changes? Is it +not an increasing conformity to the methods of Nature? The +relinquishment of early forcing, against which Nature rebels, and the +leaving of the first years for exercise of the limbs and senses, show +this. The superseding of rote-learnt lessons by lessons orally and +experimentally given, like those of the field and play-ground, shows +this. The disuse of rule-teaching, and the adoption of teaching by +principles--that is, the leaving of generalisations until there are +particulars to base them on--show this. The system of object-lessons +shows this. The teaching of the rudiments of science in the concrete +instead of the abstract, shows this. And above all, this tendency is +shown in the variously-directed efforts to present knowledge in +attractive forms, and so to make the acquirement of it pleasurable. For, +as it is the order of Nature in all creatures that the gratification +accompanying the fulfilment of needful functions serves as a stimulus to +their fulfilment--as, during the self-education of the young child, the +delight taken in the biting of corals and the pulling to pieces of toys, +becomes the prompter to actions which teach it the properties of matter; +it follows that, in choosing the succession of subjects and the modes of +instruction which most interest the pupil, we are fulfilling Nature's +behests, and adjusting our proceedings to the laws of life. + +Thus, then, we are on the highway towards the doctrine long ago +enunciated by Pestalozzi, that alike in its order and its methods, +education must conform to the natural process of mental evolution--that +there is a certain sequence in which the faculties spontaneously +develop, and a certain kind of knowledge which each requires during its +development; and that it is for us to ascertain this sequence, and +supply this knowledge. All the improvements above alluded to are partial +applications of this general principle. A nebulous perception of it now +prevails among teachers; and it is daily more insisted on in educational +works. "The method of nature is the archetype of all methods," says M. +Marcel. "The vital principle in the pursuit is to enable the pupil +rightly to instruct himself," writes Mr. Wyse. The more science +familiarises us with the constitution of things, the more do we see in +them an inherent self-sufficingness. A higher knowledge tends +continually to limit our interference with the processes of life. As in +medicine the old "heroic treatment" has given place to mild treatment, +and often no treatment save a normal regimen--as we have found that it +is not needful to mould the bodies of babes by bandaging them in +papoose-fashion or otherwise--as in gaols it is being discovered that no +cunningly-devised discipline of ours is so efficient in producing +reformation as the natural discipline of self-maintenance by productive +labour; so in education, we are finding that success is to be achieved +only by making our measures subservient to that spontaneous unfolding +which all minds go through in their progress to maturity. + +Of course, this fundamental principle of tuition, that the arrangement +of matter and method must correspond with the order of evolution and +mode of activity of the faculties--a principle so obviously true, that +once stated it seems almost self-evident--has never been wholly +disregarded. Teachers have unavoidably made their school-courses +coincide with it in some degree, for the simple reason that education is +possible only on that condition. Boys were never taught the +rule-of-three until after they had learnt addition. They were not set to +write exercises before they had got into their copybooks. Conic sections +have always been preceded by Euclid. But the error of the old methods +consists in this, that they do not recognise in detail what they are +obliged to recognise in general. Yet the principle applies throughout. +If from the time when a child is able to conceive two things as related +in position, years must elapse before it can form a true concept of the +Earth, as a sphere made up of land and sea, covered with mountains, +forests, rivers, and cities, revolving on its axis, and sweeping round +the Sun--if it gets from the one concept to the other by degrees--if the +intermediate concepts which it forms are consecutively larger and more +complicated; is it not manifest that there is a general succession +through which alone it can pass; that each larger concept is made by the +combination of smaller ones, and presupposes them; and that to present +any of these compound concepts before the child is in possession of its +constituent ones, is only less absurd than to present the final concept +of the series before the initial one? In the mastering of every subject +some course of increasingly complex ideas has to be gone through. The +evolution of the corresponding faculties consists in the assimilation of +these; which, in any true sense, is impossible without they are put into +the mind in the normal order. And when this order is not followed, the +result is, that they are received with apathy or disgust; and that +unless the pupil is intelligent enough eventually to fill up the gaps +himself, they lie in his memory as dead facts, capable of being turned +to little or no use. + +"But why trouble ourselves about any _curriculum_ at all?" it may be +asked. "If it be true that the mind like the body has a predetermined +course of evolution--if it unfolds spontaneously--if its successive +desires for this or that kind of information arise when these are +severally required for its nutrition--if there thus exists in itself a +prompter to the right species of activity at the right time; why +interfere in any way? Why not leave children _wholly_ to the discipline +of nature?--why not remain quite passive and let them get knowledge as +they best can?--why not be consistent throughout?" This is an +awkward-looking question. Plausibly implying as it does, that a system +of complete _laissez-faire_ is the logical outcome of the doctrines set +forth, it seems to furnish a disproof of them by _reductio ad absurdum_. +In truth, however, they do not, when rightly understood, commit us to +any such untenable position. A glance at the physical analogies will +clearly show this. It is a general law of life that the more complex the +organism to be produced, the longer the period during which it is +dependent on a parent organism for food and protection. The difference +between the minute, rapidly-formed, and self-moving spore of a conferva, +and the slowly-developed seed of a tree, with its multiplied envelopes +and large stock of nutriment laid by to nourish the germ during its +first stages of growth, illustrates this law in its application to the +vegetal world. Among animals we may trace it in a series of contrasts +from the monad whose spontaneously-divided halves are as self-sufficing +the moment after their separation as was the original whole; up to man, +whose offspring not only passes through a protracted gestation, and +subsequently long depends on the breast for sustenance; but after that +must have its food artificially administered; must, when it has learned +to feed itself, continue to have bread, clothing, and shelter provided; +and does not acquire the power of complete self-support until a time +varying from fifteen to twenty years after its birth. Now this law +applies to the mind as to the body. For mental pabulum also, every +higher creature, and especially man, is at first dependent on adult aid. +Lacking the ability to move about, the babe is almost as powerless to +get materials on which to exercise its perceptions as it is to get +supplies for its stomach. Unable to prepare its own food, it is in like +manner unable to reduce many kinds of knowledge to a fit form for +assimilation. The language through which all higher truths are to be +gained, it wholly derives from those surrounding it. And we see in such +an example as the Wild Boy of Aveyron, the arrest of development that +results when no help is received from parents and nurses. Thus, in +providing from day to day the right kind of facts, prepared in the right +manner, and giving them in due abundance at appropriate intervals, there +is as much scope for active ministration to a child's mind as to its +body. In either case, it is the chief function of parents to see that +the _conditions_ requisite to growth are maintained. And as, in +supplying aliment, and clothing, and shelter, they may fulfil this +function without at all interfering with the spontaneous development of +the limbs and viscera, either in their order or mode; so, they may +supply sounds for imitation, objects for examination, books for reading, +problems for solution, and, if they use neither direct nor indirect +coercion, may do this without in any way disturbing the normal process +of mental evolution; or rather, may greatly facilitate that process. +Hence the admission of the doctrines enunciated does not, as some might +argue, involve the abandonment of teaching; but leaves ample room for an +active and elaborate course of culture. + + * * * * * + +Passing from generalities to special considerations, it is to be +remarked that in practice the Pestalozzian system seems scarcely to have +fulfilled the promise of its theory. We hear of children not at all +interested in its lessons,--disgusted with them rather; and, so far as +we can gather, the Pestalozzian school have not turned out any unusual +proportion of distinguished men: if even they have reached the average. +We are not surprised at this. The success of every appliance depends +mainly upon the intelligence with which it is used. It is a trite +remark that, having the choicest tools, an unskilful artisan will botch +his work; and bad teachers will fail even with the best methods. Indeed, +the goodness of the method becomes in such case a cause of failure; as, +to continue the simile, the perfection of the tool becomes in +undisciplined hands a source of imperfection in results. A simple, +unchanging, almost mechanical routine of tuition, may be carried out by +the commonest intellects, with such small beneficial effect as it is +capable of producing; but a complete system--a system as heterogeneous +in its appliances as the mind in its faculties--a system proposing a +special means for each special end, demands for its right employment +powers such as few teachers possess. The mistress of a dame-school can +hear spelling-lessons; and any hedge-schoolmaster can drill boys in the +multiplication-table. But to teach spelling rightly by using the powers +of the letters instead of their names, or to instruct in numerical +combinations by experimental synthesis, a modicum of understanding is +needful; and to pursue a like rational course throughout the entire +range of studies, asks an amount of judgment, of invention, of +intellectual sympathy, of analytical faculty, which we shall never see +applied to it while the tutorial official is held in such small esteem. +True education is practicable only by a true philosopher. Judge, then, +what prospect a philosophical method now has of being acted out! Knowing +so little as we yet do of psychology, and ignorant as our teachers are +of that little, what chance has a system which requires psychology for +its basis? + +Further hindrance and discouragement has arisen from confounding the +Pestalozzian principle with the forms in which it has been embodied. +Because particular plans have not answered expectation, discredit has +been cast upon the doctrine associated with them: no inquiry being made +whether these plans truly conform to the doctrine. Judging as usual by +the concrete rather than the abstract, men have blamed the theory for +the bunglings of the practice. It is as though the first futile attempt +to construct a steam-engine had been held to prove that steam could not +be used as a motive power. Let it be constantly borne in mind that while +right in his fundamental ideas, Pestalozzi was not therefore right in +all his applications of them. As described even by his admirers, +Pestalozzi was a man of partial intuitions--a man who had occasional +flashes of insight rather than a man of systematic thought. His first +great success at Stantz was achieved when he had no books or appliances +of ordinary teaching, and when "the only object of his attention was to +find out at each moment what instruction his children stood peculiarly +in need of, and what was the best manner of connecting it with the +knowledge they already possessed." Much of his power was due, not to +calmly reasoned-out plans of culture, but to his profound sympathy, +which gave him a quick perception of childish needs and difficulties. He +lacked the ability logically to co-ordinate and develop the truths which +he thus from time to time laid hold of; and had in great measure to +leave this to his assistants, Kruesi, Tobler, Buss, Niederer, and +Schmid. The result is, that in their details his own plans, and those +vicariously devised, contain numerous crudities and inconsistencies. His +nursery-method, described in _The Mother's Manual_, beginning as it does +with a nomenclature of the different parts of the body, and proceeding +next to specify their relative positions, and next their connections, +may be proved not at all in accordance with the initial stages of mental +evolution. His process of teaching the mother-tongue by formal exercises +in the meanings of words and in the construction of sentences, is quite +needless, and must entail on the pupil loss of time, labour, and +happiness. His proposed lessons in geography are utterly unpestalozzian. +And often where his plans are essentially sound, they are either +incomplete or vitiated by some remnant of the old regime. While, +therefore, we would defend in its entire extent the general doctrine +which Pestalozzi inaugurated, we think great evil likely to result from +an uncritical reception of his specific methods. That tendency, +constantly exhibited by mankind, to canonise the forms and practices +along with which any great truth has been bequeathed to them--their +liability to prostrate their intellects before the prophet, and swear by +his every word--their proneness to mistake the clothing of the idea for +the idea itself; renders it needful to insist strongly upon the +distinction between the fundamental principle of the Pestalozzian +system, and the set of expedients devised for its practice; and to +suggest that while the one may be considered as established, the other +is probably nothing but an adumbration of the normal course. Indeed, on +looking at the state of our knowledge, we may be quite sure that is the +case. Before educational methods can be made to harmonise in character +and arrangement with the faculties in their mode and order of unfolding, +it is first needful that we ascertain with some completeness how the +faculties _do_ unfold. At present we have acquired, on this point, only +a few general notions. These general notions must be developed in +detail--must be transformed into a multitude of specific propositions, +before we can be said to possess that _science_ on which the _art_ of +education must be based. And then, when we have definitely made out in +what succession and in what combinations the mental powers become +active, it remains to choose out of the many possible ways of exercising +each of them, that which best conforms to its natural mode of action. +Evidently, therefore, it is not to be supposed that even our most +advanced modes of teaching are the right ones, or nearly the right ones. + +Bearing in mind then this distinction between the principle and the +practice of Pestalozzi, and inferring from the grounds assigned that the +last must necessarily be very defective, the reader will rate at its +true worth the dissatisfaction with the system which some have +expressed; and will see that the realisation of the Pestalozzian idea +remains to be achieved. Should he argue, however, from what has just +been said, that no such realisation is at present practicable, and that +all effort ought to be devoted to the preliminary inquiry; we reply, +that though it is not possible for a scheme of culture to be perfected +either in matter or form until a rational psychology has been +established, it is possible, with the aid of certain guiding principles, +to make empirical approximations towards a perfect scheme. To prepare +the way for further research we will now specify these principles. Some +of them have been more or less distinctly implied in the foregoing +pages; but it will be well here to state them all in logical order. + +1. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex, +is a truth which has always been to some extent acted upon: not +professedly, indeed, nor by any means consistently. The mind develops. +Like all things that develop it progresses from the homogeneous to the +heterogeneous; and a normal training system, being an objective +counterpart of this subjective process, must exhibit a like progression. +Moreover, thus interpreting it, we may see that this formula has much +wider application than at first appears. For its _rationale_ involves, +not only that we should proceed from the single to the combined in the +teaching of each branch of knowledge; but that we should do the like +with knowledge as a whole. As the mind, consisting at first of but few +active faculties, has its later-completed faculties successively brought +into play, and ultimately comes to have all its faculties in +simultaneous action; it follows that our teaching should begin with but +few subjects at once, and successively adding to these, should finally +carry on all subjects abreast. Not only in its details should education +proceed from the simple to the complex, but in its _ensemble_ also. + +2. The development of the mind, as all other development, is an advance +from the indefinite to the definite. In common with the rest of the +organism, the brain reaches its finished structure only at maturity; and +in proportion as its structure is unfinished, its actions are wanting in +precision. Hence like the first movements and the first attempts at +speech, the first perceptions and thoughts are extremely vague. As from +a rudimentary eye, discerning only the difference between light and +darkness, the progress is to an eye that distinguishes kinds and +gradations of colour, and details of form, with the greatest exactness; +so, the intellect as a whole and in each faculty, beginning with the +rudest discriminations among objects and actions, advances towards +discriminations of increasing nicety and distinctness. To this general +law our educational course and methods must conform. It is not +practicable, nor would it be desirable if practicable, to put precise +ideas into the undeveloped mind. We may indeed at an early age +communicate the verbal forms in which such ideas are wrapped up; and +teachers, who habitually do this, suppose that when the verbal forms +have been correctly learnt, the ideas which should fill them have been +acquired. But a brief cross-examination of the pupil proves the +contrary. It turns out either that the words have been committed to +memory with little or no thought about their meaning, or else that the +perception of their meaning which has been gained is a very cloudy one. +Only as the multiplication of experiences gives materials for definite +conceptions--only as observation year by year discloses the less +conspicuous attributes which distinguish things and processes previously +confounded together--only as each class of co-existences and sequences +becomes familiar through the recurrence of cases coming under it--only +as the various classes of relations get accurately marked off from each +other by mutual limitation, can the exact definitions of advanced +knowledge become truly comprehensible. Thus in education we must be +content to set out with crude notions. These we must aim to make +gradually clearer by facilitating the acquisition of experiences such as +will correct, first their greatest errors, and afterwards their +successively less marked errors. And the scientific formulæ must be +given only as fast as the conceptions are perfected. + +3. To say that our lessons ought to start from the concrete and end in +the abstract, may be considered as in part a repetition of the first of +the foregoing principles. Nevertheless it is a maxim that must be +stated: if with no other view, then with the view of showing in certain +cases what are truly the simple and the complex. For unfortunately there +has been much misunderstanding on this point. General formulas which men +have devised to express groups of details, and which have severally +simplified their conceptions by uniting many facts into one fact, they +have supposed must simplify the conceptions of a child also. They have +forgotten that a generalisation is simple only in comparison with the +whole mass of particular truths it comprehends--that it is more complex +than any one of these truths taken singly--that only after many of these +single truths have been acquired does the generalisation ease the memory +and help the reason--and that to a mind not possessing these single +truths it is necessarily a mystery. Thus confounding two kinds of +simplification, teachers have constantly erred by setting out with +"first principles": a proceeding essentially, though not apparently, at +variance with the primary rule; which implies that the mind should be +introduced to principles through the medium of examples, and so should +be led from the particular to the general--from the concrete to the +abstract. + +4. The education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement +with the education of mankind, considered historically. In other words, +the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same course +as the genesis of knowledge in the race. In strictness, this principle +may be considered as already expressed by implication; since both, being +processes of evolution, must conform to those same general laws of +evolution above insisted on, and must therefore agree with each other. +Nevertheless this particular parallelism is of value for the specific +guidance it affords. To M. Comte we believe society owes the enunciation +of it; and we may accept this item of his philosophy without at all +committing ourselves to the rest. This doctrine may be upheld by two +reasons, quite independent of any abstract theory; and either of them +sufficient to establish it. One is deducible from the law of hereditary +transmission as considered in its wider consequences. For if it be true +that men exhibit likeness to ancestry, both in aspect and character--if +it be true that certain mental manifestations, as insanity, occur in +successive members of the same family at the same age--if, passing from +individual cases in which the traits of many dead ancestors mixing with +those of a few living ones greatly obscure the law, we turn to national +types, and remark how the contrasts between them are persistent from age +to age--if we remember that these respective types came from a common +stock, and that hence the present marked differences between them must +have arisen from the action of modifying circumstances upon successive +generations who severally transmitted the accumulated effects to their +descendants--if we find the differences to be now organic, so that a +French child grows into a French man even when brought up among +strangers--and if the general fact thus illustrated is true of the whole +nature, intellect inclusive; then it follows that if there be an order +in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of knowledge, +there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these kinds of +knowledge in the same order. So that even were the order intrinsically +indifferent, it would facilitate education to lead the individual mind +through the steps traversed by the general mind. But the order is _not_ +intrinsically indifferent; and hence the fundamental reason why +education should be a repetition of civilisation in little. It is +provable both that the historical sequence was, in its main outlines, a +necessary one; and that the causes which determined it apply to the +child as to the race. Not to specify these causes in detail, it will +suffice here to point out that as the mind of humanity placed in the +midst of phenomena and striving to comprehend them, has, after endless +comparisons, speculations, experiments, and theories, reached its +present knowledge of each subject by a specific route; it may rationally +be inferred that the relationship between mind and phenomena is such as +to prevent this knowledge from being reached by any other route; and +that as each child's mind stands in this same relationship to phenomena, +they can be accessible to it only through the same route. Hence in +deciding upon the right method of education, an inquiry into the method +of civilisation will help to guide us. + +5. One of the conclusions to which such an inquiry leads, is, that in +each branch of instruction we should proceed from the empirical to the +rational. During human progress, every science is evolved out of its +corresponding art. It results from the necessity we are under, both +individually and as a race, of reaching the abstract by way of the +concrete, that there must be practice and an accruing experience with +its empirical generalisation, before there can be science. Science is +organised knowledge; and before knowledge can be organised, some of it +must be possessed. Every study, therefore, should have a purely +experimental introduction; and only after an ample fund of observations +has been accumulated, should reasoning begin. As illustrative +applications of this rule, we may instance the modern course of placing +grammar, not before language, but after it; or the ordinary custom of +prefacing perspective by practical drawing. By and by further +applications of it will be indicated. + +6. A second corollary from the foregoing general principle, and one +which cannot be too strenuously insisted on, is, that in education the +process of self-development should be encouraged to the uttermost. +Children should be led to make their own investigations, and to draw +their own inferences. They should be _told_ as little as possible, and +induced to _discover_ as much as possible. Humanity has progressed +solely by self-instruction; and that to achieve the best results, each +mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually +proved by the marked success of self-made men. Those who have been +brought up under the ordinary school-drill, and have carried away with +them the idea that education is practicable only in that style, will +think it hopeless to make children their own teachers. If, however, they +will consider that the all-important knowledge of surrounding objects +which a child gets in its early years is got without help--if they will +remember that the child is self-taught in the use of its mother +tongue--if they will estimate the amount of that experience of life, +that out-of-school wisdom, which every boy gathers for himself--if they +will mark the unusual intelligence of the uncared-for London _gamin_, as +shown in whatever directions his faculties have been tasked--if, +further, they will think how many minds have struggled up unaided, not +only through the mysteries of our irrationally-planned _curriculum_, but +through hosts of other obstacles besides; they will find it a not +unreasonable conclusion that if the subjects be put before him in right +order and right form, any pupil of ordinary capacity will surmount his +successive difficulties with but little assistance. Who indeed can watch +the ceaseless observation, and inquiry, and inference going on in a +child's mind, or listen to its acute remarks on matters within the range +of its faculties, without perceiving that these powers it manifests, if +brought to bear systematically upon studies _within the same range_, +would readily master them without help? This need for perpetual telling +results from our stupidity, not from the child's. We drag it away from +the facts in which it is interested, and which it is actively +assimilating of itself. We put before it facts far too complex for it to +understand; and therefore distasteful to it. Finding that it will not +voluntarily acquire these facts, we thrust them into its mind by force +of threats and punishment. By thus denying the knowledge it craves, and +cramming it with knowledge it cannot digest, we produce a morbid state +of its faculties; and a consequent disgust for knowledge in general. And +when, as a result partly of the stolid indolence we have brought on, and +partly of still-continued unfitness in its studies, the child can +understand nothing without explanation, and becomes a mere passive +recipient of our instruction, we infer that education must necessarily +be carried on thus. Having by our method induced helplessness, we make +the helplessness a reason for our method. Clearly then, the experience +of pedagogues cannot rationally be quoted against the system we are +advocating. And whoever sees this, will see that we may safely follow +the discipline of Nature throughout--may, by a skilful ministration, +make the mind as self-developing in its later stages as it is in its +earlier ones; and that only by doing this can we produce the highest +power and activity. + +7. As a final test by which to judge any plan of culture, should come +the question,--Does it create a pleasurable excitement in the pupils? +When in doubt whether a particular mode or arrangement is or is not more +in harmony with the foregoing principles than some other, we may safely +abide by this criterion. Even when, as considered theoretically, the +proposed course seems the best, yet if it produces no interest, or less +interest than some other course, we should relinquish it; for a child's +intellectual instincts are more trustworthy than our reasonings. In +respect to the knowing-faculties, we may confidently trust in the +general law, that under normal conditions, healthful action is +pleasurable, while action which gives pain is not healthful. Though at +present very incompletely conformed to by the emotional nature, yet by +the intellectual nature, or at least by those parts of it which the +child exhibits, this law is almost wholly conformed to. The repugnances +to this and that study which vex the ordinary teacher, are not innate, +but result from his unwise system. Fellenberg says, "Experience has +taught me that _indolence_ in young persons is so directly opposite to +their natural disposition to activity, that unless it is the consequence +of bad education, it is almost invariably connected with some +constitutional defect." And the spontaneous activity to which children +are thus prone, is simply the pursuit of those pleasures which the +healthful exercise of the faculties gives. It is true that some of the +higher mental powers, as yet but little developed in the race, and +congenitally possessed in any considerable degree only by the most +advanced, are indisposed to the amount of exertion required of them. But +these, in virtue of their very complexity, will, in a normal course of +culture, come last into exercise; and will therefore have no demands +made on them until the pupil has arrived at an age when ulterior motives +can be brought into play, and an indirect pleasure made to +counterbalance a direct displeasure. With all faculties lower than +these, however, the immediate gratification consequent on activity, is +the normal stimulus; and under good management the only needful +stimulus. When we have to fall back on some other, we must take the fact +as evidence that we are on the wrong track. Experience is daily showing +with greater clearness, that there is always a method to be found +productive of interest--even of delight; and it ever turns out that this +is the method proved by all other tests to be the right one. + +With most, these guiding principles will weigh but little if left in +this abstract form. Partly, therefore, to exemplify their application, +and partly with a view of making sundry specific suggestions, we propose +now to pass from the theory of education to the practice of it. + + * * * * * + +It was the opinion of Pestalozzi, and one which has ever since his day +been gaining ground, that education of some kind should begin from the +cradle. Whoever has watched, with any discernment, the wide-eyed gaze of +the infant at surrounding objects knows very well that education _does_ +begin thus early, whether we intend it or not; and that these fingerings +and suckings of everything it can lay hold of, these open-mouthed +listenings to every sound, are first steps in the series which ends in +the discovery of unseen planets, the invention of calculating engines, +the production of great paintings, or the composition of symphonies and +operas. This activity of the faculties from the very first, being +spontaneous and inevitable, the question is whether we shall supply in +due variety the materials on which they may exercise themselves; and to +the question so put, none but an affirmative answer can be given. As +before said, however, agreement with Pestalozzi's theory does not +involve agreement with his practice; and here occurs a case in point. +Treating of instruction in spelling he says:-- + + "The spelling-book ought, therefore, to contain all the sounds of + the language, and these ought to be taught in every family from the + earliest infancy. The child who learns his spelling book ought to + repeat them to the infant in the cradle, before it is able to + pronounce even one of them, so that they may be deeply impressed + upon its mind by frequent repetition." + +Joining this with the suggestions for "a nursery method," set down in +his _Mother's Manual_, in which he makes the names, positions, +connections, numbers, properties, and uses of the limbs and body his +first lessons, it becomes clear that Pestalozzi's notions on early +mental development were too crude to enable him to devise judicious +plans. Let us consider the course which Psychology dictates. + +The earliest impressions which the mind can assimilate are the +undecomposable sensations produced by resistance, light, sound, etc. +Manifestly, decomposable states of consciousness cannot exist before the +states of consciousness out of which they are composed. There can be no +idea of form until some familiarity with light in its gradations and +qualities, or resistance in its different intensities, has been +acquired; for, as has been long known, we recognise visible form by +means of varieties of light, and tangible form by means of varieties of +resistance. Similarly, no articulate sound is cognisable until the +inarticulate sounds which go to make it up have been learned. And thus +must it be in every other case. Following, therefore, the necessary law +of progression from the simple to the complex, we should provide for the +infant a sufficiency of objects presenting different degrees and kinds +of resistance, a sufficiency of objects reflecting different amounts and +qualities of light, and a sufficiency of sounds contrasted in their +loudness, their pitch and their _timbre_. How fully this _à priori_ +conclusion is confirmed by infantile instincts, all will see on being +reminded of the delight which every young child has in biting its toys, +in feeling its brother's bright jacket-buttons, and pulling papa's +whiskers--how absorbed it becomes in gazing at any gaudily-painted +object, to which it applies the word "pretty," when it can pronounce it, +wholly because of the bright colours--and how its face broadens into a +laugh at the tattlings of its nurse, the snapping of a visitor's +fingers, or any sound which it has not before heard. Fortunately, the +ordinary practices of the nursery fulfil these early requirements of +education to a considerable degree. Much, however, remains to be done; +and it is of more importance that it should be done than at first +appears. Every faculty during that spontaneous activity which +accompanies its evolution is capable of receiving more vivid impressions +than at any other period. Moreover, as these simplest elements have to +be mastered, and as the mastery of them whenever achieved must take +time, it becomes an economy of time to occupy this first stage of +childhood, during which no other intellectual action is possible, in +gaining a complete familiarity with them in all their modifications. Nor +let us omit the fact, that both temper and health will be improved by +the continual gratification resulting from a due supply of these +impressions which every child so greedily assimilates. Space, could it +be spared, might here be well filled by some suggestions towards a more +systematic ministration to these simplest of the perceptions. But it +must suffice to point out that any such ministration, recognising the +general law of evolution from the indefinite to the definite, should +proceed upon the corollary that in the development of every faculty, +markedly contrasted impressions are the first to be distinguished; that +hence sounds greatly differing in loudness and pitch, colours very +remote from each other, and substances widely unlike in hardness or +texture, should be the first supplied; and that in each case the +progression must be by slow degrees to impressions more nearly allied. + +Passing on to object-lessons, which manifestly form a natural +continuation of this primary culture of the senses, it is to be +remarked, that the system commonly pursued is wholly at variance with +the method of Nature, as exhibited alike in infancy, in adult life, and +in the course of civilisation. "The child," says M. Marcel, "must be +_shown_ how all the parts of an object are connected, etc.;" and the +various manuals of these object-lessons severally contain lists of the +facts which the child is to be _told_ respecting each of the things put +before it. Now it needs but a glance at the daily life of the infant to +see that all the knowledge of things which is gained before the +acquirement of speech, is self-gained--that the qualities of hardness +and weight associated with certain appearances, the possession of +particular forms and colours by particular persons, the production of +special sounds by animals of special aspects, are phenomena which it +observes for itself. In manhood too, when there are no longer teachers +at hand, the observations and inferences hourly required for guidance +must be made unhelped; and success in life depends upon the accuracy and +completeness with which they are made. Is it probable, then, that while +the process displayed in the evolution of humanity at large is repeated +alike by the infant and the man, a reverse process must be followed +during the period between infancy and manhood? and that too, even in so +simple a thing as learning the properties of objects? Is it not obvious, +on the contrary, that one method must be pursued throughout? And is not +Nature perpetually thrusting this method upon us, if we had but the wit +to see it, and the humility to adopt it? What can be more manifest than +the desire of children for intellectual sympathy? Mark how the infant +sitting on your knee thrusts into your face the toy it holds, that you +too may look at it. See when it makes a creak with its wet finger on the +table, how it turns and looks at you; does it again, and again looks at +you; thus saying as clearly as it can--"Hear this new sound." Watch the +elder children coming into the room exclaiming--"Mamma, see what a +curious thing," "Mamma, look at this," "Mamma, look at that:" a habit +which they would continue, did not the silly mamma tell them not to +tease her. Observe that, when out with the nurse-maid, each little one +runs up to her with the new flower it has gathered, to show her how +pretty it is, and to get her also to say it is pretty. Listen to the +eager volubility with which every urchin describes any novelty he has +been to see, if only he can find some one who will attend with any +interest. Does not the induction lie on the surface? Is it not clear +that we must conform our course to these intellectual instincts--that we +must just systematise the natural process--that we must listen to all +the child has to tell us about each object; must induce it to say +everything it can think of about such object; must occasionally draw its +attention to facts it has not yet observed, with the view of leading it +to notice them itself whenever they recur; and must go on by and by to +indicate or supply new series of things for a like exhaustive +examination? Note the way in which, on this method, the intelligent +mother conducts her lessons. Step by step she familiarises her little +boy with the names of the simpler attributes, hardness, softness, +colour, taste, size: in doing which she finds him eagerly help by +bringing this to show her that it is red, and the other to make her feel +that it is hard, as fast as she gives him words for these properties. +Each additional property, as she draws his attention to it in some fresh +thing which he brings her, she takes care to mention in connection with +those he already knows; so that by the natural tendency to imitate, he +may get into the habit of repeating them one after another. Gradually as +there occur cases in which he omits to name one or more of the +properties he has become acquainted with, she introduces the practice +of asking him whether there is not something more that he can tell her +about the thing he has got. Probably he does not understand. After +letting him puzzle awhile she tells him; perhaps laughing at him a +little for his failure. A few recurrences of this and he perceives what +is to be done. When next she says she knows something more about the +object than he has told her, his pride is roused; he looks at it +intently; he thinks over all that he has heard; and the problem being +easy, presently finds it out. He is full of glee at his success, and she +sympathises with him. In common with every child, he delights in the +discovery of his powers. He wishes for more victories, and goes in quest +of more things about which to tell her. As his faculties unfold she adds +quality after quality to his list: progressing from hardness and +softness to roughness and smoothness, from colour to polish, from simple +bodies to composite ones--thus constantly complicating the problem as he +gains competence, constantly taxing his attention and memory to a +greater extent, constantly maintaining his interest by supplying him +with new impressions such as his mind can assimilate, and constantly +gratifying him by conquests over such small difficulties as he can +master. In doing this she is manifestly but following out that +spontaneous process which was going on during a still earlier +period--simply aiding self-evolution; and is aiding it in the mode +suggested by the boy's instinctive behaviour to her. Manifestly, too, +the course she is adopting is the one best calculated to establish a +habit of exhaustive observation; which is the professed aim of these +lessons. To _tell_ a child this and to _show_ it the other, is not to +teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere recipient of another's +observations: a proceeding which weakens rather than strengthens its +powers of self-instruction--which deprives it of the pleasures resulting +from successful activity--which presents this all-attractive knowledge +under the aspect of formal tuition--and which thus generates that +indifference and even disgust not unfrequently felt towards these +object-lessons. On the other hand, to pursue the course above described +is simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food; to join with +the intellectual appetites their natural adjuncts--_amour propre_ and +the desire for sympathy; to induce by the union of all these an +intensity of attention which insures perceptions both vivid and +complete; and to habituate the mind from the beginning to that practice +of self-help which it must ultimately follow. + +Object-lessons should not only be carried on after quite a different +fashion from that commonly pursued, but should be extended to a range of +things far wider, and continued to a period far later, than now. They +should not be limited to the contents of the house; but should include +those of the fields and the hedges, the quarry and the sea-shore. They +should not cease with early childhood; but should be so kept up during +youth, as insensibly to merge into the investigations of the naturalist +and the man of science. Here again we have but to follow Nature's +leadings. Where can be seen an intenser delight than that of children +picking up new flowers and watching new insects; or hoarding pebbles and +shells? And who is there but perceives that by sympathising with them +they may be led on to any extent of inquiry into the qualities and +structures of these things? Every botanist who has had children with him +in the woods and lanes must have noticed how eagerly they joined in his +pursuits, how keenly they searched out plants for him, how intently they +watched while he examined them, how they overwhelmed him with questions. +The consistent follower of Bacon--the "servant and interpreter of +nature," will see that we ought modestly to adopt the course of culture +thus indicated. Having become familiar with the simpler properties of +inorganic objects, the child should by the same process be led on to an +exhaustive examination of the things it picks up in its daily walks--the +less complex facts they present being alone noticed at first: in plants, +the colours, numbers, and forms of the petals, and shapes of the stalks +and leaves; in insects, the numbers of the wings, legs, and antennæ, and +their colours. As these become fully appreciated and invariably +observed, further facts may be successively introduced: in the one case, +the numbers of stamens and pistils, the forms of the flowers, whether +radial or bilateral in symmetry, the arrangement and character of the +leaves, whether opposite or alternate, stalked or sessile, smooth or +hairy, serrated, toothed, or crenate; in the other, the divisions of the +body, the segments of the abdomen, the markings of the wings, the number +of joints in the legs, and the forms of the smaller organs--the system +pursued throughout being that of making it the child's ambition to say +respecting everything it finds all that can be said. Then when a fit age +has been reached, the means of preserving these plants, which have +become so interesting in virtue of the knowledge obtained of them, may +as a great favour be supplied; and eventually, as a still greater +favour, may also be supplied the apparatus needful for keeping the larvæ +of our common butterflies and moths through their transformations--a +practice which, as we can personally testify, yields the highest +gratification; is continued with ardour for years; when joined with the +formation of an entomological collection, adds immense interest to +Saturday-afternoon rambles; and forms an admirable introduction to the +study of physiology. + +We are quite prepared to hear from many that all this is throwing away +time and energy; and that children would be much better occupied in +writing their copies or learning their pence-tables, and so fitting +themselves for the business of life. We regret that such crude ideas of +what constitutes education, and such a narrow conception of utility, +should still be prevalent. Saying nothing on the need for a systematic +culture of the perceptions and the value of the practices above +inculcated as subserving that need, we are prepared to defend them even +on the score of the knowledge gained. If men are to be mere cits, mere +porers over ledgers, with no ideas beyond their trades--if it is well +that they should be as the cockney whose conception of rural pleasures +extends no further than sitting in a tea-garden smoking pipes and +drinking porter; or as the squire who thinks of woods as places for +shooting in, of uncultivated plants as nothing but weeds, and who +classifies animals into game, vermin, and stock--then indeed it is +needless to learn anything that does not directly help to replenish the +till and fill the larder. But if there is a more worthy aim for us than +to be drudges--if there are other uses in the things around than their +power to bring money--if there are higher faculties to be exercised than +acquisitive and sensual ones--if the pleasures which poetry and art and +science and philosophy can bring are of any moment; then is it desirable +that the instinctive inclination which every child shows to observe +natural beauties and investigate natural phenomena, should be +encouraged. But this gross utilitarianism which is content to come into +the world and quit it again without knowing what kind of a world it is +or what it contains, may be met on its own ground. It will by and by be +found that a knowledge of the laws of life is more important than any +other knowledge whatever--that the laws of life underlie not only all +bodily and mental processes, but by implication all the transactions of +the house and the street, all commerce, all politics, all morals--and +that therefore without a comprehension of them, neither personal nor +social conduct can be rightly regulated. It will eventually be seen too, +that the laws of life are essentially the same throughout the whole +organic creation; and further, that they cannot be properly understood +in their complex manifestations until they have been studied in their +simpler ones. And when this is seen, it will be also seen that in aiding +the child to acquire the out-of-door information for which it shows so +great an avidity, and in encouraging the acquisition of such information +throughout youth, we are simply inducing it to store up the raw material +for future organisation--the facts that will one day bring home to it +with due force, those great generalisations of science by which actions +may be rightly guided. + +The spreading recognition of drawing as an element of education is one +among many signs of the more rational views on mental culture now +beginning to prevail. Once more it may be remarked that teachers are at +length adopting the course which Nature has perpetually been pressing on +their notice. The spontaneous attempts made by children to represent the +men, houses, trees, and animals around them--on a slate if they can get +nothing better, or with lead-pencil on paper if they can beg them--are +familiar to all. To be shown through a picture-book is one of their +highest gratifications; and as usual, their strong imitative tendency +presently generates in them the ambition to make pictures themselves +also. This effort to depict the striking things they see is a further +instinctive exercise of the perceptions--a means whereby still greater +accuracy and completeness of observation are induced. And alike by +trying to interest us in their discoveries of the sensible properties of +things, and by their endeavours to draw, they solicit from us just that +kind of culture which they most need. + +Had teachers been guided by Nature's hints, not only in making drawing a +part of education but in choosing modes of teaching it, they would have +done still better than they have done. What is that the child first +tries to represent? Things that are large, things that are attractive in +colour, things round which its pleasurable associations most +cluster--human beings from whom it has received so many emotions; cows +and dogs which interest by the many phenomena they present; houses that +are hourly visible and strike by their size and contrast of parts. And +which of the processes of representation gives it most delight? +Colouring. Paper and pencil are good in default of something better; but +a box of paints and a brush--these are the treasures. The drawing of +outlines immediately becomes secondary to colouring--is gone through +mainly with a view to the colouring; and if leave can be got to colour a +book of prints, how great is the favour! Now, ridiculous as such a +position will seem to drawing-masters who postpone colouring and who +teach form by a dreary discipline of copying lines, we believe that the +course of culture thus indicated is the right one. The priority of +colour to form, which, as already pointed out, has a psychological +basis, should be recognised from the beginning; and from the beginning +also, the things imitated should be real. That greater delight in colour +which is not only conspicuous in children but persists in most persons +throughout life, should be continuously employed as the natural stimulus +to the mastery of the comparatively difficult and unattractive form: the +pleasure of the subsequent tinting should be the prospective reward for +the labour of delineation. And these efforts to represent interesting +actualities should be encouraged; in the conviction that as, by a +widening experience, simpler and more practicable objects become +interesting, they too will be attempted; and that so a gradual +approximation will be made towards imitations having some resemblance to +the realities. The extreme indefiniteness which, in conformity with the +law of evolution, these first attempts exhibit, is anything but a reason +for ignoring them. No matter how grotesque the shapes produced; no +matter how daubed and glaring the colours. The question is not whether +the child is producing good drawings. The question is, whether it is +developing its faculties. It has first to gain some command over its +fingers, some crude notions of likeness; and this practice is better +than any other for these ends, since it is the spontaneous and +interesting one. During early childhood no formal drawing-lessons are +possible. Shall we therefore repress, or neglect to aid, these efforts +at self-culture? or shall we encourage and guide them as normal +exercises of the perceptions and the powers of manipulation? If by +furnishing cheap woodcuts to be painted, and simple contour-maps to have +their boundary lines tinted, we can not only pleasurably draw out the +faculty of colour, but can incidentally produce some familiarity with +the outlines of things and countries, and some ability to move the brush +steadily; and if by the supply of tempting objects we can keep up the +instinctive practice of making representations, however rough; it must +happen that when the age for lessons in drawing is reached, there will +exist a facility that would else have been absent. Time will have been +gained; and trouble, both to teacher and pupil, saved. + +From what has been said, it may be readily inferred that we condemn the +practice of drawing from copies; and still more so that formal +discipline in making straight lines and curved lines and compound lines, +with which it is the fashion of some teachers to begin. We regret that +the Society of Arts has recently, in its series of manuals on +"Rudimentary Art Instruction," given its countenance to an elementary +drawing-book, which is the most vicious in principle that we have seen. +We refer to the _Outline from Outline, or from the Flat_, by John Bell, +sculptor. As explained in the prefatory note, this publication proposes +"to place before the student a simple, yet logical mode of instruction;" +and to this end sets out with a number of definitions thus:-- + + "A simple line in drawing is a thin mark drawn from one point to + another. + + "Lines may be divided, as to their nature in drawing, into two + classes:-- + + "1. _Straight_, which are marks that go the shortest road between + two points, as A B. + + "2. Or _Curved_, which are marks which do not go the shortest road + between two points, as C D." + +And so the introduction progresses to horizontal lines, perpendicular +lines, oblique lines, angles of the several kinds, and the various +figures which lines and angles make up. The work is, in short, a grammar +of form, with exercises. And thus the system of commencing with a dry +analysis of elements, which, in the teaching of language, has been +exploded, is to be re-instituted in the teaching of drawing. We are to +set out with the definite, instead of with the indefinite. The abstract +is to be preliminary to the concrete. Scientific conceptions are to +precede empirical experiences. That this is an inversion of the normal +order, we need scarcely repeat. It has been well said concerning the +custom of prefacing the art of speaking any tongue by a drilling in the +parts of speech and their functions, that it is about as reasonable as +prefacing the art of walking by a course of lessons on the bones, +muscles, and nerves of the legs; and much the same thing may be said of +the proposal to preface the art of representing objects, by a +nomenclature and definitions of the lines which they yield on analysis. +These technicalities are alike repulsive and needless. They render the +study distasteful at the very outset; and all with the view of teaching +that which, in the course of practice, will be learnt unconsciously. +Just as the child incidentally gathers the meanings of ordinary words +from the conversations going on around it, without the help of +dictionaries; so, from the remarks on objects, pictures, and its own +drawings, will it presently acquire, not only without effort but even +pleasurably, those same scientific terms which, when taught at first, +are a mystery and a weariness. + +If any dependence is to be placed on the general principles of education +that have been laid down, the process of learning to draw should be +throughout continuous with those efforts of early childhood, described +above as so worthy of encouragement. By the time that the voluntary +practice thus initiated has given some steadiness of hand, and some +tolerable ideas of proportion, there will have arisen a vague notion of +body as presenting its three dimensions in perspective. And when, after +sundry abortive, Chinese-like attempts to render this appearance on +paper, there has grown up a pretty clear perception of the thing to be +done, and a desire to do it, a first lesson in empirical perspective may +be given by means of the apparatus occasionally used in explaining +perspective as a science. This sounds alarming; but the experiment is +both comprehensible and interesting to any boy or girl of ordinary +intelligence. A plate of glass so framed as to stand vertically on the +table, being placed before the pupil, and a book or like simple object +laid on the other side of it, he is requested, while keeping the eye in +one position, to make ink-dots on the glass so that they may coincide +with, or hide, the corners of this object. He is next told to join these +dots by lines; on doing which he perceives that the lines he makes hide, +or coincide with, the outlines of the object. And then by putting a +sheet of paper on the other side of the glass, it is made manifest to +him that the lines he has thus drawn represent the object as he saw it. +They not only look like it, but he perceives that they must be like it, +because he made them agree with its outlines; and by removing the paper +he can convince himself that they do agree with its outlines. The fact +is new and striking; and serves him as an experimental demonstration, +that lines of certain lengths, placed in certain directions on a plane, +can represent lines of other lengths, and having other directions, in +space. By gradually changing the position of the object, he may be led +to observe how some lines shorten and disappear, while others come into +sight and lengthen. The convergence of parallel lines, and, indeed, all +the leading facts of perspective, may, from time to time, be similarly +illustrated to him. If he has been duly accustomed to self-help, he will +gladly, when it is suggested, attempt to draw one of these outlines on +paper, by the eye only; and it may soon be made an exciting aim to +produce, unassisted, a representation as like as he can to one +subsequently sketched on the glass. Thus, without the unintelligent, +mechanical practice of copying other drawings, but by a method at once +simple and attractive--rational, yet not abstract--a familiarity with +the linear appearances of things, and a faculty of rendering them, may +be step by step acquired. To which advantages add these:--that even thus +early the pupil learns, almost unconsciously, the true theory of a +picture (namely, that it is a delineation of objects as they appear when +projected on a plane placed between them and the eye); and that when he +reaches a fit age for commencing scientific perspective, he is already +thoroughly acquainted with the facts which form its logical basis. + +As exhibiting a rational mode of conveying primary conceptions in +geometry, we cannot do better than quote the following passage from Mr. +Wyse:-- + + "A child has been in the habit of using cubes for arithmetic; let + him use them also for the elements of geometry. I would begin with + solids, the reverse of the usual plan. It saves all the difficulty + of absurd definitions, and bad explanations on points, lines, and + surfaces, which are nothing but abstractions.... A cube presents + many of the principal elements of geometry; it at once exhibits + points, straight lines, parallel lines, angles, parallelograms, + etc., etc. These cubes are divisible into various parts. The pupil + has already been familiarised with such divisions in numeration, + and he now proceeds to a comparison of their several parts, and of + the relation of these parts to each other.... From thence he + advances to globes, which furnish him with elementary notions of + the circle, of curves generally, etc., etc. + + "Being tolerably familiar with solids, he may now substitute + planes. The transition may be made very easy. Let the cube, for + instance, be cut into thin divisions, and placed on paper; he will + then see as many plane rectangles as he has divisions; so with all + the others. Globes may be treated in the same manner; he will thus + see how surfaces really are generated, and be enabled to abstract + them with facility in every solid. + + "He has thus acquired the alphabet and reading of geometry. He now + proceeds to write it. + + "The simplest operation, and therefore the first, is merely to + place these planes on a piece of paper, and pass the pencil round + them. When this has been frequently done, the plane may be put at a + little distance, and the child required to copy it, and so on." + +A stock of geometrical conceptions having been obtained, in some such +manner as this recommended by Mr. Wyse, a further step may be taken, by +introducing the practice of testing the correctness of figures drawn by +eye: thus both exciting an ambition to make them exact, and continually +illustrating the difficulty of fulfilling that ambition. There can be +little doubt that geometry had its origin (as, indeed, the word implies) +in the methods discovered by artizans and others, of making accurate +measurements for the foundations of buildings, areas of inclosures, and +the like; and that its truths came to be treasured up, merely with a +view to their immediate utility. They would be introduced to the pupil +under analogous relationships. In cutting out pieces for his +card-houses, in drawing ornamental diagrams for colouring, and in those +various instructive occupations which an inventive teacher will lead him +into, he may for a length of time be advantageously left, like the +primitive builder, to tentative processes; and so will learn through +experience the difficulty of achieving his aims by the unaided senses. +When, having meanwhile undergone a valuable discipline of the +perceptions, he has reached a fit age for using a pair of compasses, he +will, while duly appreciating these as enabling him to verify his ocular +guesses, be still hindered by the imperfections of the approximative +method. In this stage he may be left for a further period: partly as +being yet too young for anything higher; partly because it is desirable +that he should be made to feel still more strongly the want of +systematic contrivances. If the acquisition of knowledge is to be made +continuously interesting; and if, in the early civilisation of the +child, as in the early civilisation of the race, science is valued only +as ministering to art; it is manifest that the proper preliminary to +geometry, is a long practice in those constructive processes which +geometry will facilitate. Observe that here, too, Nature points the way. +Children show a strong propensity to cut out things in paper, to make, +to build--a propensity which, if encouraged and directed, will not only +prepare the way for scientific conceptions, but will develop those +powers of manipulation in which most people are so deficient. + +When the observing and inventive faculties have attained the requisite +power, the pupil may be introduced to empirical geometry; that +is--geometry dealing with methodical solutions, but not with the +demonstrations of them. Like all other transitions in education, this +should be made not formally but incidentally; and the relationship to +constructive art should still be maintained. To make, out of cardboard, +a tetrahedron like one given to him, is a problem which will interest +the pupil and serve as a convenient starting-point. In attempting this, +he finds it needful to draw four equilateral triangles arranged in +special positions. Being unable in the absence of an exact method to do +this accurately, he discovers on putting the triangles into their +respective positions, that he cannot make their sides fit; and that +their angles do not meet at the apex. He may now be shown how, by +describing a couple of circles, each of these triangles may be drawn +with perfect correctness and without guessing; and after his failure he +will value the information. Having thus helped him to the solution of +his first problem, with the view of illustrating the nature of +geometrical methods, he is in future to be left to solve the questions +put to him as best he can. To bisect a line, to erect a perpendicular, +to describe a square, to bisect an angle, to draw a line parallel to a +given line, to describe a hexagon, are problems which a little patience +will enable him to find out. And from these he may be led on step by +step to more complex questions: all of which, under judicious +management, he will puzzle through unhelped. Doubtless, many of those +brought up under the old regime, will look upon this assertion +sceptically. We speak from facts, however; and those neither few nor +special. We have seen a class of boys become so interested in making out +solutions to such problems, as to look forward to their geometry-lesson +as a chief event of the week. Within the last month, we have heard of +one girl's school, in which some of the young ladies voluntarily occupy +themselves with geometrical questions out of school-hours; and of +another, where they not only do this, but where one of them is begging +for problems to find out during the holidays: both which facts we state +on the authority of the teacher. Strong proofs, these, of the +practicability and the immense advantage of self-development! A branch +of knowledge which, as commonly taught, is dry and even repulsive, is +thus, by following the method of Nature, made extremely interesting and +profoundly beneficial. We say profoundly beneficial, because the effects +are not confined to the gaining of geometrical facts, but often +revolutionise the whole state of mind. It has repeatedly occurred that +those who have been stupefied by the ordinary school-drill--by its +abstract formulas, its wearisome tasks, its cramming--have suddenly had +their intellects roused by thus ceasing to make them passive recipients, +and inducing them to become active discoverers. The discouragement +caused by bad teaching having been diminished by a little sympathy, and +sufficient perseverance excited to achieve a first success, there arises +a revulsion of feeling affecting the whole nature. They no longer find +themselves incompetent; they, too, can do something. And gradually as +success follows success, the incubus of despair disappears, and they +attack the difficulties of their other studies with a courage insuring +conquest. + +A few weeks after the foregoing remarks were originally published, +Professor Tyndall in a lecture at the Royal Institution "On the +Importance of the Study of Physics as a Branch of Education," gave some +conclusive evidence to the same effect. His testimony, based on personal +observation, is of such great value that we cannot refrain from quoting +it. Here it is. + + "One of the duties which fell to my share, during the period to + which I have referred, was the instruction of a class in + mathematics, and I usually found that Euclid and the ancient + geometry generally, when addressed to the understanding, formed a + very attractive study for youth. But it was my habitual practice to + withdraw the boys from the routine of the book, and to appeal to + their self-power in the treatment of questions not comprehended in + that routine. At first, the change from the beaten track usually + excited a little aversion: the youth felt like a child amid + strangers; but in no single instance have I found this aversion to + continue. When utterly disheartened, I have encouraged the boy by + that anecdote of Newton, where he attributes the difference between + him and other men, mainly to his own patience; or of Mirabeau, when + he ordered his servant, who had stated something to be impossible, + never to use that stupid word again. Thus cheered, he has returned + to his task with a smile, which perhaps had something of doubt in + it, but which, nevertheless, evinced a resolution to try again. I + have seen the boy's eye brighten, and at length, with a pleasure of + which the ecstasy of Archimedes was but a simple expansion, heard + him exclaim, 'I have it, sir.' The consciousness of self-power, + thus awakened, was of immense value; and animated by it, the + progress of the class was truly astonishing. It was often my custom + to give the boys their choice of pursuing their propositions in the + book, or of trying their strength at others not to be found there. + Never in a single instance have I known the book to be chosen. I + was ever ready to assist when I deemed help needful, but my offers + of assistance were habitually declined. The boys had tasted the + sweets of intellectual conquest and demanded victories of their + own. I have seen their diagrams scratched on the walls, cut into + the beams upon the play ground, and numberless other illustrations + of the living interest they took in the subject. For my own part, + as far as experience in teaching goes, I was a mere fledgling: I + knew nothing of the rules of pedagogics, as the Germans name it; + but I adhered to the spirit indicated at the commencement of this + discourse, and endeavoured to make geometry a _means_ and not a + _branch_ of education. The experiment was successful, and some of + the most delightful hours of my existence have been spent in + marking the vigorous and cheerful expansion of mental power, when + appealed to in the manner I have described." + +This empirical geometry which presents an endless series of problems, +should be continued along with other studies for years; and may +throughout be advantageously accompanied by those concrete applications +of its principles which serve as its preliminary. After the cube, the +octahedron, and the various forms of pyramid and prism have been +mastered, may come the more complex regular bodies--the dodecahedron and +icosahedron--to construct which out of single pieces of cardboard, +requires considerable ingenuity. From these, the transition may +naturally be made to such modified forms of the regular bodies as are +met with in crystals--the truncated cube, the cube with its dihedral as +well as its solid angles truncated, the octahedron and the various +prisms as similarly modified: in imitating which numerous forms assumed +by different metals and salts, an acquaintance with the leading facts of +mineralogy will be incidentally gained.[1] + +After long continuance in exercises of this kind, rational geometry, as +may be supposed, presents no obstacles. Habituated to contemplate +relationships of form and quantity, and vaguely perceiving from time to +time the necessity of certain results as reached by certain means, the +pupil comes to regard the demonstrations of Euclid as the missing +supplements to his familiar problems. His well-disciplined faculties +enable him easily to master its successive propositions, and to +appreciate their value; and he has the occasional gratification of +finding some of his own methods proved to be true. Thus he enjoys what +is to the unprepared a dreary task. It only remains to add, that his +mind will presently arrive at a fit condition for that most valuable of +all exercises for the reflective faculties--the making of original +demonstrations. Such theorems as those appended to the successive books +of the Messrs. Chambers's Euclid, will soon become practicable to him; +and in proving them, the process of self-development will be not +intellectual only, but moral. + +To continue these suggestions much further, would be to write a detailed +treatise on education, which we do not purpose. The foregoing outlines +of plans for exercising the perceptions in early childhood, for +conducting object-lessons, for teaching drawing and geometry, must be +considered simply as illustrations of the method dictated by the general +principles previously specified. We believe that on examination they +will be found not only to progress from the simple to the complex, from +the indefinite to the definite, from the concrete to the abstract, from +the empirical to the rational; but to satisfy the further requirements, +that education shall be a repetition of civilisation in little, that it +shall be as much as possible a process of self-evolution, and that it +shall be pleasurable. The fulfilment of all these conditions by one type +of method, tends alike to verify the conditions, and to prove that type +of the method the right one. Mark too, that this method is the logical +outcome of the tendency characterising all modern improvements in +tuition--that it is but an adoption in full of the natural system which +they adopt partially--that it displays this complete adoption of the +natural system, both by conforming to the above principles, and by +following the suggestions which the unfolding mind itself gives: +facilitating its spontaneous activities, and so aiding the developments +which Nature is busy with. Thus there seems abundant reason to conclude, +that the mode of procedure above exemplified, closely approximates to +the true one. + + * * * * * + +A few paragraphs must be added in further inculcation of the two general +principles, that are alike the most important and the least attended to; +namely, the principle that throughout youth, as in early childhood and +in maturity, the process shall be one of self-instruction; and the +obverse principle, that the mental action induced shall be throughout +intrinsically grateful. If progression from simple to complex, from +indefinite to definite, and from concrete to abstract, be considered the +essential requirements as dictated by abstract psychology; then do the +requirements that knowledge shall be self-mastered, and pleasurably +mastered, become tests by which we may judge whether the dictates of +abstract psychology are being obeyed. If the first embody the leading +generalisations of the _science_ of mental growth, the last are the +chief canons of the _art_ of fostering mental growth. For manifestly, if +the steps in our _curriculum_ are so arranged that they can be +successively ascended by the pupil himself with little or no help, they +must correspond with the stages of evolution in his faculties; and +manifestly, if the successive achievements of these steps are +intrinsically gratifying to him, it follows that they require no more +than a normal exercise of his powers. + +But making education a process of self-evolution, has other advantages +than this of keeping our lessons in the right order. In the first place, +it guarantees a vividness and permanency of impression which the usual +methods can never produce. Any piece of knowledge which the pupil has +himself acquired--any problem which he has himself solved, becomes, by +virtue of the conquest, much more thoroughly his than it could else be. +The preliminary activity of mind which his success implies, the +concentration of thought necessary to it, and the excitement consequent +on his triumph, conspire to register the facts in his memory in a way +that no mere information heard from a teacher, or read in a school-book, +can be registered. Even if he fails, the tension to which his faculties +have been wound up, insures his remembrance of the solution when given +to him, better than half-a-dozen repetitions would. Observe, again, that +this discipline necessitates a continuous organisation of the knowledge +he acquires. It is in the very nature of facts and inferences +assimilated in this normal manner, that they successively become the +premises of further conclusions--the means of solving further questions. +The solution of yesterday's problem helps the pupil in mastering +to-day's. Thus the knowledge is turned into faculty as soon as it is +taken in, and forthwith aids in the general function of thinking--does +not lie merely written on the pages of an internal library, as when +rote-learnt. Mark further, the moral culture which this constant +self-help involves. Courage in attacking difficulties, patient +concentration of the attention, perseverance through failures--these are +characteristics which after-life specially requires; and these are +characteristics which this system of making the mind work for its food +specially produces. That it is thoroughly practicable to carry out +instruction after this fashion, we can ourselves testify; having been in +youth thus led to solve the comparatively complex problems of +perspective. And that leading teachers have been tending in this +direction, is indicated alike in the saying of Fellenberg, that "the +individual, independent activity of the pupil is of much greater +importance than the ordinary busy officiousness of many who assume the +office of educators;" in the opinion of Horace Mann, that "unfortunately +education amongst us at present consists too much in _telling_, not in +_training_;" and in the remark of M. Marcel, that "what the learner +discovers by mental exertion is better known than what is told to him." + +Similarly with the correlative requirement, that the method of culture +pursued shall be one productive of an intrinsically happy activity,--an +activity not happy because of extrinsic rewards to be obtained, but +because of its own healthfulness. Conformity to this requirement, +besides preventing us from thwarting the normal process of evolution, +incidentally secures positive benefits of importance. Unless we are to +return to an ascetic morality (or rather _im_-morality) the maintenance +of youthful happiness must be considered as in itself a worthy aim. Not +to dwell upon this, however, we go on to remark that a pleasurable state +of feeling is far more favourable to intellectual action than a state of +indifference or disgust. Every one knows that things read, heard, or +seen with interest, are better remembered than things read, heard, or +seen with apathy. In the one case the faculties appealed to are actively +occupied with the subject presented; in the other they are inactively +occupied with it, and the attention is continually drawn away by more +attractive thoughts. Hence the impressions are respectively strong and +weak. Moreover, to the intellectual listlessness which a pupil's lack of +interest in any study involves, must be added the paralysing fear of +consequences. This, by distracting his attention, increases the +difficulty he finds in bringing his faculties to bear upon facts that +are repugnant to them. Clearly, therefore, the efficiency of tuition +will, other things equal, be proportionate to the gratification with +which tasks are performed. + +It should be considered also, that grave moral consequences depend upon +the habitual pleasure or pain which daily lessons produce. No one can +compare the faces and manners of two boys--the one made happy by +mastering interesting subjects, and the other made miserable by disgust +with his studies, by consequent inability, by cold looks, by threats, by +punishment--without seeing that the disposition of the one is being +benefited and that of the other injured. Whoever has marked the effects +of success and failure upon the mind, and the power of the mind over the +body, will see that in the one case both temper and health are +favourably affected, while in the other there is danger of permanent +moroseness, or permanent timidity, and even of permanent constitutional +depression. There remains yet another indirect result of no small +moment. The relationship between teachers and their pupils is, other +things equal, rendered friendly and influential, or antagonistic and +powerless, according as the system of culture produces happiness or +misery. Human beings are at the mercy of their associated ideas. A daily +minister of pain cannot fail to be regarded with secret dislike; and if +he causes no emotions but painful ones, will inevitably be hated. +Conversely, he who constantly aids children to their ends, hourly +provides them with the satisfactions of conquest, hourly encourages them +through their difficulties and sympathises in their successes, will be +liked; nay, if his behaviour is consistent throughout, must be loved. +And when we remember how efficient and benign is the control of a master +who is felt to be a friend, when compared with the control of one who is +looked upon with aversion, or at best indifference, we may infer that +the indirect advantages of conducting education on the happiness +principle do not fall far short of the direct ones. To all who question +the possibility of acting out the system here advocated, we reply as +before, that not only does theory point to it, but experience commends +it. To the many verdicts of distinguished teachers who since +Pestalozzi's time have testified this, may be here added that of +Professor Pillans, who asserts that "where young people are taught as +they ought to be, they are quite as happy in school as at play, seldom +less delighted, nay, often more, with the well-directed exercise of +their mental energies than with that of their muscular powers." + +As suggesting a final reason for making education a process of +self-instruction, and by consequence a process of pleasurable +instruction, we may advert to the fact that, in proportion as it is made +so, is there a probability that it will not cease when schooldays end. +As long as the acquisition of knowledge is rendered habitually +repugnant, so long will there be a prevailing tendency to discontinue it +when free from the coercion of parents and masters. And when the +acquisition of knowledge has been rendered habitually gratifying, then +will there be as prevailing a tendency to continue, without +superintendence, that self-culture previously carried on under +superintendence. These results are inevitable. While the laws of mental +association remain true--while men dislike the things and places that +suggest painful recollections, and delight in those which call to mind +by-gone pleasures--painful lessons will make knowledge repulsive, and +pleasurable lessons will make it attractive. The men to whom in boyhood +information came in dreary tasks along with threats of punishment, and +who were never led into habits of independent inquiry, are unlikely to +be students in after years; while those to whom it came in the natural +forms, at the proper times, and who remember its facts as not only +interesting in themselves, but as the occasions of a long series of +gratifying successes, are likely to continue through life that +self-instruction commenced in youth. + +[1] Those who seek aid in carrying out the system of culture above +described, will find it in a little work entitled _Inventional +Geometry_; published by J. and C. Mozley, Paternoster Row, London. + + + + + +MORAL EDUCATION + + +The greatest defect in our programmes of education is entirely +overlooked. While much is being done in the detailed improvement of our +systems in respect both of matter and manner, the most pressing +desideratum has not yet been even recognised as a desideratum. To +prepare the young for the duties of life is tacitly admitted to be the +end which parents and schoolmasters should have in view; and happily, +the value of the things taught, and the goodness of the methods followed +in teaching them, are now ostensibly judged by their fitness to this +end. The propriety of substituting for an exclusively classical +training, a training in which the modern languages shall have a share, +is argued on this ground. The necessity of increasing the amount of +science is urged for like reasons. But though some care is taken to fit +youth of both sexes for society and citizenship, no care whatever is +taken to fit them for the position of parents. While it is seen that for +the purpose of gaining a livelihood, an elaborate preparation is needed, +it appears to be thought that for the bringing up of children, no +preparation whatever is needed. While many years are spent by a boy in +gaining knowledge of which the chief value is that it constitutes "the +education of a gentleman;" and while many years are spent by a girl in +those decorative acquirements which fit her for evening parties; not an +hour is spent by either in preparation for that gravest of all +responsibilities--the management of a family. Is it that this +responsibility is but a remote contingency? On the contrary, it is sure +to devolve on nine out of ten. Is it that the discharge of it is easy? +Certainly not: of all functions which the adult has to fulfil, this is +the most difficult. Is it that each may be trusted by self-instruction +to fit himself, or herself, for the office of parent? No: not only is +the need for such self-instruction unrecognised, but the complexity of +the subject renders it the one of all others in which self-instruction +is least likely to succeed. No rational plea can be put forward for +leaving the Art of Education out of our _curriculum_. Whether as bearing +on the happiness of parents themselves, or whether as affecting the +characters and lives of their children and remote descendants, we must +admit that a knowledge of the right methods of juvenile culture, +physical, intellectual, and moral, is a knowledge of extreme importance. +This topic should be the final one in the course of instruction passed +through by each man and woman. As physical maturity is marked by the +ability to produce offspring, so mental maturity is marked by the +ability to train those offspring. _The subject which involves all other +subjects, and therefore the subject in which education should culminate, +is the Theory and Practice of Education._ + +In the absence of this preparation, the management of children, and more +especially the moral management, is lamentably bad. Parents either never +think about the matter at all, or else their conclusions are crude and +inconsistent. In most cases, and especially on the part of mothers, the +treatment adopted on every occasion is that which the impulse of the +moment prompts: it springs not from any reasoned-out conviction as to +what will most benefit the child, but merely expresses the dominant +parental feelings, whether good or ill; and varies from hour to hour as +these feelings vary. Or if the dictates of passion are supplemented by +any definite doctrines and methods, they are those handed down from the +past, or those suggested by the remembrances of childhood, or those +adopted from nurses and servants--methods devised not by the +enlightenment, but by the ignorance, of the time. Commenting on the +chaotic state of opinion and practice relative to family government, +Richter writes:-- + + "If the secret variances of a large class of ordinary fathers were + brought to light, and laid down as a plan of studies and reading, + catalogued for a moral education, they would run somewhat after + this fashion:--In the first hour 'pure morality must be read to the + child, either by myself or the tutor;' in the second, 'mixed + morality, or that which may be applied to one's own advantage;' in + the third, 'do you not see that your father does so and so?' in the + fourth, 'you are little, and this is only fit for grown-up people;' + in the fifth, 'the chief matter is that you should succeed in the + world, and become something in the state;' in the sixth, 'not the + temporary, but the eternal, determines the worth of a man;' in the + seventh, 'therefore rather suffer injustice, and be kind;' in the + eighth, 'but defend yourself bravely if any one attack you;' in the + ninth, 'do not make a noise, dear child;' in the tenth, 'a boy must + not sit so quiet;' in the eleventh, 'you must obey your parents + better;' in the twelfth, 'and educate yourself.' So by the hourly + change of his principles, the father conceals their untenableness + and onesidedness. As for his wife, she is neither like him, nor yet + like that harlequin who came on to the stage with a bundle of + papers under each arm, and answered to the inquiry, what he had + under his right arm, 'orders,' and to what he had under his left + arm, 'counter-orders.' But the mother might be much better compared + to a giant Briareus, who had a hundred arms, and a bundle of papers + under each." + +This state of things is not to be readily changed. Generations must +pass before a great amelioration of it can be expected. Like political +constitutions, educational systems are not made, but grow; and within +brief periods growth is insensible. Slow, however, as must be any +improvement, even that improvement implies the use of means; and among +the means is discussion. + + * * * * * + +We are not among those who believe in Lord Palmerston's dogma, that "all +children are born good." On the whole, the opposite dogma, untenable as +it is, seems to us less wide of the truth. Nor do we agree with those +who think that, by skilful discipline, children may be made altogether +what they should be. Contrariwise, we are satisfied that though +imperfections of nature may be diminished by wise management, they +cannot be removed by it. The notion that an ideal humanity might be +forthwith produced by a perfect system of education, is near akin to +that implied in the poems of Shelley, that would mankind give up their +old institutions and prejudices, all the evils in the world would at +once disappear: neither notion being acceptable to such as have +dispassionately studied human affairs. + +Nevertheless, we may fitly sympathise with those who entertain these too +sanguine hopes. Enthusiasm, pushed even to fanaticism, is a useful +motive-power--perhaps an indispensable one. It is clear that the ardent +politician would never undergo the labours and make the sacrifices he +does, did he not believe that the reform he fights for is the one thing +needful. But for his conviction that drunkenness is the root of all +social evils, the teetotaler would agitate far less energetically. In +philanthropy, as in other things, great advantage results from division +of labour; and that there may be division of labour, each class of +philanthropists must be more or less subordinated to its function--must +have an exaggerated faith in its work. Hence, of those who regard +education, intellectual or moral, as the panacea, we may say that their +undue expectations are not without use; and that perhaps it is part of +the beneficent order of things that their confidence cannot be shaken. + +Even were it true, however, that by some possible system of moral +control, children could be moulded into the desired form; and even could +every parent be indoctrinated with this system, we should still be far +from achieving the object in view. It is forgotten that the carrying out +of any such system presupposes, on the part of adults, a degree of +intelligence, of goodness, of self-control, possessed by no one. The +error made by those who discuss questions of domestic discipline, lies +in ascribing all the faults and difficulties to the children, and none +to the parents. The current assumption respecting family government, as +respecting national government, is, that the virtues are with the rulers +and the vices with the ruled. Judging by educational theories, men and +women are entirely transfigured in their relations to offspring. The +citizens we do business with, the people we meet in the world, we know +to be very imperfect creatures. In the daily scandals, in the quarrels +of friends, in bankruptcy disclosures, in lawsuits, in police reports, +we have constantly thrust before us the pervading selfishness, +dishonesty, brutality. Yet when we criticise nursery-management and +canvass the misbehaviour of juveniles, we habitually take for granted +that these culpable persons are free from moral delinquency in the +treatment of their boys and girls! So far is this from the truth, that +we do not hesitate to blame parental misconduct for a great part of the +domestic disorder commonly ascribed to the perversity of children. We do +not assert this of the more sympathetic and self-restrained, among whom +we hope most of our readers may be classed; but we assert it of the +mass. What kind of moral culture is to be expected from a mother who, +time after time, angrily shakes her infant because it will not suck; +which we once saw a mother do? How much sense of justice is likely to be +instilled by a father who, on having his attention drawn by a scream to +the fact that his child's finger is jammed between the window-sash and +sill, begins to beat the child instead of releasing it? Yet that there +are such fathers is testified to us by an eye-witness. Or, to take a +still stronger case, also vouched for by direct testimony--what are the +educational prospects of the boy who, on being taken home with a +dislocated thigh, is saluted with a castigation? It is true that these +are extreme instances--instances exhibiting in human beings that blind +instinct which impels brutes to destroy the weakly and injured of their +own race. But extreme though they are, they typify feelings and conduct +daily observable in many families. Who has not repeatedly seen a child +slapped by nurse or parent for a fretfulness probably resulting from +bodily derangement? Who, when watching a mother snatch up a fallen +little one, has not often traced, both in the rough manner and in the +sharply-uttered exclamation--"You stupid little thing!"--an irascibility +foretelling endless future squabbles? Is there not in the harsh tones in +which a father bids his children be quiet, evidence of a deficient +fellow-feeling with them? Are not the constant, and often quite +needless, thwartings that the young experience--the injunctions to sit +still, which an active child cannot obey without suffering great nervous +irritation, the commands not to look out of the window when travelling +by railway, which on a child of any intelligence entails serious +deprivation--are not these thwartings, we ask, signs of a terrible lack +of sympathy? The truth is, that the difficulties of moral education are +necessarily of dual origin--necessarily result from the combined faults +of parents and children. If hereditary transmission is a law of nature, +as every naturalist knows it to be, and as our daily remarks and current +proverbs admit it to be; then, on the average of cases, the defects of +children mirror the defects of their parents;--on the average of cases, +we say, because, complicated as the results are by the transmitted +traits of remoter ancestors, the correspondence is not special but only +general. And if, on the average of cases, this inheritance of defects +exists, then the evil passions which parents have to check in their +children, imply like evil passions in themselves: hidden, it may be, +from the public eye, or perhaps obscured by other feelings, but still +there. Evidently, therefore, the general practice of any ideal system of +discipline is hopeless: parents are not good enough. + +Moreover, even were there methods by which the desired end could be at +once effected; and even had fathers and mothers sufficient insight, +sympathy, and self-command to employ these methods consistently; it +might still be contended that it would be of no use to reform +family-government faster than other things are reformed. What is it that +we aim to do? Is it not that education of whatever kind has for its +proximate end to prepare a child for the business of life--to produce a +citizen who, while he is well conducted, is also able to make his way in +the world? And does not making his way in the world (by which we mean, +not the acquirement of wealth, but of the funds requisite for bringing +up a family)--does not this imply a certain fitness for the world as it +now is? And if by any system of culture an ideal human being could be +produced, is it not doubtful whether he would be fit for the world as it +now is? May we not, on the contrary, suspect that his too keen sense of +rectitude, and too elevated standard of conduct, would make life +intolerable or even impossible? And however admirable the result might +be, considered individually, would it not be self-defeating in so far as +society and posterity are concerned? There is much reason for thinking +that as in a nation so in a family, the kind of government is, on the +whole, about as good as the general state of human nature permits it to +be. We may argue that in the one case, as in the other, the average +character of the people determines the quality of the control exercised. +In both cases it may be inferred that amelioration of the average +character leads to an amelioration of system; and further, that were it +possible to ameliorate the system without the average character being +first ameliorated, evil rather than good would follow. Such degree of +harshness as children now experience from their parents and teachers, +may be regarded as but a preparation for that greater harshness which +they will meet on entering the world. And it may be urged that were it +possible for parents and teachers to treat them with perfect equity and +entire sympathy, it would but intensify the sufferings which the +selfishness of men must, in after life, inflict on them.[1] + +"But does not this prove too much?" some one will ask. "If no system of +moral training can forthwith make children what they should be; if, even +were there a system that would do this, existing parents are too +imperfect to carry it out; and if even could such a system be +successfully carried out, its results would be disastrously incongruous +with the present state of society; does it not follow that to reform the +system now in use is neither practicable nor desirable?" No. It merely +follows that reform in domestic government must go on, _pari passu_, +with other reforms. It merely follows that methods of discipline neither +can be nor should be ameliorated, except by instalments. It merely +follows that the dictates of abstract rectitude will, in practice, +inevitably be subordinated by the present state of human nature--by the +imperfections alike of children, of parents, and of society; and can +only be better fulfilled as the general character becomes better. + +"At any rate, then," may rejoin our critic, "it is clearly useless to +set up any ideal standard of family discipline. There can be no +advantage in elaborating and recommending methods that are in advance of +the time." Again we contend for the contrary. Just as in the case of +political government, though pure rectitude may be at present +impracticable, it is requisite to know where the right lies, in order +that the changes we make may be _towards_ the right instead of _away_ +from it; so, in the case of domestic government, an ideal must be +upheld, that there may be gradual approximations to it. We need fear no +evil consequences from the maintenance of such an ideal. On the average +the constitutional conservatism of mankind is strong enough to prevent +too rapid a change. Things are so organised that until men have grown up +to the level of a higher belief, they cannot receive it: nominally, they +may hold it, but not virtually. And even when the truth gets recognised, +the obstacles to conformity with it are so persistent as to outlive the +patience of philanthropists and even of philosophers. We may be sure, +therefore, that the difficulties in the way of a normal government of +children, will always put an adequate check upon the efforts to realise +it. + +With these preliminary explanations, let us go on to consider the true +aims and methods of moral education. After a few pages devoted to the +settlement of general principles, during the perusal of which we bespeak +the reader's patience, we shall aim by illustrations to make clear the +right methods of parental behaviour in the hourly occurring difficulties +of family government. + + * * * * * + +When a child falls, or runs its head against the table, it suffers a +pain, the remembrance of which tends to make it more careful; and by +repetition of such experiences, it is eventually disciplined into proper +guidance of its movements. If it lays hold of the fire-bars, thrusts its +hand into a candle-flame, or spills boiling water on any part of its +skin, the resulting burn or scald is a lesson not easily forgotten. So +deep an impression is produced by one or two events of this kind, that +no persuasion will afterwards induce it thus to disregard the laws of +its constitution. + +Now in these cases, Nature illustrates to us in the simplest way, the +true theory and practice of moral discipline--a theory and practice +which, however much they may seem to the superficial like those commonly +received, we shall find on examination to differ from them very widely. + +Observe, first, that in bodily injuries and their penalties we have +misconduct and its consequences reduced to their simplest forms. Though, +according to their popular acceptations, _right_ and _wrong_ are words +scarcely applicable to actions that have none but direct bodily effects; +yet whoever considers the matter will see that such actions must be as +much classifiable under these heads as any other actions. From whatever +assumption they start, all theories of morality agree that conduct whose +total results, immediate and remote, are beneficial, is good conduct; +while conduct whose total results, immediate and remote, are injurious, +is bad conduct. The _ultimate_ standards by which all men judge of +behaviour, are the resulting happiness or misery. We consider +drunkenness wrong because of the physical degeneracy and accompanying +moral evils entailed on the drunkard and his dependents. Did theft give +pleasure both to taker and loser, we should not find it in our catalogue +of sins. Were it conceivable that kind actions multiplied human +sufferings, we should condemn them--should not consider them kind. It +needs but to read the first newspaper-leader, or listen to any +conversation on social affairs, to see that acts of parliament, +political movements, philanthropic agitations, in common with the doings +of individuals are judged by their anticipated results in augmenting the +pleasures or pains of men. And if on analysing all secondary +superinduced ideas, we find these to be our final tests of right and +wrong, we cannot refuse to class bodily conduct as right or wrong +according to the beneficial or detrimental results produced. + +Note, in the second place, the character of the punishments by which +these physical transgressions are prevented. Punishments, we call them, +in the absence of a better word; for they are not punishments in the +literal sense. They are not artificial and unnecessary inflictions of +pain; but are simply the beneficent checks to actions that are +essentially at variance with bodily welfare--checks in the absence of +which life would be quickly destroyed by bodily injuries. It is the +peculiarity of these penalties, if we must so call them, that they are +simply the _unavoidable consequences_ of the deeds which they follow: +they are nothing more than the _inevitable reactions_ entailed by the +child's actions. + +Let it be further borne in mind that these painful reactions are +proportionate to the transgressions. A slight accident brings a slight +pain; a more serious one, a severer pain. It is not ordained that an +urchin who tumbles over the doorstep, shall suffer in excess of the +amount necessary; with the view of making it still more cautious than +the necessary suffering will make it. But from its daily experience it +is left to learn the greater or less penalties of greater or less +errors; and to behave accordingly. + +And then mark, lastly, that these natural reactions which follow the +child's wrong actions, are constant, direct, unhesitating, and not to be +escaped. No threats; but a silent, rigorous performance. If a child runs +a pin into its finger, pain follows. If it does it again, there is again +the same result: and so on perpetually. In all its dealing with +inorganic Nature it finds this unswerving persistence, which listens to +no excuse, and from which there is no appeal; and very soon recognising +this stern though beneficent discipline, it becomes extremely careful +not to transgress. + +Still more significant will these general truths appear, when we +remember that they hold throughout adult life as well as throughout +infantine life. It is by an experimentally-gained knowledge of the +natural consequences, that men and women are checked when they go wrong. +After home-education has ceased, and when there are no longer parents +and teachers to forbid this or that kind of conduct, there comes into +play a discipline like that by which the young child is trained to +self-guidance. If the youth entering on the business of life idles away +his time and fulfils slowly or unskilfully the duties entrusted to him, +there by and by follows the natural penalty: he is discharged, and left +to suffer for awhile the evils of a relative poverty. On the unpunctual +man, ever missing his appointments of business and pleasure, there +continually fall the consequent inconveniences, losses, and +deprivations. The tradesmen who charges too high a rate of profit, loses +his customers, and so is checked in his greediness. Diminishing practice +teaches the inattentive doctor to bestow more trouble on his patients. +The too credulous creditor and the over-sanguine speculator, alike learn +by the difficulties which rashness entails on them, the necessity of +being more cautious in their engagements. And so throughout the life of +every citizen. In the quotation so often made _apropos_ of such +cases--"The burnt child dreads the fire"--we see not only that the +analogy between this social discipline and Nature's early discipline of +infants is universally recognised; but we also see an implied conviction +that this discipline is of the most efficient kind. Nay indeed, this +conviction is more than implied; it is distinctly stated. Every one has +heard others confess that only by "dearly bought experience" had they +been induced to give up some bad or foolish course of conduct formerly +pursued. Every one has heard, in the criticism passed on the doings of +this spendthrift or the other schemer, the remark that advice was +useless, and that nothing but "bitter experience" would produce any +effect: nothing, that is, but suffering the unavoidable consequences. +And if further proof be needed that the natural reaction is not only the +most efficient penalty, but that no humanly-devised penalty can replace +it, we have such further proof in the notorious ill-success of our +various penal systems. Out of the many methods of criminal discipline +that have been proposed and legally enforced, none have answered the +expectations of their advocates. Artificial punishments have failed to +produce reformation; and have in many cases increased the criminality. +The only successful reformatories are those privately-established ones +which approximate their regime to the method of Nature--which do little +more than administer the natural consequences of criminal conduct: +diminishing the criminal's liberty of action as much as is needful for +the safety of society, and requiring him to maintain himself while +living under this restraint. Thus we see, both that the discipline by +which the young child is taught to regulate its movements is the +discipline by which the great mass of adults are kept in order, and more +or less improved; and that the discipline humanly-devised for the worst +adults, fails when it diverges from this divinely-ordained discipline, +and begins to succeed on approximating to it. + + * * * * * + +Have we not here, then, the guiding principle of moral education? Must +we not infer that the system so beneficent in its effects during infancy +and maturity, will be equally beneficent throughout youth? Can any one +believe that the method which answers so well in the first and the last +divisions of life, will not answer in the intermediate division? Is it +not manifest that as "ministers and interpreters of Nature" it is the +function of parents to see that their children habitually experience the +true consequences of their conduct--the natural reactions: neither +warding them off, nor intensifying them, nor putting artificial +consequences in place of them? No unprejudiced reader will hesitate in +his assent. + +Probably, however, not a few will contend that already most parents do +this--that the punishments they inflict are, in the majority of cases, +the true consequences of ill-conduct--that parental anger, venting +itself in harsh words and deeds, is the result of a child's +transgression--and that, in the suffering, physical or moral, which the +child is subject to, it experiences the natural reaction of its +misbehaviour. Along with much error this assertion contains some truth. +It is unquestionable that the displeasure of fathers and mothers is a +true consequence of juvenile delinquency; and that the manifestation of +it is a normal check upon such delinquency. The scoldings, and threats, +and blows, which a passionate parent visits on offending little ones, +are doubtless effects actually drawn from such a parent by their +offences; and so are, in some sort, to be considered as among the +natural reactions of their wrong actions. Nor are we prepared to say +that these modes of treatment are not relatively right--right, that is, +in relation to the uncontrollable children of ill-controlled adults; and +right in relation to a state of society in which such ill-controlled +adults make up the mass of the people. As already suggested, educational +systems, like political and other institutions, are generally as good as +the state of human nature permits. The barbarous children of barbarous +parents are probably only to be restrained by the barbarous methods +which such parents spontaneously employ; while submission to these +barbarous methods is perhaps the best preparation such children can have +for the barbarous society in which they are presently to play a part. +Conversely, the civilised members of a civilised society will +spontaneously manifest their displeasure in less violent ways--will +spontaneously use milder measures--measures strong enough for their +better-natured children. Thus it is true that, in so far as the +expression of parental feeling is concerned, the principle of the +natural reaction is always more or less followed. The system of domestic +government ever gravitates towards its right form. + +But now observe two important facts. The first fact is that, in states +of rapid transition like ours, which witness a continuous battle between +old and new theories and old and new practices, the educational methods +in use are apt to be considerably out of harmony with the times. In +deference to dogmas fit only for the ages that uttered them, many +parents inflict punishments that do violence to their own feelings, and +so visit on their children _un_natural reactions; while other parents, +enthusiastic in their hopes of immediate perfection, rush to the +opposite extreme. The second fact is, that the discipline of chief value +is not the experience of parental approbation or disapprobation; but it +is the experience of those results which would ultimately flow from the +conduct in the absence of parental opinion or interference. The truly +instructive and salutary consequences are not those inflicted by +parents when they take upon themselves to be Nature's proxies; but they +are those inflicted by Nature herself. We will endeavour to make this +distinction clear by a few illustrations, which, while they show what we +mean by natural reactions as contrasted with artificial ones, will +afford some practical suggestions. + +In every family where there are young children there daily occur cases +of what mothers and servants call "making a litter." A child has had out +its box of toys, and leaves them scattered about the floor. Or a handful +of flowers, brought in from a morning walk, is presently seen dispersed +over tables and chairs. Or a little girl, making doll's-clothes, +disfigures the room with shreds. In most cases the trouble of rectifying +this disorder falls anywhere but where it should. Occurring in the +nursery, the nurse herself, with many grumblings about "tiresome little +things," undertakes the task; if below-stairs, the task usually devolves +either on one of the elder children or on the housemaid: the +transgressor being visited with nothing more than a scolding. In this +very simple case, however, there are many parents wise enough to follow +out, more or less consistently, the normal course--that of making the +child itself collect the toys or shreds. The labour of putting things in +order is the true consequence of having put them in disorder. Every +trader in his office, every wife in her household, has daily experience +of this fact. And if education be a preparation for the business of +life, then every child should also, from the beginning, have daily +experience of this fact. If the natural penalty be met by refractory +behaviour (which it may perhaps be where the system of moral discipline +previously pursued has been bad), then the proper course is to let the +child feel the ulterior reaction caused by its disobedience. Having +refused or neglected to pick up and put away the things it has scattered +about, and having thereby entailed the trouble of doing this on some one +else, the child should, on subsequent occasions, be denied the means of +giving this trouble. When next it petitions for its toy-box, the reply +of its mamma should be--"The last time you had your toys you left them +lying on the floor, and Jane had to pick them up. Jane is too busy to +pick up every day the things you leave about; and I cannot do it myself. +So that, as you will not put away your toys when you have done with +them, I cannot let you have them." This is obviously a natural +consequence, neither increased nor lessened; and must be so recognised +by a child. The penalty comes, too, at the moment when it is most keenly +felt. A new-born desire is balked at the moment of anticipated +gratification; and the strong impression so produced can scarcely fail +to have an effect on the future conduct: an effect which, by consistent +repetition, will do whatever can be done in curing the fault. Add to +which, that, by this method, a child is early taught the lesson which +cannot be learnt too soon, that in this world of ours pleasures are +rightly to be obtained only by labour. + +Take another case. Not long since we had frequently to hear the +reprimands visited on a little girl who was scarcely ever ready in time +for the daily walk. Of eager disposition, and apt to become absorbed in +the occupation of the moment, Constance never thought of putting on her +things till the rest were ready. The governess and the other children +had almost invariably to wait; and from the mamma there almost +invariably came the same scolding. Utterly as this system failed, it +never occurred to the mamma to let Constance experience the natural +penalty. Nor, indeed, would she try it when it was suggested to her. In +the world, unreadiness entails the loss of some advantage that would +else have been gained: the train is gone; or the steam-boat is just +leaving its moorings; or the best things in the market are sold; or all +the good seats in the concert-room are filled. And every one, in cases +perpetually occurring, may see that it is the prospective deprivations +which prevent people from being too late. Is not the inference obvious? +Should not the prospective deprivations control a child's conduct also? +If Constance is not ready at the appointed time, the natural result is +that of being left behind, and losing her walk. And after having once or +twice remained at home while the rest were enjoying themselves in the +fields--after having felt that this loss of a much-prized gratification +was solely due to want of promptitude; amendment would in all +probability take place. At any rate, the measure would be more effective +than that perpetual scolding which ends only in producing callousness. + +Again, when children, with more than usual carelessness, break or lose +the things given to them, the natural penalty--the penalty which makes +grown-up persons more careful--is the consequent inconvenience. The lack +of the lost or damaged article, and the cost of replacing it, are the +experiences by which men and women are disciplined in these matters; and +the experiences of children should be as much as possible assimilated to +theirs. We do not refer to that early period at which toys are pulled to +pieces in the process of learning their physical properties, and at +which the results of carelessness cannot be understood; but to a later +period, when the meaning and advantages of property are perceived. When +a boy, old enough to possess a penknife, uses it so roughly as to snap +the blade, or leaves it in the grass by some hedge-side where he was +cutting a stick, a thoughtless parent, or some indulgent relative, will +commonly forthwith buy him another, not seeing that, by doing this, a +valuable lesson is prevented. In such a case, a father may properly +explain that penknives cost money, and that to get money requires +labour; that he cannot afford to purchase new penknives for one who +loses or breaks them; and that until he sees evidence of greater +carefulness he must decline to make good the loss. A parallel discipline +will serve to check extravagance. + +These few familiar instances, here chosen because of the simplicity with +which they illustrate our point, will make clear to every one the +distinction between those natural penalties which we contend are the +truly efficient ones, and those artificial penalties commonly +substituted for them. Before going on to exhibit the higher and subtler +applications of the principle exemplified, let us note its many and +great superiorities over the principle, or rather the empirical +practice, which prevails in most families. + +One superiority is that the pursuance of it generates right conceptions +of cause and effect; which by frequent and consistent experience are +eventually rendered definite and complete. Proper conduct in life is +much better guaranteed when the good and evil consequences of actions +are understood, than when they are merely believed on authority. A child +who finds that disorderliness entails the trouble of putting things in +order, or who misses a gratification from dilatoriness, or whose +carelessness is followed by the want of some much-prized possession, not +only suffers a keenly-felt consequence, but gains a knowledge of +causation: both the one and the other being just like those which adult +life will bring. Whereas a child who in such cases receives a reprimand, +or some factitious penalty, not only experiences a consequence for which +it often cares very little, but misses that instruction respecting the +essential natures of good and evil conduct, which it would else have +gathered. It is a vice of the common system of artificial rewards and +punishments, long since noticed by the clear-sighted, that by +substituting for the natural results of misbehaviour certain tasks or +castigations, it produces a radically wrong moral standard. Having +throughout infancy and boyhood always regarded parental or tutorial +displeasure as the chief result of a forbidden action, the youth has +gained an established association of ideas between such action and such +displeasure, as cause and effect. Hence when parents and tutors have +abdicated, and their displeasure is not to be feared, the restraints on +forbidden actions are in great measure removed: the true restraints, the +natural reactions, having yet to be learnt by sad experience. As writes +one who has had personal knowledge of this short-sighted system:--"Young +men let loose from school, particularly those whose parents have +neglected to exert their influence, plunge into every description of +extravagance; they know no rule of action--they are ignorant of the +reasons for moral conduct--they have no foundation to rest upon--and +until they have been severely disciplined by the world are extremely +dangerous members of society." + +Another great advantage of this natural discipline is, that it is a +discipline of pure justice; and will be recognised as such by every +child. Whoso suffers nothing more than the evil which in the order of +nature results from his own misbehaviour, is much less likely to think +himself wrongly treated than if he suffers an artificially inflicted +evil; and this will hold of children as of men. Take the case of a boy +who is habitually reckless of his clothes--scrambles through hedges +without caution, or is utterly regardless of mud. If he is beaten, or +sent to bed, he is apt to consider himself ill-used; and is more likely +to brood over his injuries than to repent of his transgressions. But +suppose he is required to rectify as far as possible the harm he has +done--to clean off the mud with which he has covered himself, or to mend +the tear as well as he can. Will he not feel that the evil is one of his +own producing? Will he not while paying this penalty be continuously +conscious of the connection between it and its cause? And will he not, +spite his irritation, recognise more or less clearly the justice of the +arrangement? If several lessons of this kind fail to produce +amendment--if suits of clothes are prematurely spoiled--if the father, +pursuing this same system of discipline, declines to spend money for new +ones until the ordinary time has elapsed--and if meanwhile, there occur +occasions on which, having no decent clothes to go in, the boy is +debarred from joining the rest of the family on holiday excursions and +_fête_ days, it is manifest that while he will keenly feel the +punishment, he can scarcely fail to trace the chain of causation, and to +perceive that his own carelessness is the origin of it. And seeing this, +he will not have any such sense of injustice as if there were no obvious +connection between the transgression and its penalty. + +Again, the tempers both of parents and children are much less liable to +be ruffled under this system than under the ordinary system. When +instead of letting children experience the painful results which +naturally follow from wrong conduct, parents themselves inflict certain +other painful results, they produce double mischief. Making, as they do, +multiplied family laws; and identifying their own supremacy and dignity +with the maintenance of these laws; every transgression is regarded as +an offence against themselves, and a cause of anger on their part. And +then come the further vexations which result from taking upon +themselves, in the shape of extra labour or cost, those evil +consequences which should have been allowed to fall on the wrong-doers. +Similarly with the children. Penalties which the necessary reaction of +things brings round upon them--penalties which are inflicted by +impersonal agency, produce an irritation that is comparatively slight +and transient; whereas, penalties voluntarily inflicted by a parent, and +afterwards thought of as caused by him or her, produce an irritation +both greater and more continued. Just consider how disastrous would be +the result if this empirical method were pursued from the beginning. +Suppose it were possible for parents to take upon themselves the +physical sufferings entailed on their children by ignorance and +awkwardness; and that while bearing these evil consequences they visited +on their children certain other evil consequences, with the view of +teaching them the impropriety of their conduct. Suppose that when a +child, who had been forbidden to meddle with the kettle, spilt boiling +water on its foot, the mother vicariously assumed the scald and gave a +blow in place of it; and similarly in all other cases. Would not the +daily mishaps be sources of far more anger than now? Would there not be +chronic ill-temper on both sides? Yet an exactly parallel policy is +pursued in after-years. A father who beats his boy for carelessly or +wilfully breaking a sister's toy, and then himself pays for a new toy, +does substantially this same thing--inflicts an artificial penalty on +the transgressor, and takes the natural penalty on himself: his own +feelings and those of the transgressor being alike needlessly irritated. +Did he simply require restitution to be made, he would produce far less +heart-burning. If he told the boy that a new toy must be bought at his, +the boy's, cost; and that his supply of pocket-money must be withheld to +the needful extent; there would be much less disturbance of temper on +either side: while in the deprivation afterwards felt, the boy would +experience the equitable and salutary consequence. In brief, the system +of discipline by natural reactions is less injurious to temper, both +because it is perceived to be nothing more than pure justice, and +because it in great part substitutes the impersonal agency of Nature for +the personal agency of parents. + +Whence also follows the manifest corollary, that under this system the +parental and filial relation, being a more friendly, will be a more +influential one. Whether in parent or child, anger, however caused, and +to whomsoever directed, is detrimental. But anger in a parent towards a +child, and in a child towards a parent, is especially detrimental; +because it weakens that bond of sympathy which is essential to +beneficent control. From the law of association of ideas, it inevitably +results, both in young and old, that dislike is contracted towards +things which in experience are habitually connected with disagreeable +feelings. Or where attachment originally existed, it is diminished, or +turned into repugnance, according to the quantity of painful impressions +received. Parental wrath, venting itself in reprimands and castigations, +cannot fail, if often repeated, to produce filial alienation; while the +resentment and sulkiness of children cannot fail to weaken the affection +felt for them, and may even end in destroying it. Hence the numerous +cases in which parents (and especially fathers, who are commonly deputed +to inflict the punishment) are regarded with indifference, if not with +aversion; and hence the equally numerous cases in which children are +looked upon as inflictions. Seeing then, as all must do, that +estrangement of this kind is fatal to a salutary moral culture, it +follows that parents cannot be too solicitous in avoiding occasions of +direct antagonism with their children. And therefore they cannot too +anxiously avail themselves of this discipline of natural consequences; +which, by relieving them from penal functions, prevents mutual +exasperations and estrangements. + +The method of moral culture by experience of the normal reactions, which +is the divinely-ordained method alike for infancy and for adult life, we +thus find to be equally applicable during the intermediate childhood and +youth. Among the advantages of this method we see:--First: that it gives +that rational knowledge of right and wrong conduct which results from +personal experience of their good and bad consequences. Second: that the +child, suffering nothing more than the painful effects of its own wrong +actions, must recognise more or less clearly the justice of the +penalties. Third: that recognising the justice of the penalties, and +receiving them through the working of things rather than at the hands +of an individual, its temper is less disturbed; while the parent +fulfilling the comparatively passive duty of letting the natural +penalties be felt, preserves a comparative equanimity. Fourth: that +mutual exasperations being thus prevented, a much happier, and a more +influential relation, will exist between parent and child. + + * * * * * + +"But what is to be done in cases of more serious misconduct?" some will +ask. "How is this plan to be carried out when a petty theft has been +committed? or when a lie has been told? or when some younger brother or +sister has been ill-used?" + +Before replying to these questions, let us consider the bearings of a +few illustrative facts. + +Living in the family of his brother-in-law, a friend of ours had +undertaken the education of his little nephew and niece. This he had +conducted, more perhaps from natural sympathy than from reasoned-out +conclusions, in the spirit of the method above set forth. The two +children were in doors his pupils and out of doors his companions. They +daily joined him in walks and botanising excursions, eagerly sought +plants for him, looked on while he examined and identified them, and in +this and other ways were ever gaining pleasure and instruction in his +society. In short, morally considered, he stood to them much more in the +position of parent than either their father or mother did. Describing to +us the results of this policy, he gave, among other instances, the +following. One evening, having need for some article lying in another +part of the house, he asked his nephew to fetch it. Interested as the +boy was in some amusement of the moment, he, contrary to his wont, +either exhibited great reluctance or refused, we forget which. His +uncle, disapproving of a coercive course, went himself for that which he +wanted: merely exhibiting by his manner the annoyance this ill-behaviour +gave him. And when, later in the evening, the boy made overtures for the +usual play, they were gravely repelled--the uncle manifested just that +coldness naturally produced in him; and so let the boy feel the +necessary consequences of his conduct. Next morning at the usual time +for rising, our friend heard a new voice outside the door, and in walked +his little nephew with the hot water. Peering about the room to see what +else could be done, the boy then exclaimed, "Oh! you want your boots;" +and forthwith rushed downstairs to fetch them. In this and other ways he +showed a true penitence for his misconduct. He endeavoured by unusual +services to make up for the service he had refused. His better feelings +had made a real conquest over his lower ones; and acquired strength by +the victory. And having felt what it was to be without it, he valued +more than before the friendship he thus regained. + +This gentleman is now himself a father; acts on the same system; and +finds it answer completely. He makes himself thoroughly his children's +friend. The evening is longed for by them because he will be at home; +and they especially enjoy Sunday because he is with them all day. Thus +possessing their perfect confidence and affection, he finds that the +simple display of his approbation or disapprobation gives him abundant +power of control. If, on his return home, he hears that one of his boys +has been naughty, he behaves towards him with that coolness which the +consciousness of the boy's misconduct naturally produces; and he finds +this a most efficient punishment. The mere withholding of the usual +caresses, is a source of much distress--produces a more prolonged fit of +crying than a beating would do. And the dread of this purely moral +penalty is, he says, ever present during his absence: so much so, that +frequently during the day his children ask their mamma how they have +behaved, and whether the report will be good. Recently, the eldest, an +active urchin of five, in one of those bursts of animal spirits common +in healthy children, committed sundry extravagances during his mamma's +absence--cut off part of his brother's hair and wounded himself with a +razor taken from his father's dressing-case. Hearing of these +occurrences on his return, the father did not speak to the boy either +that night or next morning. Besides the immediate tribulation the effect +was, that when, a few days after, the mamma was about to go out, she was +entreated by the boy not to do so; and on inquiry, it appeared his fear +was that he might again transgress in her absence. + +We have introduced these facts before replying to the question--"What is +to be done with the graver offences?" for the purpose of first +exhibiting the relation that may and ought to be established between +parents and children; for on the existence of this relation depends the +successful treatment of these graver offences. And as a further +preliminary, we must now point out that the establishment of this +relation will result from adopting the system here advocated. Already we +have shown that by simply letting a child experience the painful +reactions of its own wrong actions, a parent avoids antagonism and +escapes being regarded as an enemy; but it remains to be shown that +where this course has been consistently pursued from the beginning, a +feeling of active friendship will be generated. + +At present, mothers and fathers are mostly considered by their offspring +as friend enemies. Determined as the impressions of children inevitably +are by the treatment they receive; and oscillating as that treatment +does between bribery and thwarting, between petting and scolding, +between gentleness and castigation; they necessarily acquire conflicting +beliefs respecting the parental character. A mother commonly thinks it +sufficient to tell her little boy that she is his best friend; and +assuming that he ought to believe her, concludes that he will do so. "It +is all for your good;" "I know what is proper for you better than you do +yourself;" "You are not old enough to understand it now, but when you +grow up you will thank me for doing what I do;"--these, and like +assertions, are daily reiterated. Meanwhile the boy is daily suffering +positive penalties; and is hourly forbidden to do this, that, and the +other, which he wishes to do. By words he hears that his happiness is +the end in view; but from the accompanying deeds he habitually receives +more or less pain. Incompetent as he is to understand that future which +his mother has in view, or how this treatment conduces to the happiness +of that future, he judges by the results he feels; and finding such +results anything but pleasurable, he becomes sceptical respecting her +professions of friendship. And is it not folly to expect any other +issue? Must not the child reason from the evidence he has got? and does +not this evidence seem to warrant his conclusion? The mother would +reason in just the same way if similarly placed. If, among her +acquaintance, she found some one who was constantly thwarting her +wishes, uttering sharp reprimands, and occasionally inflicting actual +penalties on her, she would pay small attention to any professions of +anxiety for her welfare which accompanied these acts. Why, then, does +she suppose that her boy will do otherwise? + +But now observe how different will be the results if the system we +contend for be consistently pursued--if the mother not only avoids +becoming the instrument of punishment, but plays the part of a friend, +by warning her boy of the punishments which Nature will inflict. Take a +case; and that it may illustrate the mode in which this policy is to be +early initiated, let it be one of the simplest cases. Suppose that, +prompted by the experimental spirit so conspicuous in children, whose +proceedings instinctively conform to the inductive method of +inquiry--suppose that so prompted, the boy is amusing himself by +lighting pieces of paper in the candle and watching them burn. A mother +of the ordinary unreflective stamp, will either, on the plea of keeping +him "out of mischief," or from fear that he will burn himself, command +him to desist; and in case of non-compliance will snatch the paper from +him. But, should he be fortunate enough to have a mother of some +rationality, who knows that this interest with which he is watching the +paper burn, results from a healthy inquisitiveness, and who has also the +wisdom to consider the results of interference, she will reason +thus:--"If I put a stop to this I shall prevent the acquirement of a +certain amount of knowledge. It is true that I may save the child from a +burn; but what then? He is sure to burn himself sometime; and it is +quite essential to his safety in life that he should learn by experience +the properties of flame. If I forbid him from running this present risk, +he will certainly hereafter run the same or a greater risk when no one +is present to prevent him; whereas, should he have an accident now that +I am by, I can save him from any great injury. Moreover, were I to make +him desist, I should thwart him in the pursuit of what is in itself a +purely harmless, and indeed, instructive gratification; and he would +regard me with more or less ill-feeling. Ignorant as he is of the pain +from which I would save him, and feeling only the pain of a balked +desire, he could not fail to look on me as the cause of that pain. To +save him from a hurt which he cannot conceive, and which has therefore +no existence for him, I hurt him in a way which he feels keenly enough; +and so become, from his point of view, a minister of evil. My best +course then, is simply to warn him of the danger, and to be ready to +prevent any serious damage." And following out this conclusion, she says +to the child--"I fear you will hurt yourself if you do that." Suppose, +now, that the boy, persevering as he will probably do, ends by burning +his hand. What are the results? In the first place he has gained an +experience which he must gain eventually, and which, for his own safety, +he cannot gain too soon. And in the second place, he has found that his +mother's disapproval or warning was meant for his welfare: he has a +further positive experience of her benevolence--a further reason for +placing confidence in her judgment and kindness--a further reason for +loving her. + +Of course, in those occasional hazards where there is a risk of broken +limbs or other serious injury, forcible prevention is called for. But +leaving out extreme cases, the system pursued should be, not that of +guarding a child from the small risks which it daily runs, but that of +advising and warning it against them. And by pursuing this course, a +much stronger filial affection will be generated than commonly exists. +If here, as elsewhere, the discipline of the natural reactions is +allowed to come into play--if in those out-door scramblings and in-door +experiments, by which children are liable to injure themselves, they are +allowed to persist, subject only to dissuasion more or less earnest +according to the danger, there cannot fail to arise an ever-increasing +faith in the parental friendship and guidance. Not only, as before +shown, does the adoption of this course enable fathers and mothers to +avoid the odium which attaches to the infliction of positive punishment; +but, as we here see, it enables them to avoid the odium which attaches +to constant thwartings; and even to turn those incidents that commonly +cause squabbles, into a means of strengthening the mutual good feeling. +Instead of being told in words, which deeds seem to contradict, that +their parents are their best friends, children will learn this truth by +a consistent daily experience; and so learning it, will acquire a degree +of trust and attachment which nothing else can give. + +And now, having indicated the more sympathetic relation which must +result from the habitual use of this method, let us return to the +question above put--How is this method to be applied to the graver +offences? + +Note, in the first place, that these graver offences are likely to be +both less frequent and less grave under the régime we have described +than under the ordinary régime. The ill-behaviour of many children is +itself a consequence of that chronic irritation in which they are kept +by bad management. The state of isolation and antagonism produced by +frequent punishment, necessarily deadens the sympathies; necessarily, +therefore, opens the way to those transgressions which the sympathies +check. That harsh treatment which children of the same family inflict on +each other, is often, in great measure, a reflex of the harsh treatment +they receive from adults--partly suggested by direct example, and partly +generated by the ill-temper and the tendency to vicarious retaliation, +which follow chastisements and scoldings. It cannot be questioned that +the greater activity of the affections and happier state of feeling, +maintained in children by the discipline we have described, must prevent +them from sinning against each other so gravely and so frequently. The +still more reprehensible offences, as lies and petty thefts, will, by +the same causes, be diminished. Domestic estrangement is a fruitful +source of such transgressions. It is a law of human nature, visible +enough to all who observe, that those who are debarred the higher +gratifications fall back upon the lower; those who have no sympathetic +pleasures seek selfish ones; and hence, conversely, the maintenance of +happier relations between parents and children is calculated to diminish +the number of those offences of which selfishness is the origin. + +When, however, such offences are committed, as they will occasionally be +even under the best system, the discipline of consequences may still be +resorted to; and if there exists that bond of confidence and affection +above described, this discipline will be efficient. For what are the +natural consequences, say, of a theft? They are of two kinds--direct and +indirect. The direct consequence, as dictated by pure equity, is that of +making restitution. A just ruler (and every parent should aim to be one) +will demand that, when possible, a wrong act shall be undone by a right +one; and in the case of theft this implies either the restoration of the +thing stolen, or, if it is consumed, the giving of an equivalent: which, +in the case of a child, may be effected out of its pocket-money. The +indirect and more serious consequence is the grave displeasure of +parents--a consequence which inevitably follows among all peoples +civilised enough to regard theft as a crime. "But," it will be said, +"the manifestation of parental displeasure, either in words or blows, is +the ordinary course in these cases: the method leads here to nothing +new." Very true. Already we have admitted that, in some directions, this +method is spontaneously pursued. Already we have shown that there is a +tendency for educational systems to gravitate towards the true system. +And here we may remark, as before, that the intensity of this natural +reaction will, in the beneficent order of things, adjust itself to the +requirements--that this parental displeasure will vent itself in violent +measures during comparatively barbarous times, when children are also +comparatively barbarous; and will express itself less cruelly in those +more advanced social states in which, by implication, the children are +amenable to milder treatment. But what it chiefly concerns us here to +observe is, that the manifestation of strong parental displeasure, +produced by one of these graver offences, will be potent for good, just +in proportion to the warmth of the attachment existing between parent +and child. Just in proportion as the discipline of natural consequences +has been consistently pursued in other cases, will it be efficient in +this case. Proof is within the experience of all, if they will look for +it. + +For does not every one know that when he has offended another, the +amount of regret he feels (of course, leaving worldly considerations out +of the question) varies with the degree of sympathy he has for that +other? Is he not conscious that when the person offended is an enemy, +the having given him annoyance is apt to be a source rather of secret +satisfaction than of sorrow? Does he not remember that where umbrage has +been taken by some total stranger, he has felt much less concern than he +would have done had such umbrage been taken by one with whom he was +intimate? While, conversely, has not the anger of an admired and +cherished friend been regarded by him as a serious misfortune, long and +keenly regretted? Well, the effects of parental displeasure on children +must similarly vary with the pre-existing relationship. Where there is +an established alienation, the feeling of a child who has transgressed +is a purely selfish fear of the impending physical penalties or +deprivations; and after these have been inflicted, the injurious +antagonism and dislike which result, add to the alienation. On the +contrary, where there exists a warm filial affection produced by a +consistent parental friendship, the state of mind caused by parental +displeasure is not only a salutary check to future misconduct of like +kind, but is intrinsically salutary. The moral pain consequent on +having, for the time being, lost so loved a friend, stands in place of +the physical pain usually inflicted; and proves equally, if not more, +efficient. While instead of the fear and vindictiveness excited by the +one course, there are excited by the other a sympathy with parental +sorrow, a genuine regret for having caused it, and a desire, by some +atonement, to reestablish the friendly relationship. Instead of bringing +into play those egotistic feelings whose predominance is the cause of +criminal acts, there are brought into play those altruistic feelings +which check criminal acts. Thus the discipline of natural consequences +is applicable to grave as well as trivial faults; and the practice of it +conduces not simply to the repression, but to the eradication of such +faults. + +In brief, the truth is that savageness begets savageness, and gentleness +begets gentleness. Children who are unsympathetically treated become +unsympathetic; whereas treating them with due fellow-feeling is a means +of cultivating their fellow-feeling. With family governments as with +political ones, a harsh despotism itself generates a great part of the +crimes it has to repress; while on the other hand a mild and liberal +rule both avoids many causes of dissension, and so ameliorates the tone +of feeling as to diminish the tendency to transgression. As John Locke +long since remarked, "Great severity of punishment does but very little +good, nay, great harm, in education; and I believe it will be found +that, _cæteris paribus_, those children who have been most chastised +seldom make the best men." In confirmation of which opinion we may cite +the fact not long since made public by Mr. Rogers, Chaplain of the +Pentonville Prison, that those juvenile criminals who have been whipped +are those who most frequently return to prison. Conversely, the +beneficial effects of a kinder treatment are well illustrated in a fact +stated to us by a French lady, in whose house we recently stayed in +Paris. Apologising for the disturbance daily caused by a little boy who +was unmanageable both at home and at school, she expressed her fear that +there was no remedy save that which had succeeded in the case of an +elder brother; namely, sending him to an English school. She explained +that at various schools in Paris this elder brother had proved utterly +untractable; that in despair they had followed the advice to send him to +England; and that on his return home he was as good as he had before +been bad. This remarkable change she ascribed entirely to the +comparative mildness of the English discipline. + + * * * * * + +After the foregoing exposition of principles, our remaining space may +best be occupied by a few of the chief maxims and rules deducible from +them; and with a view to brevity we will put these in a hortatory form. + +Do not expect from a child any great amount of moral goodness. During +early years every civilised man passes through that phase of character +exhibited by the barbarous race from which he is descended. As the +child's features--flat nose, forward-opening nostrils, large lips, +wide-apart eyes, absent frontal sinus, etc.--resemble for a time those +of the savage, so, too, do his instincts. Hence the tendencies to +cruelty, to thieving, to lying, so general among children--tendencies +which, even without the aid of discipline, will become more or less +modified just as the features do. The popular idea that children are +"innocent," while it is true with respect to evil _knowledge_, is +totally false with respect to evil _impulses_; as half an hour's +observation in the nursery will prove to any one. Boys when left to +themselves, as at public schools, treat each other more brutally than +men do; and were they left to themselves at an earlier age their +brutality would be still more conspicuous. + +Not only is it unwise to set up a high standard of good conduct for +children, but it is even unwise to use very urgent incitements to good +conduct. Already most people recognise the detrimental results of +intellectual precocity; but there remains to be recognised the fact that +_moral precocity_ also has detrimental results. Our higher moral +faculties, like our higher intellectual ones, are comparatively complex. +By consequence, both are comparatively late in their evolution. And with +the one as with the other, an early activity produced by stimulation +will be at the expense of the future character. Hence the not uncommon +anomaly that those who during childhood were models of juvenile +goodness, by and by undergo a seemingly inexplicable change for the +worse, and end by being not above but below par; while relatively +exemplary men are often the issue of a childhood by no means promising. + +Be content, therefore, with moderate measures and moderate results. Bear +in mind that a higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must be +reached by slow growth; and you will then have patience with those +imperfections which your child hourly displays. You will be less prone +to that constant scolding, and threatening, and forbidding, by which +many parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in the foolish hope +that they will thus make their children what they should be. + +This liberal form of domestic government, which does not seek +despotically to regulate all the details of a child's conduct, +necessarily results from the system we advocate. Satisfy yourself with +seeing that your child always suffers the natural consequences of his +actions, and you will avoid that excess of control in which so many +parents err. Leave him wherever you can to the discipline of experience, +and you will save him from that hot-house virtue which over-regulation +produces in yielding natures, or that demoralising antagonism which it +produces in independent ones. + +By aiming in all cases to insure the natural reactions to your child's +actions, you will put an advantageous check on your own temper. The +method of moral education pursued by many, we fear by most, parents, is +little else than that of venting their anger in the way that first +suggests itself. The slaps, and rough shakings and sharp words, with +which a mother commonly visits her offspring's small offences (many of +them not offences considered intrinsically), are generally but the +manifestations of her ill-controlled feelings--result much more from the +promptings of those feelings than from a wish to benefit the offenders. +But by pausing in each case of transgression to consider what is the +normal consequence, and how it may best be brought home to the +transgressor, some little time is obtained for the mastery of yourself; +the mere blind anger first aroused settles down into a less vehement +feeling, and one not so likely to mislead you. + +Do not, however, seek to behave as a passionless instrument. Remember +that besides the natural reactions to your child's actions which the +working of things tends to bring round on him, your own approbation or +disapprobation is also a natural reaction, and one of the ordained +agencies for guiding him. The error we have been combating is that of +_substituting_ parental displeasure and its artificial penalties, for +the penalties which Nature has established. But while it should not be +_substituted_ for these natural penalties, we by no means argue that it +should not, in some form, _accompany_ them. Though the _secondary_ kind +of punishment should not usurp the place of the _primary_ kind; it may, +in moderation, rightly supplement the primary kind. Such amount of +sorrow or indignation as you feel, should be expressed in words or +manner; subject, of course, to the approval of your judgment. The kind +and degree of feeling produced in you will necessarily depend on your +own character; and it is therefore useless to say it should be this or +that. Nevertheless, you may endeavour to modify the feeling into that +which you believe ought to be entertained. Beware, however, of the two +extremes; not only in respect of the intensity, but in respect of the +duration, of your displeasure. On the one hand, avoid that weak +impulsiveness, so general among mothers, which scolds and forgives +almost in the same breath. On the other hand, do not unduly continue to +show estrangement of feeling, lest you accustom your child to do without +your friendship, and so lose your influence over him. The moral +reactions called forth from you by your child's actions, you should as +much as possible assimilate to those which you conceive would be called +forth from a parent of perfect nature. + +Be sparing of commands. Command only when other means are inapplicable, +or have failed. "In frequent orders the parents' advantage is more +considered than the child's," says Richter. As in primitive societies a +breach of law is punished, not so much because it is intrinsically wrong +as because it is a disregard of the king's authority--a rebellion +against him; so in many families, the penalty visited on a transgressor +is prompted less by reprobation of the offence than by anger at the +disobedience. Listen to the ordinary speeches--"How _dare_ you disobey +me?" "I tell you I'll _make_ you do it, sir." "I'll soon teach you who +is _master_"--and then consider what the words, the tone, and the manner +imply. A determination to subjugate is far more conspicuous in them, +than anxiety for the child's welfare. For the time being the attitude of +mind differs but little from that of a despot bent on punishing a +recalcitrant subject. The right-feeling parent, however, like the +philanthropic legislator, will rejoice not in coercion, but in +dispensing with coercion. He will do without law wherever other modes of +regulating conduct can be successfully employed; and he will regret the +having recourse to law when law is necessary. As Richter remarks--"The +best rule in politics is said to be '_pas trop gouverner_:' it is also +true in education." And in spontaneous conformity with this maxim, +parents whose lust of dominion is restrained by a true sense of duty, +will aim to make their children control themselves as much as possible, +and will fall back upon absolutism only as a last resort. + +But whenever you _do_ command, command with decision and consistency. If +the case is one which really cannot be otherwise dealt with, then issue +your fiat, and having issued it, never afterwards swerve from it. +Consider well what you are going to do; weigh all the consequences; +think whether you have adequate firmness of purpose; and then, if you +finally make the law, enforce obedience at whatever cost. Let your +penalties be like the penalties inflicted by inanimate +Nature--inevitable. The hot cinder burns a child the first time he +seizes it; it burns him the second time; it burns him the third time; it +burns him every time; and he very soon learns not to touch the hot +cinder. If you are equally consistent--if the consequences which you +tell your child will follow specified acts, follow with like uniformity, +he will soon come to respect your laws as he does those of Nature. And +this respect once established, will prevent endless domestic evils. Of +errors in education one of the worst is inconsistency. As in a +community, crimes multiply when there is no certain administration of +justice; so in a family, an immense increase of transgressions results +from a hesitating or irregular infliction of punishments. A weak mother, +who perpetually threatens and rarely performs--who makes rules in haste +and repents of them at leisure--who treats the same offence now with +severity and now with leniency, as the passing humour dictates, is +laying up miseries for herself and her children. She is making herself +contemptible in their eyes; she is setting them an example of +uncontrolled feelings; she is encouraging them to transgress by the +prospect of probable impunity: she is entailing endless squabbles and +accompanying damage to her own temper and the tempers of her little +ones; she is reducing their minds to a moral chaos, which after years of +bitter experience will with difficulty bring into order. Better even a +barbarous form of domestic government carried out consistently, than a +humane one inconsistently carried out. Again we say, avoid coercive +measures whenever it is possible to do so; but when you find despotism +really necessary, be despotic in good earnest. + +Remember that the aim of your discipline should be to produce a +_self-governing_ being; not to produce a being to be _governed by +others_. Were your children fated to pass their lives as slaves, you +could not too much accustom them to slavery during their childhood; but +as they are by and by to be free men, with no one to control their daily +conduct, you cannot too much accustom them to self-control while they +are still under your eye. This it is which makes the system of +discipline by natural consequences so especially appropriate to the +social state which we in England have now reached. In feudal times, when +one of the chief evils the citizen had to fear was the anger of his +superiors, it was well that during childhood, parental vengeance should +be a chief means of government. But now that the citizen has little to +fear from any one--now that the good or evil which he experiences is +mainly that which in the order of things results from his own conduct, +he should from his first years begin to learn, experimentally, the good +or evil consequences which naturally follow this or that conduct. Aim, +therefore, to diminish the parental government, as fast as you can +substitute for it in your child's mind that self-government arising from +a foresight of results. During infancy a considerable amount of +absolutism is necessary. A three-year old urchin playing with an open +razor, cannot be allowed to learn by this discipline of consequences; +for the consequences may be too serious. But as intelligence increases, +the number of peremptory interferences may be, and should be, +diminished, with the view of gradually ending them as maturity is +approached. All transitions are dangerous; and the most dangerous is the +transition from the restraint of the family circle to the non-restraint +of the world. Hence the importance of pursuing the policy we advocate; +which, by cultivating a boy's faculty of self-restraint, by continually +increasing the degree in which he is left to his self-restraint, and by +so bringing him, step by step, to a state of unaided self-restraint, +obliterates the ordinary sudden and hazardous change from +externally-governed youth to internally-governed maturity. Let the +history of your domestic rule typify, in little, the history of our +political rule: at the outset, autocratic control, where control is +really needful; by and by an incipient constitutionalism, in which the +liberty of the subject gains some express recognition; successive +extensions of this liberty of the subject; gradually ending in parental +abdication. + +Do not regret the display of considerable self-will on the part of your +children. It is the correlative of that diminished coerciveness so +conspicuous in modern education. The greater tendency to assert freedom +of action on the one side, corresponds to the smaller tendency to +tyrannise on the other. They both indicate an approach to the system of +discipline we contend for, under which children will be more and more +led to rule themselves by the experience of natural consequences; and +they are both accompaniments of our more advanced social state. The +independent English boy is the father of the independent English man; +and you cannot have the last without the first. German teachers say that +they had rather manage a dozen German boys than one English one. Shall +we, therefore, wish that our boys had the manageableness of German ones, +and with it the submissiveness and political serfdom of adult Germans? +Or shall we not rather tolerate in our boys those feelings which make +them free men, and modify our methods accordingly? + +Lastly, always recollect that to educate rightly is not a simple and +easy thing, but a complex and extremely difficult thing, the hardest +task which devolves on adult life. The rough-and-ready style of domestic +government is indeed practicable by the meanest and most uncultivated +intellects. Slaps and sharp words are penalties that suggest themselves +alike to the least reclaimed barbarian and the stolidest peasant. Even +brutes can use this method of discipline; as you may see in the growl +and half-bite with which a bitch will check a too-exigeant puppy. But if +you would carry out with success a rational and civilised system, you +must be prepared for considerable mental exertion--for some study, some +ingenuity, some patience, some self-control. You will have habitually to +consider what are the results which in adult life follow certain kinds +of acts; and you must then devise methods by which parallel results +shall be entailed on the parallel acts of your children. It will daily +be needful to analyse the motives of juvenile conduct--to distinguish +between acts that are really good and those which, though simulating +them, proceed from inferior impulses; while you will have to be ever on +your guard against the cruel mistake not unfrequently made, of +translating neutral acts into transgressions, or ascribing worse +feelings than were entertained. You must more or less modify your method +to suit the disposition of each child; and must be prepared to make +further modifications as each child's disposition enters on a new phase. +Your faith will often be taxed to maintain the requisite perseverance in +a course which seems to produce little or no effect. Especially if you +are dealing with children who have been wrongly treated, you must be +prepared for a lengthened trial of patience before succeeding with +better methods; since that which is not easy even where a right state of +feeling has been established from the beginning, becomes doubly +difficult when a wrong state of feeling has to be set right. Not only +will you have constantly to analyse the motives of your children, but +you will have to analyse your own motives--to discriminate between those +internal suggestions springing from a true parental solicitude and those +which spring from your own selfishness, your love of ease, your lust of +dominion. And then, more trying still, you will have not only to detect, +but to curb these baser impulses. In brief, you will have to carry on +your own higher education at the same time that you are educating your +children. Intellectually you must cultivate to good purpose that most +complex of subjects--human nature and its laws, as exhibited in your +children, in yourself, and in the world. Morally, you must keep in +constant exercise your higher feelings, and restrain your lower. It is a +truth yet remaining to be recognised, that the last stage in the mental +development of each man and woman is to be reached only through a proper +discharge of the parental duties. And when this truth is recognised, it +will be seen how admirable is the arrangement through which human beings +are led by their strongest affections to subject themselves to a +discipline that they would else elude. + +While some will regard this conception of education as it should be with +doubt and discouragement, others will, we think, perceive in the exalted +ideal which it involves, evidence of its truth. That it cannot be +realised by the impulsive, the unsympathetic, and the short-sighted, +but demands the higher attributes of human nature, they will see to be +evidence of its fitness for the more advanced states of humanity. Though +it calls for much labour and self-sacrifice, they will see that it +promises an abundant return of happiness, immediate and remote. They +will see that while in its injurious effects on both parent and child a +bad system is twice cursed, a good system is twice blessed--it blesses +him that trains and him that's trained. + +[1] Of this nature is the plea put in by some for the rough treatment +experienced by boys at our public schools; where, as it is said, they +are introduced to a miniature world whose hardships prepare them for +those of the real world. It must be admitted that the plea has some +force; but it is a very insufficient plea. For whereas domestic and +school discipline, though they should not be much better than the +discipline of adult life, should be somewhat better; the discipline +which boys meet with at Eton, Winchester, Harrow, etc., is worse than +that of adult life--more unjust and cruel. Instead of being an aid to +human progress, which all culture should be, the culture of our public +schools, by accustoming boys to a despotic form of government and an +intercourse regulated by brute force, tends to fit them for a lower +state of society than that which exists. And chiefly recruited as our +legislature is from among those who are brought up at such schools, this +barbarising influence becomes a hindrance to national progress. + + + + +PHYSICAL EDUCATION + + +Equally at the squire's table after the withdrawal of the ladies, at the +farmers' market-ordinary, and at the village ale-house, the topic which, +after the political question of the day, excites the most general +interest, is the management of animals. Riding home from hunting, the +conversation usually gravitates towards horse-breeding, and pedigrees, +and comments on this or that "good point;" while a day on the moors is +very unlikely to end without something being said on the treatment of +dogs. When crossing the fields together from church, the tenants of +adjacent farms are apt to pass from criticisms on the sermon to +criticisms on the weather, the crops, and the stock; and thence to slide +into discussions on the various kinds of fodder and their feeding +qualities. Hodge and Giles, after comparing notes over their respective +pig-styes, show by their remarks that they have been observant of their +masters' beasts and sheep; and of the effects produced on them by this +or that kind of treatment. Nor is it only among the rural population +that the regulations of the kennel, the stable, the cow-shed, and the +sheep-pen, are favourite subjects. In towns, too, the numerous artisans +who keep dogs, the young men who are rich enough to now and then indulge +their sporting tendencies, and their more staid seniors who talk over +agricultural progress or read Mr. Mechi's annual reports and Mr. Caird's +letters to the _Times_, form, when added together, a large portion of +the inhabitants. Take the adult males throughout the kingdom, and a +great majority will be found to show some interest in the breeding, +rearing, or training of animals, of one kind or other. + +But, during after-dinner conversations, or at other times of like +intercourse, who hears anything said about the rearing of children? When +the country gentleman has paid his daily visit to the stable, and +personally inspected the condition and treatment of his horses; when he +has glanced at his minor live stock, and given directions about them; +how often does he go up to the nursery and examine into its dietary, its +hours, its ventilation? On his library-shelves may be found White's +_Farriery_, Stephens's _Book of the Farm_, Nimrod _on the Condition of +Hunters_; and with the contents of these he is more or less familiar; +but how many books has he read on the management of infancy and +childhood? The fattening properties of oil-cake, the relative values of +hay and chopped straw, the dangers of unlimited clover, are points on +which every landlord, farmer, and peasant has some knowledge; but what +percentage of them inquire whether the food they give their children is +adapted to the constitutional needs of growing boys and girls? Perhaps +the business-interests of these classes will be assigned as accounting +for this anomaly. The explanation is inadequate, however; seeing that +the same contrast holds among other classes. Of a score of townspeople, +few, if any, would prove ignorant of the fact that it is undesirable to +work a horse soon after it has eaten; and yet, of this same score, +supposing them all to be fathers, probably not one would be found who +had considered whether the time elapsing between his children's dinner +and their resumption of lessons was sufficient. Indeed, on +cross-examination, nearly every man would disclose the latent opinion +that the regimen of the nursery was no concern of his. "Oh, I leave all +those things to the women," would probably be the reply. And in most +cases the tone of this reply would convey the implication, that such +cares are not consistent with masculine dignity. + +Regarded from any but a conventional point of view, the fact seems +strange that while the raising of first-rate bullocks is an occupation +on which educated men willingly bestow much time and thought, the +bringing up of fine human beings is an occupation tacitly voted unworthy +of their attention. Mammas who have been taught little but languages, +music, and accomplishments, aided by nurses full of antiquated +prejudices, are held competent regulators of the food, clothing, and +exercise of children. Meanwhile the fathers read books and periodicals, +attend agricultural meetings, try experiments, and engage in +discussions, all with the view of discovering how to fatten prize pigs! +We see infinite pains taken to produce a racer that shall win the Derby: +none to produce a modern athlete. Had Gulliver narrated of the Laputans +that the men vied with each other in learning how best to rear the +offspring of other creatures, and were careless of learning how best to +rear their own offspring, he would have paralleled any of the other +absurdities he ascribes to them. + +The matter is a serious one, however. Ludicrous as is the antithesis, +the fact it expresses is not less disastrous. As remarks a suggestive +writer, the first requisite to success in life is "to be a good animal;" +and to be a nation of good animals is the first condition to national +prosperity. Not only is it that the event of a war often turns on the +strength and hardiness of soldiers; but it is that the contests of +commerce are in part determined by the bodily endurance of producers. +Thus far we have found no reason to fear trials of strength with other +races in either of these fields. But there are not wanting signs that +our powers will presently be taxed to the uttermost. The competition of +modern life is so keen, that few can bear the required application +without injury. Already thousands break down under the high pressure +they are subject to. If this pressure continues to increase, as it seems +likely to do, it will try severely even the soundest constitutions. +Hence it is becoming of especial importance that the training of +children should be so carried on, as not only to fit them mentally for +the struggle before them, but also to make them physically fit to bear +its excessive wear and tear. + +Happily the matter is beginning to attract attention. The writings of +Mr. Kingsley indicate a reaction against over-culture; carried perhaps, +as reactions usually are, somewhat too far. Occasional letters and +leaders in the newspapers have shown an awakening interest in physical +training. And the formation of a school, significantly nicknamed that of +"muscular Christianity," implies a growing opinion that our present +methods of bringing up children do not sufficiently regard the welfare +of the body. The topic is evidently ripe for discussion. + +To conform the regimen of the nursery and the school to the established +truths of modern science--this is the desideratum. It is time that the +benefits which our sheep and oxen are deriving from the investigations +of the laboratory, should be participated in by our children. Without +calling in question the great importance of horse-training and +pig-feeding, we would suggest that, as the rearing of well-grown men and +women is also of some moment, these conclusions which theory indicates +and practice indorses, ought to be acted on in the last case as in the +first. Probably not a few will be startled--perhaps offended--by this +collocation of ideas. But it is a fact not to be disputed, and to which +we must reconcile ourselves, that man is subject to the same organic +laws as inferior creatures. No anatomist, no physiologist, no chemist, +will for a moment hesitate to assert, that the general principles which +are true of the vital processes in animals are equally true of the vital +processes in man. And a candid admission of this fact is not without its +reward: namely, that the generalisations established by observation and +experiment on brutes, become available for human guidance. Rudimentary +as is the Science of Life, it has already attained to certain +fundamental principles underlying the development of all organisms, the +human included. That which has now to be done, and that which we shall +endeavour in some measure to do, is to trace the bearings of these +fundamental principles on the physical training of childhood and youth. + + * * * * * + +The rhythmical tendency which is traceable in all departments of social +life--which is illustrated in the access of despotism after revolution, +or, among ourselves, in the alternation of reforming epochs and +conservative epochs--which, after a dissolute age, brings an age of +asceticism, and conversely,--which, in commerce, produces the recurring +inflations and panics--which carries the devotees of fashion from one +absurd extreme to the opposite one;--this rhythmical tendency affects +also our table-habits, and by implication, the dietary of the young. +After a period distinguished by hard drinking and hard eating, has come +a period of comparative sobriety, which, in teetotalism and +vegetarianism, exhibits extreme forms of protest against the riotous +living of the past. And along with this change in the regimen of adults, +has come a parallel change in the regimen for boys and girls. In past +generations the belief was, that the more a child could be induced to +eat, the better; and even now, among farmers and in remote districts, +where traditional ideas most linger, parents may be found who tempt +their children into repletion. But among the educated classes, who +chiefly display this reaction towards abstemiousness, there may be seen +a decided leaning to the under-feeding, rather than the over-feeding, of +children. Indeed their disgust for by-gone animalism, is more clearly +shown in the treatment of their offspring than in the treatment of +themselves; for while their disguised asceticism is, in so far as their +personal conduct is concerned, kept in check by their appetites, it has +full play in legislating for juveniles. + +That over-feeding and under-feeding are both bad, is a truism. Of the +two, however, the last is the worst. As writes a high authority, "the +effects of casual repletion are less prejudicial, and more easily +corrected, than those of inanition."[1] Besides, where there has been no +injudicious interference, repletion seldom occurs. "Excess is the vice +rather of adults than of the young, who are rarely either gourmands or +epicures, unless through the fault of those who rear them."[2] This +system of restriction which many parents think so necessary, is based +upon inadequate observation, and erroneous reasoning. There is an +over-legislation in the nursery, as well as an over-legislation in the +State; and one of the most injurious forms of it is this limitation in +the quantity of food. + +"But are children to be allowed to surfeit themselves? Shall they be +suffered to take their fill of dainties and make themselves ill, as they +certainly will do?" As thus put, the question admits of but one reply. +But as thus put, it assumes the point at issue. We contend that, as +appetite is a good guide to all the lower creation--as it is a good +guide to the infant--as it is a good guide to the invalid--as it is a +good guide to the differently-placed races of men--and as it is a good +guide for every adult who leads a healthful life; it may safely be +inferred that it is a good guide for childhood. It would be strange +indeed were it here alone untrustworthy. + +Perhaps some will read this reply with impatience; being able, as they +think, to cite facts totally at variance with it. It may appear absurd +if we deny the relevancy of these facts. And yet the paradox is quite +defensible. The truth is, that the instances of excess which such +persons have in mind, are usually the _consequences_ of the restrictive +system they seem to justify. They are the sensual reactions caused by an +ascetic regimen. They illustrate on a small scale that commonly-remarked +truth, that those who during youth have been subject to the most +rigorous discipline, are apt afterwards to rush into the wildest +extravagances. They are analogous to those frightful phenomena, once not +uncommon in convents, where nuns suddenly lapsed from the extremest +austerities into an almost demoniac wickedness. They simply exhibit the +uncontrollable vehemence of long-denied desires. Consider the ordinary +tastes and the ordinary treatment of children. The love of sweets is +conspicuous and almost universal among them. Probably ninety-nine people +in a hundred presume that there is nothing more in this than +gratification of the palate; and that, in common with other sensual +desires, it should be discouraged. The physiologist, however, whose +discoveries lead him to an ever-increasing reverence for the +arrangements of things, suspects something more in this love of sweets +than is currently supposed; and inquiry confirms the suspicion. He finds +that sugar plays an important part in the vital processes. Both +saccharine and fatty matters are eventually oxidised in the body; and +there is an accompanying evolution of heat. Sugar is the form to which +sundry other compounds have to be reduced before they are available as +heat-making food; and this _formation_ of sugar is carried on in the +body. Not only is starch changed into sugar in the course of digestion, +but it has been proved by M. Claude Bernard that the liver is a factory +in which other constituents of food are transformed into sugar: the need +for sugar being so imperative that it is even thus produced from +nitrogenous substances when no others are given. Now, when to the fact +that children have a marked desire for this valuable heat-food, we join +the fact that they have usually a marked dislike to that food which +gives out the greatest amount of heat during oxidation (namely, fat), we +have reason for thinking that excess of the one compensates for defect +of the other--that the organism demands more sugar because it cannot +deal with much fat. Again, children are fond of vegetable acids. Fruits +of all kinds are their delight; and, in the absence of anything better, +they will devour unripe gooseberries and the sourest of crabs. Now not +only are vegetable acids, in common with mineral ones, very good tonics, +and beneficial as such when taken in moderation; but they have, when +administered in their natural forms, other advantages. "Ripe fruit," +says Dr. Andrew Combe, "is more freely given on the Continent than in +this country; and, particularly when the bowels act imperfectly, it is +often very useful." See, then, the discord between the instinctive wants +of children and their habitual treatment. Here are two dominant desires, +which in all probability express certain needs of the child's +constitution; and not only are they ignored in the nursery-regimen, but +there is a general tendency to forbid the gratification of them. +Bread-and-milk in the morning, tea and bread-and-butter at night, or +some dietary equally insipid, is rigidly adhered to; and any +ministration to the palate is thought needless, or rather, wrong. What +is the consequence? When, on fête-days, there is unlimited access to +good things--when a gift of pocket-money brings the contents of the +confectioner's window within reach, or when by some accident the free +run of a fruit-garden is obtained; then the long-denied, and therefore +intense, desires lead to great excesses. There is an impromptu carnival, +due partly to release from past restraints, and partly to the +consciousness that a long Lent will begin on the morrow. And then, when +the evils of repletion display themselves, it is argued that children +must not be left to the guidance of their appetites! These disastrous +results of artificial restrictions, are themselves cited as proving the +need for further restrictions! We contend, therefore, that the reasoning +used to justify this system of interference is vicious. We contend that, +were children allowed daily to partake of these more sapid edibles, for +which there is a physiological requirement, they would rarely exceed, as +they now mostly do when they have the opportunity: were fruit, as Dr. +Combe recommends, "to constitute a part of the regular food" (given, as +he advises, not between meals, but along with them), there would be none +of that craving which prompts the devouring of crabs and sloes. And +similarly in other cases. + +Not only is it that the _à priori_ reasons for trusting the appetites of +children are strong; and that the reasons assigned for distrusting them +are invalid; but it is that no other guidance is worthy of confidence. +What is the value of this parental judgment, set up as an alternative +regulator? When to "Oliver asking for more," the mamma or governess says +"No," on what data does she proceed? She _thinks_ he has had enough. But +where are her grounds for so thinking? Has she some secret understanding +with the boy's stomach--some _clairvoyant_ power enabling her to discern +the needs of his body? If not, how can she safely decide? Does she not +know that the demand of the system for food is determined by numerous +and involved causes--varies with the temperature, with the hygrometric +state of the air, with the electric state of the air--varies also +according to the exercise taken, according to the kind and quantity of +food eaten at the last meal, and according to the rapidity with which +the last meal was digested? How can she calculate the result of such a +combination of causes? As we heard said by the father of a +five-years-old boy, who stands a head taller than most of his age, and +is proportionately robust, rosy, and active:--"I can see no artificial +standard by which to mete out his food. If I say, 'this much is enough,' +it is a mere guess; and the guess is as likely to be wrong as right. +Consequently, having no faith in guesses, I let him eat his fill." And +certainly, any one judging of his policy by its effects, would be +constrained to admit its wisdom. In truth, this confidence, with which +most parents legislate for the stomachs of their children, proves their +unacquaintance with physiology: if they knew more, they would be more +modest. "The pride of science is humble when compared with the pride of +ignorance." If any one would learn how little faith is to be placed in +human judgments, and how much in the pre-established arrangements of +things, let him compare the rashness of the inexperienced physician with +the caution of the most advanced; or let him dip into Sir John Forbes's +work, _On Nature and Art in the Cure of Disease_; and he will see that, +in proportion as men gain knowledge of the laws of life, they come to +have less confidence in themselves, and more in Nature. + +Turning from the question of _quantity_ of food to that of _quality_, we +may discern the same ascetic tendency. Not simply a restricted diet, but +a comparatively low diet, is thought proper for children. The current +opinion is, that they should have but little animal food. Among the less +wealthy classes, economy seems to have dictated this opinion--the wish +has been father to the thought. Parents not affording to buy much meat, +answer the petitions of juveniles with--"Meat is not good for little +boys and girls;" and this, at first probably nothing but a convenient +excuse, has by repetition grown into an article of faith. While the +classes with whom cost is no consideration, have been swayed partly by +the example of the majority, partly by the influence of nurses drawn +from the lower classes, and in some measure by the reaction against past +animalism. + +If, however, we inquire for the basis of this opinion, we find little or +none. It is a dogma repeated and received without proof, like that +which, for thousands of years, insisted on swaddling-clothes. Very +probably for the infant's stomach, not yet endowed with much muscular +power, meat, which requires considerable trituration before it can be +made into chyme, is an unfit aliment. But this objection does not tell +against animal food from which the fibrous part has been extracted; nor +does it apply when, after the lapse of two or three years, considerable +muscular vigour has been acquired. And while the evidence in support of +this dogma, partially valid in the case of very young children, is not +valid in the case of older children, who are, nevertheless, ordinarily +treated in conformity with it, the adverse evidence is abundant and +conclusive. The verdict of science is exactly opposite to the popular +opinion. We have put the question to two of our leading physicians, and +to several of the most distinguished physiologists, and they uniformly +agree in the conclusion, that children should have a diet not _less_ +nutritive, but, if anything, _more_ nutritive than that of adults. + +The grounds for this conclusion are obvious, and the reasoning simple. +It needs but to compare the vital processes of a man with those of a +boy, to see that the demand for sustenance is relatively greater in the +boy than in the man. What are the ends for which a man requires food? +Each day his body undergoes more or less wear--wear through muscular +exertion, wear of the nervous system through mental actions, wear of the +viscera in carrying on the functions of life; and the tissue thus wasted +has to be renewed. Each day, too, by radiation, his body loses a large +amount of heat; and as, for the continuance of the vital actions, the +temperature of the body must be maintained, this loss has to be +compensated by a constant production of heat: to which end certain +constituents of the body are ever undergoing oxidation. To make up for +the day's waste, and to supply fuel for the day's expenditure of heat, +are, then, the sole purposes for which the adult requires food. Consider +now the case of the boy. He, too, wastes the substance of his body by +action; and it needs but to note his restless activity to see that, in +proportion to his bulk, he probably wastes as much as a man. He, too, +loses heat by radiation; and, as his body exposes a greater surface in +proportion to its mass than does that of a man, and therefore loses heat +more rapidly, the quantity of heat-food he requires is, bulk for bulk, +greater than that required by a man. So that even had the boy no other +vital processes to carry on than the man has, he would need, relatively +to his size, a somewhat larger supply of nutriment. But, besides +repairing his body and maintaining its heat, the boy has to make new +tissue--to grow. After waste and thermal loss have been provided for, +such surplus of nutriment as remains goes to the further building up of +the frame; and only in virtue of this surplus is normal growth possible; +the growth that sometimes takes place in the absence of it, causing a +manifest prostration consequent upon defective repair. It is true that +because of a certain mechanical law which cannot be here explained, a +small organism has an advantage over a large one in the ratio between +the sustaining and destroying forces--an advantage, indeed, to which the +very possibility of growth is owing. But this admission only makes it +the more obvious that though much adverse treatment may be borne without +this excess of vitality being quite out-balanced; yet any adverse +treatment, by diminishing it, must diminish the size or structural +perfection reached. How peremptory is the demand of the unfolding +organism for materials, is seen alike in that "schoolboy hunger," which +after-life rarely parallels in intensity, and in the comparatively quick +return of appetite. And if there needs further evidence of this extra +necessity for nutriment, we have it in the fact that, during the famines +following shipwrecks and other disasters, the children are the first to +die. + +This relatively greater need for nutriment being admitted, as it must +be, the question that remains is--shall we meet it by giving an +excessive quantity of what may be called dilute food, or a more moderate +quantity of concentrated food? The nutriment obtainable from a given +weight of meat is obtainable only from a larger weight of bread, or from +a still larger weight of potatoes, and so on. To fulfil the requirement, +the quantity must be increased as the nutritiveness is diminished. +Shall, we, then, respond to the extra wants of the growing child by +giving an adequate quantity of food as good as that of adults? Or, +regardless of the fact that its stomach has to dispose of a relatively +larger quantity even of this good food, shall we further tax it by +giving an inferior food in still greater quantity? + +The answer is tolerably obvious. The more the labour of digestion is +economised, the more energy is left for the purposes of growth and +action. The functions of the stomach and intestines cannot be performed +without a large supply of blood and nervous power; and in the +comparative lassitude that follows a hearty meal, every adult has proof +that this supply of blood and nervous power is at the expense of the +system at large. If the requisite nutriment is obtained from a great +quantity of innutritious food, more work is entailed on the viscera than +when it is obtained from a moderate quantity of nutritious food. This +extra work is so much loss--a loss which in children shows itself either +in diminished energy, or in smaller growth, or in both. The inference +is, then, that they should have a diet which combines, as much as +possible, nutritiveness and digestibility. + +It is doubtless true that boys and girls may be reared upon an +exclusively, or almost exclusively, vegetable diet. Among the upper +classes are to be found children to whom comparatively little meat is +given; and who, nevertheless, grow and appear in good health. Animal +food is scarcely tasted by the offspring of labouring people; and yet +they reach a healthy maturity. But these seemingly adverse facts have by +no means the weight commonly supposed. In the first place, it does not +follow that those who in early years flourish on bread and potatoes, +will eventually reach a fine development; and a comparison between the +agricultural labourers and the gentry, in England, or between the middle +and lower classes in France is by no means in favour of vegetable +feeders. In the second place, the question is not simply a question of +_bulk_, but also a question of _quality_. A soft, flabby flesh makes as +good a show as a firm one; but though to the careless eye, a child of +full, flaccid tissue may appear the equal of one whose fibres are well +toned, a trial of strength will prove the difference. Obesity in adults +is often a sign of feebleness. Men lose weight in training. Hence the +appearance of these low-fed children is far from conclusive. In the +third place, besides _size_, we have to consider _energy_. Between +children of the meat-eating classes and those of the +bread-and-potato-eating classes, there is a marked contrast in this +respect. Both in mental and physical vivacity the peasant-boy is greatly +inferior to the son of a gentleman. + +If we compare different kinds of animals, or different races of men, or +the same animals or men when differently fed, we find still more +distinct proof that _the degree of energy essentially depends on the +nutritiveness of the food_. + +In a cow, subsisting on so innutritive a food as grass, we see that the +immense quantity required necessitates an enormous digestive system; +that the limbs, small in comparison with the body, are burdened by its +weight; that in carrying about this heavy body and digesting this +excessive quantity of food, much force is expended; and that, having but +little remaining, the creature is sluggish. Compare with the cow a +horse--an animal of nearly allied structure, but habituated to a more +concentrated diet. Here the body, and more especially its abdominal +region, bears a smaller ratio to the limbs; the powers are not taxed by +the support of such massive viscera, nor the digestion of so bulky a +food; and, as a consequence, there is greater locomotive energy and +considerable vivacity. If, again, we contrast the stolid inactivity of +the graminivorous sheep with the liveliness of the dog, subsisting on +flesh or farinaceous matters, or a mixture of the two, we see a +difference similar in kind, but still greater in degree. And after +walking through the Zoological Gardens, and noting the restlessness with +which the carnivorous animals pace up and down their cages, it needs but +to remember that none of the herbivorous animals habitually display this +superfluous energy, to see how clear is the relation between +concentration of food and degree of activity. + +That these differences are not directly consequent on differences of +constitution, as some may argue; but are directly consequent on +differences in the food which the creatures are constituted to subsist +on; is proved by the fact, that they are observable between different +divisions of the same species. The varieties of the horse furnish an +illustration. Compare the big-bellied, inactive, spiritless cart-horse +with a racer or hunter, small in the flanks and full of energy; and then +call to mind how much less nutritive is the diet of the one than that of +the other. Or take the case of mankind. Australians, Bushmen, and others +of the lowest savages who live on roots and berries, varied by larvae of +insects and the like meagre fare, are comparatively puny in stature, +have large abdomens, soft and undeveloped muscles, and are quite unable +to cope with Europeans, either in a struggle or in prolonged exertion. +Count up the wild races who are well grown, strong and active, as the +Kaffirs, North-American Indians, and Patagonians, and you find them +large consumers of flesh. The ill-fed Hindoo goes down before the +Englishman fed on more nutritive food; to whom he is as inferior in +mental as in physical energy. And generally, we think, the history of +the world shows that the well-fed races have been the energetic and +dominant races. + +Still stronger, however, becomes the argument, when we find that the +same individual animal is capable of more or less exertion according as +its food is more or less nutritious. This has been demonstrated in the +case of the horse. Though flesh may be gained by a grazing horse, +strength is lost; as putting him to hard work proves. "The consequence +of turning horses out to grass is relaxation of the muscular system." +"Grass is a very good preparation for a bullock for Smithfield market, +but a very bad one for a hunter." It was well known of old that, after +passing the summer in the fields, hunters required some months of +stable-feeding before becoming able to follow the hounds; and that they +did not get into good condition till the beginning of the next spring. +And the modern practice is that insisted on by Mr. Apperley--"Never to +give a hunter what is called 'a summer's run at grass,' and, except +under particular and very favourable circumstances, never to turn him +out at all." That is to say, never give him poor food: great energy and +endurance are to be obtained only by the continued use of nutritive +food. So true is this that, as proved by Mr. Apperley, prolonged +high-feeding enables a middling horse to equal, in his performances, a +first-rate horse fed in the ordinary way. To which various evidences add +the familiar fact that, when a horse is required to do double duty, it +is the practice to give him beans--a food containing a larger proportion +of nitrogenous, or flesh-making material, than his habitual oats. + +Once more, in the case of individual men the truth has been illustrated +with equal, or still greater, clearness. We do not refer to men in +training for feats of strength, whose regimen, however, thoroughly +conforms to the doctrine. We refer to the experience of +railway-contractors and their labourers. It has been for years a +well-established fact that an English navvy, eating largely of flesh, is +far more efficient than a Continental navvy living on farinaceous food: +so much more efficient, that English contractors for Continental +railways found it pay to take their labourers with them. That difference +of diet and not difference of race caused this superiority, has been of +late distinctly shown. For it has turned out, that when the Continental +navvies live in the same style as their English competitors, they +presently rise, more or less nearly, to a par with them in efficiency. +And to this fact let us here add the converse one, to which we can give +personal testimony based upon six months' experience of vegetarianism, +that abstinence from meat entails diminished energy of both body and +mind. + +Do not these various evidences endorse our argument respecting the +feeding of children? Do they not imply that, even supposing the same +stature and bulk to be attained on an innutritive as on a nutritive +diet, the quality of tissue is greatly inferior? Do they not establish +the position that, where energy as well as growth has to be maintained, +it can only be done by high feeding? Do they not confirm the _à priori_ +conclusion that, though a child of whom little is expected in the way of +bodily or mental activity, may thrive tolerably well on farinaceous +substances, a child who is daily required, not only to form the due +amount of new tissue, but to supply the waste consequent on great +muscular action, and the further waste consequent on hard exercise of +brain, must live on substances containing a larger ratio of nutritive +matter? And is it not an obvious corollary, that denial of this better +food will be at the expense either of growth, or of bodily activity, or +of mental activity; as constitution and circumstances determine? We +believe no logical intellect will question it. To think otherwise is to +entertain in a disguised form the old fallacy of the perpetual-motion +schemers--that it is possible to get power out of nothing. + +Before leaving the question of food, a few words must be said on another +requisite--_variety_. In this respect the dietary of the young is very +faulty. If not, like our soldiers, condemned to "twenty years of boiled +beef," our children have mostly to bear a monotony which, though less +extreme and less lasting, is quite as clearly at variance with the laws +of health. At dinner, it is true, they usually have food that is more or +less mixed, and that is changed day by day. But week after week, month +after month, year after year, comes the same breakfast of +bread-and-milk, or, it may be, oatmeal-porridge. And with like +persistence the day is closed, perhaps with a second edition of the +bread-and-milk, perhaps with tea and bread-and-butter. + +This practice is opposed to the dictates of physiology. The satiety +produced by an often-repeated dish, and the gratification caused by one +long a stranger to the palate, are _not_ meaningless, as people +carelessly assume; but they are the incentives to a wholesome diversity +of diet. It is a fact, established by numerous experiments, that there +is scarcely any one food, however good, which supplies in due +proportions or right forms all the elements required for carrying on the +vital processes in a normal manner: whence it follows that frequent +change of food is desirable to balance the supplies of all the elements. +It is a further fact, known to physiologists, that the enjoyment given +by a much-liked food is a nervous stimulus, which, by increasing the +action of the heart and so propelling the blood with increased vigour, +aids in the subsequent digestion. And these truths are in harmony with +the maxims of modern cattle-feeding, which dictate a rotation of diet. + +Not only, however, is periodic change of food very desirable; but, for +the same reasons, it is very desirable that a mixture of food should be +taken at each meal. The better balance of ingredients, and the greater +nervous stimulation, are advantages which hold here as before. If facts +are asked for, we may name as one, the comparative ease with which the +stomach disposes of a French dinner, enormous in quantity but extremely +varied in materials. Few will contend that an equal weight of one kind +of food, however well cooked, could be digested with as much facility. +If any desire further facts, they may find them in every modern book on +the management of animals. Animals thrive best when each meal is made up +of several things. The experiments of Goss and Stark "afford the most +decisive proof of the advantage, or rather the necessity, of a mixture +of substances, in order to produce the compound which is the best +adapted for the action of the stomach."[3] + +Should any object, as probably many will, that a rotating dietary for +children, and one which also requires a mixture of food at each meal, +would entail too much trouble; we reply, that no trouble is thought too +great which conduces to the mental development of children, and that for +their future welfare, good bodily development is of still higher +importance. Moreover, it seems alike sad and strange that a trouble +which is cheerfully taken in the fattening of pigs, should be thought +too great in the rearing of children. + +One more paragraph, with the view of warning those who may propose to +adopt the regimen indicated. The change must not be made suddenly; for +continued low-feeding so enfeebles the system, as to disable it from at +once dealing with a high diet. Deficient nutrition is itself a cause of +dyspepsia. This is true even of animals. "When calves are fed with +skimmed milk, or whey, or other poor food, they are liable to +indigestion."[4] Hence, therefore, where the energies are low, the +transition to a generous diet must be gradual: each increment of +strength gained, justifying a fresh addition of nutriment. Further, it +should be borne in mind that the concentration of nutriment may be +carried too far. A bulk sufficient to fill the stomach is one requisite +of a proper meal; and this requisite negatives a diet deficient in those +matters which give adequate mass. Though the size of the digestive +organs is less in the well-fed civilised races than in the ill-fed +savage ones, and though their size may eventually diminish still +further, yet, for the time being, the bulk of the ingesta must be +determined by the existing capacity. But, paying due regard to these two +qualifications, our conclusions are--that the food of children should be +highly nutritive; that it should be varied at each meal and at +successive meals; and that it should be abundant. + + * * * * * + +With clothing as with food, the usual tendency is towards an improper +scantiness. Here, too, asceticism peeps out. There is a current theory, +vaguely entertained if not put into a definite formula, that the +sensations are to be disregarded. They do not exist for our guidance, +but to mislead us, seems to be the prevalent belief reduced to its naked +form. It is a grave error: we are much more beneficently constituted. It +is not obedience to the sensations, but disobedience to them, which is +the habitual cause of bodily evils. It is not the eating when hungry, +but the eating in the absence of hunger, which is bad. It is not +drinking when thirsty, but continuing to drink when thirst has ceased, +that is the vice. Harm does not result from breathing that fresh air +which every healthy person enjoys; but from breathing foul air, spite of +the protest of the lungs. Harm does not result from taking that active +exercise which, as every child shows us, Nature strongly prompts; but +from a persistent disregard of Nature's promptings. Not that mental +activity which is spontaneous and enjoyable does the mischief; but that +which is persevered in after a hot or aching head commands desistance. +Not that bodily exertion which is pleasant or indifferent, does injury; +but that which is continued when exhaustion forbids. It is true that, in +those who have long led unhealthy lives, the sensations are not +trustworthy guides. People who have for years been almost constantly +in-doors, who have exercised their brains very much and their bodies +scarcely at all, who in eating have obeyed their clocks without +consulting their stomachs, may very likely be misled by their vitiated +feelings. But their abnormal state is itself the result of transgressing +their feelings. Had they from childhood never disobeyed what we may term +the physical conscience, it would not have been seared, but would have +remained a faithful monitor. + +Among the sensations serving for our guidance are those of heat and +cold; and a clothing for children which does not carefully consult these +sensations, is to be condemned. The common notion about "hardening" is a +grievous delusion. Not a few children are "hardened" out of the world; +and those who survive, permanently suffer either in growth or +constitution. "Their delicate appearance furnishes ample indication of +the mischief thus produced, and their frequent attacks of illness might +prove a warning even to unreflecting parents," says Dr. Combe. The +reasoning on which this hardening-theory rests is extremely superficial. +Wealthy parents, seeing little peasant boys and girls playing about in +the open air only half-clothed, and joining with this fact the general +healthiness of labouring people, draw the unwarrantable conclusion that +the healthiness is the result of the exposure, and resolve to keep their +own offspring scantily covered! It is forgotten that these urchins who +gambol upon village-greens are in many respects favourably +circumstanced--that their lives are spent in almost perpetual play; that +they are all day breathing fresh air; and that their systems are not +disturbed by over-taxed brains. For aught that appears to the contrary, +their good health may be maintained, not in consequence of, but in spite +of, their deficient clothing. This alternative conclusion we believe to +be the true one; and that an inevitable detriment results from the loss +of animal heat to which they are subject. + +For when, the constitution being sound enough to bear it, exposure does +produce hardness, it does so at the expense of growth. This truth is +displayed alike in animals and in man. Shetland ponies bear greater +inclemencies than the horses of the south, but are dwarfed. Highland +sheep and cattle, living in a colder climate, are stunted in comparison +with English breeds. In both the arctic and antarctic regions the human +race falls much below its ordinary height: the Laplander and Esquimaux +are very short; and the Terra del Fuegians, who go naked in a wintry +land, are described by Darwin as so stunted and hideous, that "one can +hardly make one's-self believe they are fellow-creatures." + +Science explains this dwarfishness produced by great abstraction of +heat; showing that, food and other things being equal, it unavoidably +results. For, as before pointed out, to make up for that cooling by +radiation which the body is ever undergoing, there must be a constant +oxidation of certain matters forming part of the food. And in proportion +as the thermal loss is great, must the quantity of these matters +required for oxidation be great. But the power of the digestive organs +is limited. Consequently, when they have to prepare a large quantity of +this material needful for maintaining the temperature, they can prepare +but a small quantity of the material which goes to build up the frame. +Excessive expenditure for fuel entails diminished means for other +purposes. Wherefore there necessarily results a body small in size, or +inferior in texture, or both. + +Hence the great importance of clothing. As Liebig says:--"Our clothing +is, in reference to the temperature of the body, merely an equivalent +for a certain amount of food." By diminishing the loss of heat, it +diminishes the amount of fuel needful for maintaining the heat; and when +the stomach has less to do in preparing fuel, it can do more in +preparing other materials. This deduction is confirmed by the experience +of those who manage animals. Cold can be borne by animals only at an +expense of fat, or muscle, or growth, as the case may be. "If fattening +cattle are exposed to a low temperature, either their progress must be +retarded, or a great additional expenditure of food incurred."[5] Mr. +Apperley insists strongly that, to bring hunters into good condition, it +is necessary that the stable should be kept warm. And among those who +rear racers, it is an established doctrine that exposure is to be +avoided. + +The scientific truth thus illustrated by ethnology, and recognised by +agriculturists and sportsmen, applies with double force to children. In +proportion to their smallness and the rapidity of their growth is the +injury from cold great. In France, new-born infants often die in winter +from being carried to the office of the _maire_ for registration. "M. +Quetelet has pointed out, that in Belgium two infants die in January for +one that dies in July." And in Russia the infant mortality is something +enormous. Even when near maturity, the undeveloped frame is +comparatively unable to bear exposure: as witness the quickness with +which young soldiers succumb in a trying campaign. The _rationale_ is +obvious. We have already adverted to the fact that, in consequence of +the varying relation between surface and bulk, a child loses a +relatively larger amount of heat than an adult; and here we must point +out that the disadvantage under which the child thus labours is very +great. Lehmann says:--"If the carbonic acid excreted by children or +young animals is calculated for an equal bodily weight, it results that +children produce nearly twice as much acid as adults." Now the quantity +of carbonic acid given off varies with tolerable accuracy as the +quantity of heat produced. And thus we see that in children the system, +even when not placed at a disadvantage, is called upon to provide nearly +double the proportion of material for generating heat. + +See, then, the extreme folly of clothing the young scantily. What +father, full-grown though he is, losing heat less rapidly as he does, +and having no physiological necessity but to supply the waste of each +day--what father, we ask, would think it salutary to go about with bare +legs, bare arms, and bare neck? Yet this tax on the system, from which +he would shrink, he inflicts on his little ones, who are so much less +able to bear it! or, if he does not inflict it, sees it inflicted +without protest. Let him remember that every ounce of nutriment +needlessly expended for the maintenance of temperature, is so much +deducted from the nutriment going to build up the frame; and that even +when colds, congestions, or other consequent disorders are escaped, +diminished growth or less perfect structure is inevitable. + +"The rule is, therefore, not to dress in an invariable way in all cases, +but to put on clothing in kind and quantity _sufficient in the +individual case to protect the body effectually from an abiding +sensation of cold, however slight_." This rule, the importance of which +Dr. Combe indicates by the italics, is one in which men of science and +practitioners agree. We have met with none competent to form a judgment +on the matter, who do not strongly condemn the exposure of children's +limbs. If there is one point above others in which "pestilent custom" +should be ignored, it is this. + +Lamentable, indeed, is it to see mothers seriously damaging the +constitutions of their children out of compliance with an irrational +fashion. It is bad enough that they should themselves conform to every +folly which our Gallic neighbours please to initiate; but that they +should clothe their children in any mountebank dress which _Le petit +Courrier des Dames_ indicates, regardless of its insufficiency and +unfitness, is monstrous. Discomfort, more or less great, is inflicted; +frequent disorders are entailed; growth is checked or stamina +undermined; premature death not uncommonly caused; and all because it is +thought needful to make frocks of a size and material dictated by French +caprice. Not only is it that for the sake of conformity, mothers thus +punish and injure their little ones by scantiness of covering; but it is +that from an allied motive they impose a style of dress which forbids +healthful activity. To please the eye, colours and fabrics are chosen +totally unfit to bear that rough usage which unrestrained play involves; +and then to prevent damage the unrestrained play is interdicted. "Get up +this moment: you will soil your clean frock," is the mandate issued to +some urchin creeping about on the floor. "Come back: you will dirty your +stockings," calls out the governess to one of her charges, who has left +the footpath to scramble up a bank. Thus is the evil doubled. That they +may come up to their mamma's standard of prettiness, and be admired by +her visitors, children must have habiliments deficient in quantity and +unfit in texture; and that these easily-damaged habiliments may be kept +clean and uninjured, the restless activity so natural and needful for +the young is restrained. The exercise which becomes doubly requisite +when the clothing is insufficient, is cut short, lest it should deface +the clothing. Would that the terrible cruelty of this system could be +seen by those who maintain it! We do not hesitate to say that, through +enfeebled health, defective energies, and consequent non-success in +life, thousands are annually doomed to unhappiness by this unscrupulous +regard for appearances: even when they are not, by early death, +literally sacrificed to the Moloch of maternal vanity. We are reluctant +to counsel strong measures, but really the evils are so great as to +justify, or even to demand, a peremptory interference on the part of +fathers. + +Our conclusions are, then--that, while the clothing of children should +never be in such excess as to create oppressive warmth, it should always +be sufficient to prevent any general feeling of cold;[6] that, instead +of the flimsy cotton, linen, or mixed fabrics commonly used, it should +be made of some good non-conductor, such as coarse woollen cloth; that +it should be so strong as to receive little damage from the hard wear +and tear which childish sports will give it; and that its colours should +be such as will not soon suffer from use and exposure. + + * * * * * + +To the importance of bodily exercise most people are in some degree +awake. Perhaps less needs saying on this requisite of physical education +than on most others: at any rate, in so far as boys are concerned. +Public schools and private schools alike furnish tolerably adequate +play-grounds; and there is usually a fair share of time for out-door +games, and a recognition of them as needful. In this, if in no other +direction, it seems admitted that the promptings of boyish instinct may +advantageously be followed; and, indeed, in the modern practice of +breaking the prolonged morning's and afternoon's lessons by a few +minutes' open-air recreation, we see an increasing tendency to conform +school-regulations to the bodily sensations of the pupils. Here, then, +little needs be said in the way of expostulation or suggestion. + +But we have been obliged to qualify this admission by inserting the +clause "in so far as boys are concerned." Unfortunately the fact is +quite otherwise with girls. It chances, somewhat strangely, that we have +daily opportunity of drawing a comparison. We have both a boys' school +and a girls' school within view; and the contrast between them is +remarkable. In the one case, nearly the whole of a large garden is +turned into an open, gravelled space, affording ample scope for games, +and supplied with poles and horizontal bars for gymnastic exercises. +Every day before breakfast, again towards eleven o'clock, again at +mid-day, again in the afternoon, and once more after school is over, the +neighbourhood is awakened by a chorus of shouts and laughter as the boys +rush out to play; and for as long as they remain, both eyes and ears +give proof that they are absorbed in that enjoyable activity which makes +the pulse bound and ensures the healthful activity of every organ. How +unlike is the picture offered by the "Establishment for Young Ladies!" +Until the fact was pointed out, we actually did not know that we had a +girl's school as close to us as the school for boys. The garden, equally +large with the other, affords no sign whatever of any provision for +juvenile recreation; but is entirely laid out with prim grass-plots, +gravel-walks, shrubs, and flowers, after the usual suburban style. +During five months we have not once had our attention drawn to the +premises by a shout or a laugh. Occasionally girls may be observed +sauntering along the paths with lesson-books in their hands, or else +walking arm-in-arm. Once indeed, we saw one chase another round the +garden; but, with this exception, nothing like vigorous exertion has +been visible. + +Why this astounding difference? Is it that the constitution of a girl +differs so entirely from that of a boy as not to need these active +exercises? Is it that a girl has none of the promptings to vociferous +play by which boys are impelled? Or is it that, while in boys these +promptings are to be regarded as stimuli to a bodily activity without +which there cannot be adequate development, to their sisters, Nature has +given them for no purpose whatever--unless it be for the vexation of +school-mistresses? Perhaps, however, we mistake the aim of those who +train the gentler sex. We have a vague suspicion that to produce a +robust _physique_ is thought undesirable; that rude health and abundant +vigour are considered somewhat plebeian; that a certain delicacy, a +strength not competent to more than a mile or two's walk, an appetite +fastidious and easily satisfied, joined with that timidity which +commonly accompanies feebleness, are held more lady-like. We do not +expect that any would distinctly avow this; but we fancy the +governess-mind is haunted by an ideal young lady bearing not a little +resemblance to this type. If so, it must be admitted that the +established system is admirably calculated to realise this ideal. But to +suppose that such is the ideal of the opposite sex is a profound +mistake. That men are not commonly drawn towards masculine women, is +doubtless true. That such relative weakness as asks the protection of +superior strength, is an element of attraction, we quite admit. But the +difference thus responded to by the feelings of men, is the natural, +pre-established difference, which will assert itself without artificial +appliances. And when, by artificial appliances, the degree of this +difference is increased, it becomes an element of repulsion rather than +of attraction. + +"Then girls should be allowed to run wild--to become as rude as boys, +and grow up into romps and hoydens!" exclaims some defender of the +proprieties. This, we presume, is the ever-present dread of +school-mistresses. It appears, on inquiry, that at "Establishments for +Young Ladies" noisy play like that daily indulged in by boys, is a +punishable offence; and we infer that it is forbidden, lest unlady-like +habits should be formed. The fear is quite groundless, however. For if +the sportive activity allowed to boys does not prevent them from growing +up into gentlemen; why should a like sportive activity prevent girls +from growing up into ladies? Rough as may have been their play-ground +frolics, youths who have left school do not indulge in leap-frog in the +street, or marbles in the drawing-room. Abandoning their jackets, they +abandon at the same time boyish games; and display an anxiety--often a +ludicrous anxiety--to avoid whatever is not manly. If now, on arriving +at the due age, this feeling of masculine dignity puts so efficient a +restraint on the sports of boyhood, will not the feeling of feminine +modesty, gradually strengthening as maturity is approached, put an +efficient restraint on the like sports of girlhood? Have not women even +a greater regard for appearances than men? and will there not +consequently arise in them even a stronger check to whatever is rough or +boisterous? How absurd is the supposition that the womanly instincts +would not assert themselves but for the rigorous discipline of +school-mistresses! + +In this, as in other cases, to remedy the evils of one artificiality, +another artificiality has been introduced. The natural, spontaneous +exercise having been forbidden, and the bad consequences of no exercise +having become conspicuous, there has been adopted a system of factitious +exercise--gymnastics. That this is better than nothing we admit; but +that it is an adequate substitute for play we deny. The defects are both +positive and negative. In the first place, these formal, muscular +motions, necessarily less varied than those accompanying juvenile +sports, do not secure so equable a distribution of action to all parts +of the body; whence it results that the exertion, falling on special +parts, produces fatigue sooner than it would else have done: to which, +in passing, let us add, that, if constantly repeated, this exertion of +special parts leads to a disproportionate development. Again, the +quantity of exercise thus taken will be deficient, not only in +consequence of uneven distribution; but there will be a further +deficiency in consequence of lack of interest. Even when not made +repulsive, as they sometimes are by assuming the shape of appointed +lessons, these monotonous movements are sure to become wearisome from +the absence of amusement. Competition, it is true, serves as a stimulus; +but it is not a lasting stimulus, like that enjoyment which accompanies +varied play. The weightiest objection, however, still remains. Besides +being inferior in respect of the _quantity_ of muscular exertion which +they secure, gymnastics are still more inferior in respect of the +_quality_. This comparative want of enjoyment which we have named as a +cause of early desistance from artificial exercises, is also a cause of +inferiority in the effects they produce on the system. The common +assumption that, so long as the amount of bodily action is the same, it +matters not whether it be pleasurable or otherwise, is a grave mistake. +An agreeable mental excitement has a highly invigorating influence. See +the effect produced upon an invalid by good news, or by the visit of an +old friend. Mark how careful medical men are to recommend lively society +to debilitated patients. Remember how beneficial to health is the +gratification produced by change of scene. The truth is that happiness +is the most powerful of tonics. By accelerating the circulation of the +blood, it facilitates the performance of every function; and so tends +alike to increase health when it exists, and to restore it when it has +been lost. Hence the intrinsic superiority of play to gymnastics. The +extreme interest felt by children in their games, and the riotous glee +with which they carry on their rougher frolics, are of as much +importance as the accompanying exertion. And as not supplying these +mental stimuli, gymnastics must be radically defective. + +Granting then, as we do, that formal exercises of the limbs are better +than nothing--granting, further, that they may be used with advantage as +supplementary aids; we yet contend that they can never serve in place of +the exercises prompted by Nature. For girls, as well as boys, the +sportive activities to which the instincts impel, are essential to +bodily welfare. Whoever forbids them, forbids the divinely-appointed +means to physical development. + + * * * * * + +A topic still remains--one perhaps more urgently demanding consideration +than any of the foregoing. It is asserted by not a few, that among the +educated classes the younger adults and those who are verging on +maturity, are neither so well grown nor so strong as their seniors. On +first hearing this assertion, we were inclined to class it as one of +the many manifestations of the old tendency to exalt the past at the +expense of the present. Calling to mind the facts that, as measured by +ancient armour, modern men are proved to be larger than ancient men; and +that the tables of mortality show no diminution, but rather an increase, +in the duration of life, we paid little attention to what seemed a +groundless belief. Detailed observation, however, has shaken our +opinion. Omitting from the comparison the labouring classes, we have +noticed a majority of cases in which the children do not reach the +stature of their parents; and, in massiveness, making due allowance for +difference of age, there seems a like inferiority. Medical men say that +now-a-days people cannot bear nearly so much depletion as in times gone +by. Premature baldness is far more common than it used to be. And an +early decay of teeth occurs in the rising generation with startling +frequency. In general vigour the contrast appears equally striking. Men +of past generations, living riotously as they did, could bear more than +men of the present generation, who live soberly, can bear. Though they +drank hard, kept irregular hours, were regardless of fresh air, and +thought little of cleanliness, our recent ancestors were capable of +prolonged application without injury, even to a ripe old age: witness +the annals of the bench and the bar. Yet we who think much about our +bodily welfare; who eat with moderation, and do not drink to excess; who +attend to ventilation, and use frequent ablutions; who make annual +excursions, and have the benefit of greater medical knowledge;--we are +continually breaking down under our work. Paying considerable attention +to the laws of health, we seem to be weaker than our grandfathers who, +in many respects, defied the laws of health. And, judging from the +appearance and frequent ailments of the rising generation, they are +likely to be even less robust than ourselves. + +What is the meaning of this? Is it that past over-feeding, alike of +adults and children, was less injurious than the under-feeding to which +we have adverted as now so general? Is it that the deficient clothing +which this delusive hardening-theory has encouraged, is to blame? Is it +that the greater or less discouragement of juvenile sports, in deference +to a false refinement is the cause? From our reasonings it may be +inferred that each of these has probably had a share in producing the +evil.[7] But there has been yet another detrimental influence at work, +perhaps more potent than any of the others: we mean--excess of mental +application. + +On old and young, the pressure of modern life puts a still-increasing +strain. In all businesses and professions, intenser competition taxes +the energies and abilities of every adult; and, to fit the young to hold +their places under this intenser competition, they are subject to +severer discipline than heretofore. The damage is thus doubled. Fathers, +who find themselves run hard by their multiplying competitors, and, +while labouring under this disadvantage, have to maintain a more +expensive style of living, are all the year round obliged to work early +and late, taking little exercise and getting but short holidays. The +constitutions shaken by this continued over-application, they bequeath +to their children. And then these comparatively feeble children, +predisposed to break down even under ordinary strains on their energies, +are required to go through a _curriculum_ much more extended than that +prescribed for the unenfeebled children of past generations. + +The disastrous consequences that might be anticipated, are everywhere +visible. Go where you will, and before long there come under your notice +cases of children or youths, of either sex, more or less injured by +undue study. Here, to recover from a state of debility thus produced, a +year's rustication has been found necessary. There you find a chronic +congestion of the brain, that has already lasted many months, and +threatens to last much longer. Now you hear of a fever that resulted +from the over-excitement in some way brought on at school. And again, +the instance is that of a youth who has already had once to desist from +his studies, and who, since his return to them, is frequently taken out +of his class in a fainting fit. We state facts--facts not sought for, +but which have been thrust on our observation during the last two years; +and that, too, within a very limited range. Nor have we by any means +exhausted the list. Quite recently we had the opportunity of marking how +the evil becomes hereditary: the case being that of a lady of robust +parentage, whose system was so injured by the _régime_ of a Scotch +boarding-school, where she was under-fed and over-worked, that she +invariably suffers from vertigo on rising in the morning; and whose +children, inheriting this enfeebled brain, are several of them unable to +bear even a moderate amount of study without headache or giddiness. At +the present time we have daily under our eyes, a young lady whose system +has been damaged for life by the college-course through which she has +passed. Taxed as she was to such an extent that she had no energy left +for exercise, she is, now that she has finished her education, a +constant complainant. Appetite small and very capricious, mostly +refusing meat; extremities perpetually cold, even when the weather is +warm; a feebleness which forbids anything but the slowest walking, and +that only for a short time; palpitation on going upstairs; greatly +impaired vision--these, joined with checked growth and lax tissue, are +among the results entailed. And to her case we may add that of her +friend and fellow-student; who is similarly weak; who is liable to faint +even under the excitement of a quiet party of friends; and who has at +length been obliged by her medical attendant to desist from study +entirely. + +If injuries so conspicuous are thus frequent, how very general must be +the smaller, and inconspicuous injuries! To one case where positive +illness is traceable to over-application, there are probably at least +half-a-dozen cases where the evil is unobtrusive and slowly +accumulating--cases where there is frequent derangement of the +functions, attributed to this or that special cause, or to +constitutional delicacy; cases where there is retardation and premature +arrest of bodily growth; cases where a latent tendency to consumption is +brought out and established; cases where a predisposition is given to +that now common cerebral disorder brought on by the labour of adult +life. How commonly health is thus undermined, will be clear to all who, +after noting the frequent ailments of hard-worked professional and +mercantile men, will reflect on the much worse effects which undue +application must produce on the undeveloped systems of children. The +young can bear neither so much hardship, nor so much physical exertion, +nor so much mental exertion, as the full grown. Judge, then, if the full +grown manifestly suffer from the excessive mental exertion required of +them, how great must be the damage which a mental exertion, often +equally excessive, inflicts on the young! + +Indeed, when we examine the merciless school drill frequently enforced, +the wonder is, not that it does extreme injury, but that it can be +borne at all. Take the instance given by Sir John Forbes, from personal +knowledge; and which he asserts, after much inquiry, to be an average +sample of the middle-class girls'-school system throughout England. +Omitting detailed divisions of time, we quote the summary of the +twenty-four hours. + +In bed 9 hours (the younger 10) +In school, at their studies and tasks 9 " +In school, or in the house, the elder at + optional studies or work, the younger at + play 3½ " (the younger 2½) +At meals 1½ " +Exercise in the open air, in the shape of a + formal walk, often with lesson-books in + hand, and even this only when the weather + is fine at the appointed time. 1 " + ---- + 24 + +And what are the results of this "astounding regimen," as Sir John +Forbes terms it? Of course feebleness, pallor, want of spirits, general +ill-health. But he describes something more. This utter disregard of +physical welfare, out of extreme anxiety to cultivate the mind--this +prolonged exercise of brain and deficient exercise of limbs,--he found +to be habitually followed, not only by disordered functions but by +malformation. He says:--"We lately visited, in a large town, a +boarding-school containing forty girls; and we learnt, on close and +accurate inquiry, that there was _not one_ of the girl who had been at +the school two years (and the majority had been as long) that was not +more or less _crooked_!"[8] + +It may be that since 1833, when this was written, some improvement has +taken place. We hope it has. But that the system is still common--nay, +that it is in some cases carried to a greater extreme than ever; we can +personally testify. We recently went over a training-college for young +men: one of those instituted of late years for the purpose of supplying +schools with well-disciplined teachers. Here, under official +supervision, where something better than the judgment of private +school-mistresses might have been looked for, we found the daily routine +to be as follows:-- + +At 6 o'clock the students are called, + " 7 to 8 studies, + " 8 to 9 scripture-reading, prayers, and breakfast, + " 9 to 12 studies, + " 12 to 1¼ leisure, nominally devoted to walking or other exercise, but + often spent in study, + " 1¼ to 2 dinner, the meal commonly occupying twenty minutes, + " 2 to 5 studies, + " 5 to 6 tea and relaxation, + " 6 to 8½ studies, + " 8½ to 9½ private studies in preparing lessons for the next day, + " 10 to bed. + +Thus, out of the twenty-four hours, eight are devoted to sleep; four and +a quarter are occupied in dressing, prayers, meals, and the brief +periods of rest accompanying them; ten and a half are given to study; +and one and a quarter to exercise, which is optional and often avoided. +Not only, however, are the ten-and-a-half hours of recognised study +frequently increased to eleven-and-a-half by devoting to books the time +set apart for exercise; but some of the students get up at four o'clock +in the morning to prepare their lessons; and are actually encouraged by +their teachers to do this! The course to be passed through in a given +time is so extensive, and the teachers, whose credit is at stake in +getting their pupils well through the examinations, are so urgent, that +pupils are not uncommonly induced to spend twelve and thirteen hours a +day in mental labour! + +It needs no prophet to see that the bodily injury inflicted must be +great. As we were told by one of the inmates, those who arrive with +fresh complexions quickly become blanched. Illness is frequent: there +are always some on the sick-list. Failure of appetite and indigestion +are very common. Diarrhoea is a prevalent disorder: not uncommonly a +third of the whole number of students suffering under it at the same +time. Headache is generally complained of; and by some is borne almost +daily for months. While a certain percentage break down entirely and go +away. + +That this should be the regimen of what is in some sort a model +institution, established and superintended by the embodied enlightenment +of the age, is a startling fact. That the severe examinations, joined +with the short period assigned for preparation, should compel recourse +to a system which inevitably undermines the health of all who pass +through it, is proof, if not of cruelty, then of woeful ignorance. + +The case is no doubt in a great degree exceptional--perhaps to be +paralleled only in other institutions of the same class. But that cases +so extreme should exist at all, goes far to show that the minds of the +rising generation are greatly over-tasked. Expressing as they do the +ideas of the educated community, the requirements of these training +colleges, even in the absence of other evidence, would imply a +prevailing tendency to an unduly urgent system of culture. + +It seems strange that there should be so little consciousness of the +dangers of over-education during youth, when there is so general a +consciousness of the dangers of over-education during childhood. Most +parents are partially aware of the evil consequences that follow +infant-precocity. In every society may be heard reprobation of those who +too early stimulate the minds of their little ones. And the dread of +this early stimulation is great in proportion as there is adequate +knowledge of the effects: witness the implied opinion of one of our most +distinguished professors of physiology, who told us that he did not +intend his little boy to learn any lessons until he was eight years old. +But while to all it is a familiar truth that a forced development of +intelligence in childhood, entails either physical feebleness, or +ultimate stupidity, or early death; it appears not to be perceived that +throughout youth the same truth holds. Yet it unquestionably does so. +There is a given order in which, and a given rate at which, the +faculties unfold. If the course of education conforms itself to that +order and rate, well. If not--if the higher faculties are early taxed by +presenting an order of knowledge more complex and abstract than can be +readily assimilated; or if, by excess of culture, the intellect in +general is developed to a degree beyond that which is natural to its +age; the abnormal advantage gained will inevitably be accompanied by +some equivalent, or more than equivalent, evil. + +For Nature is a strict accountant; and if you demand of her in one +direction more than she is prepared to lay out, she balances the account +by making a deduction elsewhere. If you will let her follow her own +course, taking care to supply, in right quantities and kinds, the raw +materials of bodily and mental growth required at each age, she will +eventually produce an individual more or less evenly developed. If, +however, you insist on premature or undue growth of any one part, she +will, with more or less protest, concede the point; but that she may do +your extra work, she must leave some of her more important work undone. +Let it never be forgotten that the amount of vital energy which the body +at any moment possesses, is limited; and that, being limited, it is +impossible to get from it more than a fixed quantity of results. In a +child or youth the demands upon this vital energy are various and +urgent. As before pointed out, the waste consequent on the day's bodily +exercise has to be met; the wear of brain entailed by the day's study +has to be made good; a certain additional growth of body has to be +provided for; and also a certain additional growth of brain: to which +must be added the amount of energy absorbed in digesting the large +quantity of food required for meeting these many demands. Now, that to +divert an excess of energy into any one of these channels is to abstract +it from the others, is both manifest _à priori_, and proved _à +posteriori_, by the experience of every one. Every one knows, for +instance, that the digestion of a heavy meal makes such a demand on the +system as to produce lassitude of mind and body, frequently ending in +sleep. Every one knows, too, that excess of bodily exercise diminishes +the power of thought--that the temporary prostration following any +sudden exertion, or the fatigue produced by a thirty miles' walk, is +accompanied by a disinclination to mental effort; that, after a month's +pedestrian tour, the mental inertia is such that some days are required +to overcome it; and that in peasants who spend their lives in muscular +labour the activity of mind is very small. Again, it is a familiar truth +that during those fits of rapid growth which sometimes occur in +childhood, the great abstraction of energy is shown in an attendant +prostration, bodily and mental. Once more, the facts that violent +muscular exertion after eating, will stop digestion; and that children +who are early put to hard labour become stunted; similarly exhibit the +antagonism--similarly imply that excess of activity in one direction +involves deficiency of it in other directions. Now, the law which is +thus manifest in extreme cases, holds in all cases. These injurious +abstractions of energy as certainly take place when the undue demands +are slight and constant, as when they are great and sudden. Hence, if +during youth the expenditure in mental labour exceeds that which Nature +has provided for; the expenditure for other purposes falls below what it +should have been; and evils of one kind or other are inevitably +entailed. Let us briefly consider these evils. + +Supposing the over-activity of brain to exceed the normal activity only +in a moderate degree, there will be nothing more than some slight +reaction on the development of the body: the stature falling a little +below that which it would else have reached; or the bulk being less than +it would have been; or the quality of tissue not being so good. One or +more of these effects must necessarily occur. The extra quantity of +blood supplied to the brain during mental exertion, and during the +subsequent period in which the waste of cerebral substance is being made +good, is blood that would else have been circulating through the limbs +and viscera; and the growth or repair for which that blood would have +supplied materials, is lost. The physical reaction being certain, the +question is, whether the gain resulting from the extra culture is +equivalent to the loss?--whether defect of bodily growth, or the want of +that structural perfection which gives vigour and endurance, is +compensated by the additional knowledge acquired? + +When the excess of mental exertion is greater, there follow results far +more serious; telling not only against bodily perfection, but against +the perfection of the brain itself. It is a physiological law, first +pointed out by M. Isidore St. Hilaire, and to which attention has been +drawn by Mr. Lewes in his essay on "Dwarfs and Giants," that there is an +antagonism between _growth_ and _development_. By growth, as used in +this antithetical sense, is to be understood _increase of size_; by +development, _increase of structure_. And the law is, that great +activity in either of these processes involves retardation or arrest of +the other. A familiar example is furnished by the cases of the +caterpillar and the chrysalis. In the caterpillar there is extremely +rapid augmentation of bulk; but the structure is scarcely at all more +complex when the caterpillar is full-grown than when it is small. In the +chrysalis the bulk does not increase; on the contrary, weight is lost +during this stage of the creature's life; but the elaboration of a more +complex structure goes on with great activity. The antagonism, here so +clear, is less traceable in higher creatures, because the two processes +are carried on together. But we see it pretty well illustrated among +ourselves when we contrast the sexes. A girl develops in body and mind +rapidly, and ceases to grow comparatively early. A boy's bodily and +mental development is slower, and his growth greater. At the age when +the one is mature, finished, and having all faculties in full play, the +other, whose vital energies have been more directed towards increase of +size, is relatively incomplete in structure; and shows it in a +comparative awkwardness, bodily and mental. Now this law is true of each +separate part of the organism, as well as of the whole. The abnormally +rapid advance of any organ in respect of structure, involves premature +arrest of its growth; and this happens with the organ of the mind as +certainly as with any other organ. The brain, which during early years +is relatively large in mass but imperfect in structure, will, if +required to perform its functions with undue activity, undergo a +structural advance greater than is appropriate to its age; but the +ultimate effect will be a falling short of the size and power that would +else have been attained. And this is a part-cause--probably the chief +cause--why precocious children, and youths who up to a certain time were +carrying all before them, so often stop short and disappoint the high +hopes of their parents. + +But these results of over-education, disastrous as they are, are perhaps +less disastrous than the effects produced on the health--the undermined +constitution, the enfeebled energies, the morbid feelings. Recent +discoveries in physiology have shown how immense is the influence of the +brain over the functions of the body. Digestion, circulation, and +through these all other organic processes, are profoundly affected by +cerebral excitement. Whoever has seen repeated, as we have, the +experiment first performed by Weber, showing the consequence of +irritating the _vagus_ nerve, which connects the brain with the +viscera--whoever has seen the action of the heart suddenly arrested by +irritating this nerve; slowly recommencing when the irritation is +suspended; and again arrested the moment it is renewed; will have a +vivid conception of the depressing influence which an over-wrought brain +exercises on the body. The effects thus physiologically explained, are +indeed exemplified in ordinary experience. There is no one but has felt +the palpitation accompanying hope, fear, anger, joy--no one but has +observed how laboured becomes the action of the heart when these +feelings are violent. And though there are many who have never suffered +that extreme emotional excitement which is followed by arrest of the +heart's action and fainting; yet every one knows these to be cause and +effect. It is a familiar fact, too, that disturbance of the stomach +results from mental excitement exceeding a certain intensity. Loss of +appetite is a common consequence alike of very pleasurable and very +painful states of mind. When the event producing a pleasurable or +painful state of mind occurs shortly after a meal, it not unfrequently +happens either that the stomach rejects what has been eaten, or digests +it with great difficulty and under protest. And as every one who taxes +his brain much can testify, even purely intellectual action will, when +excessive, produce analogous effects. Now the relation between brain and +body which is so manifest in these extreme cases, holds equally in +ordinary, less-marked cases. Just as these violent but temporary +cerebral excitements produce violent but temporary disturbances of the +viscera; so do the less violent but chronic cerebral excitements produce +less violent but chronic visceral disturbances. This is not simply an +inference:--it is a truth to which every medical man can bear witness; +and it is one to which a long and sad experience enables us to give +personal testimony. Various degrees and forms of bodily derangement, +often taking years of enforced idleness to set partially right, result +from this prolonged over-exertion of mind. Sometimes the heart is +chiefly affected: habitual palpitations; a pulse much enfeebled; and +very generally a diminution in the number of beats from seventy-two to +sixty, or even fewer. Sometimes the conspicuous disorder is of the +stomach: a dyspepsia which makes life a burden, and is amenable to no +remedy but time. In many cases both heart and stomach are implicated. +Mostly the sleep is short and broken. And very generally there is more +or less mental depression. + +Consider, then, how great must be the damage inflicted by undue mental +excitement on children and youths. More or less of this constitutional +disturbance will inevitably follow an exertion of brain beyond the +normal amount; and when not so excessive as to produce absolute illness, +is sure to entail a slowly accumulating degeneracy of _physique_. With a +small and fastidious appetite, an imperfect digestion, and an enfeebled +circulation, how can the developing body flourish? The due performance +of every vital process depends on an adequate supply of good blood. +Without enough good blood, no gland can secrete properly, no viscus can +fully discharge its office. Without enough good blood, no nerve, muscle, +membrane, or other tissue can be efficiently repaired. Without enough +good blood, growth will neither be sound nor sufficient. Judge, then, +how bad must be the consequences when to a growing body the weakened +stomach supplies blood that is deficient in quantity and poor in +quality; while the debilitated heart propels this poor and scanty blood +with unnatural slowness. + +And if, as all who investigate the matter must admit, physical +degeneracy is a consequence of excessive study, how grave is the +condemnation to be passed on this cramming-system above exemplified. It +is a terrible mistake, from whatever point of view regarded. It is a +mistake in so far as the mere acquirement of knowledge is concerned. For +the mind, like the body, cannot assimilate beyond a certain rate; and if +you ply it with facts faster than it can assimilate them, they are soon +rejected again: instead of being built into the intellectual fabric, +they fall out of recollection after the passing of the examination for +which they were got up. It is a mistake, too, because it tends to make +study distasteful. Either through the painful associations produced by +ceaseless mental toil, or through the abnormal state of brain it leaves +behind, it often generates an aversion to books; and, instead of that +subsequent self-culture induced by rational education, there comes +continued retrogression. It is a mistake, also, inasmuch as it assumes +that the acquisition of knowledge is everything; and forgets that a much +more important thing is the organisation of knowledge, for which time +and spontaneous thinking are requisite. As Humboldt remarks respecting +the progress of intelligence in general, that "the interpretation of +Nature is obscured when the description languishes under too great an +accumulation of insulated facts;" so, it may be remarked respecting the +progress of individual intelligence, that the mind is over-burdened and +hampered by an excess of ill-digested information. It is not the +knowledge stored up as intellectual fat which is of value; but that +which is turned into intellectual muscle. The mistake goes still deeper +however. Even were the system good as producing intellectual efficiency, +which it is not, it would still be bad, because, as we have shown, it is +fatal to that vigour of _physique_ needful to make intellectual training +available in the struggle of life. Those who, in eagerness to cultivate +their pupils' minds, are reckless of their bodies, do not remember that +success in the world depends more on energy than on information; and +that a policy which in cramming with information undermines energy, is +self-defeating. The strong will and untiring activity due to abundant +animal vigour, go far to compensate even great defects of education; and +when joined with that quite adequate education which may be obtained +without sacrificing health, they ensure an easy victory over competitors +enfeebled by excessive study: prodigies of learning though they may be. +A comparatively small and ill-made engine, worked at high pressure, will +do more than a large and well-finished one worked at low-pressure. What +folly is it, then, while finishing the engine, so to damage the boiler +that it will not generate steam! Once more, the system is a mistake, as +involving a false estimate of welfare in life. Even supposing it were a +means to worldly success, instead of a means to worldly failure, yet, in +the entailed ill-health, it would inflict a more than equivalent curse. +What boots it to have attained wealth, if the wealth is accompanied by +ceaseless ailments? What is the worth of distinction, if it has brought +hypochondria with it? Surely no one needs telling that a good digestion, +a bounding pulse, and high spirits, are elements of happiness which no +external advantages can out-balance. Chronic bodily disorder casts a +gloom over the brightest prospects; while the vivacity of strong health +gilds even misfortune. We contend, then, that this over-education is +vicious in every way--vicious, as giving knowledge that will soon be +forgotten; vicious, as producing a disgust for knowledge; vicious, as +neglecting that organisation of knowledge which is more important than +its acquisition; vicious, as weakening or destroying that energy without +which a trained intellect is useless; vicious, as entailing that +ill-health for which even success would not compensate, and which makes +failure doubly bitter. On women the effects of this forcing system are, +if possible, even more injurious than on men. Being in great measure +debarred from those vigorous and enjoyable exercises of body by which +boys mitigate the evils of excessive study, girls feel these evils in +their full intensity. Hence, the much smaller proportion of them who +grow up well-made and healthy. In the pale, angular, flat-chested young +ladies, so abundant in London drawing-rooms, we see the effect of +merciless application, unrelieved by youthful sports; and this physical +degeneracy hinders their welfare far more than their many +accomplishments aid it. Mammas anxious to make their daughters +attractive, could scarcely choose a course more fatal than this, which +sacrifices the body to the mind. Either they disregard the tastes of the +opposite sex, or else their conception of those tastes is erroneous. Men +care little for erudition in women; but very much for physical beauty, +good nature, and sound sense. How many conquests does the blue-stocking +make through her extensive knowledge of history? What man ever fell in +love with a woman because she understood Italian? Where is the Edwin who +was brought to Angelina's feet by her German? But rosy cheeks and +laughing eyes are great attractions. A finely rounded figure draws +admiring glances. The liveliness and good humour that overflowing health +produces, go a great way towards establishing attachments. Every one +knows cases where bodily perfections, in the absence of all other +recommendations, have incited a passion that carried all before it; but +scarcely any one can point to a case where intellectual acquirements, +apart from moral or physical attributes, have aroused such a feeling. +The truth is that, out of the many elements uniting in various +proportions to produce in a man's breast the complex emotion we call +love, the strongest are those produced by physical attractions; the next +in order of strength are those produced by moral attractions; the +weakest are those produced by intellectual attractions; and even these +are dependent less on acquired knowledge than on natural +faculty--quickness, wit, insight. If any think the assertion a +derogatory one, and inveigh against the masculine character for being +thus swayed; we reply that they little know what they say when they thus +call in question the Divine ordinations. Even were there no obvious +meaning in the arrangement, we might be sure that some important end was +subserved. But the meaning is quite obvious to those who examine. When +we remember that one of Nature's ends, or rather her supreme end, is the +welfare of posterity; further that, in so far as posterity are +concerned, a cultivated intelligence based on a bad _physique_ is of +little worth, since its descendants will die out in a generation or two; +and conversely that a good _physique_, however poor the accompanying +mental endowments, is worth preserving, because, throughout future +generations, the mental endowments may be indefinitely developed; we +perceive how important is the balance of instincts above described. But, +advantage apart, the instincts being thus balanced, it is folly to +persist in a system which undermines a girl's constitution that it may +overload her memory. Educate as highly as possible--the higher the +better--providing no bodily injury is entailed (and we may remark, in +passing, that a sufficiently high standard might be reached were the +parrot-faculty cultivated less, and the human faculty more, and were the +discipline extended over that now wasted period between leaving school +and being married). But to educate in such manner, or to such extent, as +to produce physical degeneracy, is to defeat the chief end for which the +toil and cost and anxiety are submitted to. By subjecting their +daughters to this high-pressure system, parents frequently ruin their +prospects in life. Besides inflicting on them enfeebled health, with all +its pains and disabilities and gloom; they not unfrequently doom them to +celibacy. + + * * * * * + +The physical education of children is thus, in various ways, seriously +faulty. It errs in deficient feeding; in deficient clothing; in +deficient exercise (among girls at least); and in excessive mental +application. Considering the regime as a whole, its tendency is too +exacting: it asks too much and gives too little. In the extent to which +it taxes the vital energies, it makes the juvenile life far more like +the adult life than it should be. It overlooks the truth that, as in the +foetus the entire vitality is expended in growth--as in the infant, +the expenditure of vitality in growth is so great as to leave extremely +little for either physical or mental action; so throughout childhood and +youth, growth is the dominant requirement to which all others must be +subordinated: a requirement which dictates the giving of much and the +taking away of little--a requirement which, therefore, restricts the +exertion of body and mind in proportion to the rapidity of growth--a +requirement which permits the mental and physical activities to increase +only as fast as the rate of growth diminishes. + +The _rationale_ of this high-pressure education is that it results from +our passing phase of civilisation. In primitive times, when aggression +and defence were the leading social activities, bodily vigour with its +accompanying courage were the desiderata; and then education was almost +wholly physical: mental cultivation was little cared for, and indeed, as +in feudal ages, was often treated with contempt. But now that our state +is relatively peaceful--now that muscular power is of use for little +else than manual labour, while social success of nearly every kind +depends very much on mental power; our education has become almost +exclusively mental. Instead of respecting the body and ignoring the +mind, we now respect the mind and ignore the body. Both these attitudes +are wrong. We do not yet realise the truth that as, in this life of +ours, the physical underlies the mental, the mental must not be +developed at the expense of the physical. The ancient and modern +conceptions must be combined. + +Perhaps nothing will so much hasten the time when body and mind will +both be adequately cared for, as a diffusion of the belief that the +preservation of health is a _duty_. Few seem conscious that there is +such a thing as physical morality. Men's habitual words and acts imply +the idea that they are at liberty to treat their bodies as they please. +Disorders entailed by disobedience to Nature's dictates, they regard +simply as grievances: not as the effects of a conduct more or less +flagitious. Though the evil consequences inflicted on their dependents, +and on future generations, are often as great as those caused by crime; +yet they do not think themselves in any degree criminal. It is true +that, in the case of drunkenness, the viciousness of a bodily +transgression is recognised; but none appear to infer that, if this +bodily transgression is vicious, so too is every bodily transgression. +The fact is, that all breaches of the laws of health are _physical +sins_. When this is generally seen, then, and perhaps not till then, +will the physical training of the young receive the attention it +deserves. + +[1] _Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine._ + +[2] _Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine._ + +[3] _Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology._ + +[4] Morton's _Cyclopædia of Agriculture_. + +[5] Morton's _Cyclopædia of Agriculture_. + +[6] It is needful to remark that children whose legs and arms have been +from the beginning habitually without covering, cease to be conscious +that the exposed surfaces are cold; just as by use we have all ceased to +be conscious that our faces are cold, even when out of doors. But though +in such children the sensations no longer protest, it does not follow +that the system escapes injury, any more than it follows that the +Fuegian is undamaged by exposure, because he bears with indifference the +melting of the falling snow on his naked body. + +[7] We are not certain that the propagation of subdued forms of +constitutional disease through the agency of vaccination is not a part +cause. Sundry facts in pathology suggest the inference, that when the +system of a vaccinated child is excreting the vaccine virus by means of +pustules, it will tend also to excrete through such pustules other +morbific matters; especially if these morbific matters are of a kind +ordinarily got rid of by the skin, as are some of the worst of them. +Hence it is very possible--probable even--that a child with a +constitutional taint, too slight to show itself in visible disease, may, +through the medium of vitiated vaccine lymph taken from it, convey a +like constitutional taint to other children, and these to others. + +[8] _Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine_, vol. i. pp. 697, 698. + + + + +PART II + + + + +PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE[1] + + +The current conception of Progress is somewhat shifting and indefinite. +Sometimes it comprehends little more than simple growth--as of a nation +in the number of its members and the extent of territory over which it +has spread. Sometimes it has reference to quantity of material +products--as when the advance of agriculture and manufactures is the +topic. Sometimes the superior quality of these products is contemplated: +and sometimes the new or improved appliances by which they are produced. +When, again, we speak of moral or intellectual progress, we refer to the +state of the individual or people exhibiting it; while, when the +progress of Knowledge, of Science, of Art, is commented upon, we have in +view certain abstract results of human thought and action. Not only, +however, is the current conception of Progress more or less vague, but +it is in great measure erroneous. It takes in not so much the reality of +Progress as its accompaniments--not so much the substance as the shadow. +That progress in intelligence seen during the growth of the child into +the man, or the savage into the philosopher, is commonly regarded as +consisting in the greater number of facts known and laws understood: +whereas the actual progress consists in those internal modifications of +which this increased knowledge is the expression. Social progress is +supposed to consist in the produce of a greater quantity and variety of +the articles required for satisfying men's wants; in the increasing +security of person and property; in widening freedom of action: whereas, +rightly understood, social progress consists in those changes of +structure in the social organism which have entailed these consequences. +The current conception is a teleological one. The phenomena are +contemplated solely as bearing on human happiness. Only those changes +are held to constitute progress which directly or indirectly tend to +heighten human happiness. And they are thought to constitute progress +simply _because_ they tend to heighten human happiness. But rightly to +understand progress, we must inquire what is the nature of these +changes, considered apart from our interests. Ceasing, for example, to +regard the successive geological modifications that have taken place in +the Earth, as modifications that have gradually fitted it for the +habitation of Man, and as _therefore_ a geological progress, we must +seek to determine the character common to the modifications--the law to +which they all conform. And similarly in every other case. Leaving out +of sight concomitants and beneficial consequences, let us ask what +Progress is in itself. + +In respect to that progress which individual organisms display in the +course of their evolution, this question has been answered by the +Germans. The investigations of Wolff, Goethe, and Von Baer, have +established the truth that the series of changes gone through during the +development of a seed into a tree, or an ovum into an animal, constitute +an advance from homogeneity of structure to heterogeneity of structure. +In its primary stage, every germ consists of a substance that is uniform +throughout, both in texture and chemical composition. The first step is +the appearance of a difference between two parts of this substance; or, +as the phenomenon is called in physiological language, a +differentiation. Each of these differentiated divisions presently begins +itself to exhibit some contrast of parts; and by and by these secondary +differentiations become as definite as the original one. This process is +continuously repeated--is simultaneously going on in all parts of the +growing embryo; and by endless such differentiations there is finally +produced that complex combination of tissues and organs constituting the +adult animal or plant. This is the history of all organisms whatever. It +is settled beyond dispute that organic progress consists in a change +from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. + +Now, we propose in the first place to show, that this law of organic +progress is the law of all progress. Whether it be in the development of +the Earth, in the development of Life upon its surface, in the +development of Society, of Government, of Manufactures, of Commerce, of +Language, Literature, Science, Art, this same evolution of the simple +into the complex, through successive differentiations, holds throughout. +From the earliest traceable cosmical changes down to the latest results +of civilisation, we shall find that the transformation of the +homogeneous into the heterogeneous, is that in which Progress +essentially consists. + +With the view of showing that _if_ the Nebular Hypothesis be true, the +genesis of the solar system supplies one illustration of this law, let +us assume that the matter of which the sun and planets consist was once +in a diffused form; and that from the gravitation of its atoms there +resulted a gradual concentration. By the hypothesis, the solar system in +its nascent state existed as an indefinitely extended and nearly +homogeneous medium--a medium almost homogeneous in density, in +temperature, and in other physical attributes. The first advance towards +consolidation resulted in a differentiation between the occupied space +which the nebulous mass still filled, and the unoccupied space which it +previously filled. There simultaneously resulted a contrast in density +and a contrast in temperature, between the interior and the exterior of +this mass. And at the same time there arose throughout it rotatory +movements, whose velocities varied according to their distances from its +centre. These differentiations increased in number and degree until +there was the organised group of sun, planets, and satellites, which we +now know--a group which represents numerous contrasts of structure and +action among its members. There are the immense contrasts between the +sun and planets, in bulk and in weight; as well as the subordinate +contrasts between one planet and another, and between the planets and +their satellites. There is the similarly marked contrast between the sun +as almost stationary, and the planets as moving round him with great +velocity; while there are the secondary contrasts between the velocities +and periods of the several planets, and between their simple revolutions +and the double ones of their satellites, which have to move round their +primaries while moving round the sun. There is the yet further strong +contrast between the sun and the planets in respect of temperature; and +there is reason to suppose that the planets and satellites differ from +each other in their proper heat, as well as in the heat they receive +from the sun. + +When we bear in mind that, in addition to these various contrasts, the +planets and satellites also differ in respect to their distances from +each other and their primary; in respect to the inclinations of their +orbits, the inclinations of their axes, their times of rotation on their +axes, their specific gravities, and their physical constitutions; we see +what a high degree of heterogeneity the solar system exhibits, when +compared with the almost complete homogeneity of the nebulous mass out +of which it is supposed to have originated. + +Passing from this hypothetical illustration, which must be taken for +what it is worth, without prejudice to the general argument, let us +descend to a more certain order of evidence. It is now generally agreed +among geologists that the Earth was at first a mass of molten matter; +and that it is still fluid and incandescent at the distance of a few +miles beneath its surface. Originally, then, it was homogeneous in +consistence, and, in virtue of the circulation that takes place in +heated fluids, must have been comparatively homogeneous in temperature; +and it must have been surrounded by an atmosphere consisting partly of +the elements of air and water, and partly of those various other +elements which assume a gaseous form at high temperatures. That slow +cooling by radiation which is still going on at an inappreciable rate, +and which, though originally far more rapid than now, necessarily +required an immense time to produce any decided change, must ultimately +have resulted in the solidification of the portion most able to part +with its heat--namely, the surface. In the thin crust thus formed we +have the first marked differentiation. A still further cooling, a +consequent thickening of this crust, and an accompanying deposition of +all solidifiable elements contained in the atmosphere, must finally have +been followed by the condensation of the water previously existing as +vapour. A second marked differentiation must thus have arisen: and as +the condensation must have taken place on the coolest parts of the +surface--namely, about the poles--there must thus have resulted the +first geographical distinction of parts. To these illustrations of +growing heterogeneity, which, though deduced from the known laws of +matter, may be regarded as more or less hypothetical, Geology adds an +extensive series that have been inductively established. Its +investigations show that the Earth has been continually becoming more +heterogeneous in virtue of the multiplication of the strata which form +its crust; further, that it has been becoming more heterogeneous in +respect of the composition of these strata, the latter of which, being +made from the detritus of the older ones, are many of them rendered +highly complex by the mixture of materials they contain; and that this +heterogeneity has been vastly increased by the action of the Earth's +still molten nucleus upon its envelope, whence have resulted not only a +great variety of igneous rocks, but the tilting up of sedimentary strata +at all angles, the formation of faults and metallic veins, the +production of endless dislocations and irregularities. Yet again, +geologists teach us that the Earth's surface has been growing more +varied in elevation--that the most ancient mountain systems are the +smallest, and the Andes and Himalayas the most modern; while in all +probability there have been corresponding changes in the bed of the +ocean. As a consequence of these ceaseless differentiations, we now find +that no considerable portion of the Earth's exposed surface is like any +other portion, either in contour, in geologic structure, or in chemical +composition; and that in most parts it changes from mile to mile in all +these characteristics. + +Moreover, it must not be forgotten that there has been simultaneously +going on a gradual differentiation of climates. As fast as the Earth +cooled and its crust solidified, there arose appreciable differences in +temperature between those parts of its surface most exposed to the sun +and those less exposed. Gradually, as the cooling progressed, these +differences became more pronounced; until there finally resulted those +marked contrasts between regions of perpetual ice and snow, regions +where winter and summer alternately reign for periods varying according +to the latitude, and regions where summer follows summer with scarcely +an appreciable variation. At the same time the successive elevations and +subsidences of different portions of the Earth's crust, tending as they +have done to the present irregular distribution of land and sea, have +entailed various modifications of climate beyond those dependent on +latitude; while a yet further series of such modifications have been +produced by increasing differences of elevation in the land, which have +in sundry places brought arctic, temperate, and tropical climates to +within a few miles of each other. And the general result of these +changes is, that not only has every extensive region its own +meteorologic conditions, but that every locality in each region differs +more or less from others in those conditions, as in its structure, its +contour, its soil. Thus, between our existing Earth, the phenomena of +whose varied crust neither geographers, geologists, mineralogists, nor +meteorologists have yet enumerated, and the molten globe out of which it +was evolved, the contrast in heterogeneity is sufficiently striking. + +When from the Earth itself we turn to the plants and animals that have +lived, or still live, upon its surface, we find ourselves in some +difficulty from lack of facts. That every existing organism has been +developed out of the simple into the complex, is indeed the first +established truth of all; and that every organism that has existed was +similarly developed, is an inference which no physiologist will hesitate +to draw. But when we pass from individual forms of life to Life in +general, and inquire whether the same law is seen in the _ensemble_ of +its manifestations,--whether modern plants and animals are of more +heterogeneous structure than ancient ones, and whether the earth's +present Flora and Fauna are more heterogeneous than the Flora and Fauna +of the past,--we find the evidence so fragmentary, that every conclusion +is open to dispute. Two-thirds of the Earth's surface being covered by +water; a great part of the exposed land being inaccessible to, or +untravelled by, the geologist; the greater part of the remainder having +been scarcely more than glanced at; and even the most familiar portions, +as England, having been so imperfectly explored that a new series of +strata has been added within these four years,--it is manifestly +impossible for us to say with any certainty what creatures have, and +what have not, existed at any particular period. Considering the +perishable nature of many of the lower organic forms, the metamorphosis +of many sedimentary strata, and the gaps that occur among the rest, we +shall see further reason for distrusting our deductions. On the one +hand, the repeated discovery of vertebrate remains in strata previously +supposed to contain none,--of reptiles where only fish were thought to +exist,--of mammals where it was believed there were no creatures higher +than reptiles,--renders it daily more manifest how small is the value of +negative evidence. + +On the other hand, the worthlessness of the assumption that we have +discovered the earliest, or anything like the earliest, organic remains, +is becoming equally clear. That the oldest known sedimentary rocks have +been greatly changed by igneous action, and that still older ones have +been totally transformed by it, is becoming undeniable. And the fact +that sedimentary strata earlier than any we know, have been melted up, +being admitted, it must also be admitted that we cannot say how far back +in time this destruction of sedimentary strata has been going on. Thus +it is manifest that the title, _Palæozoic_, as applied to the earliest +known fossiliferous strata, involves a _petitio principii_; and that, +for aught we know to the contrary, only the last few chapters of the +Earth's biological history may have come down to us. On neither side, +therefore, is the evidence conclusive. Nevertheless we cannot but think +that, scanty as they are, the facts, taken altogether, tend to show both +that the more heterogeneous organisms have been evolved in the later +geologic periods, and that Life in general has been more heterogeneously +manifested as time has advanced. Let us cite, in illustration, the one +case of the _vertebrata_. The earliest known vertebrate remains are +those of Fishes; and Fishes are the most homogeneous of the vertebrata. +Later and more heterogeneous are Reptiles. Later still, and more +heterogeneous still, are Mammals and Birds. If it be said, as it may +fairly be said, that the Palæozoic deposits, not being estuary deposits, +are not likely to contain the remains of terrestrial vertebrata, which +may nevertheless have existed at that era, we reply that we are merely +pointing to the leading facts, _such as they are_. + +But to avoid any such criticism, let us take the mammalian subdivision +only. The earliest known remains of mammals are those of small +marsupials, which are the lowest of the mammalian type; while, +conversely, the highest of the mammalian type--Man--is the most recent. +The evidence that the vertebrate fauna, as a whole, has become more +heterogeneous, is considerably stronger. To the argument that the +vertebrate fauna of the Palæozoic period, consisting, so far as we know, +entirely of Fishes, was less heterogeneous than the modern vertebrate +fauna, which includes Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, of multitudinous +genera, it may be replied, as before, that estuary deposits of the +Palæozoic period, could we find them, might contain other orders of +vertebrata. But no such reply can be made to the argument that whereas +the marine vertebrata of the Palæozoic period consisted entirely of +cartilaginous fishes, the marine vertebrata of later periods include +numerous genera of osseous fishes; and that, therefore, the later marine +vertebrate faunas are more heterogeneous than the oldest known one. Nor, +again, can any such reply be made to the fact that there are far more +numerous orders and genera of mammalian remains in the tertiary +formations than in the secondary formations. Did we wish merely to make +out the best case, we might dwell upon the opinion of Dr. Carpenter, who +says that "the general facts of Palæontology appear to sanction the +belief, that _the same plan_ may be traced out in what may be called +_the general life of the globe_, as in _the individual life_ of every +one of the forms of organised being which now people it." Or we might +quote, as decisive, the judgment of Professor Owen, who holds that the +earlier examples of each group of creatures severally departed less +widely from archetypal generality than the later ones--were severally +less unlike the fundamental form common to the group as a whole; that is +to say--constituted a less heterogeneous group of creatures; and who +further upholds the doctrine of a biological progression. But in +deference to an authority for whom we have the highest respect, who +considers that the evidence at present obtained does not justify a +verdict either way, we are content to leave the question open. + +Whether an advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is or is +not displayed in the biological history of the globe, it is clearly +enough displayed in the progress of the latest and most heterogeneous +creature--Man. It is alike true that, during the period in which the +Earth has been peopled, the human organism has grown more heterogeneous +among the civilised divisions of the species; and that the species, as a +whole, has been growing more heterogeneous in virtue of the +multiplication of races and the differentiation of these races from each +other. + +In proof of the first of these positions, we may cite the fact that, in +the relative development of the limbs, the civilised man departs more +widely from the general type of the placental mammalia than do the lower +human races. While often possessing well-developed body and arms, the +Papuan has extremely small legs: thus reminding us of the quadrumana, in +which there is no great contrast in size between the hind and fore +limbs. But in the European, the greater length and massiveness of the +legs has become very marked--the fore and hind limbs are relatively more +heterogeneous. Again, the greater ratio which the cranial bones bear to +the facial bones illustrates the same truth. Among the vertebrata in +general, progress is marked by an increasing heterogeneity in the +vertebral column, and more especially in the vertebræ constituting the +skull: the higher forms being distinguished by the relatively larger +size of the bones which cover the brain, and the relatively smaller size +of those which form the jaw, etc. Now, this characteristic, which is +stronger in Man than in any other creature, is stronger in the European +than in the savage. Moreover, judging from the greater extent and +variety of faculty he exhibits, we may infer that the civilised man has +also a more complex or heterogeneous nervous system than the uncivilised +man: and indeed the fact is in part visible in the increased ratio which +his cerebrum bears to the subjacent ganglia. + +If further elucidation be needed, we may find it in every nursery. The +infant European has sundry marked points of resemblance to the lower +human races; as in the flatness of the alæ of the nose, the depression +of its bridge, the divergence and forward opening of the nostrils, the +form of the lips, the absence of a frontal sinus, the width between the +eyes, the smallness of the legs. Now, as the development process by +which these traits are turned into those of the adult European, is a +continuation of that change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous +displayed during the previous evolution of the embryo, which every +physiologist will admit; it follows that the parallel developmental +process by which the like traits of the barbarous races have been turned +into those of the civilised races, has also been a continuation of the +change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. The truth of the +second position--that Mankind, as a whole, have become more +heterogeneous--is so obvious as scarcely to need illustration. Every +work on Ethnology, by its divisions and subdivisions of races, bears +testimony to it. Even were we to admit the hypothesis that Mankind +originated from several separate stocks, it would still remain true, +that as, from each of these stocks, there have sprung many now widely +different tribes, which are proved by philological evidence to have had +a common origin, the race as a whole is far less homogeneous than it +once was. Add to which, that we have, in the Anglo-Americans, an example +of a new variety arising within these few generations; and that, if we +may trust to the description of observers, we are likely soon to have +another such example in Australia. + +On passing from Humanity under its individual form, to Humanity as +socially embodied, we find the general law still more variously +exemplified. The change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is +displayed equally in the progress of civilisation as a whole, and in the +progress of every tribe or nation; and is still going on with increasing +rapidity. As we see in existing barbarous tribes, society in its first +and lowest form is a homogeneous aggregation of individuals having like +powers and like functions: the only marked difference of function being +that which accompanies difference of sex. Every man is warrior, hunter, +fisherman, tool-maker, builder; every woman performs the same +drudgeries; every family is self-sufficing, and save for purposes of +aggression and defence, might as well live apart from the rest. Very +early, however, in the process of social evolution, we find an incipient +differentiation between the governing and the governed. Some kind of +chieftainship seems coeval with the first advance from the state of +separate wandering families to that of a nomadic tribe. The authority of +the strongest makes itself felt among a body of savages as in a herd of +animals, or a posse of schoolboys. At first, however, it is indefinite, +uncertain; is shared by others of scarcely inferior power; and is +unaccompanied by any difference in occupation or style of living: the +first ruler kills his own game, makes his own weapons, builds his own +hut, and economically considered, does not differ from others of his +tribe. Gradually, as the tribe progresses, the contrast between the +governing and the governed grows more decided. Supreme power becomes +hereditary in one family; the head of that family, ceasing to provide +for his own wants, is served by others; and he begins to assume the sole +office of ruling. + +At the same time there has been arising a co-ordinate species of +government--that of Religion. As all ancient records and traditions +prove, the earliest rulers are regarded as divine personages. The maxims +and commands they uttered during their lives are held sacred after their +deaths, and are enforced by their divinely-descended successors; who in +their turns are promoted to the pantheon of the race, there to be +worshipped and propitiated along with their predecessors: the most +ancient of whom is the supreme god, and the rest subordinate gods. For a +long time these connate forms of government--civil and +religious--continue closely associated. For many generations the king +continues to be the chief priest, and the priesthood to be members of +the royal race. For many ages religious law continues to contain more or +less of civil regulation, and civil law to possess more or less of +religious sanction; and even among the most advanced nations these two +controlling agencies are by no means completely differentiated from each +other. + +Having a common root with these, and gradually diverging from them, we +find yet another controlling agency--that of Manners or ceremonial +usages. All titles of honour are originally the names of the god-king; +afterwards of God and the king; still later of persons of high rank; and +finally come, some of them, to be used between man and man. All forms of +complimentary address were at first the expressions of submission from +prisoners to their conqueror, or from subjects to their ruler, either +human or divine--expressions that were afterwards used to propitiate +subordinate authorities, and slowly descended into ordinary intercourse. +All modes of salutation were once obeisances made before the monarch and +used in worship of him after his death. Presently others of the +god-descended race were similarly saluted; and by degrees some of the +salutations have become the due of all.[2] Thus, no sooner does the +originally homogeneous social mass differentiate into the governed and +the governing parts, than this last exhibits an incipient +differentiation into religious and secular--Church and State; while at +the same time there begins to be differentiated from both, that less +definite species of government which rules our daily intercourse--a +species of government which, as we may see in heralds' colleges, in +books of the peerage, in masters of ceremonies, is not without a certain +embodiment of its own. Each of these is itself subject to successive +differentiations. In the course of ages, there arises, as among +ourselves, a highly complex political organisation of monarch, +ministers, lords and commons, with their subordinate administrative +departments, courts of justice, revenue offices, etc., supplemented in +the provinces by municipal governments, county governments, parish or +union governments--all of them more or less elaborated. By its side +there grows up a highly complex religious organisation, with its various +grades of officials, from archbishops down to sextons, its colleges, +convocations, ecclesiastical courts, etc.; to all which must be added +the ever multiplying independent sects, each with its general and local +authorities. And at the same time there is developed a highly complex +aggregation of customs, manners, and temporary fashions, enforced by +society at large, and serving to control those minor transactions +between man and man which are not regulated by civil and religious law. +Moreover it is to be observed that this ever increasing heterogeneity in +the governmental appliances of each nation, has been accompanied by an +increasing heterogeneity in the governmental appliances of different +nations; all of which are more or less unlike in their political systems +and legislation, in their creeds and religious institutions, in their +customs and ceremonial usages. + +Simultaneously there has been going on a second differentiation of a +more familiar kind; that, namely, by which the mass of the community has +been segregated into distinct classes and orders of workers. While the +governing part has undergone the complex development above detailed, the +governed part has undergone an equally complex development, which has +resulted in that minute division of labour characterising advanced +nations. It is needless to trace out this progress from its first +stages, up through the caste divisions of the East and the incorporated +guilds of Europe, to the elaborate producing and distributing +organisation existing among ourselves. Political economists have long +since described the evolution which, beginning with a tribe whose +members severally perform the same actions each for himself, ends with a +civilised community whose members severally perform different actions +for each other; and they have further pointed out the changes through +which the solitary producer of any one commodity is transformed into a +combination of producers who, united under a master, take separate parts +in the manufacture of such commodity. But there are yet other and higher +phases of this advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous in the +industrial organisation of society. + +Long after considerable progress has been made in the division of labour +among different classes of workers, there is still little or no division +of labour among the widely separated parts of the community; the nation +continues comparatively homogeneous in the respect that in each district +the same occupations are pursued. But when roads and other means of +transit become numerous and good, the different districts begin to +assume different functions, and to become mutually dependent. The calico +manufacture locates itself in this county, the woollen-cloth manufacture +in that; silks are produced here, lace there; stockings in one place, +shoes in another; pottery, hardware, cutlery, come to have their special +towns; and ultimately every locality becomes more or less distinguished +from the rest by the leading occupation carried on in it. Nay, more, +this subdivision of functions shows itself not only among the different +parts of the same nation, but among different nations. That exchange of +commodities which free-trade promises so greatly to increase, will +ultimately have the effect of specialising, in a greater or less degree, +the industry of each people. So that beginning with a barbarous tribe, +almost if not quite homogeneous in the functions of its members, the +progress has been, and still is, towards an economic aggregation of the +whole human race; growing ever more heterogeneous in respect of the +separate functions assumed by separate nations, the separate functions +assumed by the local sections of each nation, the separate functions +assumed by the many kinds of makers and traders in each town, and the +separate functions assumed by the workers united in producing each +commodity. + +Not only is the law thus clearly exemplified in the evolution of the +social organism, but it is exemplified with equal clearness in the +evolution of all products of human thought and action, whether concrete +or abstract, real or ideal. Let us take Language as our first +illustration. + +The lowest form of language is the exclamation, by which an entire idea +is vaguely conveyed through a single sound; as among the lower animals. +That human language ever consisted solely of exclamations, and so was +strictly homogeneous in respect of its parts of speech, we have no +evidence. But that language can be traced down to a form in which nouns +and verbs are its only elements, is an established fact. In the gradual +multiplication of parts of speech out of these primary ones--in the +differentiation of verbs into active and passive, of nouns into abstract +and concrete--in the rise of distinctions of mood, tense, person, of +number and case--in the formation of auxiliary verbs, of adjectives, +adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, articles--in the divergence of those +orders, genera, species, and varieties of parts of speech by which +civilised races express minute modifications of meaning--we see a change +from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. And it may be remarked, in +passing, that it is more especially in virtue of having carried this +subdivision of function to a greater extent and completeness, that the +English language is superior to all others. + +Another aspect under which we may trace the development of language is +the differentiation of words of allied meanings. Philology early +disclosed the truth that in all languages words may be grouped into +families having a common ancestry. An aboriginal name applied +indiscriminately to each of an extensive and ill-defined class of things +or actions, presently undergoes modifications by which the chief +divisions of the class are expressed. These several names springing from +the primitive root, themselves become the parents of other names still +further modified. And by the aid of those systematic modes which +presently arise, of making derivations and forming compound terms +expressing still smaller distinctions, there is finally developed a +tribe of words so heterogeneous in sound and meaning, that to the +uninitiated it seems incredible that they should have had a common +origin. Meanwhile from other roots there are being evolved other such +tribes, until there results a language of some sixty thousand or more +unlike words, signifying as many unlike objects, qualities, acts. + +Yet another way in which language in general advances from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous, is in the multiplication of languages. +Whether as Max Müller and Bunsen think, all languages have grown from +one stock, or whether, as some philologists say, they have grown from +two or more stocks, it is clear that since large families of languages, +as the Indo-European, are of one parentage, they have become distinct +through a process of continuous divergence. The same diffusion over the +Earth's surface which has led to the differentiation of the race, has +simultaneously led to a differentiation of their speech: a truth which +we see further illustrated in each nation by the peculiarities of +dialect found in several districts. Thus the progress of Language +conforms to the general law, alike in the evolution of languages, in the +evolution of families of words, and in the evolution of parts of speech. + +On passing from spoken to written language, we come upon several classes +of facts, all having similar implications. Written language is connate +with Painting and Sculpture; and at first all three are appendages of +Architecture, and have a direct connection with the primary form of all +Government--the theocratic. Merely noting by the way the fact that +sundry wild races, as for example the Australians and the tribes of +South Africa, are given to depicting personages and events upon the +walls of caves, which are probably regarded as sacred places, let us +pass to the case of the Egyptians. Among them, as also among the +Assyrians, we find mural paintings used to decorate the temple of the +god and the palace of the king (which were, indeed, originally +identical); and as such they were governmental appliances in the same +sense that state-pageants and religious feasts were. Further, they were +governmental appliances in virtue of representing the worship of the +god, the triumphs of the god-king, the submission of his subjects, and +the punishment of the rebellious. And yet again they were governmental, +as being the products of an art reverenced by the people as a sacred +mystery. From the habitual use of this pictorial representations there +naturally grew up the but slightly-modified practice of +picture-writing--a practice which was found still extant among the +Mexicans at the time they were discovered. By abbreviations analogous to +those still going on in our own written and spoken language, the most +familiar of these pictured figures were successively simplified; and +ultimately there grew up a system of symbols, most of which had but a +distant resemblance to the things for which they stood. The inference +that the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians were thus produced, is confirmed +by the fact that the picture-writing of the Mexicans was found to have +given birth to a like family of ideographic forms; and among them, as +among the Egyptians, these had been partially differentiated into the +_kuriological_ or imitative, and the _tropical_ or symbolic: which were, +however, used together in the same record. In Egypt, written language +underwent a further differentiation: whence resulted the _hieratic_ and +the _epistolographic_ or _enchorial_: both of which are derived from the +original hieroglyphic. At the same time we find that for the expression +of proper names which could not be otherwise conveyed, phonetic symbols +were employed; and though it is alleged that the Egyptians never +actually achieved complete alphabetic writing, yet it can scarcely be +doubted that these phonetic symbols occasionally used in aid of their +ideographic ones, were the germs out of which alphabetic writing grew. +Once having become separate from hieroglyphics, alphabetic writing +itself underwent numerous differentiations--multiplied alphabets were +produced; between most of which, however, more or less connection can +still be traced. And in each civilised nation there has now grown up, +for the representation of one set of sounds, several sets of written +signs used for distinct purposes. Finally, through a yet more important +differentiation came printing; which, uniform in kind as it was at +first, has since become multiform. + +While written language was passing through its earlier stages of +development, the mural decoration which formed its root was being +differentiated into Painting and Sculpture. The gods, kings, men, and +animals represented, were originally marked by indented outlines and +coloured. In most cases these outlines were of such depth, and the +object they circumscribed so far rounded and marked out in its leading +parts, as to form a species of work intermediate between intaglio and +bas-relief. In other cases we see an advance upon this: the raised +spaces between the figures being chiselled off, and the figures +themselves appropriately tinted, a painted bas-relief was produced. The +restored Assyrian architecture at Sydenham exhibits this style of art +carried to greater perfection--the persons and things represented, +though still barbarously coloured, are carved out with more truth and in +greater detail: and in the winged lions and bulls used for the angles of +gateways, we may see a considerable advance towards a completely +sculptured figure; which, nevertheless, is still coloured, and still +forms part of the building. But while in Assyria the production of a +statue proper seems to have been little, if at all, attempted, we may +trace in Egyptian art the gradual separation of the sculptured figure +from the wall. A walk through the collection in the British Museum will +clearly show this; while it will at the same time afford an opportunity +of observing the evident traces which the independent statues bear of +their derivation from bas-relief: seeing that nearly all of them not +only display that union of the limbs with the body which is the +characteristic of bas-relief, but have the back of the statue united +from head to foot with a block which stands in place of the original +wall. Greece repeated the leading stages of this progress. As in Egypt +and Assyria, these twin arts were at first united with each other and +with their parent, Architecture, and were the aids of Religion and +Government. On the friezes of Greek temples, we see coloured bas-reliefs +representing sacrifices, battles, processions, games--all in some sort +religious. On the pediments we see painted sculptures more or less +united with the tympanum, and having for subjects the triumphs of gods +or heroes. Even when we come to statues that are definitely separated +from the buildings to which they pertain, we still find them coloured; +and only in the later periods of Greek civilisation does the +differentiation of sculpture from painting appear to have become +complete. + +In Christian art we may clearly trace a parallel re-genesis. All early +paintings and sculptures throughout Europe were religious in +subject--represented Christs, crucifixions, virgins, holy families, +apostles, saints. They formed integral parts of church architecture, and +were among the means of exciting worship; as in Roman Catholic countries +they still are. Moreover, the early sculptures of Christ on the cross, +of virgins, of saints, were coloured: and it needs but to call to mind +the painted madonnas and crucifixes still abundant in continental +churches and highways, to perceive the significant fact that painting +and sculpture continue in closest connection with each other where they +continue in closest connection with their parent. Even when Christian +sculpture was pretty clearly differentiated from painting, it was still +religious and governmental in its subjects--was used for tombs in +churches and statues of kings: while, at the same time, painting, where +not purely ecclesiastical, was applied to the decoration of palaces, and +besides representing royal personages, was almost wholly devoted to +sacred legends. Only in quite recent times have painting and sculpture +become entirely secular arts. Only within these few centuries has +painting been divided into historical, landscape, marine, architectural, +genre, animal, still-life, etc., and sculpture grown heterogeneous in +respect of the variety of real and ideal subjects with which it occupies +itself. + +Strange as it seems then, we find it no less true, that all forms of +written language, of painting, and of sculpture, have a common root in +the politico-religious decorations of ancient temples and palaces. +Little resemblance as they now have, the bust that stands on the +console, the landscape that hangs against the wall, and the copy of the +_Times_ lying upon the table, are remotely akin; not only in nature, but +by extraction. The brazen face of the knocker which the postman has just +lifted, is related not only to the woodcuts of the _Illustrated London +News_ which he is delivering, but to the characters of the _billet-doux_ +which accompanies it. Between the painted window, the prayer-book on +which its light falls, and the adjacent monument, there is +consanguinity. The effigies on our coins, the signs over shops, the +figures that fill every ledger, the coats of arms outside the carriage +panel, and the placards inside the omnibus, are, in common with dolls, +blue-books, paper-hangings, lineally descended from the rude +sculpture-paintings in which the Egyptians represented the triumphs and +worship of their god-kings. Perhaps no example can be given which more +vividly illustrates the multiplicity and heterogeneity of the products +that in course of time may arise by successive differentiations from a +common stock. + +Before passing to other classes of facts, it should be observed that the +evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous is displayed not +only in the separation of Painting and Sculpture from Architecture and +from each other, and in the greater variety of subjects they embody, but +it is further shown in the structure of each work. A modern picture or +statue is of far more heterogeneous nature than an ancient one. An +Egyptian sculpture-fresco represents all its figures as on one +plane--that is, at the same distance from the eye; and so is less +heterogeneous than a painting that represents them as at various +distances from the eye. It exhibits all objects as exposed to the same +degree of light; and so is less heterogeneous than a painting which +exhibits different objects and different parts of each object as in +different degrees of light. It uses scarcely any but the primary +colours, and these in their full intensity; and so is less heterogeneous +than a painting which, introducing the primary colours but sparingly, +employs an endless variety of intermediate tints, each of heterogeneous +composition, and differing from the rest not only in quality but in +intensity. Moreover, we see in these earliest works a great uniformity +of conception. The same arrangement of figures is perpetually +reproduced--the same actions, attitudes, faces, dresses. In Egypt the +modes of representation were so fixed that it was sacrilege to introduce +a novelty; and indeed it could have been only in consequence of a fixed +mode of representation that a system of hieroglyphics became possible. +The Assyrian bas-reliefs display parallel characters. Deities, kings, +attendants, winged figures and animals, are severally depicted in like +positions, holding like implements, doing like things, and with like +expression or non-expression of face. If a palm-grove is introduced, all +the trees are of the same height, have the same number of leaves, and +are equidistant. When water is imitated, each wave is a counterpart of +the rest; and the fish, almost always of one kind, are evenly +distributed over the surface. The beards of the kings, the gods, and the +winged figures, are every where similar: as are the names of the lions, +and equally so those of the horses. Hair is represented throughout by +one form of curl. The king's beard is quite architecturally built up of +compound tiers of uniform curls, alternating with twisted tiers placed +in a transverse direction, and arranged with perfect regularity; and the +terminal tufts of the bulls' tails are represented in exactly the same +manner. Without tracing out analogous facts in early Christian art, in +which, though less striking, they are still visible, the advance in +heterogeneity will be sufficiently manifest on remembering that in the +pictures of our own day the composition is endlessly varied; the +attitudes, faces, expressions, unlike; the subordinate objects different +in size, form, position, texture; and more or less of contrast even in +the smallest details. Or, if we compare an Egyptian statue, seated bolt +upright on a block with hands on knees, fingers outspread and parallel, +eyes looking straight forward, and the two sides perfectly symmetrical +in every particular, with a statue of the advanced Greek or the modern +school, which is asymmetrical in respect of the position of the head, +the body, the limbs, the arrangement of the hair, dress, appendages, and +in its relations to neighbouring objects, we shall see the change from +the homogeneous to the heterogeneous clearly manifested. + +In the co-ordinate origin and gradual differentiation of Poetry, Music +and Dancing, we have another series of illustrations. Rhythm in speech, +rhythm in sound, and rhythm in motion, were in the beginning parts of +the same thing, and have only in process of time become separate things. +Among various existing barbarous tribes we find them still united. The +dances of savages are accompanied by some kind of monotonous chant, the +clapping of hands, the striking of rude instruments: there are measured +movements, measured words, and measured tones; and the whole ceremony, +usually having reference to war or sacrifice, is of governmental +character. In the early records of the historic races we similarly find +these three forms of metrical action united in religious festivals. In +the Hebrew writings we read that the triumphal ode composed by Moses on +the defeat of the Egyptians, was sung to an accompaniment of dancing and +timbrels. The Israelites danced and sung "at the inauguration of the +golden calf. And as it is generally agreed that this representation of +the Deity was borrowed from the mysteries of Apis, it is probable that +the dancing was copied from that of the Egyptians on those occasions." +There was an annual dance in Shiloh on the sacred festival; and David +danced before the ark. Again, in Greece the like relation is everywhere +seen; the original type being there, as probably in other cases, a +simultaneous chanting and mimetic representation of the life and +adventures of the god. The Spartan dances were accompanied by hymns and +songs; and in general the Greeks had "no festivals or religious +assemblies but what were accompanied with songs and dances"--both of +them being forms of worship used before altars. Among the Romans, too, +there were sacred dances: the Salian and Lupercalian being named as of +that kind. And even in Christian countries, as at Limoges, in +comparatively recent times, the people have danced in the choir in +honour of a saint. The incipient separation of these once united arts +from each other and from religion, was early visible in Greece. Probably +diverging from dances partly religious, partly warlike, as the +Corybantian, came the war dances proper, of which there were various +kinds; and from these resulted secular dances. Meanwhile Music and +Poetry, though still united, came to have an existence separate from +dancing. The aboriginal Greek poems, religious in subject, were not +recited, but chanted; and though at first the chant of the poet was +accompanied by the dance of the chorus, it ultimately grew into +independence. Later still, when the poem had been differentiated into +epic and lyric--when it became the custom to sing the lyric and recite +the epic--poetry proper was born. As during the same period musical +instruments were being multiplied, we may presume that music came to +have an existence apart from words. And both of them were beginning to +assume other forms besides the religious. Facts having like implications +might be cited from the histories of later times and people: as the +practices of our own early minstrels, who sang to the harp heroic +narratives versified by themselves to music of their own composition: +thus uniting the now separate offices of poet, composer, vocalist, and +instrumentalist. But, without further illustration, the common origin +and gradual differentiation of Dancing, Poetry, and Music will be +sufficiently manifest. + +The advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is displayed not +only in the separation of these arts from each other and from religion, +but also in the multiplied differentiations which each of them +afterwards undergoes. Not to dwell upon the numberless kinds of dancing +that have, in course of time, come into use; and not to occupy space in +detaining the progress of poetry, as seen in the development of the +various forms of metre, of rhyme, and of general organisation; let us +confine our attention to music as a type of the group. As argued by Dr. +Burney, and as implied by the customs of still extant barbarous races, +the first musical instruments were, without doubt, percussive--sticks, +calabashes, tom-toms--and were used simply to mark the time of the +dance; and in this constant repetition of the same sound, we see music +in its most homogeneous form. + +The Egyptians had a lyre with three strings. The early lyre of the +Greeks had four, constituting their tetrachord. In course of some +centuries lyres of seven and eight strings were employed. And, by the +expiration of a thousand years, they had advanced to their "great +system" of the double octave. Through all which changes there of course +arose a greater heterogeneity of melody. Simultaneously there came into +use the different modes--Dorian, Ionian, Phrygian, Æolian, and +Lydian--answering to our keys; and of these there were ultimately +fifteen. As yet, however, there was but little heterogeneity in the time +of their music. + +Instrumental music during this period being merely the accompaniment of +vocal music, and vocal music being completely subordinated to words, the +singer being also the poet, chanting his own compositions and making the +lengths of his notes agree with the feet of his verses,--there +unavoidably arose a tiresome uniformity of measure, which, as Dr. Burney +says, "no resources of melody could disguise." Lacking the complex +rhythm obtained by our equal bars and unequal notes the only rhythm was +that produced by the quantity of the syllables and was of necessity +comparatively monotonous. And further, it may be observed that the chant +thus resulting, being like recitative, was much less clearly +differentiated from ordinary speech than is our modern song. + +Nevertheless, in virtue of the extended range of notes in use, the +variety of modes, the occasional variations of time consequent on +changes of metre, and the multiplication of instruments, music had, +towards the close of Greek civilisation, attained to considerable +heterogeneity--not indeed as compared with our music, but as compared +with that which preceded it. As yet, however, there existed nothing but +melody: harmony was unknown. It was not until Christian church-music had +reached some development, that music in parts was evolved; and then it +came into existence through a very unobtrusive differentiation. +Difficult as it may be to conceive _à priori_ how the advance from +melody to harmony could take place without a sudden leap, it is none the +less true that it did so. The circumstance which prepared the way for it +was the employment of two choirs singing alternately the same air. +Afterwards it became the practice--very possibly first suggested by a +mistake--for the second choir to commence before the first had ceased; +thus producing a fugue. + +With the simple airs then in use, a partially harmonious fugue might not +improbably thus result: and a very partially harmonious fugue satisfied +the ears of that age, as we know from still preserved examples. The idea +having once been given, the composing of airs productive of fugal +harmony would naturally grow up; as in some way it _did_ grow up out of +this alternate choir-singing. And from the fugue to concerted music of +two, three, four, and more parts, the transition was easy. Without +pointing out in detail the increasing complexity that resulted from +introducing notes of various lengths, from the multiplication of keys, +from the use of accidentals, from varieties of time, and so forth, it +needs but to contrast music as it is, with music as it was, to see how +immense is the increase of heterogeneity. We see this if, looking at +music in its _ensemble_, we enumerate its many different genera and +species--if we consider the divisions into vocal, instrumental, and +mixed; and their subdivisions into music for different voices and +different instruments--if we observe the many forms of sacred music, +from the simple hymn, the chant, the canon, motet, anthem, etc., up to +the oratorio; and the still more numerous forms of secular music, from +the ballad up to the serenata, from the instrumental solo up to the +symphony. + +Again, the same truth is seen on comparing any one sample of aboriginal +music with a sample of modern music--even an ordinary song for the +piano; which we find to be relatively highly heterogeneous, not only in +respect of the varieties in the pitch and in the length of the notes, +the number of different notes sounding at the same instant in company +with the voice, and the variations of strength with which they are +sounded and sung, but in respect of the changes of key, the changes of +time, the changes of _timbre_ of the voice, and the many other +modifications of expression. While between the old monotonous +dance-chant and a grand opera of our own day, with its endless +orchestral complexities and vocal combinations, the contrast in +heterogeneity is so extreme that it seems scarcely credible that the one +should have been the ancestor of the other. + +Were they needed, many further illustrations might be cited. Going back +to the early time when the deeds of the god-king, chanted and +mimetically represented in dances round his altar, were further narrated +in picture-writings on the walls of temples and palaces, and so +constituted a rude literature, we might trace the development of +Literature through phases in which, as in the Hebrew Scriptures, it +presents in one work theology, cosmogony, history, biography, civil law, +ethics, poetry; through other phases in which, as in the Iliad, the +religious, martial, historical, the epic, dramatic, and lyric elements +are similarly commingled; down to its present heterogeneous development, +in which its divisions and subdivisions are so numerous and varied as to +defy complete classification. Or we might trace out the evolution of +Science; beginning with the era in which it was not yet differentiated +from Art, and was, in union with Art, the handmaid of Religion; passing +through the era in which the sciences were so few and rudimentary, as to +be simultaneously cultivated by the same philosophers; and ending with +the era in which the genera and species are so numerous that few can +enumerate them, and no one can adequately grasp even one genus. Or we +might do the like with Architecture, with the Drama, with Dress. + +But doubtless the reader is already weary of illustrations; and our +promise has been amply fulfilled. We believe we have shown beyond +question, that that which the German physiologists have found to be the +law of organic development, is the law of all development. The advance +from the simple to the complex, through a process of successive +differentiations, is seen alike in the earliest changes of the Universe +to which we can reason our way back; and in the earliest changes which +we can inductively establish; it is seen in the geologic and climatic +evolution of the Earth, and of every single organism on its surface; it +is seen in the evolution of Humanity, whether contemplated in the +civilised individual, or in the aggregation of races; it is seen in the +evolution of Society in respect alike of its political, its religious, +and its economical organisation; and it is seen in the evolution of all +those endless concrete and abstract products of human activity which +constitute the environment of our daily life. From the remotest past +which Science can fathom, up to the novelties of yesterday, that in +which Progress essentially consists, is the transformation of the +homogeneous into the heterogeneous. + + * * * * * + +And now, from this uniformity of procedure, may we not infer some +fundamental necessity whence it results? May we not rationally seek for +some all-pervading principle which determines this all-pervading process +of things? Does not the universality of the _law_ imply a universal +_cause_? + +That we can fathom such cause, noumenally considered, is not to be +supposed. To do this would be to solve that ultimate mystery which must +ever transcend human intelligence. But it still may be possible for us +to reduce the law of all Progress, above established, from the condition +of an empirical generalisation, to the condition of a rational +generalisation. Just as it was possible to interpret Kepler's laws as +necessary consequences of the law of gravitation; so it may be possible +to interpret this law of Progress, in its multiform manifestations, as +the necessary consequence of some similarly universal principle. As +gravitation was assignable as the _cause_ of each of the groups of +phenomena which Kepler formulated; so may some equally simple attribute +of things be assignable as the cause of each of the groups of phenomena +formulated in the foregoing pages. We may be able to affiliate all these +varied and complex evolutions of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, +upon certain simple facts of immediate experience, which, in virtue of +endless repetition, we regard as necessary. + +The probability of a common cause, and the possibility of formulating +it, being granted, it will be well, before going further, to consider +what must be the general characteristics of such cause, and in what +direction we ought to look for it. We can with certainty predict that it +has a high degree of generality; seeing that it is common to such +infinitely varied phenomena: just in proportion to the universality of +its application must be the abstractness of its character. We need not +expect to see in it an obvious solution of this or that form of +Progress; because it equally refers to forms of Progress bearing little +apparent resemblance to them: its association with multiform orders of +facts, involves its dissociation from any particular order of facts. +Being that which determines Progress of every kind--astronomic, +geologic, organic, ethnologic, social, economic, artistic, etc.--it must +be concerned with some fundamental attribute possessed in common by +these; and must be expressible in terms of this fundamental attribute. +The only obvious respect in which all kinds of Progress are alike, is, +that they are modes of _change_; and hence, in some characteristic of +changes in general, the desired solution will probably be found. We may +suspect _à priori_ that in some law of change lies the explanation of +this universal transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous. + +Thus much premised, we pass at once to the statement of the law, which +is this:--_Every active force produces more than one change_--_every +cause produces more than one effect_. + +Before this law can be duly comprehended, a few examples must be looked +at. When one body is struck against another, that which we usually +regard as the effect, is a change of position or motion in one or both +bodies. But a moment's thought shows us that this is a careless and very +incomplete view of the matter. Besides the visible mechanical result, +sound is produced; or, to speak accurately, a vibration in one or both +bodies, and in the surrounding air: and under some circumstances we call +this the effect. Moreover, the air has not only been made to vibrate, +but has had sundry currents caused in it by the transit of the bodies. +Further, there is a disarrangement of the particles of the two bodies in +the neighbourhood of their point of collision; amounting in some cases +to a visible condensation. Yet more, this condensation is accompanied by +the disengagement of heat. In some cases a spark--that is, +light--results, from the incandescence of a portion struck off; and +sometimes this incandescence is associated with chemical combination. + +Thus, by the original mechanical force expended in the collision, at +least five, and often more, different kinds of changes have been +produced. Take, again, the lighting of a candle. Primarily this is a +chemical change consequent on a rise of temperature. The process of +combination having once been set going by extraneous heat, there is a +continued formation of carbonic acid, water, etc.--in itself a result +more complex than the extraneous heat that first caused it. But +accompanying this process of combination there is a production of heat; +there is a production of light; there is an ascending column of hot +gases generated; there are currents established in the surrounding air. +Moreover the decomposition of one force into many forces does not end +here: each of the several changes produced becomes the parent of further +changes. The carbonic acid given off will by and by combine with some +base; or under the influence of sunshine give up its carbon to the leaf +of a plant. The water will modify the hygrometric state of the air +around; or, if the current of hot gases containing it come against a +cold body, will be condensed: altering the temperature, and perhaps the +chemical state, of the surface it covers. The heat given out melts the +subjacent tallow, and expands whatever it warms. The light, falling on +various substances, calls forth from them reactions by which it is +modified; and so divers colours are produced. Similarly even with these +secondary actions, which may be traced out into ever-multiplying +ramifications, until they become too minute to be appreciated. And thus +it is with all changes whatever. No case can be named in which an active +force does not evolve forces of several kinds, and each of these, other +groups of forces. Universally the effect is more complex than the cause. + +Doubtless the reader already foresees the course of our argument. This +multiplication of results, which is displayed in every event of to-day, +has been going on from the beginning; and is true of the grandest +phenomena of the universe as of the most insignificant. From the law +that every active force produces more than one change, it is an +inevitable corollary that through all time there has been an +ever-growing complication of things. Starting with the ultimate fact +that every cause produces more than one effect, we may readily see that +throughout creation there must have gone on, and must still go on, a +never-ceasing transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous. +But let us trace out this truth in detail. + +Without committing ourselves to it as more than a speculation, though a +highly probable one, let us again commence with the evolution of the +solar system out of a nebulous medium.[3] From the mutual attraction of +the atoms of a diffused mass whose form is unsymmetrical, there results +not only condensation but rotation: gravitation simultaneously generates +both the centripetal and the centrifugal forces. While the condensation +and the rate of rotation are progressively increasing, the approach of +the atoms necessarily generates a progressively increasing temperature. +As this temperature rises, light begins to be evolved; and ultimately +there results a revolving sphere of fluid matter radiating intense heat +and light--a sun. + +There are good reasons for believing that, in consequence of the high +tangential velocity, and consequent centrifugal force, acquired by the +outer parts of the condensing nebulous mass, there must be a periodical +detachment of rotating rings; and that, from the breaking up of these +nebulous rings, there must arise masses which in the course of their +condensation repeat the actions of the parent mass, and so produce +planets and their satellites--an inference strongly supported by the +still extant rings of Saturn. + +Should it hereafter be satisfactorily shown that planets and satellites +were thus generated, a striking illustration will be afforded of the +highly heterogeneous effects produced by the primary homogeneous cause; +but it will serve our present purpose to point to the fact that from the +mutual attraction of the particles of an irregular nebulous mass there +result condensation, rotation, heat, and light. + +It follows as a corollary from the Nebular Hypothesis, that the Earth +must at first have been incandescent; and whether the Nebular Hypothesis +be true or not, this original incandescence of the Earth is now +inductively established--or, if not established, at least rendered so +highly probable that it is a generally admitted geological doctrine. Let +us look first at the astronomical attributes of this once molten globe. +From its rotation there result the oblateness of its form, the +alternations of day and night, and (under the influence of the moon) the +tides, aqueous and atmospheric. From the inclination of its axis, there +result the precession of the equinoxes and the many differences of the +seasons, both simultaneous and successive, that pervade its surface. +Thus the multiplication of effects is obvious. Several of the +differentiations due to the gradual cooling of the Earth have been +already noticed--as the formation of a crust, the solidification of +sublimed elements, the precipitation of water, etc.,--and we here again +refer to them merely to point out that they are simultaneous effects of +the one cause, diminishing heat. + +Let us now, however, observe the multiplied changes afterwards arising +from the continuance of this one cause. The cooling of the Earth +involves its contraction. Hence the solid crust first formed is +presently too large for the shrinking nucleus; and as it cannot support +itself, inevitably follows the nucleus. But a spheroidal envelope cannot +sink down into contact with a smaller internal spheroid, without +disruption; it must run into wrinkles as the rind of an apple does when +the bulk of its interior decreases from evaporation. As the cooling +progresses and the envelope thickens, the ridges consequent on these +contractions must become greater, rising ultimately into hills and +mountains; and the later systems of mountains thus produced must not +only be higher, as we find them to be, but they must be longer, as we +also find them to be. Thus, leaving out of view other modifying forces, +we see what immense heterogeneity of surface has arisen from the one +cause, loss of heat--a heterogeneity which the telescope shows us to be +paralleled on the face of the moon, where aqueous and atmospheric +agencies have been absent. + +But we have yet to notice another kind of heterogeneity of surface +similarly and simultaneously caused. While the Earth's crust was still +thin, the ridges produced by its contraction must not only have been +small, but the spaces between these ridges must have rested with great +evenness upon the subjacent liquid spheroid; and the water in those +arctic and antarctic regions in which it first condensed, must have been +evenly distributed. But as fast as the crust grew thicker and gained +corresponding strength, the lines of fracture from time to time caused +in it, must have occurred at greater distances apart; the intermediate +surfaces must have followed the contracting nucleus with less +uniformity; and there must have resulted larger areas of land and water. +If any one, after wrapping up an orange in wet tissue paper, and +observing not only how small are the wrinkles, but how evenly the +intervening spaces lie upon the surface of the orange, will then wrap it +up in thick cartridge-paper, and note both the greater height of the +ridges and the much larger spaces throughout which the paper does not +touch the orange, he will realise the fact, that as the Earth's solid +envelope grew thicker, the areas of elevation and depression must have +become greater. In place of islands more or less homogeneously scattered +over an all-embracing sea, there must have gradually arisen +heterogeneous arrangements of continent and ocean, such as we now know. + +Once more, this double change in the extent and in the elevation of the +lands, involved yet another species of heterogeneity, that of +coast-line. A tolerably even surface raised out of the ocean, must have +a simple, regular sea-margin; but a surface varied by table-lands and +intersected by mountain-chains must, when raised out of the ocean, have +an outline extremely irregular both in its leading features and in its +details. Thus endless is the accumulation of geological and geographical +results slowly brought about by this one cause--the contraction of the +Earth. + +When we pass from the agency which geologists term igneous, to aqueous +and atmospheric agencies, we see the like ever growing complications of +effects. The denuding actions of air and water have, from the beginning, +been modifying every exposed surface; everywhere causing many different +changes. Oxidation, heat, wind, frost, rain, glaciers, rivers, tides, +waves, have been unceasingly producing disintegration; varying in kind +and amount according to local circumstances. Acting upon a tract of +granite, they here work scarcely an appreciable effect; there cause +exfoliations of the surface, and a resulting heap of _débris_ and +boulders; and elsewhere, after decomposing the feldspar into a white +clay, carry away this and the accompanying quartz and mica, and deposit +them in separate beds, fluviatile and marine. When the exposed land +consists of several unlike formations, sedimentary and igneous, the +denudation produces changes proportionably more heterogeneous. The +formations being disintegrable in different degrees, there follows an +increased irregularity of surface. The areas drained by different rivers +being differently constituted, these rivers carry down to the sea +different combinations of ingredients; and so sundry new strata of +distinct composition are formed. + +And here indeed we may see very simply illustrated, the truth, which we +shall presently have to trace out in more involved cases, that in +proportion to the heterogeneity of the object or objects on which any +force expends itself, is the heterogeneity of the results. A continent +of complex structure, exposing many strata irregularly distributed, +raised to various levels, tilted up at all angles, must, under the same +denuding agencies, give origin to immensely multiplied results; each +district must be differently modified; each river must carry down a +different kind of detritus; each deposit must be differently distributed +by the entangled currents, tidal and other, which wash the contorted +shores; and this multiplication of results must manifestly be greatest +where the complexity of the surface is greatest. + +It is out of the question here to trace in detail the genesis of those +endless complications described by Geology and Physical Geography: else +we might show how the general truth, that every active force produces +more than one change, is exemplified in the highly involved flow of the +tides, in the ocean currents, in the winds, in the distribution of rain, +in the distribution of heat, and so forth. But not to dwell upon these, +let us, for the fuller elucidation of this truth in relation to the +inorganic world, consider what would be the consequences of some +extensive cosmical revolution--say the subsidence of Central America. + +The immediate results of the disturbance would themselves be +sufficiently complex. Besides the numberless dislocations of strata, the +ejections of igneous matter, the propagation of earthquake vibrations +thousands of miles around, the loud explosions, and the escape of gases; +there would be the rush of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to supply the +vacant space, the subsequent recoil of enormous waves, which would +traverse both these oceans and produce myriads of changes along their +shores, the corresponding atmospheric waves complicated by the currents +surrounding each volcanic vent, and the electrical discharges with which +such disturbances are accompanied. But these temporary effects would be +insignificant compared with the permanent ones. The complex currents of +the Atlantic and Pacific would be altered in direction and amount. The +distribution of heat achieved by these ocean currents would be different +from what it is. The arrangement of the isothermal lines, not even on +the neighbouring continents, but even throughout Europe, would be +changed. The tides would flow differently from what they do now. There +would be more or less modification of the winds in their periods, +strengths, directions, qualities. Rain would fall scarcely anywhere at +the same times and in the same quantities as at present. In short, the +meteorological conditions thousands of miles off, on all sides, would be +more or less revolutionised. + +Thus, without taking into account the infinitude of modifications which +these changes of climate would produce upon the flora and fauna, both of +land and sea, the reader will see the immense heterogeneity of the +results wrought out by one force, when that force expends itself upon a +previously complicated area; and he will readily draw the corollary that +from the beginning the complication has advanced at an increasing rate. + +Before going on to show how organic progress also depends upon the +universal law that every force produces more than one change, we have +to notice the manifestation of this law in yet another species of +inorganic progress--namely, chemical. The same general causes that have +wrought out the heterogeneity of the Earth, physically considered, have +simultaneously wrought out its chemical heterogeneity. Without dwelling +upon the general fact that the forces which have been increasing the +variety and complexity of geological formations, have, at the same time, +been bringing into contact elements not previously exposed to each other +under conditions favourable to union, and so have been adding to the +number of chemical compounds, let us pass to the more important +complications that have resulted from the cooling of the Earth. + +There is every reason to believe that at an extreme heat the elements +cannot combine. Even under such heat as can be artificially produced, +some very strong affinities yield, as for instance, that of oxygen for +hydrogen; and the great majority of chemical compounds are decomposed at +much lower temperatures. But without insisting upon the highly probable +inference, that when the Earth was in its first state of incandescence +there were no chemical combinations at all, it will suffice our purpose +to point to the unquestionable fact that the compounds that can exist at +the highest temperatures, and which must, therefore, have been the first +that were formed as the Earth cooled, are those of the simplest +constitutions. The protoxides--including under that head the alkalies, +earths, etc.--are, as a class, the most stable compounds we know: most +of them resisting decomposition by any heat we can generate. These, +consisting severally of one atom of each component element, are +combinations of the simplest order--are but one degree less homogeneous +than the elements themselves. More heterogeneous than these, less +stable, and therefore later in the Earth's history, are the deutoxides, +tritoxides, peroxides, etc.; in which two, three, four, or more atoms of +oxygen are united with one atom of metal or other element. Higher than +these in heterogeneity are the hydrates; in which an oxide of hydrogen, +united with an oxide of some other element, forms a substance whose +atoms severally contain at least four ultimate atoms of three different +kinds. Yet more heterogeneous and less stable still are the salts; which +present us with compound atoms each made up of five, six, seven, eight, +ten, twelve, or more atoms, of three, if not more, kinds. Then there are +the hydrated salts, of a yet greater heterogeneity, which undergo +partial decomposition at much lower temperatures. After them come the +further-complicated supersalts and double salts, having a stability +again decreased; and so throughout. Without entering into qualifications +for which we lack space, we believe no chemist will deny it to be a +general law of these inorganic combinations that, _other things equal_, +the stability decreases as the complexity increases. + +And then when we pass to the compounds of organic chemistry, we find +this general law still further exemplified: we find much greater +complexity and much less stability. An atom of albumen, for instance, +consists of 482 ultimate atoms of five different kinds. Fibrine, still +more intricate in constitution, contains in each atom, 298 atoms of +carbon, 40 of nitrogen, 2 of sulphur, 228 of hydrogen, and 92 of +oxygen--in all, 660 atoms; or, more strictly speaking--equivalents. And +these two substances are so unstable as to decompose at quite ordinary +temperatures; as that to which the outside of a joint of roast meat is +exposed. Thus it is manifest that the present chemical heterogeneity of +the Earth's surface has arisen by degrees, as the decrease of heat has +permitted; and that it has shown itself in three forms--first, in the +multiplication of chemical compounds; second, in the greater number of +different elements contained in the more modern of these compounds: and +third, in the higher and more varied multiples in which these more +numerous elements combine. + +To say that this advance in chemical heterogeneity is due to the one +cause, diminution of the Earth's temperature, would be to say too much; +for it is clear that aqueous and atmospheric agencies have been +concerned; and, further, that the affinities of the elements themselves +are implied. The cause has all along been a composite one: the cooling +of the Earth having been simply the most general of the concurrent +causes, or assemblage of conditions. And here, indeed, it may be +remarked that in the several classes of facts already dealt with +(excepting, perhaps, the first), and still more in those with which we +shall presently deal, the causes are more or less compound; as indeed +are nearly all causes with which we are acquainted. Scarcely any change +can with logical accuracy be wholly ascribed to one agency, to the +neglect of the permanent or temporary conditions under which only this +agency produces the change. But as it does not materially affect our +argument, we prefer, for simplicity's sake, to use throughout the +popular mode of expression. + +Perhaps it will be further objected, that to assign loss of heat as the +cause of any changes, is to attribute these changes not to a force, but +to the absence of a force. And this is true. Strictly speaking, the +changes should be attributed to those forces which come into action when +the antagonist force is withdrawn. But though there is an inaccuracy in +saying that the freezing of water is due to the loss of its heat, no +practical error arises from it; nor will a parallel laxity of expression +vitiate our statements respecting the multiplication of effects. Indeed, +the objection serves but to draw attention to the fact, that not only +does the exertion of a force produce more than one change, but the +withdrawal of a force produces more than one change. And this suggests +that perhaps the most correct statement of our general principle would +be its most abstract statement--every change is followed by more than +one other change. + +Returning to the thread of our exposition, we have next to trace out, in +organic progress, this same all-pervading principle. And here, where the +evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous was first observed, +the production of many changes by one cause is least easy to +demonstrate. The development of a seed into a plant, or an ovum into an +animal, is so gradual, while the forces which determine it are so +involved, and at the same time so unobtrusive, that it is difficult to +detect the multiplication of effects which is elsewhere so obvious. +Nevertheless, guided by indirect evidence, we may pretty safely reach +the conclusion that here too the law holds. + +Observe, first, how numerous are the effects which any marked change +works upon an adult organism--a human being, for instance. An alarming +sound or sigh, besides the impressions on the organs of sense and the +nerves, may produce a start, a scream, a distortion of the face, a +trembling consequent upon a general muscular relaxation, a burst of +perspiration, an excited action of the heart, a rush of blood to the +brain, followed possibly by arrest of the heart's action and by syncope: +and if the system be feeble, an indisposition with its long train of +complicated symptoms may set in. Similarly in cases of disease. A minute +portion of the small-pox virus introduced into the system, will, in a +severe case, cause, during the first stage, rigors, heat of skin, +accelerated pulse, furred tongue, loss of appetite, thirst, epigastric +uneasiness, vomiting, headache, pains in the back and limbs, muscular +weakness, convulsions, delirium, etc.; in the second stage, cutaneous +eruption, itching, tingling, sore throat, swelled fauces, salivation, +cough, hoarseness, dyspnoea, etc.; and in the third stage, +oedematous inflammations, pneumonia, pleurisy, diarrhoea, +inflammation of the brain, ophthalmia, erysipelas, etc.; each of which +enumerated symptoms is itself more or less complex. Medicines, special +foods, better air, might in like manner be instanced as producing +multiplied results. + +Now it needs only to consider that the many changes thus wrought by one +force upon an adult organism, will be in part paralleled in an embryo +organism, to understand how here also, the evolution of the homogeneous +into the heterogeneous may be due to the production of many effects by +one cause. The external heat and other agencies which determine the +first complications of the germ, may, by acting upon these, superinduce +further complications; upon these still higher and more numerous ones; +and so on continually: each organ as it is developed serving, by its +actions and reactions upon the rest, to initiate new complexities. The +first pulsations of the foetal heart must simultaneously aid the +unfolding of every part. The growth of each tissue, by taking from the +blood special proportions of elements, must modify the constitution of +the blood; and so must modify the nutrition of all the other tissues. +The heart's action, implying as it does a certain waste, necessitates an +addition to the blood of effete matters, which must influence the rest +of the system, and perhaps, as some think, cause the formation of +excretory organs. The nervous connections established among the viscera +must further multiply their mutual influences: and so continually. + +Still stronger becomes the probability of this view when we call to mind +the fact, that the same germ may be evolved into different forms +according to circumstances. Thus, during its earlier stages, every +embryo is sexless--becomes either male or female as the balance of +forces acting upon it determines. Again, it is a well-established fact +that the larva of a working-bee will develop into a queen-bee, if, +before it is too late, its food be changed to that on which the larvæ of +queen-bees are fed. Even more remarkable is the case of certain entozoa. +The ovum of a tape-worm, getting into its natural habitat, the +intestine, unfolds into the well-known form of its parent; but if +carried, as it frequently is, into other parts of the system, it becomes +a sac-like creature, called by naturalists the _Echinococcus_--a +creature so extremely different from the tape-worm in aspect and +structure, that only after careful investigations has it been proved to +have the same origin. All which instances imply that each advance in +embryonic complication results from the action of incident forces upon +the complication previously existing. + +Indeed, we may find _à priori_ reason to think that the evolution +proceeds after this manner. For since it is now known that no germ, +animal or vegetable, contains the slightest rudiment, trace, or +indication of the future organism--now that the microscope has shown us +that the first process set up in every fertilised germ, is a process of +repeated spontaneous fissions ending in the production of a mass of +cells, not one of which exhibits any special character: there seems no +alternative but to suppose that the partial organisation at any moment +subsisting in a growing embryo, is transformed by the agencies acting +upon it into the succeeding phase of organisation, and this into the +next, until, through ever-increasing complexities, the ultimate form is +reached. Thus, though the subtilty of the forces and the slowness of the +results, prevent us from _directly_ showing that the stages of +increasing heterogeneity through which every embryo passes, severally +arise from the production of many changes by one force, yet, +_indirectly_, we have strong evidence that they do so. + +We have marked how multitudinous are the effects which one cause may +generate in an adult organism; that a like multiplication of effects +must happen in the unfolding organism, we have observed in sundry +illustrative cases; further, it has been pointed out that the ability +which like germs have to originate unlike forms, implies that the +successive transformations result from the new changes superinduced on +previous changes; and we have seen that structureless as every germ +originally is, the development of an organism out of it is otherwise +incomprehensible. Not indeed that we can thus really explain the +production of any plant or animal. We are still in the dark respecting +those mysterious properties in virtue of which the germ, when subject to +fit influences, undergoes the special changes that begin the series of +transformations. All we aim to show, is, that given a germ possessing +these mysterious properties, the evolution of an organism from it, +probably depends upon that multiplication of effects which we have seen +to be the cause of progress in general, so far as we have yet traced it. + +When, leaving the development of single plants and animals, we pass to +that of the Earth's flora and fauna, the course of our argument again +becomes clear and simple. Though, as was admitted in the first part of +this article, the fragmentary facts Palæontology has accumulated, do not +clearly warrant us in saying that, in the lapse of geologic time, there +have been evolved more heterogeneous organisms, and more heterogeneous +assemblages of organisms, yet we shall now see that there _must_ ever +have been a tendency towards these results. We shall find that the +production of many effects by one cause, which, as already shown, has +been all along increasing the physical heterogeneity of the Earth, has +further involved an increasing heterogeneity in its flora and fauna, +individually and collectively. An illustration will make this clear. + +Suppose that by a series of upheavals, occurring, as they are now known +to do, at long intervals, the East Indian Archipelago were to be, step +by step, raised into a continent, and a chain of mountains formed along +the axis of elevation. By the first of these upheavals, the plants and +animals inhabiting Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, and the rest, would be +subjected to slightly modified sets of conditions. The climate in +general would be altered in temperature, in humidity, and in its +periodical variations; while the local differences would be multiplied. +These modifications would affect, perhaps inappreciably, the entire +flora and fauna of the region. The change of level would produce +additional modifications: varying in different species, and also in +different members of the same species, according to their distance from +the axis of elevation. Plants, growing only on the sea-shore in special +localities, might become extinct. Others, living only in swamps of a +certain humidity, would, if they survived at all, probably undergo +visible changes of appearance. While still greater alterations would +occur in the plants gradually spreading over the lands newly raised +above the sea. The animals and insects living on these modified plants, +would themselves be in some degree modified by change of food, as well +as by change of climate; and the modification would be more marked +where, from the dwindling or disappearance of one kind of plant, an +allied kind was eaten. In the lapse of the many generations arising +before the next upheaval, the sensible or insensible alterations thus +produced in each species would become organised--there would be a more +or less complete adaptation to the new conditions. The next upheaval +would superinduce further organic changes, implying wider divergences +from the primary forms; and so repeatedly. + +But now let it be observed that the revolution thus resulting would not +be a substitution of a thousand more or less modified species for the +thousand original species; but in place of the thousand original species +there would arise several thousand species, or varieties, or changed +forms. Each species being distributed over an area of some extent, and +tending continually to colonise the new area exposed, its different +members would be subject to different sets of changes. Plants and +animals spreading towards the equator would not be affected in the same +way with others spreading from it. Those spreading towards the new +shores would undergo changes unlike the changes undergone by those +spreading into the mountains. Thus, each original race of organisms, +would become the root from which diverged several races differing more +or less from it and from each other; and while some of these might +subsequently disappear, probably more than one would survive in the next +geologic period: the very dispersion itself increasing the chances of +survival. Not only would there be certain modifications thus caused by +change of physical conditions and food, but also in some cases other +modifications caused by change of habit. The fauna of each island, +peopling, step by step, the newly-raised tracts, would eventually come +in contact with the faunas of other islands; and some members of these +other faunas would be unlike any creatures before seen. Herbivores +meeting with new beasts of prey, would, in some cases, be led into modes +of defence or escape differing from those previously used; and +simultaneously the beasts of prey would modify their modes of pursuit +and attack. We know that when circumstances demand it, such changes of +habit _do_ take place in animals; and we know that if the new habits +become the dominant ones, they must eventually in some degree alter the +organisation. + +Observe, now, however, a further consequence. There must arise not +simply a tendency towards the differentiation of each race of organisms +into several races; but also a tendency to the occasional production of +a somewhat higher organism. Taken in the mass, these divergent varieties +which have been caused by fresh physical conditions and habits of life, +will exhibit changes quite indefinite in kind and degree; and changes +that do not necessarily constitute an advance. Probably in most cases +the modified type will be neither more nor less heterogeneous than the +original one. In some cases the habits of life adopted being simpler +than before, a less heterogeneous structure will result: there will be a +retrogradation. But it _must_ now and then occur, that some division of +a species, falling into circumstances which give it rather more complex +experiences, and demand actions somewhat more involved, will have +certain of its organs further differentiated in proportionately small +degrees,--will become slightly more heterogeneous. + +Thus, in the natural course of things, there will from time to time +arise an increased heterogeneity both of the Earth's flora and fauna, +and of individual races included in them. Omitting detailed +explanations, and allowing for the qualifications which cannot here be +specified, we think it is clear that geological mutations have all along +tended to complicate the forms of life, whether regarded separately or +collectively. The same causes which have led to the evolution of the +Earth's crust from the simple into the complex, have simultaneously led +to a parallel evolution of the Life upon its surface. In this case, as +in previous ones, we see that the transformation of the homogeneous into +the heterogeneous is consequent upon the universal principle, that every +active force produces more than one change. + +The deduction here drawn from the established truths of geology and the +general laws of life, gains immensely in weight on finding it to be in +harmony with an induction drawn from direct experience. Just that +divergence of many races from one race, which we inferred must have been +continually occurring during geologic time, we know to have occurred +during the pre-historic and historic periods, in man and domestic +animals. And just that multiplication of effects which we concluded must +have produced the first, we see has produced the last. Single causes, as +famine, pressure of population, war, have periodically led to further +dispersions of mankind and of dependent creatures: each such dispersion +initiating new modifications, new varieties of type. Whether all the +human races be or be not derived from one stock, philology makes it +clear that whole groups of races now easily distinguishable from each +other, were originally one race,--that the diffusion of one race into +different climates and conditions of existence, has produced many +modified forms of it. + +Similarly with domestic animals. Though in some cases--as that of +dogs--community of origin will perhaps be disputed, yet in other +cases--as that of the sheep or the cattle of our own country--it will +not be questioned that local differences of climate, food, and +treatment, have transformed one original breed into numerous breeds now +become so far distinct as to produce unstable hybrids. Moreover, through +the complications of effects flowing from single causes, we here find, +what we before inferred, not only an increase of general heterogeneity, +but also of special heterogeneity. While of the divergent divisions and +subdivisions of the human race, many have undergone changes not +constituting an advance; while in some the type may have degraded; in +others it has become decidedly more heterogeneous. The civilised +European departs more widely from the vertebrate archetype than does the +savage. Thus, both the law and the cause of progress, which, from lack +of evidence, can be but hypothetically substantiated in respect of the +earlier forms of life on our globe, can be actually substantiated in +respect of the latest forms. + +If the advance of Man towards greater heterogeneity is traceable to the +production of many effects by one cause, still more clearly may the +advance of Society towards greater heterogeneity be so explained. +Consider the growth of an industrial organisation. When, as must +occasionally happen, some individual of a tribe displays unusual +aptitude for making an article of general use--a weapon, for +instance--which was before made by each man for himself, there arises a +tendency towards the differentiation of that individual into a maker of +such weapon. His companions--warriors and hunters all of +them,--severally feel the importance of having the best weapons that can +be made; and are therefore certain to offer strong inducements to this +skilled individual to make weapons for them. He, on the other hand, +having not only an unusual faculty, but an unusual liking, for making +such weapons (the talent and the desire for any occupation being +commonly associated), is predisposed to fulfil these commissions on the +offer of an adequate reward: especially as his love of distinction is +also gratified. This first specialisation of function, once commenced, +tends ever to become more decided. On the side of the weapon-maker +continued practice gives increased skill--increased superiority to his +products: on the side of his clients, cessation of practice entails +decreased skill. Thus the influences that determine this division of +labour grow stronger in both ways; and the incipient heterogeneity is, +on the average of cases, likely to become permanent for that generation, +if no longer. + +Observe now, however, that this process not only differentiates the +social mass into two parts, the one monopolising, or almost +monopolising, the performance of a certain function, and the other +having lost the habit, and in some measure the power, of performing that +function; but it tends to imitate other differentiations. The advance we +have described implies the introduction of barter,--the maker of weapons +has, on each occasion, to be paid in such other articles as he agrees to +take in exchange. But he will not habitually take in exchange one kind +of article, but many kinds. He does not want mats only, or skins, or +fishing gear, but he wants all these; and on each occasion will bargain +for the particular things he most needs. What follows? If among the +members of the tribe there exist any slight differences of skill in the +manufacture of these various things, as there are almost sure to do, the +weapon-maker will take from each one the thing which that one excels in +making: he will exchange for mats with him whose mats are superior, and +will bargain for the fishing gear of whoever has the best. But he who +has bartered away his mats or his fishing gear, must make other mats or +fishing gear for himself; and in so doing must, in some degree, further +develop his aptitude. Thus it results that the small specialities of +faculty possessed by various members of the tribe, will tend to grow +more decided. If such transactions are from time to time repeated, these +specialisations may become appreciable. And whether or not there ensue +distinct differentiations of other individuals into makers of particular +articles, it is clear that incipient differentiations take place +throughout the tribe: the one original cause produces not only the first +dual effect, but a number of secondary dual effects, like in kind, but +minor in degree. This process, of which traces may be seen among groups +of schoolboys, cannot well produce any lasting effects in an unsettled +tribe; but where there grows up a fixed and multiplying community, these +differentiations become permanent, and increase with each generation. A +larger population, involving a greater demand for every commodity, +intensifies the functional activity of each specialised person or class; +and this renders the specialisation more definite where it already +exists, and establishes it where it is nascent. By increasing the +pressure on the means of subsistence, a larger population again augments +these results; seeing that each person is forced more and more to +confine himself to that which he can do best, and by which he can gain +most. This industrial progress, by aiding future production, opens the +way for a further growth of population, which reacts as before: in all +which the multiplication of effects is manifest. Presently, under these +same stimuli, new occupations arise. Competing workers, ever aiming to +produce improved articles, occasionally discover better processes or raw +materials. In weapons and cutting tools, the substitution of bronze for +stone entails upon him who first makes it a great increase of demand--so +great an increase that he presently finds all his time occupied in +making the bronze for the articles he sells, and is obliged to depute +the fashioning of these to others: and, eventually, the making of +bronze, thus gradually differentiated from a pre-existing occupation, +becomes an occupation by itself. + +But now mark the ramified changes which follow this change. Bronze soon +replaces stone, not only in the articles it was first used for, but in +many others--in arms, tools, and utensils of various kinds; and so +affects the manufacture of these things. Further, it affects the +processes which these utensils subserve, and the resulting +products--modifies buildings, carvings, dress, personal decorations. Yet +again, it sets going sundry manufactures which were before impossible, +from lack of a material fit for the requisite tools. And all these +changes react on the people--increase their manipulative skill, their +intelligence, their comfort,--refine their habits and tastes. Thus the +evolution of a homogeneous society into a heterogeneous one, is clearly +consequent on the general principle, that many effects are produced by +one cause. + +Our limits will not allow us to follow out this process in its higher +complications: else might we show how the localisation of special +industries in special parts of a kingdom, as well as the minute +subdivision of labour in the making of each commodity, are similarly +determined. Or, turning to a somewhat different order of illustrations, +we might dwell on the multitudinous changes--material, intellectual, +moral--caused by printing; or the further extensive series of changes +wrought by gunpowder. But leaving the intermediate phases of social +development, let us take a few illustrations from its most recent and +its passing phases. To trace the effects of steam-power, in its manifold +applications to mining, navigation, and manufactures of all kinds, would +carry us into unmanageable detail. Let us confine ourselves to the +latest embodiment of steam-power--the locomotive engine. + +This, as the proximate cause of our railway system, has changed the face +of the country, the course of trade, and the habits of the people. +Consider, first, the complicated sets of changes that precede the making +of every railway--the provisional arrangements, the meetings, the +registration, the trial section, the parliamentary survey, the +lithographed plans, the books of reference, the local deposits and +notices, the application to Parliament, the passing Standing-Orders +Committee, the first, second, and third readings: each of which brief +heads indicates a multiplicity of transactions, and the development of +sundry occupations--as those of engineers, surveyors, lithographers, +parliamentary agents, share-brokers; and the creation of sundry +others--as those of traffic-takers, reference-takers. Consider, next, +the yet more marked changes implied in railway construction--the +cuttings, embankings, tunnellings, diversions of roads; the building of +bridges, and stations; the laying down of ballast, sleepers, and rails; +the making of engines, tenders, carriages, and waggons: which processes, +acting upon numerous trades, increase the importation of timber, the +quarrying of stone, the manufacture of iron, the mining of coal, the +burning of bricks: institute a variety of special manufactures weekly +advertised in the _Railway Times_; and, finally, open the way to sundry +new occupations, as those of drivers, stokers, cleaners, plate-layers, +etc., etc. And then consider the changes, more numerous and involved +still, which railways in action produce on the community at large. The +organisation of every business is more or less modified: ease of +communication makes it better to do directly what was before done by +proxy; agencies are established where previously they would not have +paid; goods are obtained from remote wholesale houses instead of near +retail ones; and commodities are used which distance once rendered +inaccessible. Again, the rapidity and small cost of carriage tend to +specialise more than ever the industries of different districts--to +confine each manufacture to the parts in which, from local advantages, +it can be best carried on. Further, the diminished cost of carriage, +facilitating distribution, equalises prices, and also, on the average, +lowers prices: thus bringing divers articles within the means of those +before unable to buy them, and so increasing their comforts and +improving their habits. At the same time the practice of travelling is +immensely extended. Classes who never before thought of it, take annual +trips to the sea; visit their distant relations; make tours; and so we +are benefited in body, feelings, and intellect. Moreover, the more +prompt transmission of letters and of news produces further +changes--makes the pulse of the nation faster. Yet more, there arises a +wide dissemination of cheap literature through railway book-stalls, and +of advertisements in railway carriages: both of them aiding ulterior +progress. + +And all the innumerable changes here briefly indicated are consequent on +the invention of the locomotive engine. The social organism has been +rendered more heterogeneous in virtue of the many new occupations +introduced, and the many old ones further specialised; prices in every +place have been altered; each trader has, more or less, modified his way +of doing business; and almost every person has been affected in his +actions, thoughts, emotions. + +Illustrations to the same effect might be indefinitely accumulated. That +every influence brought to bear upon society works multiplied effects; +and that increase of heterogeneity is due to this multiplication of +effects; may be seen in the history of every trade, every custom, every +belief. But it is needless to give additional evidence of this. The only +further fact demanding notice, is, that we here see still more clearly +than ever, the truth before pointed out, that in proportion as the area +on which any force expends itself becomes heterogeneous, the results are +in a yet higher degree multiplied in number and kind. While among the +primitive tribes to whom it was first known, caoutchouc caused but a few +changes, among ourselves the changes have been so many and varied that +the history of them occupies a volume.[4] Upon the small, homogeneous +community inhabiting one of the Hebrides, the electric telegraph would +produce, were it used, scarcely any results; but in England the results +it produces are multitudinous. The comparatively simple organisation +under which our ancestors lived five centuries ago, could have undergone +but few modifications from an event like the recent one at Canton; but +now the legislative decision respecting it sets up many hundreds of +complex modifications, each of which will be the parent of numerous +future ones. + +Space permitting, we could willingly have pursued the argument in +relation to all the subtler results of civilisation. As before, we +showed that the law of Progress to which the organic and inorganic +worlds conform, is also conformed to by Language, Sculpture, Music, +etc.; so might we here show that the cause which we have hitherto found +to determine Progress holds in these cases also. We might demonstrate in +detail how, in Science, an advance of one division presently advances +other divisions--how Astronomy has been immensely forwarded by +discoveries in Optics, while other optical discoveries have initiated +Microscopic Anatomy, and greatly aided the growth of Physiology--how +Chemistry has indirectly increased our knowledge of Electricity, +Magnetism, Biology, Geology--how Electricity has reacted on Chemistry +and Magnetism, developed our views of Light and Heat, and disclosed +sundry laws of nervous action. + +In Literature the same truth might be exhibited in the manifold effects +of the primitive mystery-play, not only as originating the modern drama, +but as affecting through it other kinds of poetry and fiction; or in the +still multiplying forms of periodical literature that have descended +from the first newspaper, and which have severally acted and reacted on +other forms of literature and on each other. The influence which a new +school of Painting--as that of the pre-Raffaelites--exercises upon other +schools; the hints which all kinds of pictorial art are deriving from +Photography; the complex results of new critical doctrines, as those of +Mr. Ruskin, might severally be dwelt upon as displaying the like +multiplication of effects. But it would needlessly tax the reader's +patience to pursue, in their many ramifications, these various changes: +here become so involved and subtle as to be followed with some +difficulty. + +Without further evidence, we venture to think our case is made out. The +imperfections of statement which brevity has necessitated, do not, we +believe, militate against the propositions laid down. The qualifications +here and there demanded would not, if made, affect the inferences. +Though in one instance, where sufficient evidence is not attainable, we +have been unable to show that the law of Progress applies; yet there is +high probability that the same generalisation holds which holds +throughout the rest of creation. Though, in tracing the genesis of +Progress, we have frequently spoken of complex causes as if they were +simple ones; it still remains true that such causes are far less complex +than their results. Detailed criticisms cannot affect our main position. +Endless facts go to show that every kind of progress is from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous; and that it is so because each change +is followed by many changes. And it is significant that where the facts +are most accessible and abundant, there are these truths most manifest. + +However, to avoid committing ourselves to more than is yet proved, we +must be content with saying that such are the law and the cause of all +progress that is known to us. Should the Nebular Hypothesis ever be +established, then it will become manifest that the Universe at large, +like every organism, was once homogeneous; that as a whole, and in every +detail, it has unceasingly advanced towards greater heterogeneity; and +that its heterogeneity is still increasing. It will be seen that as in +each event of to-day, so from the beginning, the decomposition of every +expended force into several forces has been perpetually producing a +higher complication; that the increase of heterogeneity so brought about +is still going on, and must continue to go on; and that thus Progress is +not an accident, not a thing within human control, but a beneficent +necessity. + +A few words must be added on the ontological bearings of our argument. +Probably not a few will conclude that here is an attempted solution of +the great questions with which Philosophy in all ages has perplexed +itself. Let none thus deceive themselves. Only such as know not the +scope and the limits of Science can fall into so grave an error. The +foregoing generalisations apply, not to the genesis of things in +themselves, but to their genesis as manifested to the human +consciousness. After all that has been said, the ultimate mystery +remains just as it was. The explanation of that which is explicable, +does but bring out into greater clearness the inexplicableness of that +which remains behind. However we may succeed in reducing the equation to +its lowest terms, we are not thereby enabled to determine the unknown +quantity: on the contrary, it only becomes more manifest that the +unknown quantity can never be found. + +Little as it seems to do so, fearless inquiry tends continually to give +a firmer basis to all true Religion. The timid sectarian, alarmed at the +progress of knowledge, obliged to abandon one by one the superstitions +of his ancestors, and daily finding his cherished beliefs more and more +shaken, secretly fears that all things may some day be explained; and +has a corresponding dread of Science: thus evincing the profoundest of +all infidelity--the fear lest the truth be bad. On the other hand, the +sincere man of science, content to follow wherever the evidence leads +him, becomes by each new inquiry more profoundly convinced that the +Universe is an insoluble problem. Alike in the external and the internal +worlds, he sees himself in the midst of perpetual changes, of which he +can discover neither the beginning nor the end. If, tracing back the +evolution of things, he allows himself to entertain the hypothesis that +all matter once existed in a diffused form, he finds it utterly +impossible to conceive how this came to be so; and equally, if he +speculates on the future, he can assign no limit to the grand succession +of phenomena ever unfolding themselves before him. On the other hand, if +he looks inward, he perceives that both terminations of the thread of +consciousness are beyond his grasp: he cannot remember when or how +consciousness commenced, and he cannot examine the consciousness that at +any moment exists; for only a state of consciousness that is already +past can become the object of thought, and never one which is passing. + +When, again, he turns from the succession of phenomena, external or +internal, to their essential nature, he is equally at fault. Though he +may succeed in resolving all properties of objects into manifestations +of force, he is not thereby enabled to realise what force is; but finds, +on the contrary, that the more he thinks about it, the more he is +baffled. Similarly, though analysis of mental actions may finally bring +him down to sensations as the original materials out of which all +thought is woven, he is none the forwarder; for he cannot in the least +comprehend sensation--cannot even conceive how sensation is possible. +Inward and outward things he thus discovers to be alike inscrutable in +their ultimate genesis and nature. He sees that the Materialist and +Spiritualist controversy is a mere war of words; the disputants being +equally absurd--each believing he understands that which it is +impossible for any man to understand. In all directions his +investigations eventually bring him face to face with the unknowable; +and he ever more clearly perceives it to be the unknowable. He learns at +once the greatness and the littleness of human intellect--its power in +dealing with all that comes within the range of experience; its +impotence in dealing with all that transcends experience. He feels, with +a vividness which no others can, the utter incomprehensibleness of the +simplest fact, considered in itself. He alone truly _sees_ that absolute +knowledge is impossible. He alone _knows_ that under all things there +lies an impenetrable mystery. + +[1] _Westminster Review_, April 1857. + +[2] For detailed proof of these assertions see essay on "Manners and +Fashion." + +[3] The idea that the Nebular Hypothesis has been disproved because what +were thought to be existing nebulæ have been resolved into clusters of +stars is almost beneath notice. _A priori_ it was highly improbable, if +not impossible, that nebulous masses should still remain uncondensed, +while others have been condensed millions of years ago. + +[4] _Personal Narrative of the Origin of the Caoutchouc, or India-Rubber +Manufacture in England._ By Thomas Hancock. + + + + +ON MANNERS AND FASHION[1] + + +Whoever has studied the physiognomy of political meetings, cannot fail +to have remarked a connection between democratic opinions and +peculiarities of costume. At a Chartist demonstration, a lecture on +Socialism, or a _soirée_ of the Friends of Italy, there will be seen +many among the audience, and a still larger ratio among the speakers, +who get themselves up in a style more or less unusual. One gentleman on +the platform divides his hair down the centre, instead of on one side; +another brushes it back off the forehead, in the fashion known as +"bringing out the intellect;" a third has so long forsworn the scissors, +that his locks sweep his shoulders. A considerable sprinkling of +moustaches may be observed; here and there an imperial; and occasionally +some courageous breaker of conventions exhibits a full-grown beard.[2] +This nonconformity in hair is countenanced by various nonconformities in +dress, shown by others of the assemblage. Bare necks, shirt-collars _à +la_ Byron, waistcoats cut Quaker fashion, wonderfully shaggy great +coats, numerous oddities in form and colour, destroy the monotony usual +in crowds. Even those exhibiting no conspicuous peculiarity, frequently +indicate by something in the pattern or make-up of their clothes, that +they pay small regard to what their tailors tell them about the +prevailing taste. And when the gathering breaks up, the varieties of +head-gear displayed--the number of caps, and the abundance of felt +hats--suffice to prove that were the world at large like-minded, the +black cylinders which tyrannise over us would soon be deposed. + +The foreign correspondence of our daily press shows that this +relationship between political discontent and the disregard of customs +exists on the Continent also. Red republicanism has always been +distinguished by its hirsuteness. The authorities of Prussia, Austria, +and Italy, alike recognise certain forms of hat as indicative of +disaffection, and fulminate against them accordingly. In some places the +wearer of a blouse runs a risk of being classed among the _suspects_; +and in others, he who would avoid the bureau of police, must beware how +he goes out in any but the ordinary colours. Thus, democracy abroad, as +at home, tends towards personal singularity. + +Nor is this association of characteristics peculiar to modern times, or +to reformers of the State. It has always existed; and it has been +manifested as much in religious agitations as in political ones. Along +with dissent from the chief established opinions and arrangements, there +has ever been some dissent from the customary social practices. The +Puritans, disapproving of the long curls of the Cavaliers, as of their +principles, cut their own hair short, and so gained the name of +"Roundheads." The marked religious nonconformity of the Quakers was +accompanied by an equally-marked nonconformity of manners--in attire, in +speech, in salutation. The early Moravians not only believed +differently, but at the same time dressed differently, and lived +differently, from their fellow Christians. + +That the association between political independence and independence of +personal conduct, is not a phenomenon of to-day only, we may see alike +in the appearance of Franklin at the French court in plain clothes, and +in the white hats worn by the last generation of radicals. Originality +of nature is sure to show itself in more ways than one. The mention of +George Fox's suit of leather, or Pestalozzi's school name, "Harry +Oddity," will at once suggest the remembrance that men who have in great +things diverged from the beaten track, have frequently done so in small +things likewise. Minor illustrations of this truth may be gathered in +almost every circle. We believe that whoever will number up his +reforming and rationalist acquaintances, will find among them more than +the usual proportion of those who in dress or behaviour exhibit some +degree of what the world calls eccentricity. + +If it be a fact that men of revolutionary aims in politics or religion, +are commonly revolutionists in custom also, it is not less a fact that +those whose office it is to uphold established arrangements in State and +Church, are also those who most adhere to the social forms and +observances bequeathed to us by past generations. Practices elsewhere +extinct still linger about the headquarters of government. The monarch +still gives assent to Acts of Parliament in the old French of the +Normans; and Norman French terms are still used in law. Wigs, such as +those we see depicted in old portraits, may yet be found on the heads of +judges and barristers. The Beefeaters at the Tower wear the costume of +Henry VIIth's bodyguard. The University dress of the present year varies +but little from that worn soon after the Reformation. The +claret-coloured coat, knee-breeches, lace shirt frills, ruffles, white +silk stockings, and buckled shoes, which once formed the usual attire of +a gentleman, still survive as the court-dress. And it need scarcely be +said that at _levées_ and drawing-rooms, the ceremonies are prescribed +with an exactness, and enforced with a rigour, not elsewhere to be +found. + +Can we consider these two series of coincidences as accidental and +unmeaning? Must we not rather conclude that some necessary relationship +obtains between them? Are there not such things as a constitutional +conservatism, and a constitutional tendency to change? Is there not a +class which clings to the old in all things; and another class so in +love with progress as often to mistake novelty for improvement? Do we +not find some men ready to bow to established authority of whatever +kind; while others demand of every such authority its reason, and reject +it if it fails to justify itself? And must not the minds thus contrasted +tend to become respectively conformist and nonconformist, not only in +politics and religion, but in other things? Submission, whether to a +government, to the dogmas of ecclesiastics, or to that code of behaviour +which society at large has set up, is essentially of the same nature; +and the sentiment which induces resistance to the despotism of rulers, +civil or spiritual, likewise induces resistance to the despotism of the +world's opinion. Look at them fundamentally, and all enactments, alike +of the legislature, the consistory, and the saloon--all regulations, +formal or virtual, have a common character: they are all limitations of +men's freedom. "Do this--Refrain from that," are the blank formulas into +which they may all be written: and in each case the understanding is +that obedience will bring approbation here and paradise hereafter; while +disobedience will entail imprisonment, or sending to Coventry, or +eternal torments, as the case may be. And if restraints, however named, +and through whatever apparatus of means exercised, are one in their +action upon men, it must happen that those who are patient under one +kind of restraint, are likely to be patient under another; and +conversely, that those impatient of restraint in general, will, on the +average, tend to show their impatience in all directions. + +That Law, Religion, and Manners are thus related--that their respective +kinds of operation come under one generalisation--that they have in +certain contrasted characteristics of men a common support and a common +danger--will, however, be most clearly seen on discovering that they +have a common origin. Little as from present appearances we should +suppose it, we shall yet find that at first, the control of religion, +the control of laws and the control of manners, were all one control. +However incredible it may now seem, we believe it to be demonstrable +that the rules of etiquette, the provisions of the statute-book, and the +commands of the decalogue, have grown from the same root. If we go far +enough back into the ages of primeval Fetishism, it becomes manifest +that originally Deity, Chief, and Master of the ceremonies were +identical. To make good these positions, and to show their bearing on +what is to follow, it will be necessary here to traverse ground that is +in part somewhat beaten, and at first sight irrelevant to our topic. We +will pass over it as quickly as consists with the exigencies of the +argument. + + * * * * * + +That the earliest social aggregations were ruled solely by the will of +the strong man, few dispute. That from the strong man proceeded not only +Monarchy, but the conception of a God, few admit: much as Carlyle and +others have said in evidence of it. If, however, those who are unable to +believe this, will lay aside the ideas of God and man in which they have +been educated, and study the aboriginal ideas of them, they will at +least see some probability in the hypothesis. Let them remember that +before experience had yet taught men to distinguish between the possible +and the impossible; and while they were ready on the slightest +suggestion to ascribe unknown powers to any object and make a fetish of +it; their conceptions of humanity and its capacities were necessarily +vague, and without specific limits. The man who by unusual strength, or +cunning, achieved something that others had failed to achieve, or +something which they did not understand, was considered by them as +differing from themselves; and, as we see in the belief of some +Polynesians that only their chiefs have souls, or in that of the ancient +Peruvians that their nobles were divine by birth, the ascribed +difference was apt to be not one of degree only, but one of kind. + +Let them remember next, how gross were the notions of God, or rather of +gods, prevalent during the same era and afterwards--how concretely gods +were conceived as men of specific aspects dressed in specific ways--how +their names were literally "the strong," "the destroyer," "the powerful +one,"--how, according to the Scandinavian mythology, the "sacred duty of +blood-revenge" was acted on by the gods themselves,--and how they were +not only human in their vindictiveness, their cruelty, and their +quarrels with each other, but were supposed to have amours on earth, and +to consume the viands placed on their altars. Add to which, that in +various mythologies, Greek, Scandinavian, and others, the oldest beings +are giants; that according to a traditional genealogy the gods, +demi-gods, and in some cases men, are descended from these after the +human fashion; and that while in the East we hear of sons of God who saw +the daughters of men that they were fair, the Teutonic myths tell of +unions between the sons of men and the daughters of the gods. + +Let them remember, too, that at first the idea of death differed widely +from that which we have; that there are still tribes who, on the decease +of one of their number, attempt to make the corpse stand, and put food +into his mouth; that the Peruvians had feasts at which the mummies of +their dead Incas presided, when, as Prescott says, they paid attention +"to these insensible remains as if they were instinct with life;" that +among the Fejees it is believed that every enemy has to be killed twice; +that the Eastern Pagans give extension and figure to the soul, and +attribute to it all the same substances, both solid and liquid, of which +our bodies are composed; and that it is the custom among most barbarous +races to bury food, weapons, and trinkets along with the dead body, +under the manifest belief that it will presently need them. + +Lastly, let them remember that the other world, as originally conceived, +is simply some distant part of this world--some Elysian fields, some +happy hunting-ground, accessible even to the living, and to which, after +death, men travel in anticipation of a life analogous in general +character to that which they led before. Then, co-ordinating these +general facts--the ascription of unknown powers to chiefs and medicine +men; the belief in deities having human forms, passions, and behaviour; +the imperfect comprehension of death as distinguished from life; and the +proximity of the future abode to the present, both in position and +character--let them reflect whether they do not almost unavoidably +suggest the conclusion that the aboriginal god is the dead chief; the +chief not dead in our sense, but gone away carrying with him food and +weapons to some rumoured region of plenty, some promised land, whither +he had long intended to lead his followers, and whence he will presently +return to fetch them. + +This hypothesis once entertained, is seen to harmonise with all +primitive ideas and practices. The sons of the deified chief reigning +after him, it necessarily happens that all early kings are held +descendants of the gods; and the fact that alike in Assyria, Egypt, +among the Jews, Phoenicians, and ancient Britons, kings' names were +formed out of the names of the gods, is fully explained. The genesis of +Polytheism out of Fetishism, by the successive migrations of the race of +god-kings to the other world--a genesis illustrated in the Greek +mythology, alike by the precise genealogy of the deities, and by the +specifically asserted apotheosis of the later ones--tends further to +bear it out. It explains the fact that in the old creeds, as in the +still extant creed of the Otaheitans, every family has its guardian +spirit, who is supposed to be one of their departed relatives; and that +they sacrifice to these as minor gods--a practice still pursued by the +Chinese and even by the Russians. It is perfectly congruous with the +Grecian myths concerning the wars of the Gods with the Titans and their +final usurpation; and it similarly agrees with the fact that among the +Teutonic gods proper was one Freir who came among them by adoption, "but +was born among the _Vanes_, a somewhat mysterious _other_ dynasty of +gods, who had been conquered and superseded by the stronger and more +warlike Odin dynasty." It harmonises, too, with the belief that there +are different gods to different territories and nations, as there were +different chiefs; that these gods contend for supremacy as chiefs do; +and it gives meaning to the boast of neighbouring tribes--"Our god is +greater than your god." It is confirmed by the notion universally +current in early times, that the gods come from this other abode, in +which they commonly live, and appear among men--speak to them, help +them, punish them. And remembering this, it becomes manifest that the +prayers put up by primitive peoples to their gods for aid in battle, are +meant literally--that their gods are expected to come back from the +other kingdom they are reigning over, and once more fight the old +enemies they had before warred against so implacably; and it needs but +to name the Iliad, to remind every one how thoroughly they believed the +expectation fulfilled. + +All government, then, being originally that of the strong man who has +become a fetish by some manifestation of superiority, there arises, at +his death--his supposed departure on a long projected expedition, in +which he is accompanied by his slaves and concubines sacrificed at his +tomb--their arises, then, the incipient division of religious from +political control, of civil rule from spiritual. His son becomes deputed +chief during his absence; his authority is cited as that by which his +son acts; his vengeance is invoked on all who disobey his son; and his +commands, as previously known or as asserted by his son, become the germ +of a moral code; a fact we shall the more clearly perceive if we +remember, that early moral codes inculcate mainly the virtues of the +warrior, and the duty of exterminating some neighbouring tribe whose +existence is an offence to the deity. + +From this point onwards, these two kinds of authority, at first +complicated together as those of principal and agent, become slowly more +and more distinct. As experience accumulates, and ideas of causation +grow more precise, kings lose their supernatural attributes; and, +instead of God-king, become God-descended king, God-appointed king, the +Lord's anointed, the vicegerent of heaven, ruler reigning by Divine +right. The old theory, however, long clings to men in feeling, after it +has disappeared in name; and "such divinity doth hedge a king," that +even now, many, on first seeing one, feel a secret surprise at finding +him an ordinary sample of humanity. The sacredness attaching to royalty +attaches afterwards to its appended institutions--to legislatures, to +laws. Legal and illegal are synonymous with right and wrong; the +authority of Parliament is held unlimited; and a lingering faith in +governmental power continually generates unfounded hopes from its +enactments. Political scepticism, however, having destroyed the divine +_prestige_ of royalty, goes on ever increasing, and promises ultimately +to reduce the State to a purely secular institution, whose regulations +are limited in their sphere, and have no other authority than the +general will. Meanwhile, the religious control has been little by little +separating itself from the civil, both in its essence and in its forms. +While from the God-king of the savage have arisen in one direction, +secular rulers who, age by age, have been losing the sacred attributes +men ascribed to them; there has arisen in another direction, the +conception of a deity, who, at first human in all things, has been +gradually losing human materiality, human form, human passions, human +modes of action: until now, anthropomorphism has become a reproach. + +Along with this wide divergence in men's ideas of the divine and civil +ruler has been taking place a corresponding divergence in the codes of +conduct respectively proceeding from them. While the king was a +deputy-god--a governor such as the Jews looked for in the Messiah--a +governor considered, as the Czar still is, "our God upon Earth,"--it, of +course, followed that his commands were the supreme rules. But as men +ceased to believe in his supernatural origin and nature, his commands +ceased to be the highest; and there arose a distinction between the +regulations made by him, and the regulations handed down from the old +god-kings, who were rendered ever more sacred by time and the +accumulation of myths. Hence came respectively, Law and Morality: the +one growing ever more concrete, the other more abstract; the authority +of the one ever on the decrease, that of the other ever on the increase; +originally the same, but now placed daily in more marked antagonism. + +Simultaneously there has been going on a separation of the institutions +administering these two codes of conduct. While they were yet one, of +course Church and State were one: the king was arch-priest, not +nominally, but really--alike the giver of new commands and the chief +interpreter of the old commands; and the deputy-priests coming out of +his family were thus simply expounders of the dictates of their +ancestry: at first as recollected, and afterwards as ascertained by +professed interviews with them. This union--which still existed +practically during the middle ages, when the authority of kings was +mixed up with the authority of the pope, when there were bishop-rulers +having all the powers of feudal lords, and when priests punished by +penances--has been, step by step, becoming less close. Though monarchs +are still "defenders of the faith," and ecclesiastical chiefs, they are +but nominally such. Though bishops still have civil power, it is not +what they once had. Protestantism shook loose the bonds of union; +Dissent has long been busy in organising a mechanism for the exercise of +religious control, wholly independent of law; in America, a separate +organisation for that purpose already exists; and if anything is to be +hoped from the Anti-State-Church Association--or, as it has been newly +named, "The Society for the Liberation of Religion from State Patronage +and Control"--we shall presently have a separate organisation here also. + +Thus alike in authority, in essence, and in form, political and +spiritual rule have been ever more widely diverging from the same root. +That increasing division of labour which marks the progress of society +in other things, marks it also in this separation of government into +civil and religious; and if we observe how the morality which forms the +substance of religions in general, is beginning to be purified from the +associated creeds, we may anticipate that this division will be +ultimately carried much further. + +Passing now to the third species of control--that of Manners--we shall +find that this, too, while it had a common genesis with the others, has +gradually come to have a distinct sphere and a special embodiment. Among +early aggregations of men before yet social observances existed, the +sole forms of courtesy known were the signs of submission to the strong +man; as the sole law was his will, and the sole religion the awe of his +supposed supernaturalness. Originally, ceremonies were modes of +behaviour to the god-king. Our commonest titles have been derived from +his names. And all salutations were primarily worship paid to him. Let +us trace out these truths in detail, beginning with titles. + +The fact already noticed, that the names of early kings among divers +races are formed by the addition of certain syllables to the names of +their gods--which certain syllables, like our _Mac_ and _Fitz_, probably +mean "son of," or "descended from"--at once gives meaning to the term +_Father_ as a divine title. And when we read, in Selden, that "the +composition out of these names of Deities was not only proper to Kings: +their Grandes and more honourable Subjects" (no doubt members of the +royal race) "had sometimes the like;" we see how the term _Father_, +properly used by these also, and by their multiplying descendants, came +to be a title used by the people in general. And it is significant as +bearing on this point, that among the most barbarous nation in Europe, +where belief in the divine nature of the ruler still lingers, _Father_ +in this higher sense is still a regal distinction. When, again, we +remember how the divinity at first ascribed to kings was not a +complimentary fiction but a supposed fact; and how, further, under the +Fetish philosophy the celestial bodies are believed to be personages who +once lived among men; we see that the appellations of oriental rulers, +"Brother to the Sun," etc., were probably once expressive of a genuine +belief; and have simply, like many other things, continued in use after +all meaning has gone out of them. We way infer, too, that the titles, +God, Lord, Divinity, were given to primitive rulers literally--that the +_nostra divinitas_ applied to the Roman emperors, and the various sacred +designations that have been borne by monarchs, down to the still extant +phrase, "Our Lord the King," are the dead and dying forms of what were +once living facts. From these names, God, Father, Lord, Divinity, +originally belonging to the God-king, and afterwards to God and the +king, the derivation of our commonest titles of respect is clearly +traceable. + +There is reason to think that these titles were originally proper names. +Not only do we see among the Egyptians, where Pharaoh was synonymous +with king, and among the Romans, where to be Cæsar meant to be Emperor, +that the proper names of the greatest men were transferred to their +successors, and so became class names; but in the Scandinavian mythology +we may trace a human title of honour up to the proper name of a divine +personage. In Anglo-Saxon _bealdor_, or _baldor_, means _Lord_; and +Balder is the name of the favourite of Odin's sons--the gods who with +him constitute the Teutonic Pantheon. How these names of honour became +general is easily understood. The relatives of the primitive kings--the +grandees described by Selden as having names formed on those of the +gods, and shown by this to be members of the divine race--necessarily +shared in the epithets, such as _Lord_, descriptive of superhuman +relationships and nature. Their ever-multiplying offspring inheriting +these, gradually rendered them comparatively common. And then they came +to be applied to every man of power: partly from the fact that, in these +early days when men conceived divinity simply as a stronger kind of +humanity, great persons could be called by divine epithets with but +little exaggeration; partly from the fact that the unusually potent were +apt to be considered as unrecognised or illegitimate descendants of "the +strong, the destroyer, the powerful one;" and partly, also, from +compliment and the desire to propitiate. + +Progressively as superstition diminished, this last became the sole +cause. And if we remember that it is the nature of compliment, as we +daily hear it, to attribute more than is due--that in the constantly +widening application of "esquire," in the perpetual repetition of "your +honour" by the fawning Irishman, and in the use of the name "gentleman" +to any coalheaver or dustman by the lower classes of London, we have +current examples of the depreciation of titles consequent on +compliment--and that in barbarous times, when the wish to propitiate was +stronger than now, this effect must have been greater; we shall see that +there naturally arose an extensive misuse of all early distinctions. +Hence the facts, that the Jews called Herod a god; that _Father_, in its +higher sense, was a term used among them by servants to masters; that +_Lord_ was applicable to any person of worth and power. Hence, too, the +fact that, in the later periods of the Roman Empire, every man saluted +his neighbour as _Dominus_ and _Rex_. + +But it is in the titles of the middle ages, and in the growth of our +modern ones out of them, that the process is most clearly seen. _Herr_, +_Don_, _Signior_, _Seigneur_, _Sennor_, were all originally names of +rulers--of feudal lords. By the complimentary use of these names to all +who could, on any pretence, be supposed to merit them, and by successive +degradations of them from each step in the descent to a still lower one, +they have come to be common forms of address. At first the phrase in +which a serf accosted his despotic chief, _mein herr_ is now familiarly +applied in Germany to ordinary people. The Spanish title _Don_, once +proper to noblemen and gentlemen only, is now accorded to all classes. +So, too, is it with _Signior_ in Italy. _Seigneur_ and _Monseigneur_, by +contraction in _Sieur_ and _Monsieur_, have produced the term of respect +claimed by every Frenchman. And whether _Sire_ be or be not a like +contraction of _Signior_, it is clear that, as it was borne by sundry of +the ancient feudal lords of France, who, as Selden says, "affected +rather to bee stiled by the name of _Sire_ than Baron, as _Le Sire de +Montmorencie_, _Le Sire de Beauieu_, and the like," and as it has been +commonly used to monarchs, our word _Sir_, which is derived from it, +originally meant lord or king. Thus, too, is it with feminine titles. +_Lady_, which, according to Horne Tooke, means _exalted_, and was at +first given only to the few, is now given to all women of education. +_Dame_, once an honourable name to which, in old books, we find the +epithets of "high-born" and "stately" affixed, has now, by repeated +widenings of its application, become relatively a term of contempt. And +if we trace the compound of this, _ma Dame_, through its +contractions--_Madam_, _ma'am_, _mam_, _mum_, we find that the "Yes'm" +of Sally to her mistress is originally equivalent to "Yes, my exalted," +or "Yes, your highness." Throughout, therefore, the genesis of words of +honour has been the same. Just as with the Jews and with the Romans, has +it been with the modern Europeans. Tracing these everyday names to their +primitive significations of _lord_ and _king_, and remembering that in +aboriginal societies these were applied only to the gods and their +descendants, we arrive at the conclusion that our familiar _Sir_ and +_Monsieur_ are, in their primary and expanded meanings, terms of +adoration. + +Further to illustrate this gradual depreciation of titles and to confirm +the inference drawn, it may be well to notice in passing, that the +oldest of them have, as might be expected, been depreciated to the +greatest extent. Thus, _Master_--a word proved by its derivation and by +the similarity of the connate words in other languages (Fr., _maître_ +for _master_; Russ., _master_: Dan., _meester_; Ger., _meister_) to have +been one of the earliest in use for expressing lordship--has now become +applicable to children only, and under the modification of "Mister," to +persons next above the labourer. Again, knighthood, the oldest kind of +dignity, is also the lowest; and Knight Bachelor, which is the lowest +order of knighthood, is more ancient than any other of the orders. +Similarly, too, with the peerage, Baron is alike the earliest and least +elevated of its divisions. This continual degradation of all names of +honour has, from time to time, made it requisite to introduce new ones +having that distinguishing effect which the originals had lost by +generality of use; just as our habit of misapplying superlatives has, by +gradually destroying their force, entailed the need for fresh ones. And +if, within the last thousand years, this process has produced effects +thus marked, we may readily conceive how, during previous thousands, the +titles of gods and demi-gods came to be used to all persons exercising +power; as they have since come to be used to persons of respectability. + +If from names of honour we turn to phrases of honour, we find similar +facts. The Oriental styles of address, applied to ordinary people--"I am +your slave," "All I have is yours," "I am your sacrifice"--attribute to +the individual spoken to the same greatness that _Monsieur_ and _My +Lord_ do: they ascribe to him the character of an all-powerful ruler, so +immeasurably superior to the speaker as to be his owner. So, likewise, +with the Polish expressions of respect--"I throw myself under your +feet," "I kiss your feet." In our now meaningless subscription to a +formal letter--"Your most obedient servant,"--the same thing is visible. +Nay, even in the familiar signature "Yours faithfully," the "yours," if +interpreted as originally meant, is the expression of a slave to his +master. + +All these dead forms were once living embodiments of fact--were +primarily the genuine indications of that submission to authority which +they verbally assert; were afterwards naturally used by the weak and +cowardly to propitiate those above them; gradually grew to be considered +the due of such; and, by a continually wider misuse, have lost their +meanings, as _Sir_ and _Master_ have done. That, like titles, they were +in the beginning used only to the God-king, is indicated by the fact +that, like titles, they were subsequently used in common to God and the +king. Religious worship has ever largely consisted of professions of +obedience, of being God's servants, of belonging to him to do what he +will with. Like titles, therefore, these common phrases of honour had a +devotional origin. + +Perhaps, however, it is in the use of the word _you_ as a singular +pronoun that the popularising of what were once supreme distinctions is +most markedly illustrated. This speaking of a single individual in the +plural was originally an honour given only to the highest--was the +reciprocal of the imperial "we" assumed by such. Yet now, by being +applied to successively lower and lower classes, it has become all but +universal. Only by one sect of Christians, and in a few secluded +districts, is the primitive _thou_ still used. And the _you_, in +becoming common to all ranks, has simultaneously lost every vestige of +the honour once attaching to it. + +But the genesis of Manners out of forms of allegiance and worship is +above all shown in men's modes of salutation. Note first the +significance of the word. Among the Romans, the _salutatio_ was a daily +homage paid by clients and inferiors to superiors. This was alike the +case with civilians and in the army. The very derivation of our word, +therefore, is suggestive of submission. Passing to particular forms of +obeisance (mark the word again), let us begin with the Eastern one of +baring the feet. This was, primarily, a mark of reverence, alike to a +god and a king. The act of Moses before the burning bush, and the +practice of Mahometans, who are sworn on the Koran with their shoes off, +exemplify the one employment of it; the custom of the Persians, who +remove their shoes on entering the presence of their monarch, +exemplifies the other. As usual, however, this homage, paid next to +inferior rulers, has descended from grade to grade. In India, it is a +common mark of respect; a polite man in Turkey always leaves his shoes +at the door, while the lower orders of Turks never enter the presence of +their superiors but in their stockings; and in Japan, this baring of the +feet is an ordinary salutation of man to man. + +Take another case. Selden, describing the ceremonies of the Romans, +says:--"For whereas it was usual either to kiss the Images of their +Gods, or adoring them, to stand somewhat off before them, solemnly +moving the right hand to the lips, and then, casting it as if they had +cast kisses, to turne the body on the same hand (which was the right +forme of Adoration), it grew also by custom, first that the emperors, +being next to Deities, and by some accounted as Deities, had the like +done to them in acknowledgment of their Greatness." If, now, we call to +mind the awkward salute of a village school-boy, made by putting his +open hand up to his face and describing a semicircle with his forearm; +and if we remember that the salute thus used as a form of reverence in +country districts, is most likely a remnant of the feudal times; we +shall see reason for thinking that our common wave of the hand to a +friend across the street, represents what was primarily a devotional +act. + +Similarly have originated all forms of respect depending upon +inclinations of the body. Entire prostration is the aboriginal sign of +submission. The passage of Scripture, "Thou hast put all under his +feet," and that other one, so suggestive in its anthropomorphism, "The +Lord said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine +enemies thy footstool," imply, what the Assyrian sculptures fully bear +out, that it was the practice of the ancient god-kings of the East to +trample upon the conquered. And when we bear in mind that there are +existing savages who signify submission by placing the neck under the +foot of the person submitted to, it becomes obvious that all +prostration, especially when accompanied by kissing the foot, expressed +a willingness to be trodden upon--was an attempt to mitigate wrath by +saying, in signs, "Tread on me if you will." Remembering, further, that +kissing the foot, as of the Pope and of a saint's statue, still +continues in Europe to be a mark of extreme reverence; that prostration +to feudal lords was once general; and that its disappearance must have +taken place, not abruptly, but by gradual modification into something +else; we have ground for deriving from these deepest of humiliations all +inclinations of respect; especially as the transition is traceable. The +reverence of a Russian serf, who bends his head to the ground, and the +salaam of the Hindoo, are abridged prostrations; a bow is a short +salaam; a nod is a short bow. + +Should any hesitate to admit this conclusion, then perhaps, on being +reminded that the lowest of these obeisances are common where the +submission is most abject; that among ourselves the profundity of the +bow marks the amount of respect; and lastly, that the bow is even now +used devotionally in our churches--by Catholics to their altars, and by +Protestants at the name of Christ--they will see sufficient evidence for +thinking that this salutation also was originally worship. + +The same may be said, too, of the curtsy, or courtesy, as it is +otherwise written. Its derivation from _courtoisie_, courteousness, that +is, behaviour like that at court, at once shows that it was primarily +the reverence paid to a monarch. And if we call to mind that falling +upon the knees, or upon one knee, has been a common obeisance of +subjects to rulers; that in ancient manuscripts and tapestries, servants +are depicted as assuming this attitude while offering the dishes to +their masters at table; and that this same attitude is assumed towards +our own queen at every presentation; we may infer, what the character of +the curtsy itself suggests, that it is an abridged act of kneeling. As +the word has been contracted from _courtoisie_ into curtsy, so the +motion has been contracted from a placing of the knee on the floor, to a +lowering of the knee towards the floor. Moreover, when we compare the +curtsy of a lady with the awkward one a peasant girl makes, which, if +continued, would bring her down on both knees, we may see in this last a +remnant of that greater reverence required of serfs. And when, from +considering that simple kneeling of the West, still represented by the +curtsy, we pass Eastward, and note the attitude of the Mahometan +worshipper, who not only kneels but bows his head to the ground, we may +infer that the curtsy also is an evanescent form of the aboriginal +prostration. + +In further evidence of this it may be remarked, that there has but +recently disappeared from the salutations of men, an action having the +same proximate derivation with the curtsy. That backward sweep of the +foot with which the conventional stage-sailor accompanies his bow--a +movement which prevailed generally in past generations, when "a bow and +a scrape" went together, and which, within the memory of living persons, +was made by boys to their schoolmaster with the effect of wearing a hole +in the floor--is pretty clearly a preliminary to going on one knee. A +motion so ungainly could never have been intentionally introduced; even +if the artificial introduction of obeisances were possible. Hence we +must regard it as the remnant of something antecedent: and that this +something antecedent was humiliating may be inferred from the phrase, +"scraping an acquaintance;" which, being used to denote the gaining of +favour by obsequiousness, implies that the scrape was considered a mark +of servility--that is, of _serf_-ility. + +Consider, again, the uncovering of the head. Almost everywhere this has +been a sign of reverence, alike in temples and before potentates; and it +yet preserves among us some of its original meaning. Whether it rains, +hails, or shines, you must keep your head bare while speaking to the +monarch; and on no plea may you remain covered in a place of worship. As +usual, however, this ceremony, at first a submission to gods and kings, +has become in process of time a common civility. Once an acknowledgment +of another's unlimited supremacy, the removal of the hat is now a salute +accorded to very ordinary persons, and that uncovering, originally +reserved for entrance into "the house of God," good manners now +dictates on entrance into the house of a common labourer. + +Standing, too, as a mark of respect, has undergone like extensions in +its application. Shown, by the practice in our churches, to be +intermediate between the humiliation signified by kneeling and the +self-respect which sitting implies, and used at courts as a form of +homage when more active demonstrations of it have been made, this +posture is now employed in daily life to show consideration; as seen +alike in the attitude of a servant before a master, and in that rising +which politeness prescribes on the entrance of a visitor. + +Many other threads of evidence might have been woven into our argument. +As, for example, the significant fact, that if we trace back our still +existing law of primogeniture--if we consider it as displayed by +Scottish clans, in which not only ownership but government devolved from +the beginning on the eldest son of the eldest--if we look further back, +and observe that the old titles of lordship, _Signor_, _Seigneur_, +_Sennor_, _Sire_, _Sieur_, all originally mean, senior, or elder--if we +go Eastward, and find that _Sheick_ has a like derivation, and that the +Oriental names for priests, as _Pir_, for instance, are literally +interpreted _old man_--if we note in Hebrew records how primeval is the +ascribed superiority of the first-born, how great the authority of +elders, and how sacred the memory of patriarchs--and if, then, we +remember that among divine titles are "Ancient of Days," and "Father of +Gods and men;"--we see how completely these facts harmonise with the +hypothesis, that the aboriginal god is the first man sufficiently great +to become a tradition, the earliest whose power and deeds made him +remembered; that hence antiquity unavoidably became associated with +superiority, and age with nearness in blood to "the powerful one;" that +so there naturally arose that domination of the eldest which +characterises all history, and that theory of human degeneracy which +even yet survives. + +We might further dwell on the facts, that _Lord_ signifies high-born, +or, as the same root gives a word meaning heaven, possibly heaven-born; +that, before it became common, _Sir_ or _Sire_, as well as _Father_, was +the distinction of a priest; that _worship_, originally worth-ship--a +term of respect that has been used commonly, as well as to +magistrates--is also our term for the act of attributing greatness or +worth to the Deity; so that to ascribe worth-ship to a man is to worship +him. We might make much of the evidence that all early governments are +more or less distinctly theocratic; and that among ancient Eastern +nations even the commonest forms and customs appear to have been +influenced by religion. We might enforce our argument respecting the +derivation of ceremonies, by tracing out the aboriginal obeisance made +by putting dust on the head, which probably symbolises putting the head +in the dust: by affiliating the practice prevailing among certain +tribes, of doing another honour by presenting him with a portion of hair +torn from the head--an act which seems tantamount to saying, "I am your +slave;" by investigating the Oriental custom of giving to a visitor any +object he speaks of admiringly, which is pretty clearly a carrying out +of the compliment, "All I have is yours." + +Without enlarging, however, on these and many minor facts, we venture to +think that the evidence already assigned is sufficient to justify our +position. Had the proofs been few or of one kind, little faith could +have been placed in the inference. But numerous as they are, alike in +the case of titles, in that of complimentary phrases, and in that of +salutes--similar and simultaneous, too, as the process of depreciation +has been in all of these; the evidences become strong by mutual +confirmation. And when we recollect, also, that not only have the +results of this process been visible in various nations and in all +times, but that they are occurring among ourselves at the present +moment, and that the causes assigned for previous depreciations may be +seen daily working out other ones--when we recollect this, it becomes +scarcely possible to doubt that the process has been as alleged; and +that our ordinary words, acts, and phrases of civility were originally +acknowledgments of submission to another's omnipotence. + +Thus the general doctrine, that all kinds of government exercised over +men were at first one government--that the political, the religious, and +the ceremonial forms of control are divergent branches of a general and +once indivisible control--begins to look tenable. When, with the above +facts fresh in mind, we read primitive records, and find that "there +were giants in those days"--when we remember that in Eastern traditions +Nimrod, among others, figures in all the characters of giant king, and +divinity--when we turn to the sculptures exhumed by Mr. Layard, and +contemplating in them the effigies of kings driving over enemies, +trampling on prisoners, and adored by prostrate slaves, then observe how +their actions correspond to the primitive names for the divinity, "the +strong," "the destroyer," "the powerful one"--when we find that the +earliest temples were also the residences of the kings--and when, +lastly, we discover that among races of men still living there are +current superstitions analogous to those which old records and old +buildings indicate; we begin to realise the probability of the +hypothesis that has been set forth. + +Going back, in imagination, to the remote era when men's theories of +things were yet unformed; and conceiving to ourselves the conquering +chief as dimly figured in ancient myths, and poems, and ruins; we may +see that all rules of conduct whatever spring from his will. Alike +legislator and judge, all quarrels among his subjects are decided by +him; and his words become the Law. Awe of him is the incipient Religion; +and his maxims furnish its first precepts. Submission is made to him in +the forms he prescribes; and these give birth to Manners. From the +first, time develops political allegiance and the administration of +justice; from the second, the worship of a being whose personality +becomes ever more vague, and the inculcation of precepts ever more +abstract; from the third, forms of honour and the rules of etiquette. + +In conformity with the law of evolution of all organised bodies, that +general functions are gradually separated into the special functions +constituting them, there have grown up in the social organism for the +better performance of the governmental office, an apparatus of +law-courts, judges, and barristers; a national church, with its bishops +and priests; and a system of caste, titles, and ceremonies, administered +by society at large. By the first, overt aggressions are cognised and +punished; by the second, the disposition to commit such aggressions is +in some degree checked; by the third, those minor breaches of good +conduct, which the others do not notice, are denounced and chastised. +Law and Religion control behaviour in its essentials: Manners control it +in its details. For regulating those daily actions which are too +numerous and too unimportant to be officially directed, there comes into +play this subtler set of restraints. And when we consider what these +restraints are--when we analyse the words, and phrases, and salutes +employed, we see that in origin as in effect, the system is a setting up +of temporary governments between all men who come in contact, for the +purpose of better managing the intercourse between them. + + * * * * * + +From the proposition, that these several kinds of government are +essentially one, both in genesis and function, may be deduced several +important corollaries, directly bearing on our special topic. + +Let us first notice, that there is not only a common origin and office +for all forms of rule, but a common necessity for them. The aboriginal +man, coming fresh from the killing of bears and from lying in ambush for +his enemy, has, by the necessities of his condition, a nature requiring +to be curbed in its every impulse. Alike in war and in the chase, his +daily discipline has been that of sacrificing other creatures to his own +needs and passions. His character, bequeathed to him by ancestors who +led similar lives, is moulded by this discipline--is fitted to this +existence. The unlimited selfishness, the love of inflicting pain, the +blood-thirstiness, thus kept active, he brings with him into the social +state. These dispositions put him in constant danger of conflict with +his equally savage neighbour. In small things as in great, in words as +in deeds, he is aggressive; and is hourly liable to the aggressions of +others like natured. Only, therefore, by the most rigorous control +exercised over all actions, can the primitive unions of men be +maintained. There must be a ruler strong, remorseless, and of +indomitable will; there must be a creed terrible in its threats to the +disobedient; and there must be the most servile submission of all +inferiors to superiors. The law must be cruel; the religion must be +stern; the ceremonies must be strict. + +The co-ordinate necessity for these several kinds of restraint might be +largely illustrated from history were there space. Suffice it to point +out, that where the civil power has been weak, the multiplication of +thieves, assassins, and banditti, has indicated the approach of social +dissolution; that when, from the corruptness of its ministry, religion +has lost its influence, as it did just before the Flagellants appeared, +the State has been endangered; and that the disregard of established +social observances has ever been an accompaniment of political +revolutions. Whoever doubts the necessity for a government of manners +proportionate in strength to the co-existing political and religious +governments, will be convinced on calling to mind that until recently +even elaborate codes of behaviour failed to keep gentlemen from +quarrelling in the streets and fighting duels in taverns; and on +remembering further, that even now people exhibit at the doors of a +theatre, where there is no ceremonial law to rule them, a degree of +aggressiveness which would produce confusion if carried into social +intercourse. + +As might be expected, we find that, having a common origin and like +general functions, these several controlling agencies act during each +era with similar degrees of vigour. Under the Chinese despotism, +stringent and multitudinous in its edicts and harsh in the enforcement +of them, and associated with which there is an equally stern domestic +despotism exercised by the eldest surviving male of the family, there +exists a system of observances alike complicated and rigid. There is a +tribunal of ceremonies. Previous to presentation at court, ambassadors +pass many days in practising the required forms. Social intercourse is +cumbered by endless compliments and obeisances. Class distinctions are +strongly marked by badges. The chief regret on losing an only son is, +that there will be no one to perform the sepulchral rites. And if there +wants a definite measure of the respect paid to social ordinances, we +have it in the torture to which ladies submit in having their feet +crushed. In India, and indeed throughout the East, there exists a like +connection between the pitiless tyranny of rulers, the dread terrors of +immemorial creeds, and the rigid restraint of unchangeable customs: the +caste regulations continue still unalterable; the fashions of clothes +and furniture have remained the same for ages; suttees are so ancient as +to be mentioned by Strabo and Diodorus Siculus; justice is still +administered at the palace-gates as of old; in short, "every usage is a +precept of religion and a maxim of jurisprudence." + +A similar relationship of phenomena was exhibited in Europe during the +Middle Ages. While all its governments were autocratic, while feudalism +held sway, while the Church was unshorn of its power, while the criminal +code was full of horrors and the hell of the popular creed full of +terrors, the rules of behaviour were both more numerous and more +carefully conformed to than now. Differences of dress marked divisions +of rank. Men were limited by law to a certain width of shoe-toes; and no +one below a specified degree might wear a cloak less than so many inches +long. The symbols on banners and shields were carefully attended to. +Heraldry was an important branch of knowledge. Precedence was strictly +insisted on. And those various salutes of which we now use the +abridgments were gone through in full. Even during our own last century, +with its corrupt House of Commons and little-curbed monarchs, we may +mark a correspondence of social formalities. Gentlemen were still +distinguished from lower classes by dress; people sacrificed themselves +to inconvenient requirements--as powder, hooped petticoats, and towering +head-dresses; and children addressed their parents as _Sir_ and +_Madam_. + +A further corollary naturally following this last, and almost, indeed, +forming part of it, is, that these several kinds of government decrease +in stringency at the same rate. Simultaneously with the decline in the +influence of priesthoods, and in the fear of eternal +torments--simultaneously with the mitigation of political tyranny, the +growth of popular power, and the amelioration of criminal codes; has +taken place that diminution of formalities and that fading of +distinctive marks, now so observable. Looking at home, we may note that +there is less attention to precedence than there used to be. No one in +our day ends an interview with the phrase "your humble servant." The +employment of the word _Sir_, once general in social intercourse, is at +present considered bad breeding; and on the occasions calling for them, +it is held vulgar to use the words "Your Majesty," or "Your Royal +Highness," more than once in a conversation. People no longer formally +drink each other's healths; and even the taking wine with each other at +dinner has ceased to be fashionable. The taking-off of hats between +gentlemen has been gradually falling into disuse. Even when the hat is +removed, it is no longer swept out at arm's length, but is simply +lifted. Hence the remark made upon us by foreigners, that we take off +our hats less than any other nation in Europe--a remark that should be +coupled with the other, that we are the freest nation in Europe. + +As already implied, this association of facts is not accidental. These +titles of address and modes of salutation, bearing about them, as they +all do, something of that servility which marks their origin, become +distasteful in proportion as men become more independent themselves, and +sympathise more with the independence of others. The feeling which makes +the modern gentleman tell the labourer standing bareheaded before him to +put on his hat--the feeling which gives us a dislike to those who cringe +and fawn--the feeling which makes us alike assert our own dignity and +respect that of others--the feeling which thus leads us more and more to +discountenance all forms and names which confess inferiority and +submission; is the same feeling which resists despotic power and +inaugurates popular government, denies the authority of the Church and +establishes the right of private judgment. + +A fourth fact, akin to the foregoing, is, that these several kinds of +government not only decline together, but corrupt together. By the same +process that a Court of Chancery becomes a place not for the +administration of justice, but for the withholding of it--by the same +process that a national church, from being an agency for moral control, +comes to be merely a thing of formulas and tithes and bishoprics--by +this same process do titles and ceremonies that once had a meaning and a +power become empty forms. + +Coats of arms which served to distinguish men in battle, now figure on +the carriage panels of retired grocers. Once a badge of high military +rank, the shoulder-knot has become, on the modern footman, a mark of +servitude. The name Banneret, which once marked a partially-created +Baron--a Baron who had passed his military "little go"--is now, under +the modification of Baronet, applicable to any one favoured by wealth or +interest or party feeling. Knighthood has so far ceased to be an honour, +that men now honour themselves by declining it. The military dignity +_Escuyer_ has, in the modern Esquire, become a wholly unmilitary affix. +Not only do titles, and phrases, and salutes cease to fulfil their +original functions, but the whole apparatus of social forms tends to +become useless for its original purpose--the facilitation of social +intercourse. Those most learned in ceremonies, and most precise in the +observance of them, are not always the best behaved; as those deepest +read in creeds and scriptures are not therefore the most religious; nor +those who have the clearest notions of legality and illegality, the most +honest. Just as lawyers are of all men the least noted for probity; as +cathedral towns have a lower moral character than most others; so, if +Swift is to be believed, courtiers are "the most insignificant race of +people that the island can afford, and with the smallest tincture of +good manners." + +But perhaps it is in that class of social observances comprehended under +the term Fashion, which we must here discuss parenthetically, that this +process of corruption is seen with the greatest distinctness. As +contrasted with Manners, which dictate our minor acts in relation to +other persons, Fashion dictates our minor acts in relation to ourselves. +While the one prescribes that part of our deportment which directly +affects our neighbours; the other prescribes that part of our deportment +which is primarily personal, and in which our neighbours are concerned +only as spectators. Thus distinguished as they are, however, the two +have a common source. For while, as we have shown, Manners originate by +imitation of the behaviour pursued _towards_ the great; Fashion +originates by imitation _of_ the behaviour of the great. While the one +has its derivation in the titles, phrases, and salutes used _to_ those +in power; the other is derived from the habits and appearances exhibited +_by_ those in power. + +The Carrib mother who squeezes her child's head into a shape like that +of the chief; the young savage who makes marks on himself similar to the +scars carried by the warriors of his tribe (which is probably the origin +of tattooing); the Highlander who adopts the plaid worn by the head of +his clan; the courtiers who affect greyness, or limp, or cover their +necks, in imitation of their king; and the people who ape the courtiers; +are alike acting under a kind of government connate with that of +Manners, and, like it too, primarily beneficial. For notwithstanding the +numberless absurdities into which this copyism has led the people, from +nose-rings to ear-rings, from painted faces to beauty-spots, from shaven +heads to powdered wigs, from filed teeth and stained nails to +bell-girdles, peaked shoes, and breeches stuffed with bran,--it must yet +be concluded, that as the strong men, the successful men, the men of +will, intelligence, and originality, who have got to the top, are, on +the average, more likely to show judgment in their habits and tastes +than the mass, the imitation of such is advantageous. + +By and by, however, Fashion, corrupting like these other forms of rule, +almost wholly ceases to be an imitation of the best, and becomes an +imitation of quite other than the best. As those who take orders are not +those having a special fitness for the priestly office, but those who +see their way to a living by it; as legislators and public functionaries +do not become such by virtue of their political insight and power to +rule, but by virtue of birth, acreage, and class influence; so, the +self-elected clique who set the fashion, gain this prerogative, not by +their force of nature, their intellect, their higher worth or better +taste, but gain it solely by their unchecked assumption. Among the +initiated are to be found neither the noblest in rank, the chief in +power, the best cultured, the most refined, nor those of greatest +genius, wit, or beauty; and their reunions, so far from being superior +to others, are noted for their inanity. Yet, by the example of these +sham great, and not by that of the truly great, does society at large +now regulate its goings and comings, its hours, its dress, its small +usages. As a natural consequence, these have generally little or none of +that suitableness which the theory of fashion implies they should have. +But instead of a continual progress towards greater elegance and +convenience, which might be expected to occur did people copy the ways +of the really best, or follow their own ideas of propriety, we have a +reign of mere whim, of unreason, of change for the sake of change, of +wanton oscillations from either extreme to the other--a reign of usages +without meaning, times without fitness, dress without taste. And thus +life _à la mode_, instead of being life conducted in the most rational +manner, is life regulated by spendthrifts and idlers, milliners and +tailors, dandies and silly women. + +To these several corollaries--that the various orders of control +exercised over men have a common origin and a common function, are +called out by co-ordinate necessities and co-exist in like stringency, +decline together and corrupt together--it now only remains to add that +they become needless together. Consequent as all kinds of government are +upon the unfitness of the aboriginal man for social life; and +diminishing in coerciveness as they all do in proportion as this +unfitness diminishes; they must one and all come to an end as humanity +acquires complete adaptation to its new conditions. That discipline of +circumstances which has already wrought out such great changes in us, +must go on eventually to work out yet greater ones. That daily curbing +of the lower nature and culture of the higher, which out of cannibals +and devil worshippers has evolved philanthropists, lovers of peace, and +haters of superstition, cannot fail to evolve out of these, men as much +superior to them as they are to their progenitors. The causes that have +produced past modifications are still in action; must continue in action +as long as there exists any incongruity between man's desires and the +requirements of the social state; and must eventually make him +organically fit for the social state. As it is now needless to forbid +man-eating and Fetishism, so will it ultimately become needless to +forbid murder, theft, and the minor offences of our criminal code. When +human nature has grown into conformity with the moral law, there will +need no judges and statute-books; when it spontaneously takes the right +course in all things, as in some things it does already, prospects of +future reward or punishment will not be wanted as incentives; and when +fit behaviour has become instinctive, there will need no code of +ceremonies to say how behaviour shall be regulated. + +Thus, then, may be recognised the meaning, the naturalness, the +necessity of those various eccentricities of reformers which we set out +by describing. They are not accidental; they are not mere personal +caprices, as people are apt to suppose. On the contrary, they are +inevitable results of the law of relationship above illustrated. That +community of genesis, function, and decay which all forms of restraint +exhibit, is simply the obverse of the fact at first pointed out, that +they have in two sentiments of human nature a common preserver and a +common destroyer. Awe of power originates and cherishes them all: love +of freedom undermines and periodically weakens them all. The one defends +despotism and asserts the supremacy of laws, adheres to old creeds and +supports ecclesiastical authority, pays respect to titles and conserves +forms; the other, putting rectitude above legality, achieves periodical +instalments of political liberty, inaugurates Protestantism and works +out its consequences, ignores the senseless dictates of Fashion and +emancipates men from dead customs. + +To the true reformer no institution is sacred, no belief above +criticism. Everything shall conform itself to equity and reason; nothing +shall be saved by its prestige. Conceding to each man liberty to pursue +his own ends and satisfy his own tastes, he demands for himself like +liberty; and consents to no restrictions on this, save those which other +men's equal claims involve. No matter whether it be an ordinance of one +man, or an ordinance of all men, if it trenches on his legitimate sphere +of action, he denies its validity. The tyranny that would impose on him +a particular style of dress and a set mode of behaviour, he resists +equally with the tyranny that would limit his buyings and sellings, or +dictate his creed. Whether the regulation be formally made by a +legislature, or informally made by society at large--whether the penalty +for disobedience be imprisonment, or frowns and social ostracism, he +sees to be a question of no moment. He will utter his belief +notwithstanding the threatened punishment; he will break conventions +spite of the petty persecutions that will be visited on him. Show him +that his actions are inimical to his fellow-men, and he will pause. +Prove that he is disregarding their legitimate claims--that he is doing +what in the nature of things must produce unhappiness; and he will alter +his course. But until you do this--until you demonstrate that his +proceedings are essentially inconvenient or inelegant, essentially +irrational, unjust, or ungenerous, he will persevere. + +Some, indeed, argue that his conduct _is_ unjust and ungenerous. They +say that he has no right to annoy other people by his whims; that the +gentleman to whom his letter comes with no "Esq." appended to the +address, and the lady whose evening party he enters with gloveless +hands, are vexed at what they consider his want of respect, or want of +breeding; that thus his eccentricities cannot be indulged save at the +expense of his neighbours' feelings; and that hence his nonconformity is +in plain terms selfishness. + +He answers that this position, if logically developed, would deprive men +of all liberty whatever. Each must conform all his acts to the public +taste, and not his own. The public taste on every point having been once +ascertained, men's habits must thenceforth remain for ever fixed; seeing +that no man can adopt other habits without sinning against the public +taste, and giving people disagreeable feelings. Consequently, be it an +era of pig-tails or high-heeled shoes, of starched ruffs or trunk-hose, +all must continue to wear pig-tails, high-heeled shoes, starched ruffs, +or trunk-hose to the crack of doom. + +If it be still urged that he is not justified in breaking through +others' forms that he may establish his own, and so sacrificing the +wishes of many to the wishes of one, he replies that all religious and +political changes might be negatived on like grounds. He asks whether +Luther's sayings and doings were not extremely offensive to the mass of +his contemporaries; whether the resistance of Hampden was not disgusting +to the time-servers around him; whether every reformer has not shocked +men's prejudices, and given immense displeasure by the opinions he +uttered. The affirmative answer he follows up by demanding what right +the reformer has, then, to utter these opinions; whether he is not +sacrificing the feelings of many to the feelings of one; and so proves +that, to be consistent, his antagonists must condemn not only all +nonconformity in actions, but all nonconformity in thoughts. + +His antagonists rejoin that _his_ position, too, may be pushed to an +absurdity. They argue that if a man may offend by the disregard of some +forms, he may as legitimately do so by the disregard of all; and they +inquire--Why should he not go out to dinner in a dirty shirt, and with +an unshorn chin? Why should he not spit on the drawing-room carpet, and +stretch his heels up to the mantle-shelf? + +The convention-breaker answers, that to ask this, implies a confounding +of two widely-different classes of actions--the actions that are +_essentially_ displeasurable to those around, with the actions that are +but _incidentally_ displeasurable to them. He whose skin is so unclean +as to offend the nostrils of his neighbours, or he who talks so loudly +as to disturb a whole room, may be justly complained of, and rightly +excluded by society from its assemblies. But he who presents himself in +a surtout in place of a dress-coat, or in brown trousers instead of +black, gives offence not to men's senses, or their innate tastes, but +merely to their prejudices, their bigotry of convention. It cannot be +said that his costume is less elegant or less intrinsically appropriate +than the one prescribed; seeing that a few hours earlier in the day it +is admired. It is the implied rebellion, therefore, that annoys. How +little the cause of quarrel has to do with the dress itself, is seen in +the fact that a century ago black clothes would have been thought +preposterous for hours of recreation, and that a few years hence some +now forbidden style may be nearer the requirements of Fashion than the +present one. Thus the reformer explains that it is not against the +natural restraints, but against the artificial ones, that he protests; +and that manifestly the fire of sneers and angry glances which he has to +bear, is poured upon him because he will not bow down to the idol which +society has set up. + +Should he be asked how we are to distinguish between conduct that is +_absolutely_ disagreeable to others, and conduct that is _relatively_ +so, he answers, that they will distinguish themselves if men will let +them. Actions intrinsically repugnant will ever be frowned upon, and +must ever remain as exceptional as now. Actions not intrinsically +repugnant will establish themselves as proper. No relaxation of customs +will introduce the practice of going to a party in muddy boots, and with +unwashed hands; for the dislike of dirt would continue were Fashion +abolished to-morrow. That love of approbation which now makes people so +solicitous to be _en règle_ would still exist--would still make them +careful of their personal appearance--would still induce them to seek +admiration by making themselves ornamental--would still cause them to +respect the natural laws of good behaviour, as they now do the +artificial ones. The change would simply be from a repulsive monotony to +a picturesque variety. And if there be any regulations respecting which +it is uncertain whether they are based on reality or on convention, +experiment will soon decide, if due scope be allowed. + +When at length the controversy comes round, as controversies often do, +to the point whence it started, and the "party of order" repeat their +charge against the rebel, that he is sacrificing the feelings of others +to the gratification of his own wilfulness, he replies once for all that +they cheat themselves by misstatements. He accuses them of being so +despotic, that, not content with being masters over their own ways and +habits, they would be masters over his also; and grumble because he +will not let them. He merely asks the same freedom which they exercise; +they, however, propose to regulate his course as well as their own--to +cut and clip his mode of life into agreement with their approved +pattern; and then charge him with wilfulness and selfishness, because he +does not quietly submit! He warns them that he shall resist, +nevertheless; and that he shall do so, not only for the assertion of his +own independence, but for their good. He tells them that they are +slaves, and know it not; that they are shackled, and kiss their chains; +that they have lived all their days in prison, and complain at the walls +being broken down. He says he must persevere, however, with a view to +his own release; and in spite of their present expostulations, he +prophesies that when they have recovered from the fright which the +prospect of freedom produces, they will thank him for aiding in their +emancipation. + +Unamiable as seems this find-fault mood, offensive as is this defiant +attitude, we must beware of overlooking the truths enunciated, in +dislike of the advocacy. It is an unfortunate hindrance to all +innovation, that in virtue of their very function, the innovators stand +in a position of antagonism; and the disagreeable manners, and sayings, +and doings, which this antagonism generates, are commonly associated +with the doctrines promulgated. Quite forgetting that whether the thing +attacked be good or bad, the combative spirit is necessarily repulsive; +and quite forgetting that the toleration of abuses seems amiable merely +from its passivity; the mass of men contract a bias against advanced +views, and in favour of stationary ones, from intercourse with their +respective adherents. "Conservatism," as Emerson says, "is debonnair and +social; reform is individual and imperious." And this remains true, +however vicious the system conserved, however righteous the reform to be +effected. Nay, the indignation of the purists is usually extreme in +proportion as the evils to be got rid of are great. The more urgent the +required change, the more intemperate is the vehemence of its promoters. +Let no one, then, confound with the principles of this social +nonconformity the acerbity and the disagreeable self-assertion of those +who first display it. + + * * * * * + +The most plausible objection raised against resistance to conventions, +is grounded on its impolicy, considered even from the progressist's +point of view. It is urged by many of the more liberal and +intelligent--usually those who have themselves shown some independence +of behaviour in earlier days--that to rebel in these small matters is to +destroy your own power of helping on reform in greater matters. "If you +show yourself eccentric in manners or dress, the world," they say, "will +not listen to you. You will be considered as crotchety, and +impracticable. The opinions you express on important subjects, which +might have been treated with respect had you conformed on minor points, +will now inevitably be put down among your singularities; and thus, by +dissenting in trifles, you disable yourself from spreading dissent in +essentials." + +Only noting, as we pass, that this is one of those anticipations which +bring about their own fulfilment--that it is because most who disapprove +these conventions do not show their disapproval, that the few who do +show it look eccentric--and that did all act out their convictions, no +such inference as the above would be drawn, and no such evil would +result;--noting this as we pass, we go on to reply that these social +restraints, and forms, and requirements, are not small evils, but among +the greatest. Estimate their sum total, and we doubt whether they would +not exceed most others. Could we add up the trouble, the cost, the +jealousies, vexations, misunderstandings, the loss of time and the loss +of pleasure, which these conventions entail--could we clearly realise +the extent to which we are all daily hampered by them, daily enslaved by +them; we should perhaps come to the conclusion that the tyranny of Mrs. +Grundy is worse than any other tyranny we suffer under. Let us look at a +few of its hurtful results; beginning with those of minor importance. + +It produces extravagance. The desire to be _comme il faut_, which +underlies all conformities, whether of manners, dress, or styles of +entertainment, is the desire which makes many a spendthrift and many a +bankrupt. To "keep up appearances," to have a house in an approved +quarter furnished in the latest taste, to give expensive dinners and +crowded _soirées_, is an ambition forming the natural outcome of the +conformist spirit. It is needless to enlarge on these follies: they have +been satirised by hosts of writers, and in every drawing-room. All that +here concerns us, is to point out that the respect for social +observances, which men think so praiseworthy, has the same root with +this effort to be fashionable in mode of living; and that, other things +equal, the last cannot be diminished without the first being diminished +also. If, now, we consider all that this extravagance entails--if we +count up the robbed tradesmen, the stinted governesses, the +ill-educated children, the fleeced relatives, who have to suffer from +it--if we mark the anxiety and the many moral delinquencies which its +perpetrators involve themselves in; we shall see that this regard for +conventions is not quite so innocent as it looks. + +Again, it decreases the amount of social intercourse. Passing over the +reckless, and those who make a great display on speculation with the +occasional result of getting on in the world to the exclusion of much +better men, we come to the far larger class who, being prudent and +honest enough not to exceed their means, and yet having a strong wish to +be "respectable," are obliged to limit their entertainments to the +smallest possible number; and that each of these may be turned to the +greatest advantage in meeting the claims upon their hospitality, are +induced to issue their invitations with little or no regard to the +comfort or mutual fitness of their guests. A few inconveniently-large +assemblies, made up of people mostly strange to each other or but +distantly acquainted, and having scarcely any tastes in common, are made +to serve in place of many small parties of friends intimate enough to +have some bond of thought and sympathy. Thus the quantity of intercourse +is diminished, and the quality deteriorated. Because it is the custom to +make costly preparations and provide costly refreshments; and because it +entails both less expense and less trouble to do this for many persons +on a few occasions than for few persons on many occasions; the reunions +of our less wealthy classes are rendered alike infrequent and tedious. + +Let it be further observed, that the existing formalities of social +intercourse drive away many who most need its refining influence: and +drive them into injurious habits and associations. Not a few men, and +not the least sensible men either, give up in disgust this going out to +stately dinners, and stiff evening-parties; and instead, seek society in +clubs, and cigar-divans, and taverns. "I'm sick of this standing about +in drawing-rooms, talking nonsense, and trying to look happy," will +answer one of them when taxed with his desertion. "Why should I any +longer waste time and money, and temper? Once I was ready enough to rush +home from the office to dress; I sported embroidered shirts, submitted +to tight boots, and cared nothing for tailors' and haberdashers' bills. +I know better now. My patience lasted a good while; for though I found +each night pass stupidly, I always hoped the next would make amends. But +I'm undeceived. Cab-hire and kid gloves cost more than any evening +party pays for; or rather--it is worth the cost of them to avoid the +party. No, no; I'll no more of it. Why should I pay five shillings a +time for the privilege of being bored?" + +If, now, we consider that this very common mood tends towards +billiard-rooms, towards long sittings over cigars and brandy-and-water, +towards Evans's and the Coal Hole, towards every place where amusement +may be had; it becomes a question whether these precise observances +which hamper our set meetings, have not to answer for much of the +prevalent dissoluteness. Men must have excitements of some kind or +other; and if debarred from higher ones will fall back upon lower. It is +not that those who thus take to irregular habits are essentially those +of low tastes. Often it is quite the reverse. Among half a dozen +intimate friends, abandoning formalities and sitting at ease round the +fire, none will enter with greater enjoyment into the highest kind of +social intercourse--the genuine communion of thought and feeling; and if +the circle includes women of intelligence and refinement, so much the +greater is their pleasure. It is because they will no longer be choked +with the mere dry husks of conversation which society offers them, that +they fly its assemblies, and seek those with whom they may have +discourse that is at least real, though unpolished. The men who thus +long for substantial mental sympathy, and will go where they can get it, +are often, indeed, much better at the core than the men who are content +with the inanities of gloved and scented party-goers--men who feel no +need to come morally nearer to their fellow creatures than they can come +while standing, tea-cup in hand, answering trifles with trifles; and +who, by feeling no such need, prove themselves shallow-thoughted and +cold-hearted. + +It is true, that some who shun drawing-rooms do so from inability to +bear the restraints prescribed by a genuine refinement, and that they +would be greatly improved by being kept under these restraints. But it +is not less true that, by adding to the legitimate restraints, which are +based on convenience and a regard for others, a host of factitious +restraints based only on convention, the refining discipline, which +would else have been borne with benefit, is rendered unbearable, and so +misses its end. Excess of government invariably defeats itself by +driving away those to be governed. And if over all who desert its +entertainments in disgust either at their emptiness or their formality, +society thus loses its salutary influence--if such not only fail to +receive that moral culture which the company of ladies, when rationally +regulated, would give them, but, in default of other relaxation, are +driven into habits and companionships which often end in gambling and +drunkenness; must we not say that here, too, is an evil not to be passed +over as insignificant? + +Then consider what a blighting effect these multitudinous preparations +and ceremonies have upon the pleasures they profess to subserve. Who, on +calling to mind the occasions of his highest social enjoyments, does not +find them to have been wholly informal, perhaps impromptu? How +delightful a picnic of friends, who forget all observances save those +dictated by good nature! How pleasant the little unpretended gatherings +of book-societies, and the like; or those purely accidental meetings of +a few people well known to each other! Then, indeed, we may see that "a +man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend." Cheeks flush, and eyes +sparkle. The witty grow brilliant, and even the dull are excited into +saying good things. There is an overflow of topics; and the right +thought, and the right words to put it in, spring up unsought. Grave +alternates with gay: now serious converse, and now jokes, anecdotes, and +playful raillery. Every one's best nature is shown, every one's best +feelings are in pleasurable activity; and, for the time, life seems well +worth having. + +Go now and dress for some half-past eight dinner, or some ten o'clock +"at home;" and present yourself in spotless attire, with every hair +arranged to perfection. How great the difference! The enjoyment seems in +the inverse ratio of the preparation. These figures, got up with such +finish and precision, appear but half alive. They have frozen each other +by their primness; and your faculties feel the numbing effects of the +atmosphere the moment you enter it. All those thoughts, so nimble and so +apt awhile since, have disappeared--have suddenly acquired a +preternatural power of eluding you. If you venture a remark to your +neighbour, there comes a trite rejoinder, and there it ends. No subject +you can hit upon outlives half a dozen sentences. Nothing that is said +excites any real interest in you; and you feel that all you say is +listened to with apathy. By some strange magic, things that usually give +pleasure seem to have lost all charm. + +You have a taste for art. Weary of frivolous talk, you turn to the +table, and find that the book of engravings and the portfolio of +photographs are as flat as the conversation. You are fond of music. Yet +the singing, good as it is, you hear with utter indifference; and say +"Thank you" with a sense of being a profound hypocrite. Wholly at ease +though you could be, for your own part, you find that your sympathies +will not let you. You see young gentlemen feeling whether their ties are +properly adjusted, looking vacantly round, and considering what they +shall do next. You see ladies sitting disconsolately, waiting for some +one to speak to them, and wishing they had the wherewith to occupy their +fingers. You see the hostess standing about the doorway, keeping a +factitious smile on her face, and racking her brain to find the +requisite nothings with which to greet her guests as they enter. You see +numberless traits of weariness and embarrassment; and, if you have any +fellow-feeling, these cannot fail to produce a feeling of discomfort. +The disorder is catching; and do what you will you cannot resist the +general infection. You struggle against it; you make spasmodic efforts +to be lively; but none of your sallies or your good stories do more than +raise a simper or a forced laugh: intellect and feeling are alike +asphyxiated. And when, at length, yielding to your disgust, you rush +away, how great is the relief when you get into the fresh air, and see +the stars! How you "Thank God, that's over!" and half resolve to avoid +all such boredom for the future! + +What, now, is the secret of this perpetual miscarriage and +disappointment? Does not the fault lie with all these needless +adjuncts--these elaborate dressings, these set forms, these expensive +preparations, these many devices and arrangements that imply trouble and +raise expectation? Who that has lived thirty years in the world has not +discovered that Pleasure is coy; and must not be too directly pursued, +but must be caught unawares? An air from a street-piano, heard while at +work, will often gratify more than the choicest music played at a +concert by the most accomplished musicians. A single good picture seen +in a dealer's window, may give keener enjoyment than a whole exhibition +gone through with catalogue and pencil. By the time we have got ready +our elaborate apparatus by which to secure happiness, the happiness is +gone. It is too subtle to be contained in these receivers, garnished +with compliments, and fenced round with etiquette. The more we multiply +and complicate appliances, the more certain are we to drive it away. + +The reason is patent enough. These higher emotions to which social +intercourse ministers, are of extremely complex nature; they +consequently depend for their production upon very numerous conditions; +the more numerous the conditions, the greater the liability that one or +other of them will be disturbed, and the emotions consequently +prevented. It takes a considerable misfortune to destroy appetite; but +cordial sympathy with those around may be extinguished by a look or a +word. Hence it follows, that the more multiplied the _unnecessary_ +requirements with which social intercourse is surrounded, the less +likely are its pleasures to be achieved. It is difficult enough to +fulfil continuously all the _essentials_ to a pleasurable communion with +others: how much more difficult, then, must it be continuously to fulfil +a host of _non-essentials_ also! It is, indeed, impossible. The attempt +inevitably ends in the sacrifice of the first to the last--the +essentials to the non-essentials. What chance is there of getting any +genuine response from the lady who is thinking of your stupidity in +taking her in to dinner on the wrong arm? How are you likely to have +agreeable converse with the gentleman who is fuming internally because +he is not placed next to the hostess? Formalities, familiar as they may +become, necessarily occupy attention--necessarily multiply the occasions +for mistake, misunderstanding, and jealousy, on the part of one or +other--necessarily distract all minds from the thoughts and feelings +that should occupy them--necessarily, therefore, subvert those +conditions under which only any sterling intercourse is to be had. + +And this indeed is the fatal mischief which these conventions entail--a +mischief to which every other is secondary. They destroy those highest +of our pleasures which they profess to subserve. All institutions are +alike in this, that however useful, and needful even, they originally +were, they not only in the end cease to be so, but become detrimental. +While humanity is growing, they continue fixed; daily get more +mechanical and unvital; and by and by tend to strangle what they before +preserved. It is not simply that they become corrupt and fail to act: +they become obstructions. Old forms of government finally grow so +oppressive, that they must be thrown off even at the risk of reigns of +terror. Old creeds end in being dead formulas, which no longer aid but +distort and arrest the general mind; while the State-churches +administering them, come to be instruments for subsidising conservatism +and repressing progress. Old schemes of education, incarnated in public +schools and colleges, continue filling the heads of new generations with +what has become relatively useless knowledge, and, by consequence, +excluding knowledge which is useful. Not an organisation of any +kind--political, religious, literary, philanthropic--but what, by its +ever-multiplying regulations, its accumulating wealth, its yearly +addition of officers, and the creeping into it of patronage and party +feeling, eventually loses its original spirit, and sinks into a mere +lifeless mechanism, worked with a view to private ends--a mechanism +which not merely fails of its first purpose, but is a positive hindrance +to it. + +Thus is it, too, with social usages. We read of the Chinese that they +have "ponderous ceremonies transmitted from time immemorial," which make +social intercourse a burden. The court forms prescribed by monarchs for +their own exaltation, have, in all times and places, ended in consuming +the comfort of their lives. And so the artificial observances of the +dining-room and saloon, in proportion as they are many and strict, +extinguish that agreeable communion which they were originally intended +to secure. The dislike with which people commonly speak of society that +is "formal," and "stiff," and "ceremonious," implies the general +recognition of this fact; and this recognition, logically developed, +involves that all usages of behaviour which are not based on natural +requirements, are injurious. That these conventions defeat their own +ends is no new assertion. Swift, criticising the manners of his day, +says--"Wise men are often more uneasy at the over-civility of these +refiners than they could possibly be in the conversation of peasants and +mechanics." + +But it is not only in these details that the self-defeating action of +our arrangements is traceable: it is traceable in the very substance and +nature of them. Our social intercourse, as commonly managed, is a mere +semblance of the reality sought. What is it that we want? Some +sympathetic converse with our fellow-creatures: some converse that shall +not be mere dead words, but the vehicle of living thoughts and +feelings--converse in which the eyes and the face shall speak, and the +tones of the voice be full of meaning--converse which shall make us feel +no longer alone, but shall draw us closer to another, and double our own +emotions by adding another's to them. Who is there that has not, from +time to time, felt how cold and flat is all this talk about politics and +science, and the new books and the new men, and how a genuine utterance +of fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of it? Mark the words of +Bacon:--"For a crowd is not a company, and faces are but a gallery of +pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love." + +If this be true, then it is only after acquaintance has grown into +intimacy, and intimacy has ripened into friendship, that the real +communion which men need becomes possible. A rationally-formed circle +must consist almost wholly of those on terms of familiarity and regard, +with but one or two strangers. What folly, then, underlies the whole +system of our grand dinners, our "at homes," our evening +parties--assemblages made up of many who never met before, many others +who just bow to each other, many others who though familiar feel mutual +indifference, with just a few real friends lost in the general mass! You +need but look round at the artificial expressions of face, to see at +once how it is. All have their disguises on; and how can there be +sympathy between masks? No wonder that in private every one exclaims +against the stupidity of these gatherings. No wonder that hostesses get +them up rather because they must than because they wish. No wonder that +the invited go less from the expectation of pleasure than from fear of +giving offence. The whole thing is a gigantic mistake--an organised +disappointment. + +And then note, lastly, that in this case, as in all others, when an +organisation has become effete and inoperative for its legitimate +purpose, it is employed for quite other ones--quite opposite ones. What +is the usual plea put in for giving and attending these tedious +assemblies? "I admit that they are stupid and frivolous enough," replies +every man to your criticisms; "but then, you know, one must keep up +one's connections." And could you get from his wife a sincere answer, it +would be--"Like you, I am sick of these frivolities; but then, we must +get our daughters married." The one knows that there is a profession to +push, a practice to gain, a business to extend: or parliamentary +influence, or county patronage, or votes, or office, to be got: +position, berths, favours, profit. The other's thoughts run upon +husbands and settlements, wives and dowries. Worthless for their +ostensible purpose of daily bringing human beings into pleasurable +relations with each other, these cumbrous appliances of our social +intercourse are now perseveringly kept in action with a view to the +pecuniary and matrimonial results which they indirectly produce. + +Who then shall say that the reform of our system of observances is +unimportant? When we see how this system induces fashionable +extravagance, with its entailed bankruptcy and ruin--when we mark how +greatly it limits the amount of social intercourse among the less +wealthy classes--when we find that many who most need to be disciplined +by mixing with the refined are driven away by it, and led into +dangerous and often fatal courses--when we count up the many minor evils +it inflicts, the extra work which its costliness entails on all +professional and mercantile men, the damage to public taste in dress and +decoration by the setting up of its absurdities as standards for +imitation, the injury to health indicated in the faces of its devotees +at the close of the London season, the mortality of milliners and the +like, which its sudden exigencies yearly involve;--and when to all these +we add its fatal sin, that it blights, withers up, and kills, that high +enjoyment it professedly ministers to--that enjoyment which is a chief +end of our hard struggling in life to obtain--shall we not conclude that +to reform our system of etiquette and fashion, is an aim yielding to few +in urgency? + + * * * * * + +There needs, then, a protestantism in social usages. Forms that have +ceased to facilitate and have become obstructive--whether political, +religious, or other--have ever to be swept away; and eventually are so +swept away in all cases. Signs are not wanting that some change is at +hand. A host of satirists, led on by Thackeray, have been for years +engaged in bringing our sham-festivities, and our fashionable follies, +into contempt; and in their candid moods, most men laugh at the +frivolities with which they and the world in general are deluded. +Ridicule has always been a revolutionary agent. That which is habitually +assailed with sneers and sarcasms cannot long survive. Institutions that +have lost their roots in men's respect and faith are doomed; and the day +of their dissolution is not far off. The time is approaching, then, when +our system of social observances must pass through some crisis, out of +which it will come purified and comparatively simple. + +How this crisis will be brought about, no one can with any certainty +say. Whether by the continuance and increase of individual protests, or +whether by the union of many persons for the practice and propagation of +some better system, the future alone can decide. The influence of +dissentients acting without co-operation, seems, under the present state +of things, inadequate. Standing severally alone, and having no +well-defined views; frowned on by conformists, and expostulated with +even by those who secretly sympathise with them; subject to petty +persecutions, and unable to trace any benefit produced by their example; +they are apt, one by one, to give up their attempts as hopeless. The +young convention-breaker eventually finds that he pays too heavily for +his nonconformity. Hating, for example, everything that bears about it +any remnant of servility, he determines, in the ardour of his +independence, that he will uncover to no one. But what he means simply +as a general protest, he finds that ladies interpret into a personal +disrespect. Though he sees that, from the days of chivalry downwards, +these marks of supreme consideration paid to the other sex have been but +a hypocritical counterpart to the actual subjection in which men have +held them--a pretended submission to compensate for a real domination; +and though he sees that when the true dignity of women is recognised, +the mock dignities given to them will be abolished; yet he does not like +to be thus misunderstood, and so hesitates in his practice. + +In other cases, again, his courage fails him. Such of his +unconventionalities as can be attributed only to eccentricity, he has no +qualms about: for, on the whole, he feels rather complimented than +otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public opinion. But when +they are liable to be put down to ignorance, to ill-breeding, or to +poverty, he becomes a coward. However clearly the recent innovation of +eating some kinds of fish with knife and fork proves the fork-and-bread +practice to have had little but caprice for its basis, yet he dares not +wholly ignore that practice while fashion partially maintains it. Though +he thinks that a silk handkerchief is quite as appropriate for +drawing-room use as a white cambric one, he is not altogether at ease in +acting out his opinion. Then, too, he begins to perceive that his +resistance to prescription brings round disadvantageous results which he +had not calculated upon. He had expected that it would save him from a +great deal of social intercourse of a frivolous kind--that it would +offend the fools, but not the sensible people; and so would serve as a +self-acting test by which those worth knowing would be separated from +those not worth knowing. But the fools prove to be so greatly in the +majority that, by offending them, he closes against himself nearly all +the avenues though which the sensible people are to be reached. Thus he +finds, that his nonconformity is frequently misinterpreted; that there +are but few directions in which he dares to carry it consistently out; +that the annoyances and disadvantages which it brings upon him are +greater than he anticipated; and that the chances of his doing any good +are very remote. Hence he gradually loses resolution, and lapses, step +by step, into the ordinary routine of observances. + +Abortive as individual protests thus generally turn out, it may possibly +be that nothing effectual will be done until there arises some organised +resistance to this invisible despotism, by which our modes and habits +are dictated. It may happen, that the government of Manners and Fashion +will be rendered less tyrannical, as the political and religious +governments have been, by some antagonistic union. Alike in Church and +State, men's first emancipations from excess of restriction were +achieved by numbers, bound together by a common creed or a common +political faith. What remained undone while there were but individual +schismatics or rebels, was effected when there came to be many acting in +concert. It is tolerably clear that these earliest instalments of +freedom could not have been obtained in any other way; for so long as +the feeling of personal independence was weak and the rule strong, there +could never have been a sufficient number of separate dissentients to +produce the desired results. Only in these later times, during which the +secular and spiritual controls have been growing less coercive, and the +tendency towards individual liberty greater, has it become possible for +smaller and smaller sects and parties to fight against established +creeds and laws; until now men may safely stand even alone in their +antagonism. + +The failure of individual nonconformity to customs, as above +illustrated, suggests that an analogous series of changes may have to be +gone through in this case also. It is true that the _lex non scripta_ +differs from the _lex scripta_ in this, that, being unwritten, it is +more readily altered; and that it has, from time to time, been quietly +ameliorated. Nevertheless, we shall find that the analogy holds +substantially good. For in this case, as in the others, the essential +revolution is not the substituting of any one set of restraints for any +other, but the limiting or abolishing the authority which prescribes +restraints. Just as the fundamental change inaugurated by the +Reformation was not a superseding of one creed by another, but an +ignoring of the arbiter who before dictated creeds--just as the +fundamental change which Democracy long ago commenced, was not from this +particular law to that, but from the despotism of one to the freedom of +all; so, the parallel change yet to be wrought out in this supplementary +government of which we are treating, is not the replacing of absurd +usages by sensible ones, but the dethronement of that secret, +irresponsible power which now imposes our usages, and the assertion of +the right of all individuals to choose their own usages. In rules of +living, a West-end clique is our Pope; and we are all papists, with but +a mere sprinkling of heretics. On all who decisively rebel, comes down +the penalty of excommunication, with its long catalogue of disagreeable +and, indeed, serious consequences. + +The liberty of the subject asserted in our constitution, and ever on the +increase, has yet to be wrested from this subtler tyranny. The right of +private judgment, which our ancestors wrung from the church, remains to +be claimed from this dictator of our habits. Or, as before said, to free +us from these idolatries and superstitious conformities, there has still +to come a protestanism in social usages. Parallel, therefore, as is the +change to be wrought out, it seems not improbable that it may be wrought +out in an analogous way. That influence which solitary dissentients fail +to gain, and that perseverance which they lack, may come into existence +when they unite. That persecution which the world now visits upon them +from mistaking their nonconformity for ignorance or disrespect, may +diminish when it is seen to result from principle. The penalty which +exclusion now entails may disappear when they become numerous enough to +form visiting circles of their own. And when a successful stand has been +made, and the brunt of the opposition has passed, that large amount of +secret dislike to our observances which now pervades society, may +manifest itself with sufficient power to effect the desired +emancipation. + +Whether such will be the process, time alone can decide. That community +of origin, growth, supremacy, and decadence, which we have found among +all kinds of government, suggests a community in modes of change also. +On the other hand, Nature often performs substantially similar +operations, in ways apparently different. Hence these details can never +be foretold. + + * * * * * + +Meanwhile, let us glance at the conclusions that have been reached. On +the one side, government, originally one, and afterwards subdivided for +the better fulfilment of its function, must be considered as having ever +been, in all its branches--political, religious, and +ceremonial--beneficial; and, indeed, absolutely necessary. On the other +side, government, under all its forms, must be regarded as subserving a +temporary office, made needful by the unfitness of aboriginal humanity +for social life; and the successive diminutions of its coerciveness in +State, in Church, and in Custom, must be looked upon as steps towards +its final disappearance. To complete the conception, there requires to +be borne in mind the third fact, that the genesis, the maintenance, and +the decline of all governments, however named, are alike brought about +by the humanity to be controlled: from which may be drawn the inference +that, on the average, restrictions of every kind cannot last much longer +than they are wanted, and cannot be destroyed much faster than they +ought to be. + +Society, in all its developments, undergoes the process of exuviation. +These old forms which it successively throws off, have all been once +vitally united with it--have severally served as the protective +envelopes within which a higher humanity was being evolved. They are +cast aside only when they become hindrances--only when some inner and +better envelope has been formed; and they bequeath to us all that there +was in them good. The periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws have left +the administration of justice not only uninjured, but purified. Dead and +buried creeds have not carried with them the essential morality they +contained, which still exists, uncontaminated by the sloughs of +superstition. And all that there is of justice and kindness and beauty, +embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette, will live perennially when +the forms themselves have been forgotten. + +[1] _Westminster Review_, April 1854. + +[2] This was written before moustaches and beards had become common. + + + + +ON THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE[1] + + +There has ever prevailed among men a vague notion that scientific +knowledge differs in nature from ordinary knowledge. By the Greeks, with +whom Mathematics--literally _things learnt_--was alone considered as +knowledge proper, the distinction must have been strongly felt; and it +has ever since maintained itself in the general mind. Though, +considering the contrast between the achievements of science and those +of daily unmethodic thinking, it is not surprising that such a +distinction has been assumed; yet it needs but to rise a little above +the common point of view, to see that no such distinction can really +exist: or that at best, it is but a superficial distinction. The same +faculties are employed in both cases; and in both cases their mode of +operation is fundamentally the same. + +If we say that science is organised knowledge, we are met by the truth +that all knowledge is organised in a greater or less degree--that the +commonest actions of the household and the field presuppose facts +colligated, inferences drawn, results expected; and that the general +success of these actions proves the data by which they were guided to +have been correctly put together. If, again, we say that science is +prevision--is a seeing beforehand--is a knowing in what times, places, +combinations, or sequences, specified phenomena will be found; we are +yet obliged to confess that the definition includes much that is utterly +foreign to science in its ordinary acceptation. For example, a child's +knowledge of an apple. This, as far as it goes, consists in previsions. +When a child sees a certain form and colours, it knows that if it puts +out its hand it will have certain impressions of resistance, and +roundness, and smoothness; and if it bites, a certain taste. And +manifestly its general acquaintance with surrounding objects is of like +nature--is made up of facts concerning them, so grouped as that any part +of a group being perceived, the existence of the other facts included in +it is foreseen. + +If, once more, we say that science is _exact_ prevision, we still fail +to establish the supposed difference. Not only do we find that much of +what we call science is not exact, and that some of it, as physiology, +can never become exact; but we find further, that many of the previsions +constituting the common stock alike of wise and ignorant, _are_ exact. +That an unsupported body will fall; that a lighted candle will go out +when immersed in water; that ice will melt when thrown on the +fire--these, and many like predictions relating to the familiar +properties of things have as high a degree of accuracy as predictions +are capable of. It is true that the results predicated are of a very +general character; but it is none the less true that they are rigorously +correct as far as they go: and this is all that is requisite to fulfil +the definition. There is perfect accordance between the anticipated +phenomena and the actual ones; and no more than this can be said of the +highest achievements of the sciences specially characterised as exact. + +Seeing thus that the assumed distinction between scientific knowledge +and common knowledge is not logically justifiable; and yet feeling, as +we must, that however impossible it may be to draw a line between them, +the two are not practically identical; there arises the question--What +is the relationship that exists between them? A partial answer to this +question may be drawn from the illustrations just given. On +reconsidering them, it will be observed that those portions of ordinary +knowledge which are identical in character with scientific knowledge, +comprehend only such combinations of phenomena as are directly +cognisable by the senses, and are of simple, invariable nature. That the +smoke from a fire which she is lighting will ascend, and that the fire +will presently boil water, are previsions which the servant-girl makes +equally well with the most learned physicist; they are equally certain, +equally exact with his; but they are previsions concerning phenomena in +constant and direct relation--phenomena that follow visibly and +immediately after their antecedents--phenomena of which the causation is +neither remote nor obscure--phenomena which may be predicted by the +simplest possible act of reasoning. + +If, now, we pass to the previsions constituting what is commonly known +as science--that an eclipse of the moon will happen at a specified time; +and when a barometer is taken to the top of a mountain of known height, +the mercurial column will descend a stated number of inches; that the +poles of a galvanic battery immersed in water will give off, the one an +inflammable and the other an inflaming gas, in definite ratio--we +perceive that the relations involved are not of a kind habitually +presented to our senses; that they depend, some of them, upon special +combinations of causes; and that in some of them the connection between +antecedents and consequents is established only by an elaborate series +of inferences. The broad distinction, therefore, between the two orders +of knowledge, is not in their nature, but in their remoteness from +perception. + +If we regard the cases in their most general aspect, we see that the +labourer, who, on hearing certain notes in the adjacent hedge, can +describe the particular form and colours of the bird making them; and +the astronomer, who, having calculated a transit of Venus, can delineate +the black spot entering on the sun's disc, as it will appear through the +telescope, at a specified hour; do essentially the same thing. Each +knows that on fulfilling the requisite conditions, he shall have a +preconceived impression--that after a definite series of actions will +come a group of sensations of a foreknown kind. The difference, then, is +not in the fundamental character of the mental acts; or in the +correctness of the previsions accomplished by them; but in the +complexity of the processes required to achieve the previsions. Much of +our commonest knowledge is, as far as it goes, rigorously precise. +Science does not increase this precision; cannot transcend it. What then +does it do? It reduces other knowledge to the same degree of precision. +That certainty which direct perception gives us respecting coexistences +and sequences of the simplest and most accessible kind, science gives us +respecting coexistences and sequences, complex in their dependencies or +inaccessible to immediate observation. In brief, regarded from this +point of view, science may be called _an extension of the perceptions by +means of reasoning_. + +On further considering the matter, however, it will perhaps be felt that +this definition does not express the whole fact--that inseparable as +science may be from common knowledge, and completely as we may fill up +the gap between the simplest previsions of the child and the most +recondite ones of the natural philosopher, by interposing a series of +previsions in which the complexity of reasoning involved is greater and +greater, there is yet a difference between the two beyond that which is +here described. And this is true. But the difference is still not such +as enables us to draw the assumed line of demarcation. It is a +difference not between common knowledge and scientific knowledge; but +between the successive phases of science itself, or knowledge +itself--whichever we choose to call it. In its earlier phases science +attains only to _certainty_ of foreknowledge; in its later phases it +further attains to _completeness_. We begin by discovering _a_ +relation: we end by discovering _the_ relation. Our first achievement is +to foretell the _kind_ of phenomenon which will occur under specific +conditions: our last achievement is to foretell not only the kind but +the _amount_. Or, to reduce the proposition to its most definite +form--undeveloped science is _qualitative_ prevision: developed science +is _quantitative_ prevision. + +This will at once be perceived to express the remaining distinction +between the lower and the higher stages of positive knowledge. The +prediction that a piece of lead will take more force to lift it than a +piece of wood of equal size, exhibits certainty, but not completeness, +of foresight. The kind of effect in which the one body will exceed the +other is foreseen; but not the amount by which it will exceed. There is +qualitative prevision only. On the other hand, the prediction that at a +stated time two particular planets will be in conjunction; that by means +of a lever having arms in a given ratio, a known force will raise just +so many pounds; that to decompose a specified quantity of sulphate of +iron by carbonate of soda will require so many grains--these predictions +exhibit foreknowledge, not only of the nature of the effects to be +produced, but of the magnitude, either of the effects themselves, of the +agencies producing them, or of the distance in time or space at which +they will be produced. There is not only qualitative but quantitative +prevision. + +And this is the unexpressed difference which leads us to consider +certain orders of knowledge as especially scientific when contrasted +with knowledge in general. Are the phenomena _measurable_? is the test +which we unconsciously employ. Space is measurable: hence Geometry. +Force and space are measureable: hence Statics. Time, force, and space +are measureable: hence Dynamics. The invention of the barometer enabled +men to extend the principles of mechanics to the atmosphere; and +Aerostatics existed. When a thermometer was devised there arose a +science of heat, which was before impossible. Such of our sensations as +we have not yet found modes of measuring do not originate sciences. We +have no science of smells; nor have we one of tastes. We have a science +of the relations of sounds differing in pitch, because we have +discovered a way to measure them; but we have no science of sounds in +respect to their loudness or their _timbre_, because we have got no +measures of loudness and _timbre_. + +Obviously it is this reduction of the sensible phenomena it represents, +to relations of magnitude, which gives to any division of knowledge its +especially scientific character. Originally men's knowledge of weights +and forces was in the same condition as their knowledge of smells and +tastes is now--a knowledge not extending beyond that given by the +unaided sensations; and it remained so until weighing instruments and +dynamometers were invented. Before there were hour-glasses and +clepsydras, most phenomena could be estimated as to their durations and +intervals, with no greater precision than degrees of hardness can be +estimated by the fingers. Until a thermometric scale was contrived, +men's judgments respecting relative amounts of heat stood on the same +footing with their present judgments respecting relative amounts of +sound. And as in these initial stages, with no aids to observation, only +the roughest comparisons of cases could be made, and only the most +marked differences perceived; it is obvious that only the most simple +laws of dependence could be ascertained--only those laws which, being +uncomplicated with others, and not disturbed in their manifestations, +required no niceties of observation to disentangle them. Whence it +appears not only that in proportion as knowledge becomes quantitative do +its previsions become complete as well as certain, but that until its +assumption of a quantitative character it is necessarily confined to the +most elementary relations. + +Moreover it is to be remarked that while, on the one hand, we can +discover the laws of the greater proportion of phenomena only by +investigating them quantitatively; on the other hand we can extend the +range of our quantitative previsions only as fast as we detect the laws +of the results we predict. For clearly the ability to specify the +magnitude of a result inaccessible to direct measurement, implies +knowledge of its mode of dependence on something which can be +measured--implies that we know the particular fact dealt with to be an +instance of some more general fact. Thus the extent to which our +quantitative previsions have been carried in any direction, indicates +the depth to which our knowledge reaches in that direction. And here, as +another aspect of the same fact, we may further observe that as we pass +from qualitative to quantitative prevision, we pass from inductive +science to deductive science. Science while purely inductive is purely +qualitative: when inaccurately quantitative it usually consists of part +induction, part deduction: and it becomes accurately quantitative only +when wholly deductive. We do not mean that the deductive and the +quantitative are coextensive; for there is manifestly much deduction +that is qualitative only. We mean that all quantitative prevision is +reached deductively; and that induction can achieve only qualitative +prevision. + +Still, however, it must not be supposed that these distinctions enable +us to separate ordinary knowledge from science, much as they seem to do +so. While they show in what consists the broad contrast between the +extreme forms of the two, they yet lead us to recognise their essential +identity; and once more prove the difference to be one of degree only. +For, on the one hand, the commonest positive knowledge is to some extent +quantitative; seeing that the amount of the foreseen result is known +within certain wide limits. And, on the other hand, the highest +quantitative prevision does not reach the exact truth, but only a very +near approximation to it. Without clocks the savage knows that the day +is longer in the summer than in the winter; without scales he knows that +stone is heavier than flesh: that is, he can foresee respecting certain +results that their amounts will exceed these, and be less than those--he +knows _about_ what they will be. And, with his most delicate instruments +and most elaborate calculations, all that the man of science can do, is +to reduce the difference between the foreseen and the actual results to +an unimportant quantity. + +Moreover, it must be borne in mind not only that all the sciences are +qualitative in their first stages,--not only that some of them, as +Chemistry, have but recently reached the quantitative stage--but that +the most advanced sciences have attained to their present power of +determining quantities not present to the senses, or not directly +measurable, by a slow process of improvement extending through thousands +of years. So that science and the knowledge of the uncultured are alike +in the nature of their previsions, widely as they differ in range; they +possess a common imperfection, though this is immensely greater in the +last than in the first; and the transition from the one to the other has +been through a series of steps by which the imperfection has been +rendered continually less, and the range continually wider. + +These facts, that science and the positive knowledge of the uncultured +cannot be separated in nature, and that the one is but a perfected and +extended form of the other, must necessarily underlie the whole theory +of science, its progress, and the relations of its parts to each other. +There must be serious incompleteness in any history of the sciences, +which, leaving out of view the first steps of their genesis, commences +with them only when they assume definite forms. There must be grave +defects, if not a general untruth, in a philosophy of the sciences +considered in their interdependence and development, which neglects the +inquiry how they came to be distinct sciences, and how they were +severally evolved out of the chaos of primitive ideas. + +Not only a direct consideration of the matter, but all analogy, goes to +show that in the earlier and simpler stages must be sought the key to +all subsequent intricacies. The time was when the anatomy and physiology +of the human being were studied by themselves--when the adult man was +analysed and the relations of parts and of functions investigated, +without reference either to the relations exhibited in the embryo or to +the homologous relations existing in other creatures. Now, however, it +has become manifest that no true conceptions, no true generalisations, +are possible under such conditions. Anatomists and physiologists now +find that the real natures of organs and tissues can be ascertained only +by tracing their early evolution; and that the affinities between +existing genera can be satisfactorily made out only by examining the +fossil genera to which they are allied. Well, is it not clear that the +like must be true concerning all things that undergo development? Is not +science a growth? Has not science, too, its embryology? And must not the +neglect of its embryology lead to a misunderstanding of the principles +of its evolution and of its existing organisation? + +There are _à priori_ reasons, therefore, for doubting the truth of all +philosophies of the sciences which tacitly proceed upon the common +notion that scientific knowledge and ordinary knowledge are separate; +instead of commencing, as they should, by affiliating the one upon the +other, and showing how it gradually came to be distinguishable from the +other. We may expect to find their generalisations essentially +artificial; and we shall not be deceived. Some illustrations of this may +here be fitly introduced, by way of preliminary to a brief sketch of the +genesis of science from the point of view indicated. And we cannot more +readily find such illustrations than by glancing at a few of the various +_classifications_ of the sciences that have from time to time been +proposed. To consider all of them would take too much space: we must +content ourselves with some of the latest. + + * * * * * + +Commencing with those which may be soonest disposed of, let us notice +first the arrangement propounded by Oken. An abstract of it runs +thus:-- + + Part I. MATHESIS.--_Pneumatogeny_: Primary Art, Primary + Consciousness, God, Primary Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, + Man, Space, Point. Line, Surface, Globe, + Rotation.--_Hylogeny_: Gravity, Matter, Ether, Heavenly + Bodies, Light, Heat, Fire. + + (He explains that MATHESIS is the doctrine of the whole; + _Pneumatogeny_ being the doctrine of immaterial totalities, and + _Hylogeny_ that of material totalities.) + + Part II. ONTOLOGY.--_Cosmogeny_: Rest, Centre, Motion, Line, + Planets, Form, Planetary System, Comets.--_Stöchiogeny_: + Condensation, Simple Matter, Elements, Air, Water, + Earth--_Stöchiology_: Functions of the Elements, etc., + etc.--_Kingdoms of Nature_: Individuals. + + (He says in explanation that "ONTOLOGY teaches us the phenomena + of matter. The first of these are the heavenly bodies + comprehended by _Cosmogeny_. These divide into + elements--_Stöchiogeny_. The earth element divides into + minerals--_Mineralogy_. These unite into one collective + body--_Geogeny_. The whole in singulars is the living, or + _Organic_, which again divides into plants and animals. + _Biology_, therefore, divides into _Organogeny_, _Phytosophy_, + _Zoosophy_.") + + FIRST KINGDOM.--MINERALS. _Mineralogy_, _Geology_. + + Part III. BIOLOGY.--_Organosophy_, _Phytogeny_, _Phyto-physiology_, + _Phytology_, _Zoogeny_, _Physiology_, _Zoology_, + _Psychology_. + +A glance over this confused scheme shows that it is an attempt to +classify knowledge, not after the order in which it has been, or may be, +built up in the human consciousness; but after an assumed order of +creation. It is a pseudo-scientific cosmogony, akin to those which men +have enunciated from the earliest times downwards; and only a little +more respectable. As such it will not be thought worthy of much +consideration by those who, like ourselves, hold that experience is the +sole origin of knowledge. Otherwise, it might have been needful to dwell +on the incongruities of the arrangements--to ask how motion can be +treated of before space? how there can be rotation without matter to +rotate? how polarity can be dealt with without involving points and +lines? But it will serve our present purpose just to point out a few of +the extreme absurdities resulting from the doctrine which Oken seems to +hold in common with Hegel, that "to philosophise on Nature is to +re-think the great thought of Creation." Here is a sample:-- + +"Mathematics is the universal science; so also is Physio-philosophy, +although it is only a part, or rather but a condition of the universe; +both are one, or mutually congruent. + +"Mathematics is, however, a science of mere forms without substance. +Physio-philosophy is, therefore, _mathematics endowed with substance_." + +From the English point of view it is sufficiently amusing to find such a +dogma not only gravely stated, but stated as an unquestionable truth. +Here we see the experiences of quantitative relations which men have +gathered from surrounding bodies and generalised (experiences which had +been scarcely at all generalised at the beginning of the historic +period)--we find these generalised experiences, these intellectual +abstractions, elevated into concrete actualities, projected back into +Nature, and considered as the internal framework of things--the skeleton +by which matter is sustained. But this new form of the old realism is by +no means the most startling of the physio-philosophic principles. We +presently read that, + +"The highest mathematical idea, or the fundamental principle of all +mathematics is the zero = 0.".... + +"Zero is in itself nothing. Mathematics is based upon nothing, and, +_consequently_, arises out of nothing. + +"Out of nothing, _therefore_, it is possible for something to arise; for +mathematics, consisting of propositions, is something, in relation to +0." + +By such "consequentlys" and "therefores" it is, that men philosophise +when they "re-think the great thought of Creation." By dogmas that +pretend to be reasons, nothing is made to generate mathematics; and by +clothing mathematics with matter, we have the universe! If now we deny, +as we _do_ deny, that the highest mathematical idea is the zero;--if, on +the other hand, we assert, as we _do_ assert, that the fundamental idea +underlying all mathematics, is that of equality; the whole of Oken's +cosmogony disappears. And here, indeed, we may see illustrated, the +distinctive peculiarity of the German method of procedure in these +matters--the bastard _à priori_ method, as it may be termed. The +legitimate _à priori_ method sets out with propositions of which the +negation is inconceivable; the _à priori_ method as illegitimately +applied, sets out either with propositions of which the negation is +_not_ inconceivable, or with propositions like Oken's, of which the +_affirmation_ is inconceivable. + +It is needless to proceed further with the analysis; else might we +detail the steps by which Oken arrives at the conclusions that "the +planets are coagulated colours, for they are coagulated light; that the +sphere is the expanded nothing;" that gravity is "a weighty nothing, a +heavy essence, striving towards a centre;" that "the earth is the +identical, water the indifferent, air the different; or the first the +centre, the second the radius, the last the periphery of the general +globe or of fire." To comment on them would be nearly as absurd as are +the propositions themselves. Let us pass on to another of the German +systems of knowledge--that of Hegel. + +The simple fact that Hegel puts Jacob Boehme on a par with Bacon, +suffices alone to show that his standpoint is far remote from the one +usually regarded as scientific: so far remote, indeed, that it is not +easy to find any common basis on which to found a criticism. Those who +hold that the mind is moulded into conformity with surrounding things by +the agency of surrounding things, are necessarily at a loss how to deal +with those, who, like Schelling and Hegel, assert that surrounding +things are solidified mind--that Nature is "petrified intelligence." +However, let us briefly glance at Hegel's classification. He divides +philosophy into three parts:-- + +1. _Logic_, or the science of the idea in itself, the pure idea. + +2. _The Philosophy of Nature_, or the science of the idea considered +under its other form--of the idea as Nature. + +3. _The Philosophy of the Mind_, or the science of the idea in its +return to itself. + +Of these, the second is divided into the natural sciences, commonly so +called; so that in its more detailed form the series runs thus:--Logic, +Mechanics, Physics, Organic Physics, Psychology. + +Now, if we believe with Hegel, first, that thought is the true essence +of man; second, that thought is the essence of the world; and that, +therefore, there is nothing but thought; his classification, beginning +with the science of pure thought, may be acceptable. But otherwise, it +is an obvious objection to his arrangement, that thought implies things +thought of--that there can be no logical forms without the substance of +experience--that the science of ideas and the science of things must +have a simultaneous origin. Hegel, however, anticipates this objection, +and, in his obstinate idealism, replies, that the contrary is true; that +all contained in the forms, to become something, requires to be thought: +and that logical forms are the foundations of all things. + +It is not surprising that, starting from such premises, and reasoning +after this fashion, Hegel finds his way to strange conclusions. Out of +_space_ and _time_ he proceeds to build up _motion_, _matter_, +_repulsion_, _attraction_, _weight_, and _inertia_. He then goes on to +logically evolve the solar system. In doing this he widely diverges +from the Newtonian theory; reaches by syllogism the conviction that the +planets are the most perfect celestial bodies; and, not being able to +bring the stars within his theory, says that they are mere formal +existences and not living matter, and that as compared with the solar +system they are as little admirable as a cutaneous eruption or a swarm +of flies.[2] + +Results so outrageous might be left as self-disproved, were it not that +speculators of this class are not alarmed by any amount of incongruity +with established beliefs. The only efficient mode of treating systems +like this of Hegel, is to show that they are self-destructive--that by +their first steps they ignore that authority on which all their +subsequent steps depend. If Hegel professes, as he manifestly does, to +develop his scheme by reasoning--if he presents successive inferences as +_necessarily following_ from certain premises; he implies the postulate +that a belief which necessarily follows after certain antecedents is a +true belief: and, did an opponent reply to one of his inferences, that, +though it was impossible to think the opposite, yet the opposite was +true, he would consider the reply irrational. The procedure, however, +which he would thus condemn as destructive of all thinking whatever, is +just the procedure exhibited in the enunciation of his own first +principles. + +Mankind find themselves unable to conceive that there can be thought +without things thought of. Hegel, however, asserts that there _can_ be +thought without things thought of. That ultimate test of a true +proposition--the inability of the human mind to conceive the negation of +it--which in all other cases he considers valid, he considers invalid +where it suits his convenience to do so; and yet at the same time denies +the right of an opponent to follow his example. If it is competent for +him to posit dogmas, which are the direct negations of what human +consciousness recognises; then is it also competent for his antagonists +to stop him at every step in his argument by saying, that though the +particular inference he is drawing seems to his mind, and to all minds, +necessarily to follow from the premises, yet it is not true, but the +contrary inference is true. Or, to state the dilemma in another +form:--If he sets out with inconceivable propositions, then may he with +equal propriety make all his succeeding propositions inconceivable +ones--may at every step throughout his reasoning draw exactly the +opposite conclusion to that which seems involved. + +Hegel's mode of procedure being thus essentially suicidal, the Hegelian +classification which depends upon it falls to the ground. Let us +consider next that of M. Comte. + +As all his readers must admit, M. Comte presents us with a scheme of the +sciences which, unlike the foregoing ones, demands respectful +consideration. Widely as we differ from him, we cheerfully bear witness +to the largeness of his views, the clearness of his reasoning, and the +value of his speculations as contributing to intellectual progress. Did +we believe a serial arrangement of the sciences to be possible, that of +M. Comte would certainly be the one we should adopt. His fundamental +propositions are thoroughly intelligible; and if not true, have a great +semblance of truth. His successive steps are logically co-ordinated; and +he supports his conclusions by a considerable amount of +evidence--evidence which, so long as it is not critically examined, or +not met by counter evidence, seems to substantiate his positions. But it +only needs to assume that antagonistic attitude which _ought_ to be +assumed towards new doctrines, in the belief that, if true, they will +prosper by conquering objectors--it needs but to test his leading +doctrines either by other facts than those he cites, or by his own facts +differently applied, to at once show that they will not stand. We will +proceed thus to deal with the general principle on which he bases his +hierarchy of the sciences. + +In the second chapter of his _Cours de Philosophic Positive_, M. Comte +says:--"Our problem is, then, to find the one _rational_ order, amongst +a host of possible systems." ... "This order is determined by the degree +of simplicity, or, what comes to the same thing, of generality of their +phenomena." And the arrangement he deduces runs thus: _Mathematics_, +_Astronomy_, _Physics_, _Chemistry_, _Physiology_, _Social Physics_. +This he asserts to be "the true _filiation_ of the sciences." He asserts +further, that the principle of progression from a greater to a less +degree of generality, "which gives this order to the whole body of +science, arranges the parts of each science." And, finally, he asserts +that the gradations thus established _à priori_ among the sciences, and +the parts of each science, "is in essential conformity with the order +which has spontaneously taken place among the branches of natural +philosophy;" or, in other words--corresponds with the order of historic +development. + +Let us compare these assertions with the facts. That there may be +perfect fairness, let us make no choice, but take as the field for our +comparison, the succeeding section treating of the first +science--Mathematics; and let us use none but M. Comte's own facts, and +his own admissions. Confining ourselves to this one science, of course +our comparisons must be between its several parts. M. Comte says, that +the parts of each science must be arranged in the order of their +decreasing generality; and that this order of decreasing generality +agrees with the order of historical development. Our inquiry must be, +then, whether the history of mathematics confirms this statement. + +Carrying out his principle, M. Comte divides Mathematics into "Abstract +Mathematics, or the Calculus (taking the word in its most extended +sense) and Concrete Mathematics, which is composed of General Geometry +and of Rational Mechanics." The subject-matter of the first of these is +_number_; the subject-matter of the second includes _space_, _time_, +_motion_, _force_. The one possesses the highest possible degree of +generality; for all things whatever admit of enumeration. The others are +less general; seeing that there are endless phenomena that are not +cognisable either by general geometry or rational mechanics. In +conformity with the alleged law, therefore, the evolution of the +calculus must throughout have preceded the evolution of the concrete +sub-sciences. Now somewhat awkwardly for him, the first remark M. Comte +makes bearing upon this point is, that "from an historical point of +view, mathematical analysis _appears to have risen out of_ the +contemplation of geometrical and mechanical facts." True, he goes on to +say that, "it is not the less independent of these sciences logically +speaking;" for that "analytical ideas are, above all others, universal, +abstract, and simple; and geometrical conceptions are necessarily +founded on them." + +We will not take advantage of this last passage to charge M. Comte with +teaching, after the fashion of Hegel, that there can be thought without +things thought of. We are content simply to compare the two assertions, +that analysis arose out of the contemplation of geometrical and +mechanical facts, and that geometrical conceptions are founded upon +analytical ones. Literally interpreted they exactly cancel each other. +Interpreted, however, in a liberal sense, they imply, what we believe to +be demonstrable, that the two had _a simultaneous origin_. The passage +is either nonsense, or it is an admission that abstract and concrete +mathematics are coeval. Thus, at the very first step, the alleged +congruity between the order of generality and the order of evolution +does not hold good. + +But may it not be that though abstract and concrete mathematics took +their rise at the same time, the one afterwards developed more rapidly +than the other; and has ever since remained in advance of it? No: and +again we call M. Comte himself as witness. Fortunately for his argument +he has said nothing respecting the early stages of the concrete and +abstract divisions after their divergence from a common root; otherwise +the advent of Algebra long after the Greek geometry had reached a high +development, would have been an inconvenient fact for him to deal with. +But passing over this, and limiting ourselves to his own statements, we +find, at the opening of the next chapter, the admission, that "the +historical development of the abstract portion of mathematical science +has, since the time of Descartes, been for the most part _determined_ by +that of the concrete." Further on we read respecting algebraic functions +that "most functions were concrete in their origin--even those which are +at present the most purely abstract; and the ancients discovered only +through geometrical definitions elementary algebraic properties of +functions to which a numerical value was not attached till long +afterwards, rendering abstract to us what was concrete to the old +geometers." How do these statements tally with his doctrine? Again, +having divided the calculus into algebraic and arithmetical, M. Comte +admits, as perforce he must, that the algebraic is more general than the +arithmetical; yet he will not say that algebra preceded arithmetic in +point of time. And again, having divided the calculus of functions into +the calculus of direct functions (common algebra) and the calculus of +indirect functions (transcendental analysis), he is obliged to speak of +this last as possessing a higher generality than the first; yet it is +far more modern. Indeed, by implication, M. Comte himself confesses this +incongruity; for he says:--"It might seem that the transcendental +analysis ought to be studied before the ordinary, as it provides the +equations which the other has to resolve; but though the transcendental +_is logically independent of the ordinary_, it is best to follow the +usual method of study, taking the ordinary first." In all these cases, +then, as well as at the close of the section where he predicts that +mathematicians will in time "create procedures of _a wider generality_", +M. Comte makes admissions that are diametrically opposed to the alleged +law. + +In the succeeding chapters treating of the concrete department of +mathematics, we find similar contradictions M. Comte himself names the +geometry of the ancients _special_ geometry, and that of moderns the +_general_ geometry. He admits that while "the ancients studied geometry +with reference to the bodies under notice, or specially; the moderns +study it with reference to the _phenomena_ to be considered, or +generally." He admits that while "the ancients extracted all they could +out of one line or surface before passing to another," "the moderns, +since Descartes, employ themselves on questions which relate to any +figure whatever." These facts are the reverse of what, according to his +theory, they should be. So, too, in mechanics. Before dividing it into +statics and dynamics, M. Comte treats of the three laws of _motion_, and +is obliged to do so; for statics, the more _general_ of the two +divisions, though it does not involve motion, is impossible as a science +until the laws of motion are ascertained. Yet the laws of motion pertain +to dynamics, the more _special_ of the divisions. Further on he points +out that after Archimedes, who discovered the law of equilibrium of the +lever, statics made no progress until the establishment of dynamics +enabled us to seek "the conditions of equilibrium through the laws of +the composition of forces." And he adds--"At this day _this is the +method universally employed_. At the first glance it does not appear the +most rational--dynamics being more complicated than statics, and +precedence being natural to the simpler. It would, in fact, be more +philosophical to refer dynamics to statics, as has since been done." +Sundry discoveries are afterwards detailed, showing how completely the +development of statics has been achieved by considering its problems +dynamically; and before the close of the section M. Comte remarks that +"before hydrostatics could be comprehended under statics, it was +necessary that the abstract theory of equilibrium should be made so +general as to apply directly to fluids as well as solids. This was +accomplished when Lagrange supplied, as the basis of the whole of +rational mechanics, the single principle of virtual velocities." In +which statement we have two facts directly at variance: with M. Comte's +doctrine; first, that the simpler science, statics, reached its present +development only by the aid of the principle of virtual velocities, +which belongs to the more complex science, dynamics; and that this +"single principle" underlying all rational mechanics--this _most +general form_ which includes alike the relations of statical, +hydro-statical, and dynamical forces--was reached so late as the time of +Lagrange. + +Thus it is _not_ true that the historical succession of the divisions of +mathematics has corresponded with the order of decreasing generality. It +is _not_ true that abstract mathematics was evolved antecedently to, +and independently of concrete mathematics. It is _not_ true that of the +subdivisions of abstract mathematics, the more general came before the +more special. And it is _not_ true that concrete mathematics, in either +of its two sections, began with the most abstract and advanced to the +less abstract truths. + +It may be well to mention, parenthetically, that in defending his +alleged law of progression from the general to the special, M. Comte +somewhere comments upon the two meanings of the word _general_, and the +resulting liability to confusion. Without now discussing whether the +asserted distinction can be maintained in other cases, it is manifest +that it does not exist here. In sundry of the instances above quoted, +the endeavours made by M. Comte himself to disguise, or to explain away, +the precedence of the special over the general, clearly indicate that +the generality spoken of is of the kind meant by his formula. And it +needs but a brief consideration of the matter to show that, even did he +attempt it, he could not distinguish this generality, which, as above +proved, frequently comes last, from the generality which he says always +comes first. For what is the nature of that mental process by which +objects, dimensions, weights, times, and the rest, are found capable of +having their relations expressed numerically? It is the formation of +certain abstract conceptions of unity, duality and multiplicity, which +are applicable to all things alike. It is the invention of general +symbols serving to express the numerical relations of entities, whatever +be their special characters. And what is the nature of the mental +process by which numbers are found capable of having their relations +expressed algebraically? It is just the same. It is the formation of +certain abstract conceptions of numerical functions which are the same +whatever be the magnitudes of the numbers. It is the invention of +general symbols serving to express the relations between numbers, as +numbers express the relations between things. And transcendental +analysis stands to algebra in the same position that algebra stands in +to arithmetic. + +To briefly illustrate their respective powers--arithmetic can express in +one formula the value of a _particular_ tangent to a _particular_ curve; +algebra can express in one formula the values of _all_ tangents to a +_particular_ curve; transcendental analysis can express in one formula +the values of _all_ tangents to _all_ curves. Just as arithmetic deals +with the common properties of lines, areas, bulks, forces, periods; so +does algebra deal with the common properties of the numbers which +arithmetic presents; so does transcendental analysis deal with the +common properties of the equations exhibited by algebra. Thus, the +generality of the higher branches of the calculus, when compared with +the lower, is the same kind of generality as that of the lower branches +when compared with geometry or mechanics. And on examination it will be +found that the like relation exists in the various other cases above +given. + +Having shown that M. Comte's alleged law of progression does not hold +among the several parts of the same science, let us see how it agrees +with the facts when applied to separate sciences. "Astronomy," says M. +Comte, at the opening of Book III., "was a positive science, in its +geometrical aspect, from the earliest days of the school of Alexandria; +but Physics, which we are now to consider, had no positive character at +all till Galileo made his great discoveries on the fall of heavy +bodies." On this, our comment is simply that it is a misrepresentation +based upon an arbitrary misuse of words--a mere verbal artifice. By +choosing to exclude from terrestrial physics those laws of magnitude, +motion, and position, which he includes in celestial physics, M. Comte +makes it appear that the one owes nothing to the other. Not only is this +altogether unwarrantable, but it is radically inconsistent with his own +scheme of divisions. At the outset he says--and as the point is +important we quote from the original--"Pour la _physique inorganique_ +nous voyons d'abord, en nous conformant toujours a l'ordre de généralité +et de dépendance des phénomènes, qu'elle doit être partagée en deux +sections distinctes, suivant qu'elle considère les phénomènes généraux +de l'univers, ou, en particulier, ceux que présentent les corps +terrestres. D'où la physique céleste, ou l'astronomie, soit géométrique, +soit mechanique; et la physique terrestre." + +Here then we have _inorganic physics_ clearly divided into _celestial +physics_ and _terrestrial physics_--the phenomena presented by the +universe, and the phenomena presented by earthly bodies. If now +celestial bodies and terrestrial bodies exhibit sundry leading phenomena +in common, as they do, how can the generalisation of these common +phenomena be considered as pertaining to the one class rather than to +the other? If inorganic physics includes geometry (which M. Comte has +made it do by comprehending _geometrical_ astronomy in its +sub-section--celestial physics); and if its sub-section--terrestrial +physics, treats of things having geometrical properties; how can the +laws of geometrical relations be excluded from terrestrial physics? +Clearly if celestial physics includes the geometry of objects in the +heavens, terrestrial physics includes the geometry of objects on the +earth. And if terrestrial physics includes terrestrial geometry, while +celestial physics includes celestial geometry, then the geometrical part +of terrestrial physics precedes the geometrical part of celestial +physics; seeing that geometry gained its first ideas from surrounding +objects. Until men had learnt geometrical relations from bodies on the +earth, it was impossible for them to understand the geometrical +relations of bodies in the heavens. + +So, too, with celestial mechanics, which had terrestrial mechanics for +its parent. The very conception of _force_, which underlies the whole of +mechanical astronomy, is borrowed from our earthly experiences; and the +leading laws of mechanical action as exhibited in scales, levers, +projectiles, etc., had to be ascertained before the dynamics of the +solar system could be entered upon. What were the laws made use of by +Newton in working out his grand discovery? The law of falling bodies +disclosed by Galileo; that of the composition of forces also disclosed +by Galileo; and that of centrifugal force found out by Huyghens--all of +them generalisations of terrestrial physics. Yet, with facts like these +before him, M. Comte places astronomy before physics in order of +evolution! He does not compare the geometrical parts of the two +together, and the mechanical parts of the two together; for this would +by no means suit his hypothesis. But he compares the geometrical part of +the one with the mechanical part of the other, and so gives a semblance +of truth to his position. He is led away by a verbal delusion. Had he +confined his attention to the things and disregarded the words, he would +have seen that before mankind scientifically co-ordinated _any one class +of phenomena_ displayed in the heavens, they had previously co-ordinated +_a parallel class of phenomena_ displayed upon the surface of the earth. + +Were it needful we could fill a score pages with the incongruities of M. +Comte's scheme. But the foregoing samples will suffice. So far is his +law of evolution of the sciences from being tenable, that, by following +his example, and arbitrarily ignoring one class of facts, it would be +possible to present, with great plausibility, just the opposite +generalisation to that which he enunciates. While he asserts that the +rational order of the sciences, like the order of their historic +development, "is determined by the degree of simplicity, or, what comes +to the same thing, of generality of their phenomena;" it might +contrariwise be asserted, that, commencing with the complex and the +special, mankind have progressed step by step to a knowledge of greater +simplicity and wider generality. So much evidence is there of this as to +have drawn from Whewell, in his _History of the Inductive Sciences_, the +general remark that "the reader has already seen repeatedly in the +course of this history, complex and derivative principles presenting +themselves to men's minds before simple and elementary ones." + +Even from M. Comte's own work, numerous facts, admissions, and +arguments, might be picked out, tending to show this. We have already +quoted his words in proof that both abstract and concrete mathematics +have progressed towards a higher degree of generality, and that he looks +forward to a higher generality still. Just to strengthen this adverse +hypothesis, let us take a further instance. From the _particular_ case +of the scales, the law of equilibrium of which was familiar to the +earliest nations known, Archimedes advanced to the more _general_ case +of the unequal lever with unequal weights; the law of equilibrium of +which _includes_ that of the scales. By the help of Galileo's discovery +concerning the composition of forces, D'Alembert "established, for the +first time, the equations of equilibrium of _any_ system of forces +applied to the different points of a solid body"--equations which +include all cases of levers and an infinity of cases besides. Clearly +this is progress towards a higher generality--towards a knowledge more +independent of special circumstances--towards a study of phenomena "the +most disengaged from the incidents of particular cases;" which is M. +Comte's definition of "the most simple phenomena." Does it not indeed +follow from the familiarly admitted fact, that mental advance is from +the concrete to the abstract, from the particular to the general, that +the universal and therefore most simple truths are the last to be +discovered? Is not the government of the solar system by a force varying +inversely as the square of the distance, a simpler conception than any +that preceded it? Should we ever succeed in reducing all orders of +phenomena to some single law--say of atomic action, as M. Comte +suggests--must not that law answer to his test of being _independent_ of +all others, and therefore most simple? And would not such a law +generalise the phenomena of gravity, cohesion, atomic affinity, and +electric repulsion, just as the laws of number generalise the +quantitative phenomena of space, time, and force? + +The possibility of saying so much in support of an hypothesis the very +reverse of M. Comte's, at once proves that his generalisation is only a +half-truth. The fact is, that neither proposition is correct by itself; +and the actuality is expressed only by putting the two together. The +progress of science is duplex: it is at once from the special to the +general, and from the general to the special: it is analytical and +synthetical at the same time. + +M. Comte himself observes that the evolution of science has been +accomplished by the division of labour; but he quite misstates the mode +in which this division of labour has operated. As he describes it, it +has simply been an arrangement of phenomena into classes, and the study +of each class by itself. He does not recognise the constant effect of +progress in each class upon _all_ other classes; but only on the class +succeeding it in his hierarchical scale. Or if he occasionally admits +collateral influences and intercommunications, he does it so grudgingly, +and so quickly puts the admissions out of sight and forgets them, as to +leave the impression that, with but trifling exceptions, the sciences +aid each other only in the order of their alleged succession. The fact +is, however, that the division of labour in science, like the division +of labour in society, and like the "physiological division of labour" in +individual organisms, has been not only a specialisation of functions, +but a continuous helping of each division by all the others, and of all +by each. Every particular class of inquirers has, as it were, secreted +its own particular order of truths from the general mass of material +which observation accumulates; and all other classes of inquirers have +made use of these truths as fast as they were elaborated, with the +effect of enabling them the better to elaborate each its own order of +truths. + +It was thus in sundry of the cases we have quoted as at variance with M. +Comte's doctrine. It was thus with the application of Huyghens's optical +discovery to astronomical observation by Galileo. It was thus with the +application of the isochronism of the pendulum to the making of +instruments for measuring intervals, astronomical and other. It was thus +when the discovery that the refraction and dispersion of light did not +follow the same law of variation, affected both astronomy and physiology +by giving us achromatic telescopes and microscopes. It was thus when +Bradley's discovery of the aberration of light enabled him to make the +first step towards ascertaining the motions of the stars. It was thus +when Cavendish's torsion-balance experiment determined the specific +gravity of the earth, and so gave a datum for calculating the specific +gravities of the sun and planets. It was thus when tables of +atmospheric refraction enabled observers to write down the real places +of the heavenly bodies instead of their apparent places. It was thus +when the discovery of the different expansibilities of metals by heat, +gave us the means of correcting our chronometrical measurements of +astronomical periods. It was thus when the lines of the prismatic +spectrum were used to distinguish the heavenly bodies that are of like +nature with the sun from those which are not. It was thus when, as +recently, an electro-telegraphic instrument was invented for the more +accurate registration of meridional transits. It was thus when the +difference in the rates of a clock at the equator, and nearer the poles, +gave data for calculating the oblateness of the earth, and accounting +for the precession of the equinoxes. It was thus--but it is needless to +continue. + +Here, within our own limited knowledge of its history, we have named ten +additional cases in which the single science of astronomy has owed its +advance to sciences coming _after_ it in M. Comte's series. Not only its +secondary steps, but its greatest revolutions have been thus determined. +Kepler could not have discovered his celebrated laws had it not been for +Tycho Brahe's accurate observations; and it was only after some progress +in physical and chemical science that the improved instruments with +which those observations were made, became possible. The heliocentric +theory of the solar system had to wait until the invention of the +telescope before it could be finally established. Nay, even the grand +discovery of all--the law of gravitation--depended for its proof upon an +operation of physical science, the measurement of a degree on the +Earth's surface. So completely indeed did it thus depend, that Newton +_had actually abandoned his hypothesis_ because the length of a degree, +as then stated, brought out wrong results; and it was only after +Picart's more exact measurement was published, that he returned to his +calculations and proved his great generalisation. Now this constant +intercommunion, which, for brevity's sake, we have illustrated in the +case of one science only, has been taking place with all the sciences. +Throughout the whole course of their evolution there has been a +continuous _consensus_ of the sciences--a _consensus_ exhibiting a +general correspondence with the _consensus_ of faculties in each phase +of mental development; the one being an objective registry of the +subjective state of the other. + +From our present point of view, then, it becomes obvious that the +conception of a _serial_ arrangement of the sciences is a vicious one. +It is not simply that the schemes we have examined are untenable; but it +is that the sciences cannot be rightly placed in any linear order +whatever. It is not simply that, as M. Comte admits, a classification +"will always involve something, if not arbitrary, at least artificial;" +it is not, as he would have us believe, that, neglecting minor +imperfections a classification may be substantially true; but it is that +any grouping of the sciences in a succession gives a radically erroneous +idea of their genesis and their dependencies. There is no "one +_rational_ order among a host of possible systems." There is no "true +_filiation_ of the sciences." The whole hypothesis is fundamentally +false. Indeed, it needs but a glance at its origin to see at once how +baseless it is. Why a _series_? What reason have we to suppose that the +sciences admit of a _linear_ arrangement? Where is our warrant for +assuming that there is some _succession_ in which they can be placed? +There is no reason; no warrant. Whence then has arisen the supposition? +To use M. Comte's own phraseology, we should say, it is a metaphysical +conception. It adds another to the cases constantly occurring, of the +human mind being made the measure of Nature. We are obliged to think in +sequence; it is the law of our minds that we must consider subjects +separately, one after another: _therefore_ Nature must be +serial--_therefore_ the sciences must be classifiable in a succession. +See here the birth of the notion, and the sole evidence of its truth. +Men have been obliged when arranging in books their schemes of education +and systems of knowledge, to choose _some_ order or other. And from +inquiring what is the best order, have naturally fallen into the belief +that there is an order which truly represents the facts--have persevered +in seeking such an order; quite overlooking the previous question +whether it is likely that Nature has consulted the convenience of +book-making. + +For German philosophers, who hold that Nature is "petrified +intelligence," and that logical forms are the foundations of all things, +it is a consistent hypothesis that as thought is serial, Nature is +serial; but that M. Comte, who is so bitter an opponent of all +anthropomorphism, even in its most evanescent shapes, should have +committed the mistake of imposing upon the external world an arrangement +which so obviously springs from a limitation of the human consciousness, +is somewhat strange. And it is the more strange when we call to mind +how, at the outset, M. Comte remarks that in the beginning "_toutes les +sciences sont cultivées simultanément par les mêmes esprits_;" that +this is "_inevitable et même indispensable_;" and how he further remarks +that the different sciences are "_comme les diverses branches d'un tronc +unique_." Were it not accounted for by the distorting influence of a +cherished hypothesis, it would be scarcely possible to understand how, +after recognising truths like these, M. Comte should have persisted in +attempting to construct "_une échelle encyclopédique_." + +The metaphor which M. Comte has here so inconsistently used to express +the relations of the sciences--branches of one trunk--is an +approximation to the truth, though not the truth itself. It suggests the +facts that the sciences had a common origin; that they have been +developing simultaneously; and that they have been from time to time +dividing and subdividing. But it does not suggest the yet more important +fact, that the divisions and subdivisions thus arising do not remain +separate, but now and again reunite in direct and indirect ways. They +inosculate; they severally send off and receive connecting growths; and +the intercommunion has been ever becoming more frequent, more intricate, +more widely ramified. There has all along been higher specialisation, +that there might be a larger generalisation; and a deeper analysis, that +there might be a better synthesis. Each larger generalisation has lifted +sundry specialisations still higher; and each better synthesis has +prepared the way for still deeper analysis. + +And here we may fitly enter upon the task awhile since indicated--a +sketch of the Genesis of Science, regarded as a gradual outgrowth from +common knowledge--an extension of the perceptions by the aid of the +reason. We propose to treat it as a psychological process historically +displayed; tracing at the same time the advance from qualitative to +quantitative prevision; the progress from concrete facts to abstract +facts, and the application of such abstract facts to the analysis of new +orders of concrete facts; the simultaneous advance in generalisation and +specialisation; the continually increasing subdivision and reunion of +the sciences; and their constantly improving _consensus_. + +To trace out scientific evolution from its deepest roots would, of +course, involve a complete analysis of the mind. For as science is a +development of that common knowledge acquired by the unaided senses and +uncultured reason, so is that common knowledge itself gradually built up +out of the simplest perceptions. We must, therefore, begin somewhere +abruptly; and the most appropriate stage to take for our point of +departure will be the adult mind of the savage. + +Commencing thus, without a proper preliminary analysis, we are naturally +somewhat at a loss how to present, in a satisfactory manner, those +fundamental processes of thought out of which science ultimately +originates. Perhaps our argument may be best initiated by the +proposition, that all intelligent action whatever depends upon the +discerning of distinctions among surrounding things. The condition under +which only it is possible for any creature to obtain food and avoid +danger is, that it shall be differently affected by different +objects--that it shall be led to act in one way by one object, and in +another way by another. In the lower orders of creatures this condition +is fulfilled by means of an apparatus which acts automatically. In the +higher orders the actions are partly automatic, partly conscious. And in +man they are almost wholly conscious. + +Throughout, however, there must necessarily exist a certain +classification of things according to their properties--a classification +which is either organically registered in the system, as in the inferior +creation, or is formed by experience, as in ourselves. And it may be +further remarked, that the extent to which this classification is +carried, roughly indicates the height of intelligence--that while the +lowest organisms are able to do little more than discriminate organic +from inorganic matter; while the generality of animals carry their +classifications no further than to a limited number of plants or +creatures serving for food, a limited number of beasts of prey, and a +limited number of places and materials; the most degraded of the human +race possess a knowledge of the distinctive natures of a great variety +of substances, plants, animals, tools, persons, etc., not only as +classes but as individuals. + +What now is the mental process by which classification is effected? +Manifestly it is a recognition of the _likeness_ or _unlikeness_ of +things, either in respect of their sizes, colours, forms, weights, +textures, tastes, etc., or in respect of their modes of action. By some +special mark, sound, or motion, the savage identifies a certain +four-legged creature he sees, as one that is good for food, and to be +caught in a particular way; or as one that is dangerous; and acts +accordingly. He has classed together all the creatures that are _alike_ +in this particular. And manifestly in choosing the wood out of which to +form his bow, the plant with which to poison his arrows, the bone from +which to make his fish-hooks, he identifies them through their chief +sensible properties as belonging to the general classes, wood, plant, +and bone, but distinguishes them as belonging to sub-classes by virtue +of certain properties in which they are _unlike_ the rest of the general +classes they belong to; and so forms genera and species. + +And here it becomes manifest that not only is classification carried on +by grouping together in the mind things that are _like_; but that +classes and sub-classes are formed and arranged according to the +_degrees of unlikeness_. Things widely contrasted are alone +distinguished in the lower stages of mental evolution; as may be any day +observed in an infant. And gradually as the powers of discrimination +increase, the widely contrasted classes at first distinguished, come to +be each divided into sub-classes, differing from each other less than +the classes differ; and these sub-classes are again divided after the +same manner. By the continuance of which process, things are gradually +arranged into groups, the members of which are less and less _unlike_; +ending, finally, in groups whose members differ only as individuals, and +not specifically. And thus there tends ultimately to arise the notion of +_complete likeness_. For, manifestly, it is impossible that groups +should continue to be subdivided in virtue of smaller and smaller +differences, without there being a simultaneous approximation to the +notion of _no difference_. + +Let us next notice that the recognition of likeness and unlikeness, +which underlies classification, and out of which continued +classification evolves the idea of complete likeness--let us next notice +that it also underlies the process of _naming_, and by consequence +_language_. For all language consists, at the beginning, of symbols +which are as _like_ to the things symbolised as it is practicable to +make them. The language of signs is a means of conveying ideas by +mimicking the actions or peculiarities of the things referred to. Verbal +language is also, at the beginning, a mode of suggesting objects or acts +by imitating the sounds which the objects make, or with which the acts +are accompanied. Originally these two languages were used +simultaneously. It needs but to watch the gesticulations with which the +savage accompanies his speech--to see a Bushman or a Kaffir dramatising +before an audience his mode of catching game--or to note the extreme +paucity of words in all primitive vocabularies; to infer that at first, +attitudes, gestures, and sounds, were all combined to produce as good a +_likeness_ as possible, of the things, animals, persons, or events +described; and that as the sounds came to be understood by themselves +the gestures fell into disuse: leaving traces, however, in the manners +of the more excitable civilised races. But be this as it may, it +suffices simply to observe, how many of the words current among +barbarous peoples are like the sounds appertaining to the things +signified; how many of our own oldest and simplest words have the same +peculiarity; how children tend to invent imitative words; and how the +sign-language spontaneously formed by deaf mutes is invariably based +upon imitative actions--to at once see that the nation of _likeness_ is +that from which the nomenclature of objects takes its rise. + +Were there space we might go on to point out how this law of life is +traceable, not only in the origin but in the development of language; +how in primitive tongues the plural is made by a duplication of the +singular, which is a multiplication of the word to make it _like_ the +multiplicity of the things; how the use of metaphor--that prolific +source of new words--is a suggesting of ideas that are _like_ the ideas +to be conveyed in some respect or other; and how, in the copious use of +simile, fable, and allegory among uncivilised races, we see that complex +conceptions, which there is yet no direct language for, are rendered, by +presenting known conceptions more or less _like_ them. + +This view is further confirmed, and the predominance of this notion of +likeness in primitive times further illustrated, by the fact that our +system of presenting ideas to the eye originated after the same fashion. +Writing and printing have descended from picture-language. The earliest +mode of permanently registering a fact was by depicting it on a wall; +that is--by exhibiting something as _like_ to the thing to be remembered +as it could be made. Gradually as the practice grew habitual and +extensive, the most frequently repeated forms became fixed, and +presently abbreviated; and, passing through the hieroglyphic and +ideographic phases, the symbols lost all apparent relations to the +things signified: just as the majority of our spoken words have done. + +Observe again, that the same thing is true respecting the genesis of +reasoning. The _likeness_ that is perceived to exist between cases, is +the essence of all early reasoning and of much of our present reasoning. +The savage, having by experience discovered a relation between a certain +object and a certain act, infers that the _like_ relation will be found +in future cases. And the expressions we constantly use in our +arguments--"_analogy_ implies," "the cases are not _parallel_," "by +_parity_ of reasoning," "there is no _similarity_,"--show how constantly +the idea of likeness underlies our ratiocinative processes. + +Still more clearly will this be seen on recognising the fact that there +is a certain parallelism between reasoning and classification; that the +two have a common root; and that neither can go on without the other. +For on the one hand, it is a familiar truth that the attributing to a +body in consequence of some of its properties, all those other +properties in virtue of which it is referred to a particular class, is +an act of inference. And, on the other hand, the forming of a +generalisation is the putting together in one class all those cases +which present like relations; while the drawing a deduction is +essentially the perception that a particular case belongs to a certain +class of cases previously generalised. So that as classification is a +grouping together of _like things_; reasoning is a grouping together of +_like relations_ among things. Add to which, that while the perfection +gradually achieved in classification consists in the formation of groups +of _objects_ which are _completely alike_; the perfection gradually +achieved in reasoning consists in the formation of groups of _cases_ +which are _completely alike_. + +Once more we may contemplate this dominant idea of likeness as exhibited +in art. All art, civilised as well as savage, consists almost wholly in +the making of objects _like_ other objects; either as found in Nature, +or as produced by previous art. If we trace back the varied art-products +now existing, we find that at each stage the divergence from previous +patterns is but small when compared with the agreement; and in the +earliest art the persistency of imitation is yet more conspicuous. The +old forms and ornaments and symbols were held sacred, and perpetually +copied. Indeed, the strong imitative tendency notoriously displayed by +the lowest human races, ensures among them a constant reproducing of +likeness of things, forms, signs, sounds, actions, and whatever else is +imitable; and we may even suspect that this aboriginal peculiarity is in +some way connected with the culture and development of this general +conception, which we have found so deep and widespread in its +applications. + +And now let us go on to consider how, by a further unfolding of this +same fundamental notion, there is a gradual formation of the first germs +of science. This idea of likeness which underlies classification, +nomenclature, language spoken and written, reasoning, and art; and which +plays so important a part because all acts of intelligence are made +possible only by distinguishing among surrounding things, or grouping +them into like and unlike;--this idea we shall find to be the one of +which science is the especial product. Already during the stage we have +been describing, there has existed _qualitative_ prevision in respect to +the commoner phenomena with which savage life is familiar; and we have +now to inquire how the elements of _quantitative_ prevision are evolved. +We shall find that they originate by the perfecting of this same idea of +likeness; that they have their rise in that conception of _complete +likeness_ which, as we have seen, necessarily results from the continued +process of classification. + +For when the process of classification has been carried as far as it is +possible for the uncivilised to carry it--when the animal kingdom has +been grouped not merely into quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and insects, but +each of these divided into kinds--when there come to be sub-classes, in +each of which the members differ only as individuals, and not +specifically; it is clear that there must occur a frequent observation +of objects which differ so little as to be indistinguishable. Among +several creatures which the savage has killed and carried home, it must +often happen that some one, which he wished to identify, is so exactly +like another that he cannot tell which is which. Thus, then, there +originates the notion of _equality_. The things which among ourselves +are called _equal_--whether lines, angles, weights, temperatures, sounds +or colours--are things which produce in us sensations that cannot be +distinguished from each other. It is true we now apply the word _equal_ +chiefly to the separate phenomena which objects exhibit, and not to +groups of phenomena; but this limitation of the idea has evidently +arisen by subsequent analysis. And that the notion of equality did thus +originate, will, we think, become obvious on remembering that as there +were no artificial objects from which it could have been abstracted, it +must have been abstracted from natural objects; and that the various +families of the animal kingdom chiefly furnish those natural objects +which display the requisite exactitude of likeness. + +The same order of experiences out of which this general idea of equality +is evolved, gives birth at the same time to a more complex idea of +equality; or, rather, the process just described generates an idea of +equality which further experience separates into two ideas--_equality of +things_ and _equality of relations_. While organic, and more especially +animal forms, occasionally exhibit this perfection of likeness out of +which the notion of simple equality arises, they more frequently +exhibit only that kind of likeness which we call _similarity_; and which +is really compound equality. For the similarity of two creatures of the +same species but of different sizes, is of the same nature as the +similarity of two geometrical figures. In either case, any two parts of +the one bear the same ratio to one another as the homologous parts of +the other. Given in any species, the proportions found to exist among +the bones, and we may, and zoologists do, predict from any one, the +dimensions of the rest; just as, when knowing the proportions subsisting +among the parts of a geometrical figure, we may, from the length of one, +calculate the others. And if, in the case of similar geometrical +figures, the similarity can be established only by proving exactness of +proportion among the homologous parts; if we express this relation +between two parts in the one, and the corresponding parts in the other, +by the formula A is to B as _a_ is to _b_; if we otherwise write this, A +to B = _a_ to _b_; if, consequently, the fact we prove is that the +relation of A to B _equals_ the relation of _a_ to _b_; then it is +manifest that the fundamental conception of similarity is _equality of +relations_. + +With this explanation we shall be understood when we say that the notion +of equality of relations is the basis of all exact reasoning. Already it +has been shown that reasoning in general is a recognition of _likeness_ +of relations; and here we further find that while the notion of likeness +of things ultimately evolves the idea of simple equality, the notion of +likeness of relations evolves the idea of equality of relations: of +which the one is the concrete germ of exact science, while the other is +its abstract germ. + +Those who cannot understand how the recognition of similarity in +creatures of the same kind can have any alliance with reasoning, will +get over the difficulty on remembering that the phenomena among which +equality of relations is thus perceived, are phenomena of the same order +and are present to the senses at the same time; while those among which +developed reason perceives relations, are generally neither of the same +order, nor simultaneously present. And if further, they will call to +mind how Cuvier and Owen, from a single part of a creature, as a tooth, +construct the rest by a process of reasoning based on this equality of +relations, they will see that the two things are intimately connected, +remote as they at first seem. But we anticipate. What it concerns us +here to observe is, that from familiarity with organic forms there +simultaneously arose the ideas of _simple equality_, and _equality of +relations_. + +At the same time, too, and out of the same mental processes, came the +first distinct ideas of _number_. In the earliest stages, the +presentation of several like objects produced merely an indefinite +conception of multiplicity; as it still does among Australians, and +Bushmen, and Damaras, when the number presented exceeds three or four. +With such a fact before us we may safely infer that the first clear +numerical conception was that of duality as contrasted with unity. And +this notion of duality must necessarily have grown up side by side with +those of likeness and equality; seeing that it is impossible to +recognise the likeness of two things without also perceiving that there +are two. From the very beginning the conception of number must have been +as it is still, associated with the likeness or equality of the things +numbered. If we analyse it, we find that simple enumeration is a +registration of repeated impressions of any kind. That these may be +capable of enumeration it is needful that they be more or less alike; +and before any _absolutely true_ numerical results can be reached, it is +requisite that the units be _absolutely equal_. The only way in which we +can establish a numerical relationship between things that do not yield +us like impressions, is to divide them into parts that _do_ yield us +like impressions. Two unlike magnitudes of extension, force, time, +weight, or what not, can have their relative amounts estimated only by +means of some small unit that is contained many times in both; and even +if we finally write down the greater one as a unit and the other as a +fraction of it, we state, in the denominator of the fraction, the number +of parts into which the unit must be divided to be comparable with the +fraction. + +It is, indeed, true, that by an evidently modern process of abstraction, +we occasionally apply numbers to unequal units, as the furniture at a +sale or the various animals on a farm, simply as so many separate +entities; but no true result can be brought out by calculation with +units of this order. And, indeed, it is the distinctive peculiarity of +the calculus in general, that it proceeds on the hypothesis of that +absolute equality of its abstract units, which no real units possess; +and that the exactness of its results holds only in virtue of this +hypothesis. The first ideas of number must necessarily then have been +derived from like or equal magnitudes as seen chiefly in organic +objects; and as the like magnitudes most frequently observed magnitudes +of extension, it follows that geometry and arithmetic had a +simultaneous origin. + +Not only are the first distinct ideas of number co-ordinate with ideas +of likeness and equality, but the first efforts at numeration displayed +the same relationship. On reading the accounts of various savage tribes, +we find that the method of counting by the fingers, still followed by +many children, is the aboriginal method. Neglecting the several cases in +which the ability to enumerate does not reach even to the number of +fingers on one hand, there are many cases in which it does not extend +beyond ten--the limit of the simple finger notation. The fact that in so +many instances, remote, and seemingly unrelated nations, have adopted +_ten_ as their basic number; together with the fact that in the +remaining instances the basic number is either _five_ (the fingers of +one hand) or _twenty_ (the fingers and toes); almost of themselves show +that the fingers were the original units of numeration. The still +surviving use of the word _digit_, as the general name for a figure in +arithmetic, is significant; and it is even said that our word _ten_ +(Sax. _tyn_; Dutch, _tien_; German, _zehn_) means in its primitive +expanded form _two hands_. So that originally, to say there were ten +things, was to say there were two hands of them. + +From all which evidence it is tolerably clear that the earliest mode of +conveying the idea of any number of things, was by holding up as many +fingers as there were things; that is--using a symbol which was _equal_, +in respect of multiplicity, to the group symbolised. For which inference +there is, indeed, strong confirmation in the recent statement that our +own soldiers are even now spontaneously adopting this device in their +dealings with the Turks. And here it should be remarked that in this +recombination of the notion of equality with that of multiplicity, by +which the first steps in numeration are effected, we may see one of the +earliest of those inosculations between the diverging branches of +science, which are afterwards of perpetual occurrence. + +Indeed, as this observation suggests, it will be well, before tracing +the mode in which exact science finally emerges from the merely +approximate judgments of the senses, and showing the non-serial +evolution of its divisions, to note the non-serial character of those +preliminary processes of which all after development is a continuation. +On reconsidering them it will be seen that not only are they divergent +growths from a common root, not only are they simultaneous in their +progress; but that they are mutual aids; and that none can advance +without the rest. That completeness of classification for which the +unfolding of the perceptions paves the way, is impossible without a +corresponding progress in language, by which greater varieties of +objects are thinkable and expressible. On the one hand it is impossible +to carry classification far without names by which to designate the +classes; and on the other hand it is impossible to make language faster +than things are classified. + +Again, the multiplication of classes and the consequent narrowing of +each class, itself involves a greater likeness among the things classed +together; and the consequent approach towards the notion of complete +likeness itself allows classification to be carried higher. Moreover, +classification necessarily advances _pari passu_ with rationality--the +classification of _things_ with the classification of _relations_. For +things that belong to the same class are, by implication, things of +which the properties and modes of behaviour--the co-existences and +sequences--are more or less the same; and the recognition of this +sameness of co-existences and sequences is reasoning. Whence it follows +that the advance of classification is necessarily proportionate to the +advance of generalisations. Yet further, the notion of _likeness_, both +in things and relations, simultaneously evolves by one process of +culture the ideas of _equality_ of things and _equality_ of relations; +which are the respective bases of exact concrete reasoning and exact +abstract reasoning--Mathematics and Logic. And once more, this idea of +equality, in the very process of being formed, necessarily gives origin +to two series of relations--those of magnitude and those of number: from +which arise geometry and the calculus. Thus the process throughout is +one of perpetual subdivision and perpetual intercommunication of the +divisions. From the very first there has been that _consensus_ of +different kinds of knowledge, answering to the _consensus_ of the +intellectual faculties, which, as already said, must exist among the +sciences. + +Let us now go on to observe how, out of the notions of _equality_ and +_number_, as arrived at in the manner described, there gradually arose +the elements of quantitative prevision. + +Equality, once having come to be definitely conceived, was readily +applicable to other phenomena than those of magnitude. Being predicable +of all things producing indistinguishable impressions, there naturally +grew up ideas of equality in weights, sounds, colours, etc.; and indeed +it can scarcely be doubted that the occasional experience of equal +weights, sounds, and colours, had a share in developing the abstract +conception of equality--that the ideas of equality in size, relations, +forces, resistances, and sensible properties in general, were evolved +during the same period. But however this may be, it is clear that as +fast as the notion of equality gained definiteness, so fast did that +lowest kind of quantitative prevision which is achieved without any +instrumental aid, become possible. + +The ability to estimate, however roughly, the amount of a foreseen +result, implies the conception that it will be _equal to_ a certain +imagined quantity; and the correctness of the estimate will manifestly +depend upon the accuracy at which the perceptions of sensible equality +have arrived. A savage with a piece of stone in his hand, and another +piece lying before him of greater bulk of the same kind (a fact which he +infers from the _equality_ of the two in colour and texture) knows about +what effort he must put forth to raise this other piece; and he judges +accurately in proportion to the accuracy with which he perceives that +the one is twice, three times, four times, etc., as large as the other; +that is--in proportion to the precision of his ideas of equality and +number. And here let us not omit to notice that even in these vaguest of +quantitative previsions, the conception of _equality of relations_ is +also involved. For it is only in virtue of an undefined perception that +the relation between bulk and weight in the one stone is _equal_ to the +relation between bulk and weight in the other, that even the roughest +approximation can be made. + +But how came the transition from those uncertain perceptions of equality +which the unaided senses give, to the certain ones with which science +deals? It came by placing the things compared in juxtaposition. Equality +being predicated of things which give us indistinguishable impressions, +and no accurate comparison of impressions being possible unless they +occur in immediate succession, it results that exactness of equality is +ascertainable in proportion to the closeness of the compared things. +Hence the fact that when we wish to judge of two shades of colour +whether they are alike or not, we place them side by side; hence the +fact that we cannot, with any precision, say which of two allied sounds +is the louder, or the higher in pitch, unless we hear the one +immediately after the other; hence the fact that to estimate the ratio +of weights, we take one in each hand, that we may compare their +pressures by rapidly alternating in thought from the one to the other; +hence the fact, that in a piece of music we can continue to make equal +beats when the first beat has been given, but cannot ensure commencing +with the same length of beat on a future occasion; and hence, lastly, +the fact, that of all magnitudes, those of _linear extension_ are those +of which the equality is most accurately ascertainable, and those to +which by consequence all others have to be reduced. For it is the +peculiarity of linear extension that it alone allows its magnitudes to +be placed in _absolute_ juxtaposition, or, rather, in coincident +position; it alone can test the equality of two magnitudes by observing +whether they will coalesce, as two equal mathematical lines do, when +placed between the same points; it alone can test _equality_ by trying +whether it will become _identity_. Hence, then, the fact, that all exact +science is reducible, by an ultimate analysis, to results measured in +equal units of linear extension. + +Still it remains to be noticed in what manner this determination of +equality by comparison of linear magnitudes originated. Once more may we +perceive that surrounding natural objects supplied the needful lessons. +From the beginning there must have been a constant experience of like +things placed side by side--men standing and walking together; animals +from the same herd; fish from the same shoal. And the ceaseless +repetition of these experiences could not fail to suggest the +observation, that the nearer together any objects were, the more visible +became any inequality between them. Hence the obvious device of putting +in apposition things of which it was desired to ascertain the relative +magnitudes. Hence the idea of _measure_. And here we suddenly come upon +a group of facts which afford a solid basis to the remainder of our +argument; while they also furnish strong evidence in support of the +foregoing speculations. Those who look sceptically on this attempted +rehabilitation of the earliest epochs of mental development, and who +more especially think that the derivation of so many primary notions +from organic forms is somewhat strained, will perhaps see more +probability in the several hypotheses that have been ventured, on +discovering that all measures of _extension_ and _force_ originated from +the lengths and weights of organic bodies; and all measures of _time_ +from the periodic phenomena of either organic or inorganic bodies. + +Thus, among linear measures, the cubit of the Hebrews was the _length of +the forearm_ from the elbow to the end of the middle finger; and the +smaller scriptural dimensions are expressed in _hand-breadths_ and +_spans_. The Egyptian cubit, which was similarly derived, was divided +into digits, which were _finger-breadths_; and each finger-breadth was +more definitely expressed as being equal to four _grains of barley_ +placed breadthwise. Other ancient measures were the orgyia or _stretch +of the arms_, the _pace_, and the _palm_. So persistent has been the use +of these natural units of length in the East, that even now some of the +Arabs mete out cloth by the forearm. So, too, is it with European +measures. The _foot_ prevails as a dimension throughout Europe, and has +done since the time of the Romans, by whom, also, it was used: its +lengths in different places varying not much more than men's feet vary. +The heights of horses are still expressed in _hands_. The inch is the +length of the terminal joint of _the thumb_; as is clearly shown in +France, where _pouce_ means both thumb and inch. Then we have the inch +divided into three _barley-corns_. + +So completely, indeed, have these organic dimensions served as the +substrata of all mensuration, that it is only by means of them that we +can form any estimate of some of the ancient distances. For example, the +length of a degree on the Earth's surface, as determined by the Arabian +astronomers shortly after the death of Haroun-al-Raschid, was fifty-six +of their miles. We know nothing of their mile further than that it was +4000 cubits; and whether these were sacred cubits or common cubits, +would remain doubtful, but that the length of the cubit is given as +twenty-seven inches, and each inch defined as the thickness of six +barley-grains. Thus one of the earliest measurements of a degree comes +down to us in barley-grains. Not only did organic lengths furnish those +approximate measures which satisfied men's needs in ruder ages, but they +furnished also the standard measures required in later times. One +instance occurs in our own history. To remedy the irregularities then +prevailing, Henry I. commanded that the ulna, or ancient ell, which +answers to the modern yard, should be made of the exact length of _his +own arm_. + +Measures of weight again had a like derivation. Seeds seem commonly to +have supplied the unit. The original of the carat used for weighing in +India is _a small bean_. Our own systems, both troy and avoirdupois, are +derived primarily from wheat-corns. Our smallest weight, the grain, is +_a grain of wheat_. This is not a speculation; it is an historically +registered fact. Henry III. enacted that an ounce should be the weight +of 640 dry grains of wheat from the middle of the ear. And as all the +other weights are multiples or sub-multiples of this, it follows that +the grain of wheat is the basis of our scale. So natural is it to use +organic bodies as weights, before artificial weights have been +established, or where they are not to be had, that in some of the +remoter parts of Ireland the people are said to be in the habit, even +now, of putting a man into the scales to serve as a measure for heavy +commodities. + +Similarly with time. Astronomical periodicity, and the periodicity of +animal and vegetable life, are simultaneously used in the first stages +of progress for estimating epochs. The simplest unit of time, the day, +nature supplies ready made. The next simplest period, the mooneth or +month, is also thrust upon men's notice by the conspicuous changes +constituting a lunation. For larger divisions than these, the phenomena +of the seasons, and the chief events from time to time occurring, have +been used by early and uncivilised races. Among the Egyptians the rising +of the Nile served as a mark. The New Zealanders were found to begin +their year from the reappearance of the Pleiades above the sea. One of +the uses ascribed to birds, by the Greeks, was to indicate the seasons +by their migrations. Barrow describes the aboriginal Hottentot as +denoting periods by the number of moons before or after the ripening of +one of his chief articles of food. He further states that the Kaffir +chronology is kept by the moon, and is registered by notches on +sticks--the death of a favourite chief, or the gaining of a victory, +serving for a new era. By which last fact, we are at once reminded that +in early history, events are commonly recorded as occurring in certain +reigns, and in certain years of certain reigns: a proceeding which +practically made a king's reign a measure of duration. + +And, as further illustrating the tendency to divide time by natural +phenomena and natural events, it may be noticed that even by our own +peasantry the definite divisions of months and years are but little +used; and that they habitually refer to occurrences as "before +sheep-shearing," or "after harvest," or "about the time when the squire +died." It is manifest, therefore, that the more or less equal periods +perceived in Nature gave the first units of measure for time; as did +Nature's more or less equal lengths and weights give the first units of +measure for space and force. + +It remains only to observe, as further illustrating the evolution of +quantitative ideas after this manner, that measures of value were +similarly derived. Barter, in one form or other, is found among all but +the very lowest human races. It is obviously based upon the notion of +_equality of worth_. And as it gradually merges into trade by the +introduction of some kind of currency, we find that the _measures of +worth_, constituting this currency, are organic bodies; in some cases +_cowries_, in others _cocoa-nuts_, in others _cattle_, in others _pigs_; +among the American Indians peltry or _skins_, and in Iceland _dried +fish_. + +Notions of exact equality and of measure having been reached, there came +to be definite ideas of relative magnitudes as being multiples one of +another; whence the practice of measurement by direct apposition of a +measure. The determination of linear extensions by this process can +scarcely be called science, though it is a step towards it; but the +determination of lengths of time by an analogous process may be +considered as one of the earliest samples of quantitative prevision. For +when it is first ascertained that the moon completes the cycle of her +changes in about thirty days--a fact known to most uncivilised tribes +that can count beyond the number of their fingers--it is manifest that +it becomes possible to say in what number of days any specified phase of +the moon will recur; and it is also manifest that this prevision is +effected by an opposition of two times, after the same manner that +linear space is measured by the opposition of two lines. For to express +the moon's period in days, is to say how many of these units of measure +are contained in the period to be measured--is to ascertain the distance +between two points in time by means of a _scale of days_, just as we +ascertain the distance between two points in space by a scale of feet or +inches: and in each case the scale coincides with the thing +measured--mentally in the one; visibly in the other. So that in this +simplest, and perhaps earliest case of quantitative prevision, the +phenomena are not only thrust daily upon men's notice, but Nature is, as +it were, perpetually repeating that process of measurement by observing +which the prevision is effected. And thus there may be significance in +the remark which some have made, that alike in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, +there is an affinity between the word meaning moon, and that meaning +measure. + +This fact, that in very early stages of social progress it is known that +the moon goes through her changes in about thirty days, and that in +about twelve moons the seasons return--this fact that chronological +astronomy assumes a certain scientific character even before geometry +does; while it is partly due to the circumstance that the astronomical +divisions, day, month, and year, are ready made for us, is partly due to +the further circumstances that agricultural and other operations were at +first regulated astronomically, and that from the supposed divine +nature of the heavenly bodies their motions determined the periodical +religious festivals. As instances of the one we have the observation of +the Egyptians, that the rising of the Nile corresponded with the +heliacal rising of Sirius; the directions given by Hesiod for reaping +and ploughing, according to the positions of the Pleiades; and his maxim +that "fifty days after the turning of the sun is a seasonable time for +beginning a voyage." As instances of the other, we have the naming of +the days after the sun, moon, and planets; the early attempts among +Eastern nations to regulate the calendar so that the gods might not be +offended by the displacement of their sacrifices; and the fixing of the +great annual festival of the Peruvians by the position of the sun. In +all which facts we see that, at first, science was simply an appliance +of religion and industry. + +After the discoveries that a lunation occupies nearly thirty days, and +that some twelve lunations occupy a year--discoveries of which there is +no historical account, but which may be inferred as the earliest, from +the fact that existing uncivilised races have made them--we come to the +first known astronomical records, which are those of eclipses. The +Chaldeans were able to predict these. "This they did, probably," says +Dr. Whewell in his useful history, from which most of the materials we +are about to use will be drawn, "by means of their cycle of 223 months, +or about eighteen years; for at the end of this time, the eclipses of +the moon begin to return, at the same intervals and in the same order as +at the beginning." Now this method of calculating eclipses by means of a +recurring cycle,--the _Saros_ as they called it--is a more complex case +of prevision by means of coincidence of measures. For by what +observations must the Chaldeans have discovered this cycle? Obviously, +as Delambre infers, by inspecting their registers; by comparing the +successive intervals; by finding that some of the intervals were alike; +by seeing that these equal intervals were eighteen years apart; by +discovering that _all_ the intervals that were eighteen years apart were +equal; by ascertaining that the intervals formed a series which repeated +itself, so that if one of the cycles of intervals were superposed on +another the divisions would fit. This once perceived, and it manifestly +became possible to use the cycle as a scale of time by which to measure +out future periods. Seeing thus that the process of so predicting +eclipses is in essence the same as that of predicting the moon's monthly +changes, by observing the number of days after which they repeat--seeing +that the two differ only in the extent and irregularity of the +intervals, it is not difficult to understand how such an amount of +knowledge should so early have been reached. And we shall be less +surprised, on remembering that the only things involved in these +previsions were _time_ and _number_; and that the time was in a manner +self-numbered. + +Still, the ability to predict events recurring only after so long a +period as eighteen years, implies a considerable advance in +civilisation--a considerable development of general knowledge; and we +have now to inquire what progress in other sciences accompanied, and was +necessary to, these astronomical previsions. In the first place, there +must clearly have been a tolerably efficient system of calculation. Mere +finger-counting, mere head-reckoning, even with the aid of a regular +decimal notation, could not have sufficed for numbering the days in a +year; much less the years, months, and days between eclipses. +Consequently there must have been a mode of registering numbers; +probably even a system of numerals. The earliest numerical records, if +we may judge by the practices of the less civilised races now existing, +were probably kept by notches cut on sticks, or strokes marked on walls; +much as public-house scores are kept now. And there seems reason to +believe that the first numerals used were simply groups of straight +strokes, as some of the still-extant Roman ones are; leading us to +suspect that these groups of strokes were used to represent groups of +fingers, as the groups of fingers had been used to represent groups of +objects--a supposition quite in conformity with the aboriginal system of +picture writing and its subsequent modifications. Be this so or not, +however, it is manifest that before the Chaldeans discovered their +_Saros_, there must have been both a set of written symbols serving for +an extensive numeration, and a familiarity with the simpler rules of +arithmetic. + +Not only must abstract mathematics have made some progress, but concrete +mathematics also. It is scarcely possible that the buildings belonging +to this era should have been laid out and erected without any knowledge +of geometry. At any rate, there must have existed that elementary +geometry which deals with direct measurement--with the apposition of +lines; and it seems that only after the discovery of those simple +proceedings, by which right angles are drawn, and relative positions +fixed, could so regular an architecture be executed. In the case of the +other division of concrete mathematics--mechanics, we have definite +evidence of progress. We know that the lever and the inclined plane were +employed during this period: implying that there was a qualitative +prevision of their effects, though not a quantitative one. But we know +more. We read of weights in the earliest records; and we find weights in +ruins of the highest antiquity. Weights imply scales, of which we have +also mention; and scales involve the primary theorem of mechanics in its +least complicated form--involve not a qualitative but a quantitative +prevision of mechanical effects. And here we may notice how mechanics, +in common with the other exact sciences, took its rise from the simplest +application of the idea of _equality_. For the mechanical proposition +which the scales involve, is, that if a lever with _equal_ arms, have +_equal_ weights suspended from them, the weights will remain at _equal_ +altitudes. And we may further notice how, in this first step of rational +mechanics, we see illustrated that truth awhile since referred to, that +as magnitudes of linear extension are the only ones of which the +equality is exactly ascertainable, the equalities of other magnitudes +have at the outset to be determined by means of them. For the equality +of the weights which balance each other in scales, wholly depends upon +the equality of the arms: we can know that the weights are equal only by +proving that the arms are equal. And when by this means we have obtained +a system of weights,--a set of equal units of force, then does a science +of mechanics become possible. Whence, indeed, it follows, that rational +mechanics could not possibly have any other starting-point than the +scales. + +Let us further remember, that during this same period there was a +limited knowledge of chemistry. The many arts which we know to have been +carried on must have been impossible without a generalised experience of +the modes in which certain bodies affect each other under special +conditions. In metallurgy, which was extensively practised, this is +abundantly illustrated. And we even have evidence that in some cases the +knowledge possessed was, in a sense, quantitative. For, as we find by +analysis that the hard alloy of which the Egyptians made their cutting +tools, was composed of copper and tin in fixed proportions, there must +have been an established prevision that such an alloy was to be obtained +only by mixing them in these proportions. It is true, this was but a +simple empirical generalisation; but so was the generalisation +respecting the recurrence of eclipses; so are the first generalisations +of every science. + +Respecting the simultaneous advance of the sciences during this early +epoch, it only remains to remark that even the most complex of them +must have made some progress--perhaps even a greater relative progress +than any of the rest. For under what conditions only were the foregoing +developments possible? There first required an established and organised +social system. A long continued registry of eclipses; the building of +palaces; the use of scales; the practice of metallurgy--alike imply a +fixed and populous nation. The existence of such a nation not only +presupposes laws, and some administration of justice, which we know +existed, but it presupposes successful laws--laws conforming in some +degree to the conditions of social stability--laws enacted because it +was seen that the actions forbidden by them were dangerous to the State. +We do not by any means say that all, or even the greater part, of the +laws were of this nature; but we do say, that the fundamental ones were. +It cannot be denied that the laws affecting life and property were such. +It cannot be denied that, however little these were enforced between +class and class, they were to a considerable extent enforced between +members of the same class. It can scarcely be questioned, that the +administration of them between members of the same class was seen by +rulers to be necessary for keeping their subjects together. And knowing, +as we do, that, other things equal, nations prosper in proportion to the +justness of their arrangements, we may fairly infer that the very cause +of the advance of these earliest nations out of aboriginal barbarism was +the greater recognition among them of the claims to life and property. + +But supposition aside, it is clear that the habitual recognition of +these claims in their laws implied some prevision of social phenomena. +Even thus early there was a certain amount of social science. Nay, it +may even be shown that there was a vague recognition of that fundamental +principle on which all the true social science is based--the equal +rights of all to the free exercise of their faculties. That same idea of +_equality_ which, as we have seen, underlies all other science, +underlies also morals and sociology. The conception of justice, which is +the primary one in morals; and the administration of justice, which is +the vital condition of social existence; are impossible without the +recognition of a certain likeness in men's claims in virtue of their +common humanity. _Equity_ literally means _equalness_; and if it be +admitted that there were even the vaguest ideas of equity in these +primitive eras, it must be admitted that there was some appreciation of +the equalness of men's liberties to pursue the objects of life--some +appreciation, therefore, of the essential principle of national +equilibrium. + +Thus in this initial stage of the positive sciences, before geometry had +yet done more than evolve a few empirical rules--before mechanics had +passed beyond its first theorem--before astronomy had advanced from its +merely chronological phase into the geometrical; the most involved of +the sciences had reached a certain degree of development--a development +without which no progress in other sciences was possible. + +Only noting as we pass, how, thus early, we may see that the progress of +exact science was not only towards an increasing number of previsions, +but towards previsions more accurately quantitative--how, in astronomy, +the recurring period of the moon's motions was by and by more correctly +ascertained to be nineteen years, or two hundred and thirty-five +lunations; how Callipus further corrected this Metonic cycle, by leaving +out a day at the end of every seventy-six years; and how these +successive advances implied a longer continued registry of observations, +and the co-ordination of a greater number of facts--let us go on to +inquire how geometrical astronomy took its rise. + +The first astronomical instrument was the gnomon. This was not only +early in use in the East, but it was found also among the Mexicans; the +sole astronomical observations of the Peruvians were made by it; and we +read that 1100 B.C., the Chinese found that, at a certain place, the +length of the sun's shadow, at the summer solstice, was to the height of +the gnomon as one and a half to eight. Here again it is observable, not +only that the instrument is found ready made, but that Nature is +perpetually performing the process of measurement. Any fixed, erect +object--a column, a dead palm, a pole, the angle of a building--serves +for a gnomon; and it needs but to notice the changing position of the +shadow it daily throws to make the first step in geometrical astronomy. +How small this first step was, may be seen in the fact that the only +things ascertained at the outset were the periods of the summer and +winter solstices, which corresponded with the least and greatest lengths +of the mid-shadow; and to fix which, it was needful merely to mark the +point to which each day's shadow reached. + +And now let it not be overlooked that in the observing at what time +during the next year this extreme limit of the shadow was again reached, +and in the inference that the sun had then arrived at the same turning +point in his annual course, we have one of the simplest instances of +that combined use of _equal magnitudes_ and _equal relations_, by which +all exact science, all quantitative prevision, is reached. For the +relation observed was between the length of the sun's shadow and his +position in the heavens; and the inference drawn was that when, next +year, the extremity of his shadow came to the same point, he occupied +the same place. That is, the ideas involved were, the equality of the +shadows, and the equality of the relations between shadow and sun in +successive years. As in the case of the scales, the equality of +relations here recognised is of the simplest order. It is not as those +habitually dealt with in the higher kinds of scientific reasoning, which +answer to the general type--the relation between two and three equals +the relation between six and nine; but it follows the type--the relation +between two and three, equals the relation between two and three; it is +a case of not simply _equal_ relations, but _coinciding_ relations. And +here, indeed, we may see beautifully illustrated how the idea of equal +relations takes its rise after the same manner that that of equal +magnitude does. As already shown, the idea of equal magnitudes arose +from the observed coincidence of two lengths placed together; and in +this case we have not only two coincident lengths of shadows, but two +coincident relations between sun and shadows. + +From the use of the gnomon there naturally grew up the conception of +angular measurements; and with the advance of geometrical conceptions +there came the hemisphere of Berosus, the equinoctial armil, the +solstitial armil, and the quadrant of Ptolemy--all of them employing +shadows as indices of the sun's position, but in combination with +angular divisions. It is obviously out of the question for us here to +trace these details of progress. It must suffice to remark that in all +of them we may see that notion of equality of relations of a more +complex kind, which is best illustrated in the astrolabe, an instrument +which consisted "of circular rims, movable one within the other, or +about poles, and contained circles which were to be brought into the +position of the ecliptic, and of a plane passing through the sun and the +poles of the ecliptic"--an instrument, therefore, which represented, as +by a model, the relative positions of certain imaginary lines and planes +in the heavens; which was adjusted by putting these representative lines +and planes into parallelism and coincidence with the celestial ones; and +which depended for its use upon the perception that the relations +between these representative lines and planes were _equal_ to the +relations between those represented. + +Were there space, we might go on to point out how the conception of the +heavens as a revolving hollow sphere, the discovery of the globular form +of the earth, the explanation of the moon's phases, and indeed all the +successive steps taken, involved this same mental process. But we must +content ourselves with referring to the theory of eccentrics and +epicycles, as a further marked illustration of it. As first suggested, +and as proved by Hipparchus to afford an explanation of the leading +irregularities in the celestial motions, this theory involved the +perception that the progressions, retrogressions, and variations of +velocity seen in the heavenly bodies, might be reconciled with their +assumed uniform movement in circles, by supposing that the earth was not +in the centre of their orbits; or by supposing that they revolved in +circles whose centres revolved round the earth; or by both. The +discovery that this would account for the appearances, was the discovery +that in certain geometrical diagrams the relations were such, that the +uniform motion of a point would, when looked at from a particular +position, present analogous irregularities; and the calculations of +Hipparchus involved the belief that the relations subsisting among these +geometrical curves were _equal_ to the relations subsisting among the +celestial orbits. + +Leaving here these details of astronomical progress, and the philosophy +of it, let us observe how the relatively concrete science of geometrical +astronomy, having been thus far helped forward by the development of +geometry in general, reacted upon geometry, caused it also to advance, +and was again assisted by it. Hipparchus, before making his solar and +lunar tables, had to discover rules for calculating the relations +between the sides and angles of triangles--_trigonometry_ a subdivision +of pure mathematics. Further, the reduction of the doctrine of the +sphere to the quantitative form needed for astronomical purposes, +required the formation of a _spherical trigonometry_, which was also +achieved by Hipparchus. Thus both plane and spherical trigonometry, +which are parts of the highly abstract and simple science of extension, +remained undeveloped until the less abstract and more complex science of +the celestial motions had need of them. The fact admitted by M. Comte, +that since Descartes the progress of the abstract division of +mathematics has been determined by that of the concrete division, is +paralleled by the still more significant fact that even thus early the +progress of mathematics was determined by that of astronomy. + +And here, indeed, we may see exemplified the truth, which the subsequent +history of science frequently illustrates, that before any more +abstract division makes a further advance, some more concrete division +must suggest the necessity for that advance--must present the new order +of questions to be solved. Before astronomy presented Hipparchus with +the problem of solar tables, there was nothing to raise the question of +the relations between lines and angles; the subject-matter of +trigonometry had not been conceived. And as there must be subject-matter +before there can be investigation, it follows that the progress of the +concrete divisions is as necessary to that of the abstract, as the +progress of the abstract to that of the concrete. + +Just incidentally noticing the circumstance that the epoch we are +describing witnessed the evolution of algebra, a comparatively abstract +division of mathematics, by the union of its less abstract divisions, +geometry and arithmetic--a fact proved by the earliest extant samples of +algebra, which are half algebraic, half geometric--we go on to observe +that during the era in which mathematics and astronomy were thus +advancing, rational mechanics made its second step; and something was +done towards giving a quantitative form to hydrostatics, optics, and +harmonics. In each case we shall see, as before, how the idea of +equality underlies all quantitative prevision; and in what simple forms +this idea is first applied. + +As already shown, the first theorem established in mechanics was, that +equal weights suspended from a lever with equal arms would remain in +equilibrium. Archimedes discovered that a lever with unequal arms was in +equilibrium when one weight was to its arm as the other arm to its +weight; that is--when the numerical relation between one weight and its +arm was _equal_ to the numerical relation between the other arm and its +weight. + +The first advance made in hydrostatics, which we also owe to Archimedes, +was the discovery that fluids press _equally_ in all directions; and +from this followed the solution of the problem of floating bodies: +namely, that they are in equilibrium when the upward and downward +pressures are _equal_. + +In optics, again, the Greeks found that the angle of incidence is +_equal_ to the angle of reflection; and their knowledge reached no +further than to such simple deductions from this as their geometry +sufficed for. In harmonics they ascertained the fact that three strings +of _equal_ lengths would yield the octave, fifth and fourth, when +strained by weights having certain definite ratios; and they did not +progress much beyond this. In the one of which cases we see geometry +used in elucidation of the laws of light; and in the other, geometry and +arithmetic made to measure the phenomena of sound. + +Did space permit, it would be desirable here to describe the state of +the less advanced sciences--to point out how, while a few had thus +reached the first stages of quantitative prevision, the rest were +progressing in qualitative prevision--how some small generalisations +were made respecting evaporation, and heat, and electricity, and +magnetism, which, empirical as they were, did not in that respect differ +from the first generalisations of every science--how the Greek +physicians had made advances in physiology and pathology, which, +considering the great imperfection of our present knowledge, are by no +means to be despised--how zoology had been so far systematised by +Aristotle, as, to some extent, enabled him from the presence of certain +organs to predict the presence of others--how in Aristotle's _Politics_ +there is some progress towards a scientific conception of social +phenomena, and sundry previsions respecting them--and how in the state +of the Greek societies, as well as in the writings of Greek +philosophers, we may recognise not only an increasing clearness in that +conception of equity on which the social science is based, but also some +appreciation of the fact that social stability depends upon the +maintenance of equitable regulations. We might dwell at length upon the +causes which retarded the development of some of the sciences, as, for +example, chemistry; showing that relative complexity had nothing to do +with it--that the oxidation of a piece of iron is a simpler phenomenon +than the recurrence of eclipses, and the discovery of carbonic acid less +difficult than that of the precession of the equinoxes--but that the +relatively slow advance of chemical knowledge was due, partly to the +fact that its phenomena were not daily thrust on men's notice as those +of astronomy were; partly to the fact that Nature does not habitually +supply the means, and suggest the modes of investigation, as in the +sciences dealing with time, extension, and force; and partly to the fact +that the great majority of the materials with which chemistry deals, +instead of being ready to hand, are made known only by the arts in their +slow growth; and partly to the fact that even when known, their chemical +properties are not self-exhibited, but have to be sought out by +experiment. + +Merely indicating all these considerations, however, let us go on to +contemplate the progress and mutual influence of the sciences in modern +days; only parenthetically noticing how, on the revival of the +scientific spirit, the successive stages achieved exhibit the dominance +of the same law hitherto traced--how the primary idea in dynamics, a +uniform force, was defined by Galileo to be a force which generates +_equal_ velocities in _equal_ successive times--how the uniform action +of gravity was first experimentally determined by showing that the time +elapsing before a body thrown up, stopped, was _equal_ to the time it +took to fall--how the first fact in compound motion which Galileo +ascertained was, that a body projected horizontally will have a uniform +motion onwards and a uniformly accelerated motion downwards; that is, +will describe _equal_ horizontal spaces in _equal_ times, compounded +with _equal_ vertical increments in _equal_ times--how his discovery +respecting the pendulum was, that its oscillations occupy _equal_ +intervals of time whatever their length--how the principle of virtual +velocities which he established is, that in any machine the weights that +balance each other are reciprocally as their virtual velocities; that +is, the relation of one set of weights to their velocities _equals_ the +relation of the other set of velocities to their weights; and how thus +his achievements consisted in showing the equalities of certain +magnitudes and relations, whose equalities had not been previously +recognised. + +When mechanics had reached the point to which Galileo brought it--when +the simple laws of force had been disentangled from the friction and +atmospheric resistance by which all their earthly manifestations are +disguised--when progressing knowledge of _physics_ had given a due +insight into these disturbing causes--when, by an effort of abstraction, +it was perceived that all motion would be uniform and rectilinear unless +interfered with by external forces--and when the various consequences of +this perception had been worked out; then it became possible, by the +union of geometry and mechanics, to initiate physical astronomy. +Geometry and mechanics having diverged from a common root in men's +sensible experiences; having, with occasional inosculations, been +separately developed, the one partly in connection with astronomy, the +other solely by analysing terrestrial movements; now join in the +investigations of Newton to create a true theory of the celestial +motions. And here, also, we have to notice the important fact that, in +the very process of being brought jointly to bear upon astronomical +problems, they are themselves raised to a higher phase of development. +For it was in dealing with the questions raised by celestial dynamics +that the then incipient infinitesimal calculus was unfolded by Newton +and his continental successors; and it was from inquiries into the +mechanics of the solar system that the general theorems of mechanics +contained in the _Principia_,--many of them of purely terrestrial +application--took their rise. Thus, as in the case of Hipparchus, the +presentation of a new order of concrete facts to be analysed, led to the +discovery of new abstract facts; and these abstract facts having been +laid hold of, gave means of access to endless groups of concrete facts +before incapable of quantitative treatment. + +Meanwhile, physics had been carrying further that progress without +which, as just shown, rational mechanics could not be disentangled. In +hydrostatics, Stevinus had extended and applied the discovery of +Archimedes. Torricelli had proved atmospheric pressure, "by showing that +this pressure sustained different liquids at heights inversely +proportional to their densities;" and Pascal "established the necessary +diminution of this pressure at increasing heights in the atmosphere:" +discoveries which in part reduced this branch of science to a +quantitative form. Something had been done by Daniel Bernouilli towards +the dynamics of fluids. The thermometer had been invented; and a number +of small generalisations reached by it. Huyghens and Newton had made +considerable progress in optics; Newton had approximately calculated the +rate of transmission of sound; and the continental mathematicians had +succeeded in determining some of the laws of sonorous vibrations. +Magnetism and electricity had been considerably advanced by Gilbert. +Chemistry had got as far as the mutual neutralisation of acids and +alkalies. And Leonardo da Vinci had advanced in geology to the +conception of the deposition of marine strata as the origin of fossils. +Our present purpose does not require that we should give particulars. +All that it here concerns us to do is to illustrate the _consensus_ +subsisting in this stage of growth, and afterwards. Let us look at a few +cases. + +The theoretic law of the velocity of sound enunciated by Newton on +purely mechanical considerations, was found wrong by one-sixth. The +error remained unaccounted for until the time of Laplace, who, +suspecting that the heat disengaged by the compression of the undulating +strata of the air, gave additional elasticity, and so produced the +difference, made the needful calculations and found he was right. Thus +acoustics was arrested until thermology overtook and aided it. When +Boyle and Marriot had discovered the relation between the density of +gases and the pressures they are subject to; and when it thus became +possible to calculate the rate of decreasing density in the upper parts +of the atmosphere, it also became possible to make approximate tables of +the atmospheric refraction of light. Thus optics, and with it astronomy, +advanced with barology. After the discovery of atmospheric pressure had +led to the invention of the air-pump by Otto Guericke; and after it had +become known that evaporation increases in rapidity as atmospheric +pressure decreases; it became possible for Leslie, by evaporation in a +vacuum, to produce the greatest cold known; and so to extend our +knowledge of thermology by showing that there is no zero within reach of +our researches. When Fourier had determined the laws of conduction of +heat, and when the Earth's temperature had been found to increase below +the surface one degree in every forty yards, there were data for +inferring the past condition of our globe; the vast period it has taken +to cool down to its present state; and the immense age of the solar +system--a purely astronomical consideration. + +Chemistry having advanced sufficiently to supply the needful materials, +and a physiological experiment having furnished the requisite hint, +there came the discovery of galvanic electricity. Galvanism reacting on +chemistry disclosed the metallic bases of the alkalies, and inaugurated +the electro-chemical theory; in the hands of Oersted and Ampère it led +to the laws of magnetic action; and by its aid Faraday has detected +significant facts relative to the constitution of light. Brewster's +discoveries respecting double refraction and dipolarisation proved the +essential truth of the classification of crystalline forms according to +the number of axes, by showing that the molecular constitution depends +upon the axes. In these and in numerous other cases, the mutual +influence of the sciences has been quite independent of any supposed +hierarchical order. Often, too, their inter-actions are more complex +than as thus instanced--involve more sciences than two. One illustration +of this must suffice. We quote it in full from the _History of the +Inductive Sciences_. In book xi., chap, ii., on "The Progress of the +Electrical Theory," Dr. Whewell writes:-- + + "Thus at that period, mathematics was behind experiment, and a + problem was proposed, in which theoretical results were wanted for + comparison with observation, but could not be accurately obtained; + as was the case in astronomy also, till the time of the approximate + solution of the problem of three bodies, and the consequent + formation of the tables of the moon and planets, on the theory of + universal gravitation. After some time, electrical theory was + relieved from this reproach, mainly in consequence of the progress + which astronomy had occasioned in pure mathematics. About 1801 + there appeared in the _Bulletin des Sciences_, an exact solution of + the problem of the distribution of electric fluid on a spheroid, + obtained by Biot, by the application of the peculiar methods which + Laplace had invented for the problem of the figure of the planets. + And, in 1811, M. Poisson applied Laplace's artifices to the case of + two spheres acting upon one another in contact, a case to which + many of Coulomb's experiments were referrible; and the agreement of + the results of theory and observation, thus extricated from + Coulomb's numbers obtained above forty years previously, was very + striking and convincing." + +Not only do the sciences affect each other after this direct manner, but +they affect each other indirectly. Where there is no dependence, there +is yet analogy--_equality of relations_; and the discovery of the +relations subsisting among one set of phenomena, constantly suggests a +search for the same relations among another set. Thus the established +fact that the force of gravitation varies inversely as the square of the +distance, being recognised as a necessary characteristic of all +influences proceeding from a centre, raised the suspicion that heat and +light follow the same law; which proved to be the case--a suspicion and +a confirmation which were repeated in respect to the electric and +magnetic forces. Thus again the discovery of the polarisation of light +led to experiments which ended in the discovery of the polarisation of +heat--a discovery that could never have been made without the antecedent +one. Thus, too, the known refrangibility of light and heat lately +produced the inquiry whether sound also is not refrangible; which on +trial it turns out to be. + +In some cases, indeed, it is only by the aid of conceptions derived from +one class of phenomena that hypotheses respecting other classes can be +formed. The theory, at one time favoured, that evaporation is a solution +of water in air, was an assumption that the relation between water and +air is _like_ the relation between salt and water; and could never have +been conceived if the relation between salt and water had not been +previously known. Similarly the received theory of evaporation--that it +is a diffusion of the particles of the evaporating fluid in virtue of +their atomic repulsion--could not have been entertained without a +foregoing experience of magnetic and electric repulsions. So complete in +recent days has become this _consensus_ among the sciences, caused +either by the natural entanglement of their phenomena, or by analogies +in the relations of their phenomena, that scarcely any considerable +discovery concerning one order of facts now takes place, without very +shortly leading to discoveries concerning other orders. + +To produce a tolerably complete conception of this process of +scientific evolution, it would be needful to go back to the beginning, +and trace in detail the growth of classifications and nomenclatures; and +to show how, as subsidiary to science, they have acted upon it, and it +has reacted upon them. We can only now remark that, on the one hand, +classifications and nomenclatures have aided science by continually +subdividing the subject-matter of research, and giving fixity and +diffusion to the truths disclosed; and that on the other hand, they have +caught from it that increasing quantitativeness, and that progress from +considerations touching single phenomena to considerations touching the +relations among many phenomena, which we have been describing. + +Of this last influence a few illustrations must be given. In chemistry +it is seen in the facts, that the dividing of matter into the four +elements was ostensibly based upon the single property of weight; that +the first truly chemical division into acid and alkaline bodies, grouped +together bodies which had not simply one property in common, but in +which one property was constantly related to many others; and that the +classification now current, places together in groups _supporters of +combustion_, _metallic and non-metallic bases_, _acids_, _salts_, etc., +bodies which are often quite unlike in sensible qualities, but which are +like in the majority of their _relations_ to other bodies. In mineralogy +again, the first classifications were based upon differences in aspect, +texture, and other physical attributes. Berzelius made two attempts at a +classification based solely on chemical constitution. That now current, +recognises as far as possible the _relations_ between physical and +chemical characters. In botany the earliest classes formed were _trees_, +_shrubs_, and _herbs_: magnitude being the basis of distinction. +Dioscorides divided vegetables into _aromatic_, _alimentary_, +_medicinal_, and _vinous_: a division of chemical character. Cæsalpinus +classified them by the seeds, and seed-vessels, which he preferred +because of the _relations_ found to subsist between the character of the +fructification and the general character of the other parts. + +While the "natural system" since developed, carrying out the doctrine of +Linnæus, that "natural orders must be formed by attention not to one or +two, but to _all_ the parts of plants," bases its divisions on like +peculiarities which are found to be _constantly related_ to the greatest +number of other like peculiarities. And similarly in zoology, the +successive classifications, from having been originally determined by +external and often subordinate characters not indicative of the +essential nature, have been gradually more and more determined by those +internal and fundamental differences, which have uniform _relations_ to +the greatest number of other differences. Nor shall we be surprised at +this analogy between the modes of progress of positive science and +classification, when we bear in mind that both proceed by making +generalisations; that both enable us to make previsions differing only +in their precision; and that while the one deals with equal properties +and relations, the other deals with properties and relations that +approximate towards equality in variable degrees. + +Without further argument, it will, we think, be sufficiently clear that +the sciences are none of them separately evolved--are none of them +independent either logically or historically; but that all of them have, +in a greater or less degree, required aid and reciprocated it. Indeed, +it needs but to throw aside these, and contemplate the mixed character +of surrounding phenomena, to at once see that these notions of division +and succession in the kinds of knowledge are none of them actually true, +but are simple scientific fictions: good, if regarded merely as aids to +study; bad, if regarded as representing realities in Nature. Consider +them critically, and no facts whatever are presented to our senses +uncombined with other facts--no facts whatever but are in some degree +disguised by accompanying facts: disguised in such a manner that all +must be partially understood before any one can be understood. If it be +said, as by M. Comte, that gravitating force should be treated of before +other forces, seeing that all things are subject to it, it may on like +grounds be said that heat should be first dealt with; seeing that +thermal forces are everywhere in action; that the ability of any portion +of matter to manifest visible gravitative phenomena depends on its state +of aggregation, which is determined by heat; that only by the aid of +thermology can we explain those apparent exceptions to the gravitating +tendency which are presented by steam and smoke, and so establish its +universality, and that, indeed, the very existence of the solar system +in a solid form is just as much a question of heat as it is one of +gravitation. + +Take other cases:--All phenomena recognised by the eyes, through which +only are the data of exact science ascertainable, are complicated with +optical phenomena; and cannot be exhaustively known until optical +principles are known. The burning of a candle cannot be explained +without involving chemistry, mechanics, thermology. Every wind that +blows is determined by influences partly solar, partly lunar, partly +hygrometric; and implies considerations of fluid equilibrium and +physical geography. The direction, dip, and variations of the magnetic +needle, are facts half terrestrial, half celestial--are caused by +earthly forces which have cycles of change corresponding with +astronomical periods. The flowing of the gulf-stream and the annual +migration of icebergs towards the equator, depending as they do on the +balancing of the centripetal and centrifugal forces acting on the ocean, +involve in their explanation the Earth's rotation and spheroidal form, +the laws of hydrostatics, the relative densities of cold and warm water, +and the doctrines of evaporation. It is no doubt true, as M. Comte says, +that "our position in the solar system, and the motions, form, size, +equilibrium of the mass of our world among the planets, must be known +before we can understand the phenomena going on at its surface." But, +fatally for his hypothesis, it is also true that we must understand a +great part of the phenomena going on at its surface before we can know +its position, etc., in the solar system. It is not simply that, as we +have already shown, those geometrical and mechanical principles by which +celestial appearances are explained, were first generalised from +terrestrial experiences; but it is that the very obtainment of correct +data, on which to base astronomical generalisations, implies advanced +terrestrial physics. + +Until after optics had made considerable advance, the Copernican system +remained but a speculation. A single modern observation on a star has to +undergo a careful analysis by the combined aid of various sciences--has +to _be digested by the organism of the sciences_; which have severally +to assimilate their respective parts of the observation, before the +essential fact it contains is available for the further development of +astronomy. It has to be corrected not only for nutation of the earth's +axis and for precession of the equinoxes, but for aberration and for +refraction; and the formation of the tables by which refraction is +calculated, presupposes knowledge of the law of decreasing density in +the upper atmospheric strata; of the law of decreasing temperature, and +the influence of this on the density; and of hygrometric laws as also +affecting density. So that, to get materials for further advance, +astronomy requires not only the indirect aid of the sciences which have +presided over the making of its improved instruments, but the direct aid +of an advanced optics, of barology, of thermology, of hygrometry; and if +we remember that these delicate observations are in some cases +registered electrically, and that they are further corrected for the +"personal equation"--the time elapsing between seeing and registering, +which varies with different observers--we may even add electricity and +psychology. If, then, so apparently simple a thing as ascertaining the +position of a star is complicated with so many phenomena, it is clear +that this notion of the independence of the sciences, or certain of +them, will not hold. + +Whether objectively independent or not, they cannot be subjectively +so--they cannot have independence as presented to our consciousness; and +this is the only kind of independence with which we are concerned. And +here, before leaving these illustrations, and especially this last one, +let us not omit to notice how clearly they exhibit that increasingly +active _consensus_ of the sciences which characterises their advancing +development. Besides finding that in these later times a discovery in +one science commonly causes progress in others; besides finding that a +great part of the questions with which modern science deals are so mixed +as to require the co-operation of many sciences for their solution; we +find in this last case that, to make a single good observation in the +purest of the natural sciences, requires the combined assistance of half +a dozen other sciences. + +Perhaps the clearest comprehension of the interconnected growth of the +sciences may be obtained by contemplating that of the arts, to which it +is strictly analogous, and with which it is inseparably bound up. Most +intelligent persons must have been, at one time or other, struck with +the vast array of antecedents pre-supposed by one of our processes of +manufacture. Let him trace the production of a printed cotton, and +consider all that is implied by it. There are the many successive +improvements through which the power-looms reached their present +perfection; there is the steam-engine that drives them, having its long +history from Papin downwards; there are the lathes in which its cylinder +was bored, and the string of ancestral lathes from which those lathes +proceeded; there is the steam-hammer under which its crank shaft was +welded; there are the puddling-furnaces, the blast-furnaces, the +coal-mines and the iron-mines needful for producing the raw material; +there are the slowly improved appliances by which the factory was built, +and lighted, and ventilated; there are the printing engine, and the die +house, and the colour laboratory with its stock of materials from all +parts of the world, implying cochineal-culture, logwood-cutting, +indigo-growing; there are the implements used by the producers of +cotton, the gins by which it is cleaned, the elaborate machines by which +it is spun: there are the vessels in which cotton is imported, with the +building-slips, the rope-yards, the sail-cloth factories, the +anchor-forges, needful for making them; and besides all these directly +necessary antecedents, each of them involving many others, there are the +institutions which have developed the requisite intelligence, the +printing and publishing arrangements which have spread the necessary +information, the social organisation which has rendered possible such a +complex co-operation of agencies. + +Further analysis would show that the many arts thus concerned in the +economical production of a child's frock, have each of them been brought +to its present efficiency by slow steps which the other arts have aided; +and that from the beginning this reciprocity has been ever on the +increase. It needs but on the one hand to consider how utterly +impossible it is for the savage, even with ore and coal ready, to +produce so simple a thing as an iron hatchet; and then to consider, on +the other hand, that it would have been impracticable among ourselves, +even a century ago, to raise the tubes of the Britannia bridge from lack +of the hydraulic press; to at once see how mutually dependent are the +arts, and how all must advance that each may advance. Well, the sciences +are involved with each other in just the same manner. They are, in fact, +inextricably woven into the same complex web of the arts; and are only +conventionally independent of it. Originally the two were one. How to +fix the religious festivals; when to sow: how to weigh commodities; and +in what manner to measure ground; were the purely practical questions +out of which arose astronomy, mechanics, geometry. Since then there has +been a perpetual inosculation of the sciences and the arts. Science has +been supplying art with truer generalisations and more completely +quantitative previsions. Art has been supplying science with better +materials and more perfect instruments. And all along the +interdependence has been growing closer, not only between art and +science, but among the arts themselves, and among the sciences +themselves. + +How completely the analogy holds throughout, becomes yet clearer when we +recognise the fact that _the sciences are arts to each other_. If, as +occurs in almost every case, the fact to be analysed by any science, has +first to be prepared--to be disentangled from disturbing facts by the +afore discovered methods of other sciences; the other sciences so used, +stand in the position of arts. If, in solving a dynamical problem, a +parallelogram is drawn, of which the sides and diagonal represent +forces, and by putting magnitudes of extension for magnitudes of force a +measurable relation is established between quantities not else to be +dealt with; it may be fairly said that geometry plays towards mechanics +much the same part that the fire of the founder plays towards the metal +he is going to cast. If, in analysing the phenomena of the coloured +rings surrounding the point of contact between two lenses, a Newton +ascertains by calculation the amount of certain interposed spaces, far +too minute for actual measurement; he employs the science of number for +essentially the same purpose as that for which the watchmaker employs +tools. If, before writing down his observation on a star, the astronomer +has to separate from it all the errors resulting from atmospheric and +optical laws, it is manifest that the refraction-tables, and +logarithm-books, and formulæ, which he successively uses, serve him much +as retorts, and filters, and cupels serve the assayer who wishes to +separate the pure gold from all accompanying ingredients. + +So close, indeed, is the relationship, that it is impossible to say +where science begins and art ends. All the instruments of the natural +philosopher are the products of art; the adjusting one of them for use +is an art; there is art in making an observation with one of them; it +requires art properly to treat the facts ascertained; nay, even the +employing established generalisations to open the way to new +generalisations, may be considered as art. In each of these cases +previously organised knowledge becomes the implement by which new +knowledge is got at: and whether that previously organised knowledge is +embodied in a tangible apparatus or in a formula, matters not in so far +as its essential relation to the new knowledge is concerned. If, as no +one will deny, art is applied knowledge, then such portion of a +scientific investigation as consists of applied knowledge is art. So +that we may even say that as soon as any prevision in science passes out +of its originally passive state, and is employed for reaching other +previsions, it passes from theory into practice--becomes science in +action--becomes art. And when we thus see how purely conventional is the +ordinary distinction, how impossible it is to make any real +separation--when we see not only that science and art were originally +one; that the arts have perpetually assisted each other; that there has +been a constant reciprocation of aid between the sciences and arts; but +that the sciences act as arts to each other, and that the established +part of each science becomes an art to the growing part--when we +recognise the closeness of these associations, we shall the more clearly +perceive that as the connection of the arts with each other has been +ever becoming more intimate; as the help given by sciences to arts and +by arts to sciences, has been age by age increasing; so the +interdependence of the sciences themselves has been ever growing +greater, their mutual relations more involved, their _consensus_ more +active. + + * * * * * + +In here ending our sketch of the Genesis of Science, we are conscious of +having done the subject but scant justice. Two difficulties have stood +in our way: one, the having to touch on so many points in such small +space; the other, the necessity of treating in serial arrangement a +process which is not serial--a difficulty which must ever attend all +attempts to delineate processes of development, whatever their special +nature. Add to which, that to present in anything like completeness and +proportion, even the outlines of so vast and complex a history, demands +years of study. Nevertheless, we believe that the evidence which has +been assigned suffices to substantiate the leading propositions with +which we set out. Inquiry into the first stages of science confirms the +conclusion which we drew from the analysis of science as now existing, +that it is not distinct from common knowledge, but an outgrowth from +it--an extension of the perception by means of the reason. + +That which we further found by analysis to form the more specific +characteristic of scientific previsions, as contrasted with the +previsions of uncultured intelligence--their quantitativeness--we also +see to have been the characteristic alike in the initial steps in +science, and of all the steps succeeding them. The facts and admissions +cited in disproof of the assertion that the sciences follow one another, +both logically and historically, in the order of their decreasing +generality, have been enforced by the sundry instances we have met with, +in which the more general or abstract sciences have been advanced only +at the instigation of the more special or concrete--instances serving to +show that a more general science as much owes its progress to the +presentation of new problems by a more special science, as the more +special science owes its progress to the solutions which the more +general science is thus led to attempt--instances therefore illustrating +the position that scientific advance is as much from the special to the +general as from the general to the special. + +Quite in harmony with this position we find to be the admissions that +the sciences are as branches of one trunk, and that they were at first +cultivated simultaneously; and this harmony becomes the more marked on +finding, as we have done, not only that the sciences have a common root, +but that science in general has a common root with language, +classification, reasoning, art; that throughout civilisation these have +advanced together, acting and reacting upon each other just as the +separate sciences have done; and that thus the development of +intelligence in all its divisions and subdivisions has conformed to this +same law which we have shown that the sciences conform to. From all +which we may perceive that the sciences can with no greater propriety be +arranged in a succession, than language, classification, reasoning, art, +and science, can be arranged in a succession; that, however needful a +succession may be for the convenience of books and catalogues, it must +be recognised merely as a convention; and that so far from its being the +function of a philosophy of the sciences to establish a hierarchy, it is +its function to show that the linear arrangements required for literary +purposes, have none of them any basis either in Nature or History. + +There is one further remark we must not omit--a remark touching the +importance of the question that has been discussed. Unfortunately it +commonly happens that topics of this abstract nature are slighted as of +no practical moment; and, we doubt not, that many will think it of very +little consequence what theory respecting the genesis of science may be +entertained. But the value of truths is often great, in proportion as +their generality is wide. Remote as they seem from practical +application, the highest generalisations are not unfrequently the most +potent in their effects, in virtue of their influence on all those +subordinate generalisations which regulate practice. And it must be so +here. Whenever established, a correct theory of the historical +development of the sciences must have an immense effect upon education; +and, through education, upon civilisation. Greatly as we differ from him +in other respects, we agree with M. Comte in the belief that, rightly +conducted, the education of the individual must have a certain +correspondence with the evolution of the race. + +No one can contemplate the facts we have cited in illustration of the +early stages of science, without recognising the _necessity_ of the +processes through which those stages were reached--a necessity which, in +respect to the leading truths, may likewise be traced in all after +stages. This necessity, originating in the very nature of the phenomena +to be analysed and the faculties to be employed, more or less fully +applies to the mind of the child as to that of the savage. We say more +or less fully, because the correspondence is not special but general +only. Were the _environment_ the same in both cases, the correspondence +would be complete. But though the surrounding material out of which +science is to be organised, is, in many cases, the same to the juvenile +mind and the aboriginal mind, it is not so throughout; as, for instance, +in the case of chemistry, the phenomena of which are accessible to the +one, but were inaccessible to the other. Hence, in proportion as the +environment differs, the course of evolution must differ. After +admitting sundry exceptions, however, there remains a substantial +parallelism; and, if so, it becomes of great moment to ascertain what +really has been the process of scientific evolution. The establishment +of an erroneous theory must be disastrous in its educational results; +while the establishments of a true one must eventually be fertile in +school-reforms and consequent social benefits. + +[1] _British Quarterly Review_, July 1854. + +[2] It is somewhat curious that the author of _The Plurality of Worlds_, +with quite other aims, should have persuaded himself into similar +conclusions. + + + + +ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAUGHTER[1] + + +Why do we smile when a child puts on a man's hat? or what induces us to +laugh on reading that the corpulent Gibbon was unable to rise from his +knees after making a tender declaration? The usual reply to such +questions is, that laughter results from a perception of incongruity. +Even were there not on this reply the obvious criticism that laughter +often occurs from extreme pleasure or from mere vivacity, there would +still remain the real problem--How comes a sense of the incongruous to +be followed by these peculiar bodily actions? Some have alleged that +laughter is due to the pleasure of a relative self-elevation, which we +feel on seeing the humiliation of others. But this theory, whatever +portion of truth it may contain, is, in the first place, open to the +fatal objection, that there are various humiliations to others which +produce in us anything but laughter; and, in the second place, it does +not apply to the many instances in which no one's dignity is implicated: +as when we laugh at a good pun. Moreover, like the other, it is merely a +generalisation of certain conditions to laughter; and not an explanation +of the odd movements which occur under these conditions. Why, when +greatly delighted, or impressed with certain unexpected contrasts of +ideas, should there be a contraction of particular facial muscles, and +particular muscles of the chest and abdomen? Such answer to this +question as may be possible can be rendered only by physiology. + + * * * * * + +Every child has made the attempt to hold the foot still while it is +tickled, and has failed; and probably there is scarcely any one who has +not vainly tried to avoid winking, when a hand has been suddenly passed +before the eyes. These examples of muscular movements which occur +independently of the will, or in spite of it, illustrate what +physiologists call reflex-action; as likewise do sneezing and coughing. +To this class of cases, in which involuntary motions are accompanied by +sensations, has to be added another class of cases, in which involuntary +motions are unaccompanied by sensations:--instance the pulsations of the +heart; the contractions of the stomach during digestion. Further, the +great mass of seemingly-voluntary acts in such creatures as insects, +worms, molluscs, are considered by physiologists to be as purely +automatic as is the dilatation or closure of the iris under variations +in quantity of light; and similarly exemplify the law, that an +impression on the end of an afferent nerve is conveyed to some +ganglionic centre, and is thence usually reflected along an efferent +nerve to one or more muscles which it causes to contract. + +In a modified form this principle holds with voluntary acts. Nervous +excitation always _tends_ to beget muscular motion; and when it rises to +a certain intensity, always does beget it. Not only in reflex actions, +whether with or without sensation, do we see that special nerves, when +raised to a state of tension, discharge themselves on special muscles +with which they are indirectly connected; but those external actions +through which we read the feelings of others, show us that under any +considerable tension, the nervous system in general discharges itself on +the muscular system in general: either with or without the guidance of +the will. The shivering produced by cold, implies irregular muscular +contractions, which, though at first only partly involuntary, become, +when the cold is extreme, almost wholly involuntary. When you have +severely burnt your finger, it is very difficult to preserve a dignified +composure: contortion of face, or movement of limb, is pretty sure to +follow. If a man receives good news with neither change of feature nor +bodily motion, it is inferred that he is not much pleased, or that he +has extraordinary self-control--either inference implying that joy +almost universally produces contraction of the muscles; and so, alters +the expression, or attitude, or both. And when we hear of the feats of +strength which men have performed when their lives were at stake--when +we read how, in the energy of despair, even paralytic patients have +regained for a time the use of their limbs, we see still more clearly +the relations between nervous and muscular excitements. It becomes +manifest both that emotions and sensations tend to generate bodily +movements and that the movements are vehement in proportion as the +emotions or sensations are intense.[2] + +This, however, is not the sole direction in which nervous excitement +expends itself. Viscera as well as muscles may receive the discharge. +That the heart and blood-vessels (which, indeed, being all contractile, +may in a restricted sense be classed with the muscular system) are +quickly affected by pleasures and pains, we have daily proved to us. +Every sensation of any acuteness accelerates the pulse; and how +sensitive the heart is to emotions, is testified by the familiar +expressions which use heart and feeling as convertible terms. Similarly +with the digestive organs. Without detailing the various ways in which +these may be influenced by our mental states, it suffices to mention the +marked benefits derived by dyspeptics, as well as other invalids, from +cheerful society, welcome news, change of scene, to show how pleasurable +feeling stimulates the viscera in general into greater activity. + +There is still another direction in which any excited portion of the +nervous system may discharge itself; and a direction in which it usually +does discharge itself when the excitement is not strong. It may pass on +the stimulus to some other portion of the nervous system. This is what +occurs in quiet thinking and feeling. The successive states which +constitute consciousness, result from this. Sensations excite ideas and +emotions; these in their turns arouse other ideas and emotions; and so, +continuously. That is to say, the tension existing in particular nerves, +or groups of nerves, when they yield us certain sensations, ideas, or +emotions, generates an equivalent tension in some other nerves, or +groups of nerves, with which there is a connection: the flow of energy +passing on, the one idea or feeling dies in producing the next. + +Thus, then, while we are totally unable to comprehend how the excitement +of certain nerves should generate feeling--while, in the production of +consciousness by physical agents acting on physical structure, we come +to an absolute mystery never to be solved; it is yet quite possible for +us to know by observation what are the successive forms which this +absolute mystery may take. We see that there are three channels along +which nerves in a state of tension may discharge themselves; or rather, +I should say, three classes of channels. They may pass on the excitement +to other nerves that have no direct connections with the bodily members, +and may so cause other feelings and ideas; or they may pass on the +excitement to one or more motor nerves, and so cause muscular +contractions; or they may pass on the excitement to nerves which supply +the viscera, and may so stimulate one or more of these. + +For simplicity's sake, I have described these as alternative routes, one +or other of which any current of nerve-force must take; thereby, as it +may be thought, implying that such current will be exclusively confined +to some one of them. But this is by no means the case. Rarely, if ever, +does it happen that a state of nervous tension, present to consciousness +as a feeling, expends itself in one direction only. Very generally it +may be observed to expend itself in two; and it is probable that the +discharge is never absolutely absent from any one of the three. There +is, however, variety in the _proportions_ in which the discharge is +divided among these different channels under different circumstances. In +a man whose fear impels him to run, the mental tension generated is only +in part transformed into a muscular stimulus: there is a surplus which +causes a rapid current of ideas. An agreeable state of feeling produced, +say by praise, is not wholly used up in arousing the succeeding phase of +the feeling, and the new ideas appropriate to it; but a certain portion +overflows into the visceral nervous system, increasing the action of the +heart, and probably facilitating digestion. And here we come upon a +class of considerations and facts which open the way to a solution of +our special problem. + +For starting with the unquestionable truth, that at any moment the +existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an inscrutable way +produces in us the state we call feeling, _must_ expend itself in some +direction--_must_ generate an equivalent manifestation of force +somewhere--it clearly follows that, if of the several channels it may +take, one is wholly or partially closed, more must be taken by the +others; or that if two are closed, the discharge along the remaining one +must be more intense; and that, conversely, should anything determine an +unusual efflux in one direction, there will be a diminished efflux in +other directions. + +Daily experience illustrates these conclusions. It is commonly remarked, +that the suppression of external signs of feeling, makes feeling more +intense. The deepest grief is silent grief. Why? Because the nervous +excitement not discharged in muscular action, discharges itself in other +nervous excitements--arouses more numerous and more remote associations +of melancholy ideas, and so increases the mass of feelings. People who +conceal their anger are habitually found to be more revengeful than +those who explode in loud speech and vehement action. Why? Because, as +before, the emotion is reflected back, accumulates, and intensifies. +Similarly, men who, as proved by their powers of representation, have +the keenest appreciation of the comic, are usually able to do and say +the most ludicrous things with perfect gravity. + +On the other hand, all are familiar with the truth that bodily activity +deadens emotion. Under great irritation we get relief by walking about +rapidly. Extreme effort in the bootless attempt to achieve a desired +end greatly diminishes the intensity of the desire. Those who are forced +to exert themselves after misfortunes, do not suffer nearly so much as +those who remain quiescent. If any one wishes to check intellectual +excitement, he cannot choose a more efficient method than running till +he is exhausted. Moreover, these cases, in which the production of +feeling and thought is hindered by determining the nervous energy +towards bodily movements, have their counterparts in the cases in which +bodily movements are hindered by extra absorption of nervous energy in +sudden thoughts and feelings. If, when walking along, there flashes on +you an idea that creates great surprise, hope, or alarm, you stop; or if +sitting cross-legged, swinging your pendent foot, the movement is at +once arrested. From the viscera, too, intense mental action abstracts +energy. Joy, disappointment, anxiety, or any moral perturbation rising +to a great height, will destroy appetite; or if food has been taken, +will arrest digestion; and even a purely intellectual activity, when +extreme, will do the like. + +Facts, then, fully bear out these _à priori_ inferences, that the +nervous excitement at any moment present to consciousness as feeling, +must expend itself in some way or other; that of the three classes of +channels open to it, it must take one, two, or more, according to +circumstances; that the closure or obstruction of one, must increase the +discharge through the others; and conversely, that if to answer some +demand, the efflux of nervous energy in one direction is unusually +great, there must be a corresponding decrease of the efflux in other +directions. Setting out from these premises, let us now see what +interpretation is to be put on the phenomena of laughter. + + * * * * * + +That laughter is a display of muscular excitement, and so illustrates +the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch habitually vents +itself in bodily action, scarcely needs pointing out. It perhaps needs +pointing out, however, that strong feeling of almost any kind produces +this result. It is not a sense of the ludicrous, only, which does it; +nor are the various forms of joyous emotion the sole additional causes. +We have, besides, the sardonic laughter and the hysterical laughter, +which result from mental distress; to which must be added certain +sensations, as tickling, and, according to Mr. Bain, cold, and some +kinds of acute pain. + +Strong feeling, mental or physical, being, then, the general cause of +laughter, we have to note that the muscular actions constituting it are +distinguished from most others by this, that they are purposeless. In +general, bodily motions that are prompted by feelings are directed to +special ends; as when we try to escape a danger, or struggle to secure a +gratification. But the movements of chest and limbs which we make when +laughing have no object. And now remark that these quasi-convulsive +contractions of the muscles, having no object, but being results of an +uncontrolled discharge of energy, we may see whence arise their special +characters--how it happens that certain classes of muscles are affected +first, and then certain other classes. For an overflow of nerve-force, +undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual +routes; and if these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less +habitual ones. Well, it is through the organs of speech that feeling +passes into movement with the greatest frequency. The jaws, tongue, and +lips are used not only to express strong irritation or gratification; +but that very moderate flow of mental energy which accompanies ordinary +conversation, finds its chief vent through this channel. Hence it +happens that certain muscles round the mouth, small and easy to move, +are the first to contract under pleasurable emotion. The class of +muscles which, next after those of articulation, are most constantly set +in action (or extra action, we should say) by feelings of all kinds, are +those of respiration. Under pleasurable or painful sensations we breathe +more rapidly: possibly as a consequence of the increased demand for +oxygenated blood. The sensations that accompany exertion also bring on +hard-breathing; which here more evidently responds to the physiological +needs. And emotions, too, agreeable and disagreeable, both, at first, +excite respiration; though the last subsequently depress it. That is to +say, of the bodily muscles, the respiratory are more constantly +implicated than any others in those various acts which our feelings +impel us to; and, hence, when there occurs an undirected discharge of +nervous energy into the muscular system, it happens that, if the +quantity be considerable, it convulses not only certain of the +articulatory and vocal muscles, but also those which expel air from the +lungs. + +Should the feeling to be expended be still greater in amount--too great +to find vent in these classes of muscles--another class comes into play. +The upper limbs are set in motion. Children frequently clap their hands +in glee; by some adults the hands are rubbed together; and others, under +still greater intensity of delight, slap their knees and sway their +bodies backwards and forwards. Last of all, when the other channels for +the escape of the surplus nerve-force have been filled to overflowing, a +yet further and less-used group of muscles is spasmodically affected: +the head is thrown back and the spine bent inwards--there is a slight +degree of what medical men call opisthotonos. Thus, then, without +contending that the phenomena of laughter in all their details are to be +so accounted for, we see that in their _ensemble_ they conform to these +general principles:--that feeling excites to muscular action; that when +the muscular action is unguided by a purpose, the muscles first affected +are those which feeling most habitually stimulates; and that as the +feeling to be expended increases in quantity, it excites an increasing +number of muscles, in a succession determined by the relative frequency +with which they respond to the regulated dictates of feeling. + +There still, however, remains the question with which we set out. The +explanation here given applies only to the laughter produced by acute +pleasure or pain: it does not apply to the laughter that follows certain +perceptions of incongruity. It is an insufficient explanation that, in +these cases, laughter is a result of the pleasure we take in escaping +from the restraint of grave feelings. That this is a part-cause is true. +Doubtless very often, as Mr. Bain says, "it is the coerced form of +seriousness and solemnity without the reality that gives us that stiff +position from which a contact with triviality or vulgarity relieves us, +to our uproarious delight." And in so far as mirth is caused by the gush +of agreeable feeling that follows the cessation of mental strain, it +further illustrates the general principle above set forth. But no +explanation is thus afforded of the mirth which ensues when the short +silence between the _andante_ and _allegro_ in one of Beethoven's +symphonies, is broken by a loud sneeze. In this, and hosts of like +cases, the mental tension is not coerced but spontaneous--not +disagreeable but agreeable; and the coming impressions to which the +attention is directed, promise a gratification that few, if any, desire +to escape. Hence, when the unlucky sneeze occurs, it cannot be that the +laughter of the audience is due simply to the release from an irksome +attitude of mind: some other cause must be sought. + +This cause we shall arrive at by carrying our analysis a step further. +We have but to consider the quantity of feeling that exists under such +circumstances, and then to ask what are the conditions that determine +the direction of its discharge, to at once reach a solution. Take a +case. You are sitting in a theatre, absorbed in the progress of an +interesting drama. Some climax has been reached which has aroused your +sympathies--say, a reconciliation between the hero and heroine, after +long and painful misunderstanding. The feelings excited by this scene +are not of a kind from which you seek relief; but are, on the contrary, +a grateful relief from the painful feelings with which you have +witnessed the previous estrangement. Moreover, the sentiments these +fictitious personages have for the moment inspired you with, are not +such as would lead you to rejoice in any indignity offered to them; but +rather, such as would make you resent the indignity. And now, while you +are contemplating the reconciliation with a pleasurable sympathy, there +appears from behind the scenes a tame kid, which, having stared round at +the audience, walks up to the lovers and sniffs at them. You cannot help +joining in the roar which greets this _contretemps_. Inexplicable as is +this irresistible burst on the hypothesis of a pleasure in escaping from +mental restraint; or on the hypothesis of a pleasure from relative +increase of self-importance, when witnessing the humiliation of others; +it is readily explicable if we consider what, in such a case, must +become of the feeling that existed at the moment the incongruity arose. +A large mass of emotion had been produced; or, to speak in physiological +language, a large portion of the nervous system was in a state of +tension. There was also great expectation with respect to the further +evolution of the scene--a quantity of vague, nascent thought and +emotion, into which the existing quantity of thought and emotion was +about to pass. + +Had there been no interruption, the body of new ideas and feelings next +excited would have sufficed to absorb the whole of the liberated nervous +energy. But now, this large amount of nervous energy, instead of being +allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new +thoughts and emotions which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its +flow. The channels along which the discharge was about to take place are +closed. The new channel opened--that afforded by the appearance and +proceedings of the kid--is a small one; the ideas and feelings suggested +are not numerous and massive enough to carry off the nervous energy to +be expended. The excess must therefore discharge itself in some other +direction; and in the way already explained, there results an efflux +through the motor nerves to various classes of the muscles, producing +the half-convulsive actions we term laughter. + +This explanation is in harmony with the fact, that when, among several +persons who witness the same ludicrous occurrence, there are some who do +not laugh; it is because there has arisen in them an emotion not +participated in by the rest, and which is sufficiently massive to absorb +all the nascent excitement. Among the spectators of an awkward tumble, +those who preserve their gravity are those in whom there is excited a +degree of sympathy with the sufferer, sufficiently great to serve as an +outlet for the feeling which the occurrence had turned out of its +previous course. Sometimes anger carries off the arrested current; and +so prevents laughter. An instance of this was lately furnished me by a +friend who had been witnessing the feats at Franconi's. A tremendous +leap had just been made by an acrobat over a number of horses. The +clown, seemingly envious of this success, made ostentatious preparations +for doing the like; and then, taking the preliminary run with immense +energy, stopped short on reaching the first horse, and pretended to wipe +some dust from its haunches. In the majority of the spectators, +merriment was excited; but in my friend, wound up by the expectation of +the coming leap to a state of great nervous tension, the effect of the +baulk was to produce indignation. Experience thus proves what the theory +implies: namely, that the discharge of arrested feelings into the +muscular system, takes place only in the absence of other adequate +channels--does not take place if there arise other feelings equal in +amount to those arrested. + +Evidence still more conclusive is at hand. If we contrast the +incongruities which produce laughter with those which do not, we at once +see that in the non-ludicrous ones the unexpected state of feeling +aroused, though wholly different in kind, is not less in quantity or +intensity. Among incongruities that may excite anything but a laugh, Mr. +Bain instances--"A decrepit man under a heavy burden, five loaves and +two fishes among a multitude, and all unfitness and gross disproportion; +an instrument out of tune, a fly in ointment, snow in May, Archimedes +studying geometry in a siege, and all discordant things; a wolf in +sheep's clothing, a breach of bargain, and falsehood in general; the +multitude taking the law in their own hands, and everything of the +nature of disorder; a corpse at a feast, parental cruelty, filial +ingratitude, and whatever is unnatural; the entire catalogue of the +vanities given by Solomon, are all incongruous, but they cause feelings +of pain, anger, sadness, loathing, rather than mirth." Now in these +cases, where the totally unlike state of consciousness suddenly produced +is not inferior in mass to the preceding one, the conditions to laughter +are not fulfilled. As above shown, laughter naturally results only when +consciousness is unawares transferred from great things to small--only +when there is what we call a _descending_ incongruity. + +And now observe, finally, the fact, alike inferable _à priori_ and +illustrated in experience, that an _ascending_ incongruity not only +fails to cause laughter, but works on the muscular system an effect of +exactly the reverse kind. When after something very insignificant there +arises without anticipation something very great, the emotion we call +wonder results; and this emotion is accompanied not by an excitement of +the muscles, but by a relaxation of them. In children and country +people, that falling of the jaw which occurs on witnessing something +that is imposing and unexpected exemplifies this effect. Persons who +have been wonder-struck at the production of very striking results by a +seemingly inadequate cause, are frequently described as unconsciously +dropping the things they held in their hands. Such are just the effects +to be anticipated. After an average state of consciousness, absorbing +but a small quantity of nervous energy, is aroused without the slightest +notice, a strong emotion of awe, terror, or admiration, joined with the +astonishment due to an apparent want of adequate causation. This new +state of consciousness demands far more nervous energy than that which +it has suddenly replaced; and this increased absorption of nervous +energy in mental changes involves a temporary diminution of the outflow +in other directions: whence the pendent jaw and the relaxing grasp. + +One further observation is worth making. Among the several sets of +channels into which surplus feeling might be discharged, was named the +nervous system of the viscera. The sudden overflow of an arrested mental +excitement, which, as we have seen, results from a descending +incongruity, must doubtless stimulate not only the muscular system, as +we see it does, but also the internal organs; the heart and stomach must +come in for a share of the discharge. And thus there seems to be a good +physiological basis for the popular notion that mirth-creating +excitement facilitates digestion. + + * * * * * + +Though in doing so I go beyond the boundaries of the immediate topic, I +may fitly point out that the method of inquiry here followed, is one +which enables us to understand various phenomena besides those of +laughter. To show the importance of pursuing it, I will indicate the +explanation it furnishes of another familiar class of facts. + +All know how generally a large amount of emotion disturbs the action of +the intellect, and interferes with the power of expression. A speech +delivered with great facility to tables and chairs, is by no means so +easily delivered to an audience. Every schoolboy can testify that his +trepidation, when standing before a master, has often disabled him from +repeating a lesson which he had duly learnt. In explanation of this we +commonly say that the attention is distracted--that the proper train of +ideas is broken by the intrusion of ideas that are irrelevant. But the +question is, in what manner does unusual emotion produce this effect; +and we are here supplied with a tolerably obvious answer. The repetition +of a lesson, or set speech previously thought out, implies the flow of a +very moderate amount of nervous excitement through a comparatively +narrow channel. The thing to be done is simply to call up in succession +certain previously-arranged ideas--a process in which no great amount of +mental energy is expended. Hence, when there is a large quantity of +emotion, which must be discharged in some direction or other; and when, +as usually happens, the restricted series of intellectual actions to be +gone through, does not suffice to carry it off; there result discharges +along other channels besides the one prescribed: there are aroused +various ideas foreign to the train of thought to be pursued; and these +tend to exclude from consciousness those which should occupy it. + +And now observe the meaning of those bodily actions spontaneously set up +under these circumstances. The school-boy saying his lesson commonly has +his fingers actively engaged--perhaps in twisting about a broken pen, or +perhaps squeezing the angle of his jacket; and if told to keep his hands +still, he soon again falls into the same or a similar trick. Many +anecdotes are current of public speakers having incurable automatic +actions of this class: barristers who perpetually wound and unwound +pieces of tape; members of parliament ever putting on and taking off +their spectacles. So long as such movements are unconscious, they +facilitate the mental actions. At least this seems a fair inference from +the fact that confusion frequently results from putting a stop to them: +witness the case narrated by Sir Walter Scott of his school-fellow, who +became unable to say his lesson after the removal of the +waistcoat-button that he habitually fingered while in class. But why do +they facilitate the mental actions? Clearly because they draw off a +portion of the surplus nervous excitement. If, as above explained, the +quantity of mental energy generated is greater than can find vent along +the narrow channel of thought that is open to it; and if, in +consequence, it is apt to produce confusion by rushing into other +channels of thought; then by allowing it an exit through the motor +nerves into the muscular system, the pressure is diminished, and +irrelevant ideas are less likely to intrude on consciousness. + +This further illustration will, I think, justify the position that +something may be achieved by pursuing in other cases this method of +psychological inquiry. A complete explanation of the phenomena, requires +us to trace out _all_ the consequences of any given state of +consciousness; and we cannot do this without studying the effects, +bodily and mental, as varying in quantity at each other's expense. We +should probably learn much if we in every case asked--Where is all the +nervous energy gone? + +[1] _Macmillan's Magazine_, March 1860. + +[2] For numerous illustrations see essay on "The Origin and Function of +Music." + + + + +ON THE ORIGIN AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC[1] + + +When Carlo, standing, chained to his kennel, sees his master in the +distance, a slight motion of the tail indicates his but faint hope that +he is about to be let out. A much more decided wagging of the tail, +passing by and by into lateral undulations of the body, follows his +master's nearer approach. When hands are laid on his collar, and he +knows that he is really to have an outing, his jumping and wriggling are +such that it is by no means easy to loose his fastenings. And when he +finds himself actually free, his joy expends itself in bounds, in +pirouettes, and in scourings hither and thither at the top of his speed. +Puss, too, by erecting her tail, and by every time raising her back to +meet the caressing hand of her mistress, similarly expresses her +gratification by certain muscular actions; as likewise do the parrot by +awkward dancing on his perch, and the canary by hopping and fluttering +about his cage with unwonted rapidity. Under emotions of an opposite +kind, animals equally display muscular excitement. The enraged lion +lashes his sides with his tail, knits his brows, protrudes his claws. +The cat sets up her back; the dog retracts his upper lip; the horse +throws back his ears. And in the struggles of creatures in pain, we see +that the like relation holds between excitement of the muscles and +excitement of the nerves of sensation. + +In ourselves, distinguished from lower creatures as we are by feelings +alike more powerful and more varied, parallel facts are at once more +conspicuous and more numerous. We may conveniently look at them in +groups. We shall find that pleasurable sensations and painful +sensations, pleasurable emotions and painful emotions, all tend to +produce active demonstrations in proportion to their intensity. + +In children, and even in adults who are not restrained by regard for +appearances, a highly agreeable taste is followed by a smacking of the +lips. An infant will laugh and bound in its nurse's arms at the sight of +a brilliant colour or the hearing of a new sound. People are apt to beat +time with head or feet to music which particularly pleases them. In a +sensitive person an agreeable perfume will produce a smile; and smiles +will be seen on the faces of a crowd gazing at some splendid burst of +fireworks Even the pleasant sensation of warmth felt on getting to the +fireside out of a winter's storm, will similarly express itself in the +face. + +Painful sensations, being mostly far more intense than pleasurable ones, +cause muscular actions of a much more decided kind. A sudden twinge +produces a convulsive start of the whole body. A pain less violent, but +continuous, is accompanied by a knitting of the brows, a setting of the +teeth or biting of the lip, and a contraction of the features generally. +Under a persistent pain of a severer kind, other muscular actions are +added: the body is swayed to and fro; the hands clench anything they can +lay hold of; and should the agony rise still higher, the sufferer rolls +about on the floor almost convulsed. + +Though more varied, the natural language of the pleasurable emotions +comes within the same generalisation. A smile, which is the commonest +expression of gratified feeling, is a contraction of certain facial +muscles; and when the smile broadens into a laugh, we see a more violent +and more general muscular excitement produced by an intenser +gratification. Rubbing together of the hands, and that other motion +which Dickens somewhere describes as "washing with impalpable soap in +invisible water," have like implications. Children may often be seen to +"jump for joy." Even in adults of excitable temperament, an action +approaching to it is sometimes witnessed. And dancing has all the world +through been regarded as natural to an elevated state of mind. Many of +the special emotions show themselves in special muscular actions. The +gratification resulting from success, raises the head and gives firmness +to the gait. A hearty grasp of the hand is currently taken as indicative +of friendship. Under a gush of affection the mother clasps her child to +her breast, feeling as though she could squeeze it to death. And so in +sundry other cases. Even in that brightening of the eye with which good +news is received we may trace the same truth; for this appearance of +greater brilliancy is due to an extra contraction of the muscle which +raises the eyelid, and so allows more light to fall upon, and be +reflected from, the wet surface of the eyeball. + +The bodily indications of painful emotions are equally numerous, and +still more vehement. Discontent is shown by raised eyebrows and wrinkled +forehead; disgust by a curl of the lip; offence by a pout. The impatient +man beats a tattoo with his fingers on the table, swings his pendent leg +with increasing rapidity, gives needless pokings to the fire, and +presently paces with hasty strides about the room. In great grief there +is wringing of the hands, and even tearing of the hair. An angry child +stamps, or rolls on its back and kicks its heels in the air; and in +manhood, anger, first showing itself in frowns, in distended nostrils, +in compressed lips, goes on to produce grinding of the teeth, clenching +of the fingers, blows of the fist on the table, and perhaps ends in a +violent attack on the offending person, or in throwing about and +breaking the furniture. From that pursing of the mouth indicative of +slight displeasure, up to the frantic struggles of the maniac, we shall +find that mental irritation tends to vent itself in bodily activity. + +All feelings, then--sensations or emotions, pleasurable or painful--have +this common characteristic, that they are muscular stimuli. Not +forgetting the few apparently exceptional cases in which emotions +exceeding a certain intensity produce prostration, we may set it down as +a general law that, alike in man and animals, there is a direct +connection between feeling and motion; the last growing more vehement as +the first grows more intense. Were it allowable here to treat the matter +scientifically, we might trace this general law down to the principle +known among physiologists as that of _reflex action_.[2] Without doing +this, however, the above numerous instances justify the generalisation, +that mental excitement of all kinds ends in excitement of the muscles; +and that the two preserve a more or less constant ratio to each other. + + * * * * * + +"But what has all this to do with _The Origin and Function of Music_?" +asks the reader. Very much, as we shall presently see. All music is +originally vocal. All vocal sounds are produced by the agency of certain +muscles. These muscles, in common with those of the body at large, are +excited to contraction by pleasurable and painful feelings. And +therefore it is that feelings demonstrate themselves in sounds as well +as in movements. Therefore it is that Carlo barks as well as leaps when +he is let out--that puss purrs as well as erects her tail--that the +canary chirps as well as flutters. Therefore it is that the angry lion +roars while he lashes his sides, and the dog growls while he retracts +his lip. Therefore it is that the maimed animal not only struggles, but +howls. And it is from this cause that in human beings bodily suffering +expresses itself not only in contortions, but in shrieks and +groans--that in anger, and fear, and grief, the gesticulations are +accompanied by shouts and screams--that delightful sensations are +followed by exclamations--and that we hear screams of joy and shouts of +exultation. + +We have here, then, a principle underlying all vocal phenomena; +including those of vocal music, and by consequence those of music in +general. The muscles that move the chest, larynx, and vocal chords, +contracting like other muscles in proportion to the intensity of the +feelings; every different contraction of these muscles involving, as it +does, a different adjustment of the vocal organs; every different +adjustment of the vocal organs causing a change in the sound +emitted;--it follows that variations of voice are the physiological +results of variations of feeling; it follows that each inflection or +modulation is the natural outcome of some passing emotion or sensation; +and it follows that the explanation of all kinds of vocal expression +must be sought in this general relation between mental and muscular +excitements. Let us, then, see whether we cannot thus account for the +chief peculiarities in the utterance of the feelings: grouping these +peculiarities under the heads of _loudness_, _quality_, _or_ _timbre_, +_pitch_, _intervals_, and _rate of variation_. + + * * * * * + +Between the lungs and the organs of voice there is much the same +relation as between the bellows of an organ and its pipes. And as the +loudness of the sound given out by an organ-pipe increases with the +strength of the blast from the bellows; so, other things equal, the +loudness of a vocal sound increases with the strength of the blast from +the lungs. But the expulsion of air from the lungs is effected by +certain muscles of the chest and abdomen. The force with which these +muscles contract, is proportionate to the intensity of the feeling +experienced. Hence, _à priori_, loud sounds will be the habitual results +of strong feelings. That they are so we have daily proof. The pain +which, if moderate, can be borne silently, causes outcries if it becomes +extreme. While a slight vexation makes a child whimper, a fit of passion +calls forth a howl that disturbs the neighbourhood. When the voices in +an adjacent room become unusually audible, we infer anger, or surprise, +or joy. Loudness of applause is significant of great approbation; and +with uproarious mirth we associate the idea of high enjoyment. +Commencing with the silence of apathy, we find that the utterances grow +louder as the sensations or emotions, whether pleasurable or painful, +grow stronger. + +That different _qualities_ of voice accompany different mental states, +and that under states of excitement the tones are more sonorous than +usual, is another general fact admitting of a parallel explanation. The +sounds of common conversation have but little resonance; those of strong +feeling have much more. Under rising ill temper the voice acquires a +metallic ring. In accordance with her constant mood, the ordinary speech +of a virago has a piercing quality quite opposite to that softness +indicative of placidity. A ringing laugh marks an especially joyous +temperament. Grief unburdening itself uses tones approaching in _timbre_ +to those of chanting: and in his most pathetic passages an eloquent +speaker similarly falls into tones more vibratory than those common to +him. Now any one may readily convince himself that resonant vocal sounds +can be produced only by a certain muscular effort additional to that +ordinarily needed. If after uttering a word in his speaking voice, the +reader, without changing the pitch or the loudness, will _sing_ this +word, he will perceive that before he can sing it, he has to alter the +adjustment of the vocal organs; to do which a certain force must be +used; and by putting his fingers on that external prominence marking the +top of the larynx, he will have further evidence that to produce a +sonorous tone the organs must be drawn out of their usual position. +Thus, then, the fact that the tones of excited feeling are more +vibratory than those of common conversation is another instance of the +connection between mental excitement and muscular excitement. The +speaking voice, the recitative voice, and the singing voice, severally +exemplify one general principle. + +That the _pitch_ of the voice varies according to the action of the +vocal muscles scarcely needs saying. All know that the middle notes, in +which they converse, are made without any appreciable effort; and all +know that to make either very high or very low notes requires a +considerable effort. In either ascending or descending from the pitch of +ordinary speech, we are conscious of an increasing muscular strain, +which, at both extremes of the register, becomes positively painful. +Hence it follows from our general principle, that while indifference or +calmness will use the medium tones, the tones used during excitement +will be either above or below them; and will rise higher and higher, or +fall lower and lower, as the feelings grow stronger. This physiological +deduction we also find to be in harmony with familiar facts. The +habitual sufferer utters his complaints in a voice raised considerably +above the natural key; and agonising pain vents itself in either shrieks +or groans--in very high or very low notes. Beginning at his talking +pitch, the cry of the disappointed urchin grows more shrill as it grows +louder. The "Oh!" of astonishment or delight, begins several notes below +the middle voice, and descends still lower. Anger expresses itself in +high tones, or else in "curses not loud but _deep_." Deep tones, too, +are always used in uttering strong reproaches. Such an exclamation as +"Beware!" if made dramatically--that is, if made with a show of +feeling--must be many notes lower than ordinary. Further, we have groans +of disapprobation, groans of horror, groans of remorse. And extreme joy +and fear are alike accompanied by shrill outcries. + +Nearly allied to the subject of pitch, is that of _intervals_; and the +explanation of them carries our argument a step further. While calm +speech is comparatively monotonous, emotion makes use of fifths, +octaves, and even wider intervals. Listen to any one narrating or +repeating something in which he has no interest, and his voice will not +wander more than two or three notes above or below his medium note, and +that by small steps; but when he comes to some exciting event he will be +heard not only to use the higher and lower notes of his register, but to +go from one to the other by larger leaps. Being unable in print to +imitate these traits of feeling, we feel some difficulty in fully +realising them to the reader. But we may suggest a few remembrances +which will perhaps call to mind a sufficiency of others. If two men +living in the same place, and frequently seeing one another, meet, say +at a public assembly, any phrase with which one may be heard to accost +the other--as "Hallo, are you here?"--will have an ordinary intonation. +But if one of them, after long absence, has unexpectedly returned, the +expression of surprise with which his friend may greet him--"Hallo! how +came you here?"--will be uttered in much more strongly contrasted tones. +The two syllables of the word "Hallo" will be, the one much higher and +the other much lower than before; and the rest of the sentence will +similarly ascend and descend by longer steps. + +Again, if, supposing her to be in an adjoining room, the mistress of the +house calls "Mary," the two syllables of the name will be spoken in an +ascending interval of a third. If Mary does not reply, the call will be +repeated probably in a descending fifth; implying the slightest shade of +annoyance at Mary's inattention. Should Mary still make no answer, the +increasing annoyance will show itself by the use of a descending octave +on the next repetition of the call. And supposing the silence to +continue, the lady, if not of a very even temper, will show her +irritation at Mary's seemingly intentional negligence by finally calling +her in tones still more widely contrasted--the first syllable being +higher and the last lower than before. + +Now, these and analogous facts, which the reader will readily +accumulate, clearly conform to the law laid down. For to make large +intervals requires more muscular action than to make small ones. But not +only is the _extent_ of vocal intervals thus explicable as due to the +relation between nervous and muscular excitement, but also in some +degree their _direction_, as ascending or descending. The middle notes +being those which demand no appreciable effort of muscular adjustment; +and the effort becoming greater as we either ascend or descend; it +follows that a departure from the middle notes in either direction will +mark increasing emotion; while a return towards the middle notes will +mark decreasing emotion. Hence it happens that an enthusiastic person +uttering such a sentence as--"It was the most splendid sight I ever +saw!" will ascend to the first syllable of the word "splendid," and +thence will descend: the word "splendid" marking the climax of the +feeling produced by the recollection. Hence, again, it happens that, +under some extreme vexation produced by another's stupidity, an +irascible man, exclaiming--"What a confounded fool the fellow is!" will +begin somewhat below his middle voice, and descending to the word +"fool," which he will utter in one of his deepest notes, will then +ascend again. And it may be remarked, that the word "fool" will not only +be deeper and louder than the rest, but will also have more emphasis of +articulation--another mode in which muscular excitement is shown. + +There is some danger, however, in giving instances like this; seeing +that as the mode of rendering will vary according to the intensity of +the feeling which the reader feigns to himself, the right cadence may +not be hit upon. With single words there is less difficulty. Thus the +"Indeed!" with which a surprising fact is received, mostly begins on the +middle note of the voice, and rises with the second syllable; or, if +disapprobation as well as astonishment is felt, the first syllable will +be below the middle note, and the second lower still. Conversely, the +word "Alas!" which marks not the rise of a paroxysm of grief, but its +decline, is uttered in a cadence descending towards the middle note; or, +if the first syllable is in the lower part of the register, the second +ascends towards the middle note. In the "Heigh-ho!" expressive of mental +and muscular prostration, we may see the same truth; and if the cadence +appropriate to it be inverted, the absurdity of the effect clearly shows +how the meaning of intervals is dependent on the principle we have been +illustrating. + +The remaining characteristic of emotional speech which we have to notice +is that of _variability of pitch_. It is scarcely possible here to +convey adequate ideas of this more complex manifestation. We must be +content with simply indicating some occasions on which it may be +observed. On a meeting of friends, for instance--as when there arrives a +party of much-wished-for-visitors--the voices of all will be heard to +undergo changes of pitch not only greater but much more numerous than +usual. If a speaker at a public meeting is interrupted by some squabble +among those he is addressing, his comparatively level tones will be in +marked contrast with the rapidly changing one of the disputants. And +among children, whose feelings are less under control than those of +adults, this peculiarity is still more decided. During a scene of +complaint and recrimination between two excitable little girls, the +voices may be heard to run up and down the gamut several times in each +sentence. In such cases we once more recognise the same law: for +muscular excitement is shown not only in strength of contraction but +also in the rapidity with which different muscular adjustments succeed +each other. + +Thus we find all the leading vocal phenomena to have a physiological +basis. They are so many manifestations of the general law that feeling +is a stimulus to muscular action--a law conformed to throughout the +whole economy, not of man only, but of every sensitive creature--a law, +therefore, which lies deep in the nature of animal organisation. The +expressiveness of these various modifications of voice is therefore +innate. Each of us, from babyhood upwards, has been spontaneously making +them, when under the various sensations and emotions by which they are +produced. Having been conscious of each feeling at the same time that we +heard ourselves make the consequent sound, we have acquired an +established association of ideas between such sound and the feeling +which caused it. When the like sound is made by another, we ascribe the +like feeling to him; and by a further consequence we not only ascribe to +him that feeling, but have a certain degree of it aroused in ourselves: +for to become conscious of the feeling which another is experiencing, is +to have that feeling awakened in our own consciousness, which is the +same thing as experiencing the feeling. Thus these various modifications +of voice become not only a language through which we understand the +emotions of others, but also the means of exciting our sympathy with +such emotions. + +Have we not here, then, adequate data for a theory of music? These vocal +peculiarities which indicate excited feeling _are those which especially +distinguish song from ordinary speech_. Every one of the alterations of +voice which we have found to be a physiological result of pain or +pleasure, _is carried to its greatest extreme in vocal music_. For +instance, we saw that, in virtue of the general relation between mental +and muscular excitement, one characteristic of passionate utterance is +_loudness_. Well, its comparative loudness is one of the distinctive +marks of song as contrasted with the speech of daily life; and further, +the _forte_ passages of an air are those intended to represent the +climax of its emotion. We next saw that the tones in which emotion +expresses itself are, in conformity with this same law, of a more +sonorous _timbre_ than those of calm conversation. Here, too, song +displays a still higher degree of the peculiarity; for the singing tone +is the most resonant we can make. Again, it was shown that, from a like +cause, mental excitement vents itself in the higher and lower notes of +the register; using the middle notes but seldom. And it scarcely needs +saying that vocal music is still more distinguished by its comparative +neglect of the notes in which we talk, and its habitual use of those +above or below them and, moreover, that its most passionate effects are +commonly produced at the two extremities of its scale, but especially +the upper one. + +A yet further trait of strong feeling, similarly accounted for, was the +employment of larger intervals than are employed in common converse. +This trait, also, every ballad and _aria_ carries to an extent beyond +that heard in the spontaneous utterances of emotion: add to which, that +the direction of these intervals, which, as diverging from or converging +towards the medium tones, we found to be physiologically expressive of +increasing or decreasing emotion, may be observed to have in music like +meanings. Once more, it was pointed out that not only extreme but also +rapid variations of pitch are characteristic of mental excitement; and +once more we see in the quick changes of every melody, that song carries +the characteristic as far, if not farther. Thus, in respect alike of +_loudness_, _timbre_, _pitch_, _intervals_, and _rate of variation_, +song employs and exaggerates the natural language of the emotions;--it +arises from a systematic combination of those vocal peculiarities which +are the physiological effects of acute pleasure and pain. + +Besides these chief characteristics of song as distinguished from common +speech, there are sundry minor ones similarly explicable as due to the +relation between mental and muscular excitement; and before proceeding +further these should be briefly noticed. Thus, certain passions, and +perhaps all passions when pushed to an extreme, produce (probably +through their influence over the action of the heart) an effect the +reverse of that which has been described: they cause a physical +prostration, one symptom of which is a general relaxation of the +muscles, and a consequent trembling. We have the trembling of anger, of +fear, of hope, of joy; and the vocal muscles being implicated with the +rest, the voice too becomes tremulous. Now, in singing, this +tremulousness of voice is very effectively used by some vocalists in +highly pathetic passages; sometimes, indeed, because of its +effectiveness, too much used by them--as by Tamberlik, for instance. + +Again, there is a mode of musical execution known as the _staccato_, +appropriate to energetic passages--to passages expressive of +exhilaration, of resolution, of confidence. The action of the vocal +muscles which produces this staccato style is analogous to the muscular +action which produces the sharp decisive, energetic movements of body +indicating these states of mind; and therefore it is that the staccato +style has the meaning we ascribe to it. Conversely, slurred intervals +are expressive of gentler and less active feelings; and are so because +they imply the smaller muscular vivacity due to a lower mental energy. +The difference of effect resulting from difference of _time_ in music is +also attributable to the same law. Already it has been pointed out that +the more frequent changes of pitch which ordinarily result from passion +are imitated and developed in song; and here we have to add, that the +various rates of such changes, appropriate to the different styles of +music, are further traits having the same derivation. The slowest +movements, _largo_ and _adagio_, are used where such depressing emotions +as grief, or such unexciting emotions as reverence, are to be portrayed; +while the more rapid movements, _andante_, _allegro_, _presto_, +represent successively increasing degrees of mental vivacity; and do +this because they imply that muscular activity which flows from this +mental vivacity. Even the _rhythm_, which forms a remaining distinction +between song and speech, may not improbably have a kindred cause. Why +the actions excited by strong feeling should tend to become rhythmical +is not very obvious; but that they do so there are divers evidences. +There is the swaying of the body to and fro under pain or grief, of the +leg under impatience or agitation. Dancing, too, is a rhythmical action +natural to elevated emotion. That under excitement speech acquires a +certain rhythm, we may occasionally perceive in the highest efforts of +an orator. In poetry, which is a form of speech used for the better +expression of emotional ideas, we have this rhythmical tendency +developed. And when we bear in mind that dancing, poetry, and music are +connate--are originally constituent parts of the same thing, it becomes +clear that the measured movement common to them all implies a rhythmical +action of the whole system, the vocal apparatus included; and that so +the rhythm of music is a more subtle and complex result of this relation +between mental and muscular excitement. + +But it is time to end this analysis, which possibly we have already +carried too far. It is not to be supposed that the more special +peculiarities of musical expression are to be definitely explained. +Though probably they may all in some way conform to the principle that +has been worked out, it is obviously impracticable to trace that +principle in its more ramified applications. Nor is it needful to our +argument that it should be so traced. The foregoing facts sufficiently +prove that what we regard as the distinctive traits of song, are simply +the traits of emotional speech intensified and systematised. In respect +of its general characteristics, we think it has been made clear that +vocal music, and by consequence all music, is an idealisation of the +natural language of passion. + + * * * * * + +As far as it goes, the scanty evidence furnished by history confirms +this conclusion. Note first the fact (not properly an historical one, +but fitly grouped with such) that the dance-chants of savage tribes are +very monotonous; and in virtue of their monotony are much more nearly +allied to ordinary speech than are the songs of civilised races. Joining +with this the fact that there are still extant among boatmen and others +in the East, ancient chants of a like monotonous character, we may infer +that vocal music originally diverged from emotional speech in a gradual, +unobtrusive manner; and this is the inference to which our argument +points. Further evidence to the same effect is supplied by Greek +history. The early poems of the Greeks--which, be it remembered, were +sacred legends embodied in that rhythmical, metaphorical language which +strong feeling excites--were not recited, but chanted: the tones and +the cadences were made musical by the same influences which made the +speech poetical. + +By those who have investigated the matter, this chanting is believed to +have been not what we call singing, but nearly allied to our recitative +(far simpler indeed, if we may judge from the fact that the early Greek +lyre, which had but _four_ strings, was played in _unison_ with the +voice, which was therefore confined to four notes), and as such, much +less remote from common speech than our own singing is. For recitative, +or musical recitation, is in all respects intermediate between speech +and song. Its average effects are not so _loud_ as those of song. Its +tones are less sonorous in _timbre_ than those of song. Commonly it +diverges to a smaller extent from the middle notes--uses notes neither +so high nor so low in _pitch_. The _intervals_ habitual to it are +neither so wide nor so varied. Its _rate of variation_ is not so rapid. +And at the same time that its primary _rhythm_ is less decided, it has +none of that secondary rhythm produced by recurrence of the same or +parallel musical phrases, which is one of the marked characteristics of +song. Thus, then, we may not only infer, from the evidence furnished by +existing barbarous tribes, that the vocal music of pre-historic times +was emotional speech very slightly exalted; but we see that the earliest +vocal music of which we have any account differed much less from +emotional speech than does the vocal music of our days. + +That recitative--beyond which, by the way, the Chinese and Hindoos seem +never to have advanced--grew naturally out of the modulations and +cadences of strong feeling, we have indeed still current evidence. There +are even now to be met with occasions on which strong feeling vents +itself in this form. Whoever has been present when a meeting of Quakers +was addressed by one of their preachers (whose practice it is to speak +only under the influence of religious emotion), must have been struck by +the quite unusual tones, like those of a subdued chant, in which the +address was made. It is clear, too, that the intoning used in some +churches is representative of this same mental state; and has been +adopted on account of the instinctively felt congruity between it and +the contrition, supplication, or reverence verbally expressed. + +And if, as we have good reason to believe, recitative arose by degrees +out of emotional speech, it becomes manifest that by a continuance of +the same process song has arisen out of recitative. Just as, from the +orations and legends of savages, expressed in the metaphorical, +allegorical style natural to them, there sprung epic poetry, out of +which lyric poetry was afterwards developed; so, from the exalted tones +and cadences in which such orations and legends were delivered, came the +chant or recitative music, from whence lyrical music has since grown up. +And there has not only thus been a simultaneous and parallel genesis, +but there is also a parallelism of results. For lyrical poetry differs +from epic poetry, just as lyrical music differs from recitative: each +still further intensifies the natural language of the emotions. Lyrical +poetry is more metaphorical, more hyperbolic, more elliptical, and adds +the rhythm of lines to the rhythm of feet; just as lyrical music is +louder, more sonorous, more extreme in its intervals, and adds the +rhythm of phrases to the rhythm of bars. And the known fact that out of +epic poetry the stronger passions developed lyrical poetry as their +appropriate vehicle, strengthens the inference that they similarly +developed lyrical music out of recitative. + +Nor indeed are we without evidences of the transition. It needs but to +listen to an opera to hear the leading gradations. Between the +comparatively level recitative of ordinary dialogue, the more varied +recitative with wider intervals and higher tones used in exciting +scenes, the still more musical recitative which preludes an air, and the +air itself, the successive steps are but small; and the fact that among +airs themselves gradations of like nature may be traced, further +confirms the conclusion that the highest form of vocal music was arrived +at by degrees. + +Moreover, we have some clue to the influences which have induced this +development; and may roughly conceive the process of it. As the tones, +intervals, and cadences of strong emotion were the elements out of which +song was elaborated, so we may expect to find that still stronger +emotion produced the elaboration: and we have evidence implying this. +Instances in abundance may be cited, showing that musical composers are +men of extremely acute sensibilities. The Life of Mozart depicts him as +one of intensely active affections and highly impressionable +temperament. Various anecdotes represent Beethoven as very susceptible +and very passionate. Mendelssohn is described by those who knew him to +have been full of fine feeling. And the almost incredible sensitiveness +of Chopin has been illustrated in the memoirs of George Sand. An +unusually emotional nature being thus the general characteristic of +musical composers, we have in it just the agency required for the +development of recitative and song. Intenser feeling producing intenser +manifestations, any cause of excitement will call forth from such a +nature tones and changes of voice more marked than those called forth +from an ordinary nature--will generate just those exaggerations which we +have found to distinguish the lower vocal music from emotional speech, +and the higher vocal music from the lower. Thus it becomes credible that +the four-toned recitative of the early Greek poets (like all poets, +nearly allied to composers in the comparative intensity of their +feelings), was really nothing more than the slightly exaggerated +emotional speech natural to them, which grew by frequent use into an +organised form. And it is readily conceivable that the accumulated +agency of subsequent poet-musicians, inheriting and adding to the +products of those who went before them, sufficed, in the course of the +ten centuries which we know it took, to develop this four-toned +recitative into a vocal music having a range of two octaves. + +Not only may we so understand how more sonorous tones, greater extremes +of pitch, and wider intervals, were gradually introduced; but also how +there arose a greater variety and complexity of musical expression. For +this same passionate, enthusiastic temperament, which naturally leads +the musical composer to express the feelings possessed by others as well +as himself, in extremer intervals and more marked cadences than they +would use, also leads him to give musical utterance to feelings which +they either do not experience, or experience in but slight degrees. In +virtue of this general susceptibility which distinguishes him, he +regards with emotion, events, scenes, conduct, character, which produce +upon most men no appreciable effect. The emotions so generated, +compounded as they are of the simpler emotions, are not expressible by +intervals and cadences natural to these, but by combinations of such +intervals and cadences: whence arise more involved musical phrases, +conveying more complex, subtle, and unusual feelings. And thus we may in +some measure understand how it happens that music not only so strongly +excites our more familiar feelings, but also produces feelings we never +had before--arouses dormant sentiments of which we had not conceived the +possibility and do not know the meaning; or, as Richter says--tells us +of things we have not seen and shall not see. + + * * * * * + +Indirect evidences of several kinds remain to be briefly pointed out. +One of them is the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of otherwise +accounting for the expressiveness of music. Whence comes it that +special combinations of notes should have special effects upon our +emotions?--that one should give us a feeling of exhilaration, another of +melancholy, another of affection, another of reverence? Is it that these +special combinations have intrinsic meanings apart from the human +constitution?--that a certain number of aerial waves per second, +followed by a certain other number, in the nature of things signify +grief, while in the reverse order they signify joy; and similarly with +all other intervals, phrases, and cadences? Few will be so irrational as +to think this. Is it, then, that the meanings of these special +combinations are conventional only?--that we learn their implications, +as we do those of words, by observing how others understand them? This +is an hypothesis not only devoid of evidence, but directly opposed to +the experience of every one. How, then, are musical effects to be +explained? If the theory above set forth be accepted, the difficulty +disappears. If music, taking for its raw material the various +modifications of voice which are the physiological results of excited +feelings, intensifies, combines, and complicates them--if it exaggerates +the loudness, the resonance, the pitch, the intervals, and the +variability, which, in virtue of an organic law, are the characteristics +of passionate speech--if, by carrying out these further, more +consistently, more unitedly, and more sustainedly, it produces an +idealised language of emotion; then its power over us becomes +comprehensible. But in the absence of this theory, the expressiveness of +music appears to be inexplicable. + +Again, the preference we feel for certain qualities of sound presents a +like difficulty, admitting only of a like solution. It is generally +agreed that the tones of the human voice are more pleasing than any +others. Grant that music takes its rise from the modulations of the +human voice under emotion, and it becomes a natural consequence that the +tones of that voice should appeal to our feelings more than any others; +and so should be considered more beautiful than any others. But deny +that music has this origin, and the only alternative is the untenable +position that the vibrations proceeding from a vocalist's throat are, +objectively considered, of a higher order than those from a horn or a +violin. Similarly with harsh and soft sounds. If the conclusiveness of +the foregoing reasonings be not admitted, it must be supposed that the +vibrations causing the last are intrinsically better than those causing +the first; and that, in virtue of some pre-established harmony, the +higher feelings and natures produce the one, and the lower the other. +But if the foregoing reasonings be valid, it follows, as a matter of +course, that we shall like the sounds that habitually accompany +agreeable feelings, and dislike those that habitually accompany +disagreeable feelings. + +Once more, the question--How is the expressiveness of music to be +otherwise accounted for? may be supplemented by the question--How is the +genesis of music to be otherwise accounted for? That music is a product +of civilisation is manifest; for though savages have their dance-chants, +these are of a kind scarcely to be dignified by the title musical: at +most, they supply but the vaguest rudiment of music, properly so called. +And if music has been by slow steps developed in the course of +civilisation, it must have been developed out of something. If, then, +its origin is not that above alleged, what is its origin? + +Thus we find that the negative evidence confirms the positive, and that, +taken together, they furnish strong proof. We have seen that there is a +physiological relation, common to man and all animals, between feeling +and muscular action; that as vocal sounds are produced by muscular +action, there is a consequent physiological relation between feeling and +vocal sounds; that all the modifications of voice expressive of feeling +are the direct results of this physiological relation; that music, +adopting all these modifications, intensifies them more and more as it +ascends to its higher and higher forms, and becomes music simply in +virtue of thus intensifying them; that, from the ancient epic poet +chanting his verses, down to the modern musical composer, men of +unusually strong feelings prone to express them in extreme forms, have +been naturally the agents of these successive intensifications; and that +so there has little by little arisen a wide divergence between this +idealised language of emotion and its natural language: to which direct +evidence we have just added the indirect--that on no other tenable +hypothesis can either the expressiveness or the genesis of music be +explained. + + * * * * * + +And now, what is the _function_ of music? Has music any effect beyond +the immediate pleasure it produces? Analogy suggests that it has. The +enjoyments of a good dinner do not end with themselves, but minister to +bodily well-being. Though people do not marry with a view to maintain +the race, yet the passions which impel them to marry secure its +maintenance. Parental affection is a feeling which, while it conduces to +parental happiness, ensures the nurture of offspring. Men love to +accumulate property, often without thought of the benefits it produces; +but in pursuing the pleasure of acquisition they indirectly open the way +to other pleasures. The wish for public approval impels all of us to do +many things which we should otherwise not do,--to undertake great +labours, face great dangers, and habitually rule ourselves in a way that +smooths social intercourse: that is, in gratifying our love of +approbation we subserve divers ulterior purposes. And, generally, our +nature is such that in fulfilling each desire, we in some way facilitate +the fulfilment of the rest. But the love of music seems to exist for its +own sake. The delights of melody and harmony do not obviously minister +to the welfare either of the individual or of society. May we not +suspect, however, that this exception is apparent only? Is it not a +rational inquiry--What are the indirect benefits which accrue from +music, in addition to the direct pleasure it gives? + +But that it would take us too far out of our track, we should prelude +this inquiry by illustrating at some length a certain general law of +progress;--the law that alike in occupations, sciences, arts, the +divisions that had a common root, but by continual divergence have +become distinct, and are now being separately developed, are not truly +independent, but severally act and react on each other to their mutual +advancement. Merely hinting thus much, however, by way of showing that +there are many analogies to justify us, we go on to express the opinion +that there exists a relationship of this kind between music and speech. + +All speech is compounded of two elements, the words and the tones in +which they are uttered--the signs of ideas and the signs of feelings. +While certain articulations express the thought, certain vocal sounds +express the more or less of pain or pleasure which the thought gives. +Using the word _cadence_ in an unusually extended sense, as +comprehending all modifications of voice, we may say that _cadence is +the commentary of the emotions upon the propositions of the intellect_. +The duality of spoken language, though not formally recognised, is +recognised in practice by every one; and every one knows that very often +more weight attaches to the tones than to the words. Daily experience +supplies cases in which the same sentence of disapproval will be +understood as meaning little or meaning much, according to the +inflections of voice which accompany it; and daily experience supplies +still more striking cases in which words and tones are in direct +contradiction--the first expressing consent, while the last express +reluctance; and the last being believed rather than the first. + +These two distinct but interwoven elements of speech have been +undergoing a simultaneous development. We know that in the course of +civilisation words have been multiplied, new parts of speech have been +introduced, sentences have grown more varied and complex; and we may +fairly infer that during the same time new modifications of voice have +come into use, fresh intervals have been adopted, and cadences have +become more elaborate. For while, on the one hand, it is absurd to +suppose that, along with the undeveloped verbal forms of barbarism, +there existed a developed system of vocal inflections; it is, on the +other hand, necessary to suppose that, along with the higher and more +numerous verbal forms needed to convey the multiplied and complicated +ideas of civilised life, there have grown up those more involved changes +of voice which express the feelings proper to such ideas. If +intellectual language is a growth, so also, without doubt, is emotional +language a growth. + +Now, the hypothesis which we have hinted above, is, that beyond the +direct pleasure which it gives, music has the indirect effect of +developing this language of the emotions. Having its root, as we have +endeavoured to show, in those tones, intervals, and cadences of speech +which express feeling--arising by the combination and intensifying of +these, and coming finally to have an embodiment of its own--music has +all along been reacting upon speech, and increasing its power of +rendering emotion. The use in recitative and song of inflections more +expressive than ordinary ones, must from the beginning have tended to +develop the ordinary ones. Familiarity with the more varied combinations +of tones that occur in vocal music can scarcely have failed to give +greater variety of combination to the tones in which we utter our +impressions and desires. The complex musical phrases by which composers +have conveyed complex emotions, may rationally be supposed to have +influenced us in making those involved cadences of conversation by which +we convey our subtler thoughts and feelings. + +That the cultivation of music has no effect on the mind, few will be +absurd enough to contend. And if it has an effect, what more natural +effect is there than this of developing our perception of the meanings +of inflections, qualities, and modulations of voice; and giving us a +correspondingly increased power of using them? Just as mathematics, +taking its start from the phenomena of physics and astronomy, and +presently coming to be a separate science, has since reacted on physics +and astronomy to their immense advancement--just as chemistry, first +arising out of the processes of metallurgy and the industrial arts, and +gradually growing into an independent study, has now become an aid to +all kinds of production--just as physiology, originating out of medicine +and once subordinate to it, but latterly pursued for its own sake, is in +our day coming to be the science on which the progress of medicine +depends;--so, music, having its root in emotional language, and +gradually evolved from it, has ever been reacting upon and further +advancing it. Whoever will examine the facts will find this hypothesis +to be in harmony with the method of civilisation everywhere displayed. + +It will scarcely be expected that much direct evidence in support of +this conclusion can be given. The facts are of a kind which it is +difficult to measure, and of which we have no records. Some suggestive +traits, however, may be noted. May we not say, for instance, that the +Italians, among whom modern music was earliest cultivated, and who have +more especially practised and excelled in melody (the division of music +with which our argument is chiefly concerned)--may we not say that these +Italians speak in more varied and expressive inflections and cadences +than any other nation? On the other hand, may we not say that, confined +almost exclusively as they have hitherto been to their national airs, +which have a marked family likeness, and therefore accustomed to but a +limited range of musical expression, the Scotch are unusually monotonous +in the intervals and modulations of their speech? And again, do we not +find among different classes of the same nation, differences that have +like implications? The gentleman and the clown stand in a very decided +contrast with respect to variety of intonation. Listen to the +conversation of a servant-girl, and then to that of a refined, +accomplished lady, and the more delicate and complex changes of voice +used by the latter will be conspicuous. Now, without going so far as to +say that out of all the differences of culture to which the upper and +lower classes are subjected, difference of musical culture is that to +which alone this difference of speech is ascribable, yet we may fairly +say that there seems a much more obvious connection of cause and effect +between these than between any others. Thus, while the inductive +evidence to which we can appeal is but scanty and vague, yet what there +is favours our position. + + * * * * * + +Probably most will think that the function here assigned to music is one +of very little moment. But further reflection may lead them to a +contrary conviction. In its bearings upon human happiness, we believe +that this emotional language which musical culture develops and refines +is only second in importance to the language of the intellect; perhaps +not even second to it. For these modifications of voice produced by +feelings are the means of exciting like feelings in others. Joined with +gestures and expressions of face, they give life to the otherwise dead +words in which the intellect utters its ideas; and so enable the hearer +not only to _understand_ the state of mind they accompany, but to +_partake_ of that state. In short, they are the chief media of +_sympathy_. And if we consider how much both our general welfare and our +immediate pleasures depend upon sympathy, we shall recognise the +importance of whatever makes this sympathy greater. If we bear in mind +that by their fellow-feeling men are led to behave justly, kindly, and +considerately to each other--that the difference between the cruelty of +the barbarous and the humanity of the civilised, results from the +increase of fellow-feeling; if we bear in mind that this faculty which +makes us sharers in the joys and sorrows of others, is the basis of all +the higher affections--that in friendship, love, and all domestic +pleasures, it is an essential element; if we bear in mind how much our +direct gratifications are intensified by sympathy,--how, at the theatre, +the concert, the picture gallery, we lose half our enjoyment if we have +no one to enjoy with us; if, in short, we bear in mind that for all +happiness beyond what the unfriended recluse can have, we are indebted +to this same sympathy;--we shall see that the agencies which communicate +it can scarcely be overrated in value. + +The tendency of civilisation is more and more to repress the +antagonistic elements of our characters and to develop the social +ones--to curb our purely selfish desires and exercise our unselfish +ones--to replace private gratifications by gratifications resulting +from, or involving, the happiness of others. And while, by this +adaptation to the social state, the sympathetic side of our nature is +being unfolded, there is simultaneously growing up a language of +sympathetic intercourse--a language through which we communicate to +others the happiness we feel, and are made sharers in their happiness. + +This double process, of which the effects are already sufficiently +appreciable, must go on to an extent of which we can as yet have no +adequate conception. The habitual concealment of our feelings +diminishing, as it must, in proportion as our feelings become such as do +not demand concealment, we may conclude that the exhibition of them will +become much more vivid than we now dare allow it to be; and this implies +a more expressive emotional language. At the same time, feelings of a +higher and more complex kind, as yet experienced only by the cultivated +few, will become general; and there will be a corresponding development +of the emotional language into more involved forms. Just as there has +silently grown up a language of ideas, which, rude as it at first was, +now enables us to convey with precision the most subtle and complicated +thoughts; so, there is still silently growing up a language of feelings, +which, notwithstanding its present imperfection, we may expect will +ultimately enable men vividly and completely to impress on each other +all the emotions which they experience from moment to moment. + +Thus if, as we have endeavoured to show, it is the function of music to +facilitate the development of this emotional language, we may regard +music as an aid to the achievement of that higher happiness which it +indistinctly shadows forth. Those vague feelings of unexperienced +felicity which music arouses--those indefinite impressions of an unknown +ideal life which it calls up, may be considered as a prophecy, to the +fulfilment of which music is itself partly instrumental. The strange +capacity which we have for being so affected by melody and harmony may +be taken to imply both that it is within the possibilities of our nature +to realise those intenser delights they dimly suggest, and that they are +in some way concerned in the realisation of them. On this supposition +the power and the meaning of music become comprehensible; but otherwise +they are a mystery. + +We will only add, that if the probability of these corollaries be +admitted, then music must take rank as he highest of the fine arts--as +the one which, more than any other, ministers to human welfare. And +thus, even leaving out of view the immediate gratifications it is hourly +giving, we cannot too much applaud that progress of musical culture +which is becoming one of the characteristics of our age. + +[1] _Fraser's Magazine_, October 1857. + +[2] Those who seek information on this point may find it in an +interesting tract by Mr. Alexander Bain, on _Animal Instinct and +Intelligence_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays on Education and Kindred +Subjects, by Herbert Spencer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS ON EDUCATION *** + +***** This file should be named 16510-8.txt or 16510-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/1/16510/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Joel Schlosberg and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Essays on Education and Kindred Subjects + Everyman's Library + +Author: Herbert Spencer + +Commentator: Charles W. Eliot + +Release Date: August 11, 2005 [EBook #16510] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS ON EDUCATION *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Joel Schlosberg and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<center><p><i>EVERYMAN, I will go with thee,<br> and be thy guide,<br> In +thy most need to go by thy side</i></p></center> + +<hr> + +<table width="60%" align="center" summary="Biographical note"> + +<tr><td><center><p>HERBERT SPENCER</p></center> + +<p>Born at Derby in 1820, the son of a teacher, from whom he received +most of his education. Obtained employment on the London and Birmingham +Railway. After the strike of 1846 he devoted himself to journalism, and +in 1848 was sub-editor of <i>The Economist</i>.</p> + +<center><p>He died in 1903.</p></center></td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr> + +<center><h3>HERBERT SPENCER</h3> + +<h1>Essays on Education</h1> + +<h5>AND KINDRED SUBJECTS</h5> + +<br> + +<h5>INTRODUCTION BY</h5> + +<h4>CHARLES W. ELIOT</h4> + +<br> + +<h5>DENT: LONDON</h5> + +<h4>EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY</h4> + +<h5>DUTTON: NEW YORK</h5></center> + +<hr> + +<center><i>Made in Great Britain<br> at the<br> Aldine Press · Letchworth +· Herts<br> for<br> J.M. DENT & SONS LTD<br> Aldine House · Bedford +Street · London<br> First published in Everyman's Library 1911<br> Last +reprinted 1963</i><br> + +<p>NO. <i>504</i></p></center> + +<hr> + + +<center><h2><a name="page_vii"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2></center> + + +<p>The four essays on education which Herbert Spencer published in a +single volume in 1861 were all written and separately published between +1854 and 1859. Their tone was aggressive and their proposals +revolutionary; although all the doctrines—with one important +exception—had already been vigorously preached by earlier writers +on education, as Spencer himself was at pains to point out. The doctrine +which was comparatively new ran through all four essays; but was most +amply stated in the essay first published in 1859 under the title "What +Knowledge is of Most Worth?" In this essay Spencer divided the leading +kinds of human activity into those which minister to self-preservation, +those which secure the necessaries of life, those whose end is the care +of offspring, those which make good citizens, and those which prepare +adults to enjoy nature, literature, and the fine arts; and he then +maintained that in each of these several classes, knowledge of science +was worth more than any other knowledge. He argued that everywhere +throughout creation faculties are developed through the performance of +the appropriate functions; so that it would be contrary to the whole +harmony of nature "if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of +information, and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic." He +then maintained that the sciences are superior in all respects to +languages as educational material; they train the memory better, and a +superior kind of memory; they cultivate the judgment, and they impart an +admirable moral and religious discipline. He concluded that "for +discipline, as well as for guidance, science is of chiefest value. In +all its effects, learning the meaning of things is better than learning +the meaning of words." He answered the question "what knowledge is of +most worth?" with the one word—science.</p> + +<p>This doctrine was extremely repulsive to the established profession +of education in England, where Latin, Greek, and mathematics had been +the staples of education for many <a name="page_viii"></a> generations, +and were believed to afford the only suitable preparation for the +learned professions, public life, and cultivated society. In proclaiming +this doctrine with ample illustration, ingenious argument, and forcible +reiteration, Spencer was a true educational pioneer, although some of +his scientific contemporaries were really preaching similar doctrines, +each in his own field.</p> + +<p>The profession of teaching has long been characterised by certain +habitual convictions, which Spencer undertook to shake rudely, and even +to deride. The first of these convictions is that all education, +physical, intellectual, and moral, must be authoritative, and need take +no account of the natural wishes, tendencies, and motives of the +ignorant and undeveloped child. The second dominating conviction is that +to teach means to tell, or show, children what they ought to see, +believe, and utter. Expositions by the teacher and books are therefore +the true means of education. The third and supreme conviction is that +the method of education which produced the teacher himself and the +contemporary or earlier scholars, authors, and publicists, must be the +righteous and sufficient method. Its fruits demonstrate its soundness, +and make it sacred. Herbert Spencer, in the essays included in the +present volume, assaulted all three of these firm convictions. +Accordingly, the ideas on education which he put forth more than fifty +years ago have penetrated educational practice very +slowly—particularly in England; but they are now coming to prevail +in most civilised countries, and they will prevail more and more. +Through him, the thoughts on education of Comenius, Montaigne, Locke, +Milton, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and other noted writers on this neglected +subject are at last winning their way into practice, with the +modifications or adaptations which the immense gains of the human race +in knowledge and power since the nineteenth century opened have shown to +be wise.</p> + +<p>For teachers and educational administrators it is interesting to +observe the steps by which Spencer's doctrines—and especially his +doctrine of the supreme value of science—have advanced towards +acceptance in practice. In general, the advance has been brought about +through the indirect effects of the enormous industrial, social, and +political changes of the last fifty years. The first practical step was +the introduction of laboratory teaching of one or <a name="page_ix"></a> +more of the sciences into the secondary schools and colleges. Chemistry +and physics were the commonest subjects selected. These two subjects had +been taught from books even earlier; but memorising science out of books +is far less useful as training than memorising grammars and +vocabularies. The characteristic discipline of science can be imparted +only through the laboratory method. The schoolmasters and college +faculties who took this step by no means admitted Spencer's contention +that science should be the universal staple at all stages of child +development. On the contrary, they believed, as most people do to-day, +that the mind of the young child cannot grasp the processes and +generalisations of science, and that science is no more universally +fitted to develop mental power than the classics or mathematics. Indeed, +experience during the past fifty years seems to have proved that fewer +minds are naturally inclined to scientific study than to linguistic or +historical study; so that if some science is to be learnt by everybody, +the amount of such study should be limited to acquiring in one or two +sciences knowledge of the scientific method in general. So much +scientific training is indeed universally desirable; because good +training of the senses to observe accurately is universally desirable, +and the collecting, comparing, and grouping of many facts teach +orderliness in thinking, and lead up to something which Spencer valued +highly in education—"a rational explanation of phenomena."</p> + +<p>Science having obtained a foothold in secondary schools and colleges, +an adequate development of science-teaching resulted from the +introduction of options or elections for the pupils among numerous +different courses, in place of a curriculum prescribed for all. The +elaborate teaching of many sciences was thus introduced. The pupil or +student saw and recorded for himself; used books only as helps and +guides in seeing, recording, and generalising; proceeded from the known +to the unknown; and in short, made numerous applications of the +doctrines which pervade all Spencer's writings on education. In the +United States these methods were introduced earlier and have been +carried farther than in England; but within the last few years the +changes made in education have been more extensive and rapid in England +than in any other country;—witness the announcements of the new +high schools and the re-organised <a name="page_x"></a> grammar +schools, of such colleges as South Kensington, Armstrong, King's, the +University College (London), and Goldsmiths', and of the new municipal +universities such as Victoria, Bristol, Sheffield, Birmingham, +Liverpool, and Leeds. The new technical schools also illustrate the +advent of instruction in applied science as an important element in +advanced education. Such institutions as the Seafield Park Engineering +College, the City Guilds of London Institute, the City of London +College, and the Battersea Polytechnic are instances of the same +development. Some endowed institutions for girls illustrate the same +tendencies, as, for example, the Bedford College for Women and the Royal +Holloway College. All these institutions teach sciences in considerable +variety, and in the way that Spencer advocated,—not so much +because they have distinctly accepted his views, as because modern +industrial and social conditions compel the preparation in science of +young people destined for various occupations and services indispensable +to modern society. The method of the preparation is essentially that +which he advocated.</p> + +<p>Spencer's propositions to the effect that the study of science was +desirable for artisans, artists, and, in general, for people who were to +get their livings through various skills of hand and eye, were received +with great incredulity, not to say derision—particularly when he +maintained that some knowledge of the theory which underlies an art was +desirable for manual practitioners of the art; but the changes of the +last fifty years in the practice of the arts and trades may be said to +have demonstrated that his views were thoroughly sound. The applications +of science in the arts and trades have been so numerous and productive, +that widespread training in science has become indispensable to any +nation which means to excel in the manufacturing industries, whether of +large scale or small scale. The extraordinary popularity of evening +schools and correspondence schools in the United States rests on the +need which young people employed in the various industries of the +country feel of obtaining more theoretical knowledge about the physical +or chemical processes through which they are earning a livelihood. The +Young Men's Christian Associations in the American cities have become +great centres of evening instruction for just such young persons. The +correspondence schools are teaching hundreds of thousands <a +name="page_xi"></a> of young people at work in machine-shops, mills, +mines, and factories, who believe that they can advance themselves in +their several occupations by supplementing their elementary education +with correspondence courses, taken while they are at work earning a +livelihood in industries that rest ultimately on applications of +science.</p> + +<p>Spencer's objection to the constant exercise of authority and +compulsion in schools, families, and the State is felt to-day much more +widely than it was in 1858, when he wrote his essay on moral education. +His proposal that children should be allowed to suffer the natural +consequences of their foolish or wrong acts does not seem to the present +generation—any more than it did to him—to be applicable to +very young children, who need protection from the undue severity of many +natural penalties; but the soundness of his general doctrine that it is +the true function of parents and teachers to see that children +habitually experience the normal consequences of their conduct, without +putting artificial consequences in place of them, now commands the +assent of most persons whose minds have been freed from the theological +dogmas of original sin and total depravity. Spencer did not expect the +immediate adoption of this principle; because society as a whole was not +yet humane enough. He admitted that the uncontrollable child of +ill-controlled adults might sometimes have to be scolded or beaten, and +that these barbarous methods might be "perhaps the best preparation such +children can have for the barbarous society in which they are presently +to play a part." He hoped, however, that the civilised members of +society would by and by spontaneously use milder measures; and this hope +has been realised in good degree, with the result that happiness in +childhood is much commoner and more constant than it used to be. Parents +and teachers are beginning to realise that self-control is a prime +object in moral education, and that this self-control cannot be +practised under a regime of constant supervision, unexplained commands, +and painful punishments, but must be gained in freedom. Some large-scale +experience with American secondary schools which prepare boys for +admission to college has been edifying in this respect. The American +colleges, as a rule, do not undertake to exercise much supervision over +their students, but leave them free to regulate their own lives in +regard to both work and play. <a name="page_xii"></a> Now it is the +boys who come from the secondary schools where the closest supervision +is maintained that are in most danger of falling into evil ways when +they first go to college.</p> + +<p>Spencer put very forcibly a valuable doctrine for which many earlier +writers on the theory of education had failed to get a hearing—the +doctrine, namely, that all instruction should be pleasurable and +interesting. Fifty years ago almost all teachers believed that it was +impossible to make school-work interesting, or life-work either; so that +the child must be forced to grind without pleasure, in preparation for +life's grind; and the forcing was to be done by experience of the +teacher's displeasure and the infliction of pain. Through the slow +effects of Spencer's teaching and of the experience of practical +teachers who have demonstrated that instruction can be made pleasurable, +and that the very hardest work is done by interested pupils because they +are interested, it has gradually come to pass that his heresy has become +the prevailing judgment among sensible and humane teachers. The +experience of many adults, hard at work in the modern industrial, +commercial, and financial world, has taught them that human beings can +make their intensest application only to problems in which they are +personally interested for one reason or another, and that freemen work +much harder than slaves, because they feel within themselves strong +motives for exertion which slaves cannot possibly feel. So, many +intelligent adults, including many parents and teachers, have come to +believe it possible that children will learn to do hard work, both in +school and in after life, through the free play of interior motives +which appeal to them, and prompt them to persistent exertion.</p> + +<p>The justice of Spencer's views about training through pleasurable +sensation and achievement in freedom rather than through uninterested +work and pain inflicted by despotic government, is well illustrated by +the recent improvements in the discipline of reformatories for boys and +girls and young men and women. It has been demonstrated that the only +useful reformatories are those which diminish the criminal's liberty of +action as little as possible, require him to perform productive labour, +educate him for a trade or other useful occupation, and offer him the +reward of an abridgment of sentence in return for industry and <a +name="page_xiii"></a> self-control. Repression and compulsion under +penalties however severe fail to reform, and often make bad moral +conditions worse. Instruction, as much freedom as is consistent with the +safety of society, and an appeal to the ordinary motives of emulation, +satisfaction in achievement, and the desire to win credit, can, and do, +reform.</p> + +<p>Many schools, both public and private, have now adopted—in most +cases unconsciously—many of Spencer's more detailed suggestions. +The laboratory method of instruction, for example, now common for +scientific subjects in good schools, is an application of his doctrines +of concrete illustration, training in the accurate use of the senses, +and subordination of book-work. Many schools realise, too, that learning +by heart and, in general, memorising from books are not the only means +of storing the mind of a child. They should make parts of a sound +education, but should not be used to the exclusion of learning through +eye, ear, and hand. Spencer pointed out with much elaboration that +children acquire in their early years a vast amount of information +exclusively through the incessant use of their senses. To-day teachers +know this fact, and realise much better than the teachers of fifty years +ago did, that all through the school and college period the pupils +should be getting a large part of their new knowledge through the +careful application of their own powers of observation, aided, indeed, +by books and pictures which record the observations, old and new, of +other people. The young human being, unlike the puppy or the kitten, is +not confined to the use of his own senses as sources of information and +discovery; but can enjoy the fruits of a prodigious width and depth of +observation acquired by preceding generations and adult members of his +own generation. A recent illustration of this extension of the method of +observation in teaching to observations made by other people is the new +method of giving moral instruction to school children through +photographs of actual scenes which illustrate both good morals and bad, +the exhibition of the photographs being accompanied by a running oral +comment from the teacher. In this kind of moral instruction it seems to +be possible to interest all kinds of children, both civilised and +barbarous, both ill-bred and well-bred. The teaching comes through the +eye, for the children themselves observe intently the pictures which the +lantern throws on the screen; but the <a name="page_xiv"></a> striking +scenes thus put before them probably lie in most instances quite outside +the region of their own experiences.</p> + +<p>The essay on "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" contains a hot +denunciation of that kind of information which in most schools used to +usurp the name of history. It is enough to say of this part of Spencer's +educational doctrine that all the best historical writers since the +middle of the nineteenth century seem to have adopted the principles +which he declared should govern the writing of history. As a result, the +teaching of history in schools and colleges has undergone a profound +change. It now deals with the nature and action of government, central, +local, and ecclesiastical, with social observances, industrial systems, +and the customs which regulate popular life, out-of-doors and indoors. +It depicts also the intellectual condition of the nation and the +progress it has made in applied science, the fine arts, and legislation, +and includes descriptions of the peoples' food, shelters, and +amusements. To this result many authors and teachers have contributed; +but Spencer's violent denunciation of history as it was taught in his +time has greatly promoted this important reform.</p> + +<p>Many twentieth-century teachers are sure to put in practice Spencer's +exhortation to teach children to draw with pen and pencil, and to use +paints and brush. He maintained that the common omission of drawing as +an important element in the training of children was in contempt of some +of the most obvious of nature's suggestions with regard to the natural +development of human faculties; and the better recent practice in some +English and American schools verifies his statement; nevertheless some +of the best secondary schools in both countries still fail to recognise +drawing and painting as important elements in liberal education.</p> + +<p>Modern society as yet hardly approaches the putting into effective +practice of the sound views which Spencer set forth with great detail in +his essay on "Physical Education." The instruction given in schools and +colleges on the care of the body and the laws of health is still very +meagre; and in certain subjects of the utmost importance no instruction +whatever is given, as, for example, in the normal methods of +reproduction in plants and animals, in eugenics, and in the ruinous +consequences of disregarding sexual purity and honour. In one respect +his fundamental <a name="page_xv"></a> doctrine of freedom, carried +into the domain of physical exercise, has been extensively adopted in +England, on the Continent, and in America. He taught that although +gymnastics, military drill, and formal exercises of the limbs are better +than nothing, they can never serve in place of the plays prompted by +nature. He maintained that "for girls as well as boys the sportive +activities to which the instincts impel are essential to bodily +welfare." This principle is now being carried into practice not only for +school-children, but for operatives in factories, clerks, and other +young persons whose occupations are sedentary and monotonous. For all +such persons, free plays are vastly better than formal exercises of any +sort.</p> + +<p>The wide adoption of Spencer's educational ideas has had to await the +advent of the new educational administration and the new public interest +therein. It awaited the coming of the state university in the United +States and of the city university in England, the establishment of +numerous technical schools, the profound modifications made in grammar +schools and academies, and the multiplication in both countries of the +secondary schools called high schools. In other words, his ideas +gradually gained admission to a vast number of new institutions of +education, which were created and maintained because both the +governments and the nations felt a new sense of responsibility for the +training of the future generations. These new agencies have been created +in great variety, and the introduction of Spencer's ideas has been much +facilitated by this variety. These institutions were national, state, or +municipal. They were tax-supported or endowed. They charged tuition +fees, or were open to competent children or adults without fee. They +undertook to meet alike the needs of the individual and the needs of the +community; and this undertaking involved the introduction of many new +subjects of instruction and many new methods. Through their variety they +could be sympathetic with both individualism and collectivism. The +variety of instruction offered is best illustrated in the strongest +American universities, some of which are tax-supported and some endowed. +These universities maintain a great variety of courses of instruction in +subjects none of which was taught with the faintest approach to adequacy +in American universities sixty years ago; but in making these extensions +the universities have <a name="page_xvi"></a> not found it necessary to +reduce the instruction offered in the classics and mathematics. The +traditional cultural studies are still provided; but they represent only +one programme among many, and no one is compelled to follow it. The +domination of the classics is at an end; but any student who prefers the +traditional path to culture, or whose parents choose that path for him, +will find in several American universities much richer provisions of +classical instruction than any university in the country offered sixty +years ago. The present proposals to widen the influence of Oxford +University do not mean, therefore, that the classics, history, and +philosophy are to be taught less there, but only that other subjects are +to be taught more, and that a greater number and variety of young men +will be prepared there for the service of the nation.</p> + +<p>The new public interest in education as a necessary of modern +industrial and political life has gradually brought about a great +increase in the proportional number of young men and women whose +education is prolonged beyond the period of primary or elementary +instruction; and this multitude of young people is preparing for a great +variety of callings, many of which are new within sixty years, having +been brought into being by the extraordinary advances of applied +science. The advent of these new callings has favoured the spread of +Spencer's educational ideas. The recent agitation in favour of what is +called vocational training is a vivid illustration of the wide +acceptance of his arguments. Even the farmers, their farm-hands, and +their children must nowadays be offered free instruction in agriculture; +because the public, and especially the urban public, believes that by +disseminating better methods of tillage, better seed, and appropriate +manures, the yield of the farms can be improved in quality and +multiplied in quantity. In regard to all material interests, the free +peoples are acting on the principle that science is the knowledge of +most worth. Spencer's doctrine of natural consequences in place of +artificial penalties, his view that all young people should be taught +how to be wise parents and good citizens, and his advocacy of +instruction in public and private hygiene, lie at the roots of many of +the philanthropic and reformatory movements of the day.</p> + +<p>On the whole, Herbert Spencer has been fortunate among educational +philosophers. He has not had to wait so long <a name="page_xvii"></a> +for the acceptance of his teachings as Comenius, Montaigne, or Rousseau +waited. His ideas have been floated on a prodigious tide of industrial +and social change, which necessarily involved wide-spread and profound +educational reform.</p> + +<p>This introduction deals with Spencer's four essays on education; but +in the present volume are included three other famous essays written by +him during the same period (1854-59) which produced the essays on +education. All three are germane to the educational essays, because they +deal with the general law of human progress, with the genesis of that +science which Spencer thought to be the knowledge of most worth, and +with the origin and function of music, a subject which he maintained +should play an important part in any scheme of education.</p> + +<p align="right">CHARLES W. ELIOT.</p> + + + + +<center><p>SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY</p></center> + +<p><small><small>WORKS.</small> <i>The Proper Sphere of Government</i>, 1843; +<i>Social Statics</i>, 1850; <i>Theory of Population</i> (<i>Westminster Review</i>), +April 1852; <i>The Development of Hypothesis</i> (<i>The Leader</i>), 20th March +1852; <i>The Ultimate Laws of Physiology</i> (<i>National Review</i>), April 1857; +<i>Essays, Scientific, Political and Speculative</i>, 2 vols., 1858-63; +<i>Education</i>, 1861; <i>A System of Synthetic Philosophy</i> (12 vols., +1862-96), made up as follows: <i>First Principles</i>, 1862; <i>Principles of +Biology</i>, 2 vols., 1864-7; <i>Principles of Psychology</i>, 2 vols., 1870-2; +<i>Principles of Sociology</i>, 3 vols., 1876-96; <i>Ceremonial Institutions</i>, +1879; <i>Principles of Morality</i>, 2 vols., 1879-93 (vol. i, part I +published as <i>Data of Ethics</i>, 1879; part 4 as <i>Justice</i>, 1891); +<i>Political Institutions</i>, 1882. Meanwhile the following works were also +published: <i>The Classification of the Sciences</i>, 1864; <i>The Study of +Sociology</i>, 1872; <i>Descriptive Sociology</i>, 1873; <i>The Man versus the +State</i>, 1884; <i>The Factors of Organic Evolution</i>, 1887; <i>The Inadequacy +of Natural Selection</i>, 1893. Spencer's <i>Autobiography</i> appeared +posthumously, 2 vols., 1904.</small></p> + +<p><small><small>COLLECTED EDITION.</small> Nineteen volumes, +1861-1902.</small></p> + +<p><small><small>BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM.</small> T. Funk-Brentano, <i>Les +Sophistes grecs et les Sophistes contemporains</i> (Mill and Spencer), +1879; F.H. Collins, <i>An Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy</i>, 1889; H. +Sidgwick, <i>Lectures on the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau</i>, +1902; 'The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer' (in <i>The Philosophy of Kant +and Other Lectures</i>, 1905); D. Duncan, <i>An Introduction to the +Philosophy of Spencer</i>, 1904; <i>Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer</i>, +1908; J. Royce, <i>Herbert Spencer. An Estimate and a Review</i>, 1904; J.A. +Thomson, <i>Herbert Spencer</i>, 1906; W.H. Hudson, <i>Herbert Spencer</i>, 1916; +J. Rumney, <i>Herbert Spencer's Sociology</i>, 1934; R.C.K. Ensor, <i>Some +Reflections on Herbert Spencer's Doctrine</i>, 1946.</small></p> + +<a name="page_xviii"></a> + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_xix"></a>CONTENTS</h2></center> + +<table width="100%" summary="Table of contents"> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Introduction</i> by Charles W. Eliot</td> <td align="right"><a +href="#page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><p>PART I</p> + +<p><small>EDUCATION: INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND +PHYSICAL</small></p></td></tr> + +<tr><td>W<small>HAT</small> K<small>NOWLEDGE IS OF MOST</small> +W<small>ORTH</small>?</td> <td align="right"><a +href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>I<small>NTELLECTUAL</small> E<small>DUCATION</small></td> <td +align="right"><a href="#page_045">45</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>M<small>ORAL</small> E<small>DUCATION</small></td> <td +align="right"><a href="#page_084">84</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>P<small>HYSICAL</small> E<small>DUCATION</small></td> <td +align="right"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><p>PART II</p> + +<p><small>ESSAYS ON KINDRED SUBJECTS</small></p></td></tr> + +<tr><td>P<small>ROGRESS</small>: I<small>TS</small> L<small>AW +AND</small> C<small>AUSE</small></td> <td align="right"><a +href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>O<small>N</small> M<small>ANNERS AND</small> +F<small>ASHION</small></td> <td align="right"><a +href="#page_198">198</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>O<small>N THE</small> G<small>ENESIS OF</small> +S<small>CIENCE</small></td> <td align="right"><a +href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>O<small>N</small> T<small>HE</small> P<small>HYSIOLOGY +OF</small> L<small>AUGHTER</small></td> <td align="right"><a +href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>O<small>N</small> T<small>HE</small> O<small>RIGIN AND</small> +F<small>UNCTION OF</small> M<small>USIC</small></td> <td +align="right"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<a name="page_xx"></a> + + + + + +<center><a name="page_xxi"></a><h2>ORIGINAL PREFACE</h2> + +<h5>TO</h5> + +<h3>EDUCATION: INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND PHYSICAL</h3></center> + + +<p>The four chapters of which this work consists, originally appeared as +four Review-articles: the first in the <i>Westminster Review</i> for July +1859; the second in the <i>North British Review</i> for May 1854; and the +remaining two in the <i>British Quarterly Review</i> for April 1858 and for +April 1859. Severally treating different divisions of the subject, but +together forming a tolerably complete whole, I originally wrote them +with a view to their republication in a united form; and they would some +time since have thus been issued, had not a legal difficulty stood in +the way. This difficulty being now removed, I hasten to fulfil the +intention with which they were written.</p> + +<p>That in their first shape these chapters were severally independent, +is the reason to be assigned for some slight repetitions which occur in +them: one leading idea, more especially, reappearing twice. As, however, +this idea is on each occasion presented under a new form, and as it can +scarcely be too much enforced, I have not thought well to omit any of +the passages embodying it.</p> + +<p>Some additions of importance will be found in the chapter on +Intellectual Education; and in the one on Physical Education there are a +few minor alterations. But the chief changes which have been made, are +changes of expression: all of the essays having undergone a careful +verbal revision.</p> + +<p align="right">H.S.</p> + +<p>L<small>ONDON</small>, <i>May 1861</i></p> + + + + + + +<center><h1><a name="page_001"></a>SPENCER'S ESSAYS</h1> + + + + +<h2>PART I—ON EDUCATION</h2> + +<h2>WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH?</h2></center> + + +<p>It has been truly remarked that, in order of time, decoration +precedes dress. Among people who submit to great physical suffering that +they may have themselves handsomely tattooed, extremes of temperature +are borne with but little attempt at mitigation. Humboldt tells us that +an Orinoco Indian, though quite regardless of bodily comfort, will yet +labour for a fortnight to purchase pigment wherewith to make himself +admired; and that the same woman who would not hesitate to leave her hut +without a fragment of clothing on, would not dare to commit such a +breach of decorum as to go out unpainted. Voyagers find that coloured +beads and trinkets are much more prized by wild tribes than are calicoes +or broadcloths. And the anecdotes we have of the ways in which, when +shirts and coats are given, savages turn them to some ludicrous display, +show how completely the idea of ornament predominates over that of use. +Nay, there are still more extreme illustrations: witness the fact +narrated by Capt. Speke of his African attendants, who strutted about in +their goat-skin mantles when the weather was fine, but when it was wet, +took them off, folded them up, and went about naked, shivering in the +rain! Indeed, the facts of aboriginal life seem to indicate that dress +is developed out of decorations. And when we remember that even among +ourselves most think more about the fineness of the fabric than its +warmth, and more about the cut than the convenience—when we see +that the function is still in great measure subordinated to the +appearance—we have further reason for inferring such an +origin.</p> + +<p>It is curious that the like relations hold with the mind. Among +mental as among bodily acquisitions, the ornamental comes before the +useful. Not only in times past, but almost <a name="page_002"></a> as +much in our own era, that knowledge which conduces to personal +well-being has been postponed to that which brings applause. In the +Greek schools, music, poetry, rhetoric, and a philosophy which, until +Socrates taught, had but little bearing upon action, were the dominant +subjects; while knowledge aiding the arts of life had a very subordinate +place. And in our own universities and schools at the present moment, +the like antithesis holds. We are guilty of something like a platitude +when we say that throughout his after-career, a boy, in nine cases out +of ten, applies his Latin and Greek to no practical purposes. The remark +is trite that in his shop, or his office, in managing his estate or his +family, in playing his part as director of a bank or a railway, he is +very little aided by this knowledge he took so many years to +acquire—so little, that generally the greater part of it drops out +of his memory; and if he occasionally vents a Latin quotation, or +alludes to some Greek myth, it is less to throw light on the topic in +hand than for the sake of effect. If we inquire what is the real motive +for giving boys a classical education, we find it to be simply +conformity to public opinion. Men dress their children's minds as they +do their bodies, in the prevailing fashion. As the Orinoco Indian puts +on paint before leaving his hut, not with a view to any direct benefit, +but because he would be ashamed to be seen without it; so, a boy's +drilling in Latin and Greek is insisted on, not because of their +intrinsic value, but that he may not be disgraced by being found +ignorant of them—that he may have "the education of a +gentleman"—the badge marking a certain social position, and +bringing a consequent respect.</p> + +<p>This parallel is still more clearly displayed in the case of the +other sex. In the treatment of both mind and body, the decorative +element has continued to predominate in a greater degree among women +than among men. Originally, personal adornment occupied the attention of +both sexes equally. In these latter days of civilisation, however, we +see that in the dress of men the regard for appearance has in a +considerable degree yielded to the regard for comfort; while in their +education the useful has of late been trenching on the ornamental. In +neither direction has this change gone so far with women. The wearing of +earrings, finger-rings, bracelets; the elaborate dressings of the hair; +the still occasional use of paint; the immense labour bestowed in making +habiliments sufficiently attractive; and the great discomfort that will +be submitted to for the sake of conformity; show how greatly, in the +attiring of <a name="page_003"></a> women, the desire of approbation +overrides the desire for warmth and convenience. And similarly in their +education, the immense preponderance of "accomplishments" proves how +here, too, use is subordinated to display. Dancing, deportment, the +piano, singing, drawing—what a large space do these occupy! If you +ask why Italian and German are learnt, you will find that, under all the +sham reasons given, the real reason is, that a knowledge of those +tongues is thought ladylike. It is not that the books written in them +may be utilised, which they scarcely ever are; but that Italian and +German songs may be sung, and that the extent of attainment may bring +whispered admiration. The births, deaths, and marriages of kings, and +other like historic trivialities, are committed to memory, not because +of any direct benefits that can possibly result from knowing them: but +because society considers them parts of a good education—because +the absence of such knowledge may bring the contempt of others. When we +have named reading, writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, and sewing, +we have named about all the things a girl is taught with a view to their +actual uses in life; and even some of these have more reference to the +good opinion of others than to immediate personal welfare.</p> + +<p>Thoroughly to realise the truth that with the mind as with the body +the ornamental precedes the useful, it is requisite to glance at its +rationale. This lies in the fact that, from the far past down even to +the present, social needs have subordinated individual needs, and that +the chief social need has been the control of individuals. It is not, as +we commonly suppose, that there are no governments but those of +monarchs, and parliaments, and constituted authorities. These +acknowledged governments are supplemented by other unacknowledged ones, +that grow up in all circles, in which every man or woman strives to be +king or queen or lesser dignitary. To get above some and be reverenced +by them, and to propitiate those who are above us, is the universal +struggle in which the chief energies of life are expended. By the +accumulation of wealth, by style of living, by beauty of dress, by +display of knowledge or intellect, each tries to subjugate others; and +so aids in weaving that ramified network of restraints by which society +is kept in order. It is not the savage chief only, who, in formidable +war-paint, with scalps at his belt, aims to strike awe into his +inferiors; it is not only the belle who, by elaborate toilet, polished +manners, and numerous accomplishments, strives to "make conquests;" <a +name="page_004"></a> but the scholar, the historian, the philosopher, +use their acquirements to the same end. We are none of us content with +quietly unfolding our own individualities to the full in all directions; +but have a restless craving to impress our individualities upon others, +and in some way subordinate them. And this it is which determines the +character of our education. Not what knowledge is of most real worth, is +the consideration; but what will bring most applause, honour, +respect—what will most conduce to social position and +influence—what will be most imposing. As, throughout life, not +what we are, but what we shall be thought, is the question; so in +education, the question is, not the intrinsic value of knowledge, so +much as its extrinsic effects on others. And this being our dominant +idea, direct utility is scarcely more regarded than by the barbarian +when filing his teeth and staining his nails.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>If there requires further evidence of the rude, undeveloped character +of our education, we have it in the fact that the comparative worths of +different kinds of knowledge have been as yet scarcely even +discussed—much less discussed in a methodic way with definite +results. Not only is it that no standard of relative values has yet been +agreed upon; but the existence of any such standard has not been +conceived in a clear manner. And not only is it that the existence of +such a standard has not been clearly conceived; but the need for it +seems to have been scarcely even felt. Men read books on this topic, and +attend lectures on that; decide that their children shall be instructed +in these branches of knowledge, and shall not be instructed in those; +and all under the guidance of mere custom, or liking, or prejudice; +without ever considering the enormous importance of determining in some +rational way what things are really most worth learning. It is true that +in all circles we hear occasional remarks on the importance of this or +the other order of information. But whether the degree of its importance +justifies the expenditure of the time needed to acquire it; and whether +there are not things of more importance to which such time might be +better devoted; are queries which, if raised at all, are disposed of +quite summarily, according to personal predilections. It is true also, +that now and then, we hear revived the standing controversy respecting +the comparative merits of classics and mathematics. This controversy, +however, is carried on in an empirical manner, with no reference to an +ascertained criterion; and the question at issue is insignificant when +compared with <a name="page_005"></a> the general question of which it +is part. To suppose that deciding whether a mathematical or a classical +education is the best is deciding what is the proper <i>curriculum</i>, is +much the same thing as to suppose that the whole of dietetics lies in +ascertaining whether or not bread is more nutritive than potatoes!</p> + +<p>The question which we contend is of such transcendent moment, is, not +whether such or such knowledge is of worth but what is its <i>relative</i> +worth? When they have named certain advantages which a given course of +study has secured them, persons are apt to assume that they have +justified themselves; quite forgetting that the adequateness of the +advantages is the point to be judged. There is, perhaps, not a subject +to which men devote attention that has not <i>some</i> value. A year +diligently spent in getting up heraldry, would very possibly give a +little further insight into ancient manners and morals. Any one who +should learn the distances between all the towns in England, might, in +the course of his life, find one or two of the thousand facts he had +acquired of some slight service when arranging a journey. Gathering +together all the small gossip of a county, profitless occupation as it +would be, might yet occasionally help to establish some useful +fact—say, a good example of hereditary transmission. But in these +cases, every one would admit that there was no proportion between the +required labour and the probable benefit. No one would tolerate the +proposal to devote some years of a boy's time to getting such +information, at the cost of much more valuable information which he +might else have got. And if here the test of relative value is appealed +to and held conclusive, then should it be appealed to and held +conclusive throughout. Had we time to master all subjects we need not be +particular. To quote the old song:—</p> + +<blockquote>Could a man be secure<br> That his day would endure<br> As +of old, for a thousand long years,<br> What things might he know!<br> +What deeds might he do!<br> And all without hurry or care.</blockquote> + +<p>"But we that have but span-long lives" must ever bear in mind our +limited time for acquisition. And remembering how narrowly this time is +limited, not only by the shortness of life, but also still more by the +business of life, we ought to be especially solicitous to employ what +time we have to the greatest advantage. Before devoting years to some +subject which <a name="page_006"></a> fashion or fancy suggests, it is +surely wise to weigh with great care the worth of the results, as +compared with the worth of various alternative results which the same +years might bring if otherwise applied.</p> + +<p>In education, then, this is the question of questions, which it is +high time we discussed in some methodic way. The first in importance, +though the last to be considered, is the problem—how to decide +among the conflicting claims of various subjects on our attention. +Before there can be a rational <i>curriculum</i>, we must settle which things +it most concerns us to know; or, to use a word of Bacon's, now +unfortunately obsolete—we must determine the relative values of +knowledges.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>To this end, a measure of value is the first requisite. And happily, +respecting the true measure of value, as expressed in general terms, +there can be no dispute. Every one in contending for the worth of any +particular order of information, does so by showing its bearing upon +some part of life. In reply to the question—"Of what use is it?" +the mathematician, linguist, naturalist, or philosopher, explains the +way in which his learning beneficially influences action—saves +from evil or secures good—conduces to happiness. When the teacher +of writing has pointed out how great an aid writing is to success in +business—that is, to the obtainment of sustenance—that is, +to satisfactory living; he is held to have proved his case. And when the +collector of dead facts (say a numismatist) fails to make clear any +appreciable effects which these facts can produce on human welfare, he +is obliged to admit that they are comparatively valueless. All then, +either directly or by implication, appeal to this as the ultimate +test.</p> + +<p>How to live?—that is the essential question for us. Not how to +live in the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The +general problem which comprehends every special problem is—the +right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In +what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way +to manage our affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to +behave as a citizen; in what way to utilise those sources of happiness +which nature supplies—how to use all our faculties to the greatest +advantage of ourselves and others—how to live completely? And this +being the great thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the +great thing which education has to teach. To prepare us for complete +living is the function which education has to discharge; and <a +name="page_007"></a> the only rational mode of judging of an +educational course is, to judge in what degree it discharges such +function.</p> + +<p>This test, never used in its entirety, but rarely even partially +used, and used then in a vague, half conscious way, has to be applied +consciously, methodically, and throughout all cases. It behoves us to +set before ourselves, and ever to keep clearly in view, complete living +as the end to be achieved; so that in bringing up our children we may +choose subjects and methods of instruction, with deliberate reference to +this end. Not only ought we to cease from the mere unthinking adoption +of the current fashion in education, which has no better warrant than +any other fashion; but we must also rise above that rude, empirical +style of judging displayed by those more intelligent people who do +bestow some care in overseeing the cultivation of their children's +minds. It must not suffice simply to <i>think</i> that such or such +information will be useful in after life, or that this kind of knowledge +is of more practical value than that; but we must seek out some process +of estimating their respective values, so that as far as possible we may +positively <i>know</i> which are most deserving of attention.</p> + +<p>Doubtless the task is difficult—perhaps never to be more than +approximately achieved. But, considering the vastness of the interests +at stake, its difficulty is no reason for pusillanimously passing it by; +but rather for devoting every energy to its mastery. And if we only +proceed systematically, we may very soon get at results of no small +moment.</p> + +<p>Our first step must obviously be to classify, in the order of their +importance, the leading kinds of activity which constitute human life. +They may be naturally arranged into:—1. those activities which +directly minister to self-preservation; 2. those activities which, by +securing the necessaries of life, indirectly minister to +self-preservation; 3. those activities which have for their end the +rearing and discipline of offspring; 4. those activities which are +involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations; 5. +those miscellaneous activities which fill up the leisure part of life, +devoted to the gratification of the tastes and feelings.</p> + +<p>That these stand in something like their true order of subordination, +it needs no long consideration to show. The actions and precautions by +which, from moment to moment, we secure personal safety, must clearly +take precedence of all others. Could there be a man, ignorant as an +infant of surrounding objects and movements, or how to guide himself +among them, <a name="page_008"></a> he would pretty certainly lose his +life the first time he went into the street; notwithstanding any amount +of learning he might have on other matters. And as entire ignorance in +all other directions would be less promptly fatal than entire ignorance +in this direction, it must be admitted that knowledge immediately +conducive to self-preservation is of primary importance.</p> + +<p>That next after direct self-preservation comes the indirect +self-preservation which consists in acquiring the means of living, none +will question. That a man's industrial functions must be considered +before his parental ones, is manifest from the fact that, speaking +generally, the discharge of the parental functions is made possible only +by the previous discharge of the industrial ones. The power of +self-maintenance necessarily preceding the power of maintaining +offspring, it follows that knowledge needful for self-maintenance has +stronger claims than knowledge needful for family welfare—is +second in value to none save knowledge needful for immediate +self-preservation.</p> + +<p>As the family comes before the State in order of time—as the +bringing up of children is possible before the State exists, or when it +has ceased to be, whereas the State is rendered possible only by the +bringing up of children; it follows that the duties of the parent demand +closer attention than those of the citizen. Or, to use a further +argument—since the goodness of a society ultimately depends on the +nature of its citizens; and since the nature of its citizens is more +modifiable by early training than by anything else; we must conclude +that the welfare of the family underlies the welfare of society. And +hence knowledge directly conducing to the first, must take precedence of +knowledge directly conducing to the last.</p> + +<p>Those various forms of pleasurable occupation which fill up the +leisure left by graver occupations—the enjoyments of music, +poetry, painting, etc.—manifestly imply a pre-existing society. +Not only is a considerable development of them impossible without a +long-established social union; but their very subject-matter consists in +great part of social sentiments and sympathies. Not only does society +supply the conditions to their growth; but also the ideas and sentiments +they express. And, consequently, that part of human conduct which +constitutes good citizenship, is of more moment than that which goes out +in accomplishments or exercise of the tastes; and, in education, +preparation for the one must rank before preparation for the other.</p> + +<p>Such then, we repeat, is something like the rational order of <a +name="page_009"></a> subordination:—That education which prepares +for direct self-preservation; that which prepares for indirect +self-preservation; that which prepares for parenthood; that which +prepares for citizenship; that which prepares for the miscellaneous +refinements of life. We do not mean to say that these divisions are +definitely separable. We do not deny that they are intricately entangled +with each other, in such way that there can be no training for any that +is not in some measure a training for all. Nor do we question that of +each division there are portions more important than certain portions of +the preceding divisions: that, for instance, a man of much skill in +business but little other faculty, may fall further below the standard +of complete living than one of but moderate ability in money-getting but +great judgment as a parent; or that exhaustive information bearing on +right social action, joined with entire want of general culture in +literature and the fine arts, is less desirable than a more moderate +share of the one joined with some of the other. But, after making due +qualifications, there still remain these broadly-marked divisions; and +it still continues substantially true that these divisions subordinate +one another in the foregoing order, because the corresponding divisions +of life make one another <i>possible</i> in that order.</p> + +<p>Of course the ideal of education is—complete preparation in all +these divisions. But failing this ideal, as in our phase of civilisation +every one must do more or less, the aim should be to maintain <i>a due +proportion</i> between the degrees of preparation in each. Not exhaustive +cultivation in any one, supremely important though it may be—not +even an exclusive attention to the two, three, or four divisions of +greatest importance; but an attention to all:—greatest where the +value is greatest; less where the value is less; least where the value +is least. For the average man (not to forget the cases in which peculiar +aptitude for some one department of knowledge, rightly makes pursuit of +that one the bread-winning occupation)—for the average man, we +say, the desideratum is, a training that approaches nearest to +perfection in the things which most subserve complete living, and falls +more and more below perfection in the things that have more and more +remote bearings on complete living.</p> + +<p>In regulating education by this standard, there are some general +considerations that should be ever present to us. The worth of any kind +of culture, as aiding complete living, may be either necessary or more +or less contingent. There is knowledge <a name="page_010"></a> of +intrinsic value; knowledge of quasi-intrinsic value; and knowledge of +conventional value. Such facts as that sensations of numbness and +tingling commonly precede paralysis, that the resistance of water to a +body moving through it varies as the square of the velocity, that +chlorine is a disinfectant,—these, and the truths of Science in +general, are of intrinsic value: they will bear on human conduct ten +thousand years hence as they do now. The extra knowledge of our own +language, which is given by an acquaintance with Latin and Greek, may be +considered to have a value that is quasi-intrinsic: it must exist for us +and for other races whose languages owe much to these sources; but will +last only as long as our languages last. While that kind of information +which, in our schools, usurps the name History—the mere tissue of +names and dates and dead unmeaning events—has a conventional value +only: it has not the remotest bearing on any of our actions; and is of +use only for the avoidance of those unpleasant criticisms which current +opinion passes upon its absence. Of course, as those facts which concern +all mankind throughout all time must be held of greater moment than +those which concern only a portion of them during a limited era, and of +far greater moment than those which concern only a portion of them +during the continuance of a fashion; it follows that in a rational +estimate, knowledge of intrinsic worth must, other things equal, take +precedence of knowledge that is of quasi-intrinsic or conventional +worth.</p> + +<p>One further preliminary. Acquirement of every kind has two +values—value as <i>knowledge</i> and value as <i>discipline</i>. Besides its +use for guiding conduct, the acquisition of each order of facts has also +its use as mental exercise; and its effects as a preparative for +complete living have to be considered under both these heads.</p> + +<p>These, then, are the general ideas with which we must set out in +discussing a <i>curriculum</i>:—Life as divided into several kinds of +activity of successively decreasing importance; the worth of each order +of facts as regulating these several kinds of activity, intrinsically, +quasi-intrinsically, and conventionally; and their regulative influences +estimated both as knowledge and discipline.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Happily, that all-important part of education which goes to secure +direct self-preservation, is in great part already provided for. Too +momentous to be left to our blundering, Nature takes <a +name="page_011"></a> it into her own hands. While yet in its nurse's +arms, the infant, by hiding its face and crying at the sight of a +stranger, shows the dawning instinct to attain safety by flying from +that which is unknown and may be dangerous; and when it can walk, the +terror it manifests if an unfamiliar dog comes near, or the screams with +which it runs to its mother after any startling sight or sound, shows +this instinct further developed. Moreover, knowledge subserving direct +self-preservation is that which it is chiefly busied in acquiring from +hour to hour. How to balance its body; how to control its movements so +as to avoid collisions; what objects are hard, and will hurt if struck; +what objects are heavy, and injure if they fall on the limbs; which +things will bear the weight of the body, and which not; the pains +inflicted by fire, by missiles, by sharp instruments—these, and +various other pieces of information needful for the avoidance of death +or accident, it is ever learning. And when, a few years later, the +energies go out in running, climbing, and jumping, in games of strength +and games of skill, we see in all these actions by which the muscles are +developed, the perceptions sharpened, and the judgment quickened, a +preparation for the safe conduct of the body among surrounding objects +and movements; and for meeting those greater dangers that occasionally +occur in the lives of all. Being thus, as we say, so well cared for by +Nature, this fundamental education needs comparatively little care from +us. What we are chiefly called upon to see, is, that there shall be free +scope for gaining this experience and receiving this +discipline—that there shall be no such thwarting of Nature as that +by which stupid schoolmistresses commonly prevent the girls in their +charge from the spontaneous physical activities they would indulge in; +and so render them comparatively incapable of taking care of themselves +in circumstances of peril.</p> + +<p>This, however, is by no means all that is comprehended in the +education that prepares for direct self-preservation. Besides guarding +the body against mechanical damage or destruction, it has to be guarded +against injury from other causes—against the disease and death +that follow breaches of physiologic law. For complete living it is +necessary, not only that sudden annihilations of life shall be warded +off; but also that there shall be escaped the incapacities and the slow +annihilation which unwise habits entail. As, without health and energy, +the industrial, the parental, the social, and all other activities +become more or less impossible; it is clear that this secondary kind of +direct self-preservation is only less important than the primary kind; +<a name="page_012"></a> and that knowledge tending to secure it should +rank very high.</p> + +<p>It is true that here, too, guidance is in some measure ready +supplied. By our various physical sensations and desires, Nature has +insured a tolerable conformity to the chief requirements. Fortunately +for us, want of food, great heat, extreme cold, produce promptings too +peremptory to be disregarded. And would men habitually obey these and +all like promptings when less strong, comparatively few evils would +arise. If fatigue of body or brain were in every case followed by +desistance; if the oppression produced by a close atmosphere always led +to ventilation; if there were no eating without hunger, or drinking +without thirst; then would the system be but seldom out of working +order. But so profound an ignorance is there of the laws of life, that +men do not even know that their sensations are their natural guides, and +(when not rendered morbid by long—continued disobedience) their +trustworthy guides. So that though, to speak teleologically, Nature has +provided efficient safeguards to health, lack of knowledge makes them in +a great measure useless.</p> + +<p>If any one doubts the importance of an acquaintance with the +principles of physiology, as a means to complete living, let him look +around and see how many men and women he can find in middle or later +life who are thoroughly well. Only occasionally do we meet with an +example of vigorous health continued to old age; hourly do we meet with +examples of acute disorder, chronic ailment, general debility, premature +decrepitude. Scarcely is there one to whom you put the question, who has +not, in the course of his life, brought upon himself illnesses which a +little information would have saved him from. Here is a case of +heart-disease consequent on a rheumatic fever that followed reckless +exposure. There is a case of eyes spoiled for life by over-study. +Yesterday the account was of one whose long-enduring lameness was +brought on by continuing, spite of the pain, to use a knee after it had +been slightly injured. And to-day we are told of another who has had to +lie by for years, because he did not know that the palpitation he +suffered under resulted from overtaxed brain. Now we hear of an +irremediable injury which followed some silly feat of strength; and, +again, of a constitution that has never recovered from the effects of +excessive work needlessly undertaken. While on every side we see the +perpetual minor ailments which accompany feebleness. Not to dwell on the +pain, the weariness, the gloom, <a name="page_013"></a> the waste of +time and money thus entailed, only consider how greatly ill-health +hinders the discharge of all duties—makes business often +impossible, and always more difficult; produces an irritability fatal to +the right management of children; puts the functions of citizenship out +of the question; and makes amusement a bore. Is it not clear that the +physical sins—partly our forefathers' and partly our +own—which produce this ill-health, deduct more from complete +living than anything else? and to a great extent make life a failure and +a burden instead of a benefaction and a pleasure?</p> + +<p>Nor is this all. Life, besides being thus immensely deteriorated, is +also cut short. It is not true, as we commonly suppose, that after a +disorder or disease from which we have recovered, we are as before. No +disturbance of the normal course of the functions can pass away and +leave things exactly as they were. A permanent damage is done—not +immediately appreciable, it may be, but still there; and along with +other such items which Nature in her strict account-keeping never drops, +it will tell against us to the inevitable shortening of our days. +Through the accumulation of small injuries it is that constitutions are +commonly undermined, and break down, long before their time. And if we +call to mind how far the average duration of life falls below the +possible duration, we see how immense is the loss. When, to the numerous +partial deductions which bad health entails, we add this great final +deduction, it results that ordinarily one-half of life is thrown +away.</p> + +<p>Hence, knowledge which subserves direct self-preservation by +preventing this loss of health, is of primary importance. We do not +contend that possession of such knowledge would by any means wholly +remedy the evil. It is clear that in our present phase of civilisation, +men's necessities often compel them to transgress. And it is further +clear that, even in the absence of such compulsion, their inclinations +would frequently lead them, spite of their convictions, to sacrifice +future good to present gratification. But we <i>do</i> contend that the right +knowledge impressed in the right way would effect much; and we further +contend that as the laws of health must be recognised before they can be +fully conformed to, the imparting of such knowledge must precede a more +rational living—come when that may. We infer that as vigorous +health and its accompanying high spirits are larger elements of +happiness than any other things whatever, the teaching how to maintain +them is a teaching that yields in moment to no other whatever. <a +name="page_014"></a> And therefore we assert that such a course of +physiology as is needful for the comprehension of its general truths, +and their bearings on daily conduct, is an all-essential part of a +rational education.</p> + +<p>Strange that the assertion should need making! Stranger still that it +should need defending! Yet are there not a few by whom such a +proposition will be received with something approaching to derision. Men +who would blush if caught saying Iphigénia instead of Iphigenía, or +would resent as an insult any imputation of ignorance respecting the +fabled labours of a fabled demi-god, show not the slightest shame in +confessing that they do not know where the Eustachian tubes are, what +are the actions of the spinal cord, what is the normal rate of +pulsation, or how the lungs are inflated. While anxious that their sons +should be well up in the superstitions of two thousand years ago, they +care not that they should be taught anything about the structure and +functions of their own bodies—nay, even wish them not to be so +taught. So overwhelming is the influence of established routine! So +terribly in our education does the ornamental over-ride the useful!</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>We need not insist on the value of that knowledge which aids indirect +self-preservation by facilitating the gaining of a livelihood. This is +admitted by all; and, indeed, by the mass is perhaps too exclusively +regarded as the end of education. But while every one is ready to +endorse the abstract proposition that instruction fitting youths for the +business of life is of high importance, or even to consider it of +supreme importance; yet scarcely any inquire what instruction will so +fit them. It is true that reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught +with an intelligent appreciation of their uses. But when we have said +this we have said nearly all. While the great bulk of what else is +acquired has no bearing on the industrial activities, an immensity of +information that has a direct bearing on the industrial activities is +entirely passed over.</p> + +<p>For, leaving out only some very small classes, what are all men +employed in? They are employed in the production, preparation, and +distribution of commodities. And on what does efficiency in the +production, preparation, and distribution of commodities depend? It +depends on the use of methods fitted to the respective natures of these +commodities; it depends on an adequate acquaintance with their physical, +chemical, or vital properties, as the case may be; that is, it depends +on <a name="page_015"></a> Science. This order of knowledge which is in +great part ignored in our school-courses, is the order of knowledge +underlying the right performance of those processes by which civilised +life is made possible. Undeniable as is this truth, there seems to be no +living consciousness of it: its very familiarity makes it unregarded. To +give due weight to our argument, we must, therefore, realise this truth +to the reader by a rapid review of the facts.</p> + +<p>Passing over the most abstract science, Logic, on the due guidance by +which, however, the large producer or distributor depends, knowingly or +unknowingly, for success in his business-forecasts, we come first to +Mathematics. Of this, the most general division, dealing with number, +guides all industrial activities; be they those by which processes are +adjusted, or estimates framed, or commodities bought and sold, or +accounts kept. No one needs to have the value of this division of +abstract science insisted upon.</p> + +<p>For the higher arts of construction, some acquaintance with the more +special division of Mathematics is indispensable. The village carpenter, +who lays out his work by empirical rules, equally with the builder of a +Britannia Bridge, makes hourly reference to the laws of space-relations. +The surveyor who measures the land purchased; the architect in designing +a mansion to be built on it; the builder when laying out the +foundations; the masons in cutting the stones; and the various artizans +who put up the fittings; are all guided by geometrical truths. +Railway-making is regulated from beginning to end by geometry: alike in +the preparation of plans and sections; in staking out the line; in the +mensuration of cuttings and embankments; in the designing and building +of bridges, culverts, viaducts, tunnels, stations. Similarly with the +harbours, docks, piers, and various engineering and architectural works +that fringe the coasts and overspread the country, as well as the mines +that run underneath it. And now-a-days, even the farmer, for the correct +laying-out of his drains, has recourse to the level—that is, to +geometrical principles.</p> + +<p>Turn next to the Abstract-Concrete sciences. On the application of +the simplest of these, Mechanics, depends the success of modern +manufactures. The properties of the lever, the wheel-and-axle, etc., are +recognised in every machine, and to machinery in these times we owe all +production. Trace the history of the breakfast-roll. The soil out of +which it came was drained with machine-made tiles; the surface was +turned over by a machine; <a name="page_016"></a> the wheat was reaped, +thrashed, and winnowed by machines; by machinery it was ground and +bolted; and had the flour been sent to Gosport, it might have been made +into biscuits by a machine. Look round the room in which you sit. If +modern, probably the bricks in its walls were machine-made; and by +machinery the flooring was sawn and planed, the mantel-shelf sawn and +polished, the paper-hangings made and printed. The veneer on the table, +the turned legs of the chairs, the carpet, the curtains, are all +products of machinery. Your clothing—plain, figured, or +printed—is it not wholly woven, nay, perhaps even sewed, by +machinery? And the volume you are reading—are not its leaves +fabricated by one machine and covered with these words by another? Add +to which that for the means of distribution over both land and sea, we +are similarly indebted. And then observe that according as knowledge of +mechanics is well or ill applied to these ends, comes success or +failure. The engineer who miscalculates the strength of materials, +builds a bridge that breaks down. The manufacturer who uses a bad +machine cannot compete with another whose machine wastes less in +friction and inertia. The ship-builder adhering to the old model is +out-sailed by one who builds on the mechanically-justified wave-line +principle. And as the ability of a nation to hold its own against other +nations, depends on the skilled activity of its units, we see that on +mechanical knowledge may turn the national fate.</p> + +<p>On ascending from the divisions of Abstract-Concrete science dealing +with molar forces, to those divisions of it which deal with molecular +forces, we come to another vast series of applications. To this group of +sciences joined with the preceding groups we owe the steam-engine, which +does the work of millions of labourers. That section of physics which +formulates the laws of heat, has taught us how to economise fuel in +various industries; how to increase the produce of smelting furnaces by +substituting the hot for the cold blast; how to ventilate mines; how to +prevent explosions by using the safety-lamp; and, through the +thermometer, how to regulate innumerable processes. That section which +has the phenomena of light for its subject, gives eyes to the old and +the myopic; aids through the microscope in detecting diseases and +adulterations; and, by improved lighthouses, prevents shipwrecks. +Researches in electricity and magnetism have saved innumerable lives and +incalculable property through the compass; have subserved many arts by +the electrotype; and now, in the telegraph, have <a +name="page_017"></a> supplied us with an agency by which for the +future, mercantile transactions will be regulated and political +intercourse carried on. While in the details of in-door life, from the +improved kitchen-range up to the stereoscope on the drawing-room table, +the applications of advanced physics underlie our comforts and +gratifications.</p> + +<p>Still more numerous are the applications of Chemistry. The bleacher, +the dyer, the calico-printer, are severally occupied in processes that +are well or ill done according as they do or do not conform to chemical +laws. Smelting of copper, tin, zinc, lead, silver, iron, must be guided +by chemistry. Sugar-refining, gas-making, soap-boiling, +gunpowder-manufacture, are operations all partly chemical; as are +likewise those which produce glass and porcelain. Whether the +distiller's wort stops at the alcoholic fermentation or passes into the +acetous, is a chemical question on which hangs his profit or loss; and +the brewer, if his business is extensive, finds it pay to keep a chemist +on his premises. Indeed, there is now scarcely any manufacture over some +part of which chemistry does not preside. Nay, in these times even +agriculture, to be profitably carried on, must have like guidance. The +analysis of manures and soils; the disclosure of their respective +adaptations; the use of gypsum or other substance for fixing ammonia; +the utilisation of coprolites; the production of artificial +manures—all these are boons of chemistry which it behoves the +farmer to acquaint himself with. Be it in the lucifer match, or in +disinfected sewage, or in photographs—in bread made without +fermentation, or perfumes extracted from refuse, we may perceive that +chemistry affects all our industries; and that, therefore, knowledge of +it concerns every one who is directly or indirectly connected with our +industries.</p> + +<p>Of the Concrete sciences, we come first to Astronomy. Out of this has +grown that art of navigation which has made possible the enormous +foreign commerce that supports a large part of our population, while +supplying us with many necessaries and most of our luxuries.</p> + +<p>Geology, again, is a science knowledge of which greatly aids +industrial success. Now that iron ores are so large a source of wealth; +now that the duration of our coal-supply has become a question of great +interest; now that we have a College of Mines and a Geological Survey; +it is scarcely needful to enlarge on the truth that the study of the +Earth's crust is important to our material welfare.</p> + +<p><a name="page_018"></a>And then the science of life—Biology: +does not this, too, bear fundamentally on these processes of indirect +self-preservation? With what we ordinarily call manufactures, it has, +indeed, little connection; but with the all-essential +manufacture—that of food—it is inseparably connected. As +agriculture must conform its methods to the phenomena of vegetal and +animal life, it follows that the science of these phenomena is the +rational basis of agriculture. Various biological truths have indeed +been empirically established and acted upon by farmers, while yet there +has been no conception of them as science; such as that particular +manures are suited to particular plants; that crops of certain kinds +unfit the soil for other crops; that horses cannot do good work on poor +food; that such and such diseases of cattle and sheep are caused by such +and such conditions. These, and the every-day knowledge which the +agriculturist gains by experience respecting the management of plants +and animals, constitute his stock of biological facts; on the largeness +of which greatly depends his success. And as these biological facts, +scanty, indefinite, rudimentary, though they are, aid him so +essentially; judge what must be the value to him of such facts when they +become positive, definite, and exhaustive. Indeed, even now we may see +the benefits that rational biology is conferring on him. The truth that +the production of animal heat implies waste of substance, and that, +therefore, preventing loss of heat prevents the need for extra +food—a purely theoretical conclusion—now guides the +fattening of cattle: it is found that by keeping cattle warm, fodder is +saved. Similarly with respect to variety of food. The experiments of +physiologists have shown that not only is change of diet beneficial, but +that digestion is facilitated by a mixture of ingredients in each meal. +The discovery that a disorder known as "the staggers," of which many +thousands of sheep have died annually, is caused by an entozoon which +presses on the brain, and that if the creature is extracted through the +softened place in the skull which marks its position, the sheep usually +recovers, is another debt which agriculture owes to biology.</p> + +<p>Yet one more science have we to note as bearing directly on +industrial success—the Science of Society. Men who daily look at +the state of the money-market glance over prices current; discuss the +probable crops of corn, cotton, sugar, wool, silk; weigh the chances of +war; and from these data decide on their mercantile operations; are +students of social science: empirical and blundering students it may be; +but still, students <a name="page_019"></a> who gain the prizes or are +plucked of their profits, according as they do or do not reach the right +conclusion. Not only the manufacturer and the merchant must guide their +transactions by calculations of supply and demand, based on numerous +facts, and tacitly recognising sundry general principles of social +action; but even the retailer must do the like: his prosperity very +greatly depending upon the correctness of his judgments respecting the +future wholesale prices and the future rates of consumption. Manifestly, +whoever takes part in the entangled commercial activities of a +community, is vitally interested in understanding the laws according to +which those activities vary.</p> + +<p>Thus, to all such as are occupied in the production, exchange, or +distribution of commodities, acquaintance with Science in some of its +departments, is of fundamental importance. Each man who is immediately +or remotely implicated in any form of industry (and few are not) has in +some way to deal with the mathematical, physical, and chemical +properties of things; perhaps, also, has a direct interest in biology; +and certainly has in sociology. Whether he does or does not succeed well +in that indirect self-preservation which we call getting a good +livelihood, depends in a great degree on his knowledge of one or more of +these sciences: not, it may be, a rational knowledge; but still a +knowledge, though empirical. For what we call learning a business, +really implies learning the science involved in it; though not perhaps +under the name of science. And hence a grounding in science is of great +importance, both because it prepares for all this, and because rational +knowledge has an immense superiority over empirical knowledge. Moreover, +not only is scientific culture requisite for each, that he may +understand the <i>how</i> and the <i>why</i> of the things and processes with +which he is concerned as maker or distributor; but it is often of much +moment that he should understand the <i>how</i> and the <i>why</i> of various +other things and processes. In this age of joint-stock undertakings, +nearly every man above the labourer is interested as capitalist in some +other occupation than his own; and, as thus interested, his profit or +loss often depends on his knowledge of the sciences bearing on this +other occupation. Here is a mine, in the sinking of which many +shareholders ruined themselves, from not knowing that a certain fossil +belonged to the old red sandstone, below which no coal is found. +Numerous attempts have been made to construct electromagnetic engines, +in the hope of superseding steam; but had those who supplied the money +understood the general law of <a name="page_020"></a> the correlation +and equivalence of forces, they might have had better balances at their +bankers. Daily are men induced to aid in carrying out inventions which a +mere tyro in science could show to be futile. Scarcely a locality but +has its history of fortunes thrown away over some impossible +project.</p> + +<p>And if already the loss from want of science is so frequent and so +great, still greater and more frequent will it be to those who hereafter +lack science. Just as fast as productive processes become more +scientific, which competition will inevitably make them do; and just as +fast as joint-stock undertakings spread, which they certainly will; so +fast must scientific knowledge grow necessary to every one.</p> + +<p>That which our school-courses leave almost entirely out, we thus find +to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life. Our +industries would cease, were it not for the information which men begin +to acquire, as they best may, after their education is said to be +finished. And were it not for this information, from age to age +accumulated and spread by unofficial means, these industries would never +have existed. Had there been no teaching but such as goes on in our +public schools, England would now be what it was in feudal times. That +increasing acquaintance with the laws of phenomena, which has through +successive ages enabled us to subjugate Nature to our needs, and in +these days gives the common labourer comforts which a few centuries ago +kings could not purchase, is scarcely in any degree owed to the +appointed means of instructing our youth. The vital knowledge—that +by which we have grown as a nation to what we are, and which now +underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge that has got itself taught +in nooks and corners; while the ordained agencies for teaching have been +mumbling little else but dead formulas.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>We come now to the third great division of human activities—a +division for which no preparation whatever is made. If by some strange +chance not a vestige of us descended to the remote future save a pile of +our school-books or some college examination papers, we may imagine how +puzzled an antiquary of the period would be on finding in them no sign +that the learners were ever likely to be parents. "This must have been +the <i>curriculum</i> for their celibates," we may fancy him concluding. "I +perceive here an elaborate preparation for many things; especially for +reading the books of extinct nations and of co-existing nations (from +which indeed it seems clear that these <a name="page_021"></a> people +had very little worth reading in their own tongue); but I find no +reference whatever to the bringing up of children. They could not have +been so absurd as to omit all training for this gravest of +responsibilities. Evidently then, this was the school-course of one of +their monastic orders."</p> + +<p>Seriously, is it not an astonishing fact, that though on the +treatment of offspring depend their lives or deaths, and their moral +welfare or ruin; yet not one word of instruction on the treatment of +offspring is ever given to those who will by and by be parents? Is it +not monstrous that the fate of a new generation should be left to the +chances of unreasoning custom, impulse, fancy—joined with the +suggestions of ignorant nurses and the prejudiced counsel of +grandmothers? If a merchant commenced business without any knowledge of +arithmetic and book-keeping, we should exclaim at his folly, and look +for disastrous consequences. Or if, before studying anatomy, a man set +up as a surgical operator, we should wonder at his audacity and pity his +patients. But that parents should begin the difficult task of rearing +children, without ever having given a thought to the +principles—physical, moral, or intellectual—which ought to +guide them, excites neither surprise at the actors nor pity for their +victims.</p> + +<p>To tens of thousands that are killed, add hundreds of thousand that +survive with feeble constitutions, and millions that grow up with +constitutions not so strong as they should be; and you will have some +idea of the curse inflicted on their offspring by parents ignorant of +the laws of life. Do but consider for a moment that the regimen to which +children are subject, is hourly telling upon them to their life-long +injury or benefit; and that there are twenty ways of going wrong to one +way of going right; and you will get some idea of the enormous mischief +that is almost everywhere inflicted by the thoughtless, haphazard system +in common use. Is it decided that a boy shall be clothed in some flimsy +short dress, and be allowed to go playing about with limbs reddened by +cold? The decision will tell on his whole future existence—either +in illnesses; or in stunted growth; or in deficient energy; or in a +maturity less vigorous than it ought to have been, and in consequent +hindrances to success and happiness. Are children doomed to a monotonous +dietary, or a dietary that is deficient in nutritiveness? Their ultimate +physical power, and their efficiency as men and women, will inevitably +be more or less diminished by it. Are they forbidden vociferous play, or +(being too ill-clothed to bear <a name="page_022"></a> exposure) are +they kept indoors in cold weather? They are certain to fall below that +measure of health and strength to which they would else have attained. +When sons and daughters grow up sickly and feeble, parents commonly +regard the event as a misfortune—as a visitation of Providence. +Thinking after the prevalent chaotic fashion, they assume that these +evils come without causes; or that the causes are supernatural. Nothing +of the kind. In some cases the causes are doubtless inherited; but in +most cases foolish regulations are the causes. Very generally, parents +themselves are responsible for all this pain, this debility, this +depression, this misery. They have undertaken to control the lives of +their offspring from hour to hour; with cruel carelessness they have +neglected to learn anything about these vital processes which they are +unceasingly affecting by their commands and prohibitions; in utter +ignorance of the simplest physiologic laws, they have been year by year +undermining the constitutions of their children; and have so inflicted +disease and premature death, not only on them but on their +descendants.</p> + +<p>Equally great are the ignorance and the consequent injury, when we +turn from physical training to moral training. Consider the young mother +and her nursery-legislation. But a few years ago she was at school, +where her memory was crammed with words, and names, and dates, and her +reflective faculties scarcely in the slightest degree +exercised—where not one idea was given her respecting the methods +of dealing with the opening mind of childhood; and where her discipline +did not in the least fit her for thinking out methods of her own. The +intervening years have been passed in practising music, in fancy-work, +in novel-reading, and in party-going: no thought having yet been given +to the grave responsibilities of maternity; and scarcely any of that +solid intellectual culture obtained which would be some preparation for +such responsibilities. And now see her with an unfolding human character +committed to her charge—see her profoundly ignorant of the +phenomena with which she has to deal, undertaking to do that which can +be done but imperfectly even with the aid of the profoundest knowledge. +She knows nothing about the nature of the emotions, their order of +evolution, their functions, or where use ends and abuse begins. She is +under the impression that some of the feelings are wholly bad, which is +not true of any one of them; and that others are good however far they +may be carried, which is also not true of any one of them. And then, +ignorant as she is of the <a name="page_023"></a> structure she has to +deal with, she is equally ignorant of the effects produced on it by this +or that treatment. What can be more inevitable than the disastrous +results we see hourly arising? Lacking knowledge of mental phenomena, +with their cause and consequences, her interference is frequently more +mischievous than absolute passivity would have been. This and that kind +of action, which are quite normal and beneficial, she perpetually +thwarts; and so diminishes the child's happiness and profit, injures its +temper and her own, and produces estrangement. Deeds which she thinks it +desirable to encourage, she gets performed by threats and bribes, or by +exciting a desire for applause: considering little what the inward +motive may be, so long as the outward conduct conforms; and thus +cultivating hypocrisy, and fear, and selfishness, in place of good +feeling. While insisting on truthfulness, she constantly sets an example +of untruth by threatening penalties which she does not inflict. While +inculcating self-control, she hourly visits on her little ones angry +scoldings for acts undeserving of them. She has not the remotest idea +that in the nursery, as in the world, that alone is the truly salutary +discipline which visits on all conduct, good and bad, the natural +consequences—the consequences, pleasurable or painful, which in +the nature of things such conduct tends to bring. Being thus without +theoretic guidance, and quite incapable of guiding herself by tracing +the mental processes going on in her children, her rule is impulsive, +inconsistent, mischievous; and would indeed be generally ruinous were it +not that the overwhelming tendency of the growing mind to assume the +moral type of the race usually subordinates all minor influences.</p> + +<p>And then the culture of the intellect—is not this, too, +mismanaged in a similar manner? Grant that the phenomena of intelligence +conform to laws; grant that the evolution of intelligence in a child +also conforms to laws; and it follows inevitably that education cannot +be rightly guided without a knowledge of these laws. To suppose that you +can properly regulate this process of forming and accumulating ideas, +without understanding the nature of the process, is absurd. How widely, +then, must teaching as it is differ from teaching as it should be; when +hardly any parents, and but few tutors, know anything about psychology. +As might be expected, the established system is grievously at fault, +alike in matter and in manner. While the right class of facts is +withheld, the wrong class is forcibly administered in the wrong way and +in the wrong order. <a name="page_024"></a> Under that common limited +idea of education which confines it to knowledge gained from books, +parents thrust primers into the hands of their little ones years too +soon, to their great injury. Not recognising the truth that the function +of books is supplementary—that they form an indirect means to +knowledge when direct means fail—a means of seeing through other +men what you cannot see for yourself; teachers are eager to give +second-hand facts in place of first-hand facts. Not perceiving the +enormous value of that spontaneous education which goes on in early +years—not perceiving that a child's restless observation, instead +of being ignored or checked, should be diligently ministered to, and +made as accurate and complete as possible; they insist on occupying its +eyes and thoughts with things that are, for the time being, +incomprehensible and repugnant. Possessed by a superstition which +worships the symbols of knowledge instead of the knowledge itself, they +do not see that only when his acquaintance with the objects and +processes of the household, the streets, and the fields, is becoming +tolerably exhaustive—only then should a child be introduced to the +new sources of information which books supply: and this, not only +because immediate cognition is of far greater value than mediate +cognition; but also, because the words contained in books can be rightly +interpreted into ideas, only in proportion to the antecedent experience +of things. Observe next, that this formal instruction, far too soon +commenced, is carried on with but little reference to the laws of mental +development. Intellectual progress is of necessity from the concrete to +the abstract. But regardless of this, highly abstract studies, such as +grammar, which should come quite late, are begun quite early. Political +geography, dead and uninteresting to a child, and which should be an +appendage of sociological studies, is commenced betimes; while physical +geography, comprehensible and comparatively attractive to a child, is in +great part passed over. Nearly every subject dealt with is arranged in +abnormal order: definitions and rules and principles being put first, +instead of being disclosed, as they are in the order of nature, through +the study of cases. And then, pervading the whole, is the vicious system +of rote learning—a system of sacrificing the spirit to the letter. +See the results. What with perceptions unnaturally dulled by early +thwarting, and a coerced attention to books—what with the mental +confusion produced by teaching subjects before they can be understood, +and in each of them giving generalisations before the facts of which +they are the generalisations—what <a name="page_025"></a> with +making the pupil a mere passive recipient of other's ideas, and not in +the least leading him to be an active inquirer or +self-instructor—and what with taxing the faculties to excess; +there are very few minds that become as efficient as they might be. +Examinations being once passed, books are laid aside; the greater part +of what has been acquired, being unorganised, soon drops out of +recollection; what remains is mostly inert—the art of applying +knowledge not having been cultivated; and there is but little power +either of accurate observation or independent thinking. To all which +add, that while much of the information gained is of relatively small +value, an immense mass of information of transcendent value is entirely +passed over.</p> + +<p>Thus we find the facts to be such as might have been inferred <i>à +priori</i>. The training of children—physical, moral, and +intellectual—is dreadfully defective. And in great measure it is +so because parents are devoid of that knowledge by which this training +can alone be rightly guided. What is to be expected when one of the most +intricate of problems is undertaken by those who have given scarcely a +thought to the principles on which its solution depends? For shoe-making +or house-building, for the management of a ship or a locomotive engine, +a long apprenticeship is needful. Is it, then, that the unfolding of a +human being in body and mind is so comparatively simple a process that +any one may superintend and regulate it with no preparation whatever? If +not—if the process is, with one exception, more complex than any +in Nature, and the task of ministering to it one of surpassing +difficulty; is it not madness to make no provision for such a task? +Better sacrifice accomplishments than omit this all-essential +instruction. When a father, acting on false dogmas adopted without +examination, has alienated his sons, driven them into rebellion by his +harsh treatment, ruined them, and made himself miserable; he might +reflect that the study of Ethology would have been worth pursuing, even +at the cost of knowing nothing about Æschylus. When a mother is mourning +over a first-born that has sunk under the sequelæ of +scarlet-fever—when perhaps a candid medical man has confirmed her +suspicion that her child would have recovered had not its system been +enfeebled by over-study—when she is prostrate under the pangs of +combined grief and remorse; it is but a small consolation that she can +read Dante in the original.</p> + +<p>Thus we see that for regulating the third great division of human +activities, a knowledge of the laws of life is the one thing <a +name="page_026"></a> needful. Some acquaintance with the first +principles of physiology and the elementary truths of psychology, is +indispensable for the right bringing up of children. We doubt not that +many will read this assertion with a smile. That parents in general +should be expected to acquire a knowledge of subjects so abstruse will +seem to them an absurdity. And if we proposed that an exhaustive +knowledge of these subjects should be obtained by all fathers and +mothers, the absurdity would indeed be glaring enough. But we do not. +General principles only, accompanied by such illustrations as may be +needed to make them understood, would suffice. And these might be +readily taught—if not rationally, then dogmatically. Be this as it +may, however, here are the indisputable facts:—that the +development of children in mind and body follows certain laws; that +unless these laws are in some degree conformed to by parents, death is +inevitable; that unless they are in a great degree conformed to, there +must result serious physical and mental defects; and that only when they +are completely conformed to, can a perfect maturity be reached. Judge, +then, whether all who may one day be parents, should not strive with +some anxiety to learn what these laws are.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>From the parental functions let us pass now to the functions of the +citizen. We have here to inquire what knowledge fits a man for the +discharge of these functions. It cannot be alleged that the need for +knowledge fitting him for these functions is wholly overlooked; for our +school-courses contain certain studies, which, nominally at least, bear +upon political and social duties. Of these the only one that occupies a +prominent place is History.</p> + +<p>But, as already hinted, the information commonly given under this +head, is almost valueless for purposes of guidance. Scarcely any of the +facts set down in our school-histories, and very few of those contained +in the more elaborate works written for adults, illustrate the right +principles of political action. The biographies of monarchs (and our +children learn little else) throw scarcely any light upon the science of +society. Familiarity with court intrigues, plots, usurpations, or the +like, and with all the personalities accompanying them, aids very little +in elucidating the causes of national progress. We read of some squabble +for power, that it led to a pitched battle; that such and such were the +names of the generals and their leading subordinates; that they had each +so many thousand infantry and cavalry, and <a name="page_027"></a> so +many cannon; that they arranged their forces in this and that order; +that they manœuvred, attacked, and fell back in certain ways; that +at this part of the day such disasters were sustained, and at that such +advantages gained; that in one particular movement some leading officer +fell, while in another a certain regiment was decimated; that after all +the changing fortunes of the fight, the victory was gained by this or +that army; and that so many were killed and wounded on each side, and so +many captured by the conquerors. And now, out of the accumulated details +making up the narrative, say which it is that helps you in deciding on +your conduct as a citizen. Supposing even that you had diligently read, +not only <i>The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World</i>, but accounts of +all other battles that history mentions; how much more judicious would +your vote be at the next election? "But these are +facts—interesting facts," you say. Without doubt they are facts +(such, at least, as are not wholly or partially fictions); and to many +they may be interesting facts. But this by no means implies that they +are valuable. Factitious or morbid opinion often gives seeming value to +things that have scarcely any. A tulipomaniac will not part with a +choice bulb for its weight in gold. To another man an ugly piece of +cracked old china seems his most desirable possession. And there are +those who give high prices for the relics of celebrated murderers. Will +it be contended that these tastes are any measures of value in the +things that gratify them? If not, then it must be admitted that the +liking felt for certain classes of historical facts is no proof of their +worth; and that we must test their worth, as we test the worth of other +facts, by asking to what uses they are applicable. Were some one to tell +you that your neighbour's cat kittened yesterday, you would say the +information was valueless. Fact though it might be, you would call it an +utterly useless fact—a fact that could in no way influence your +actions in life—a fact that would not help you in learning how to +live completely. Well, apply the same test to the great mass of +historical facts, and you will get the same result. They are facts from +which no conclusions can be drawn—<i>unorganisable</i> facts; and +therefore facts of no service in establishing principles of conduct, +which is the chief use of facts. Read them, if you like, for amusement; +but do not flatter your self they are instructive.</p> + +<p>That which constitutes History, properly so called, is in great part +omitted from works on the subject. Only of late years have historians +commenced giving us, in any considerable <a name="page_028"></a> +quantity, the truly valuable information. As in past ages the king was +everything and the people nothing; so, in past histories the doings of +the king fill the entire picture, to which the national life forms but +an obscure background. While only now, when the welfare of nations +rather than of rulers is becoming the dominant idea, are historians +beginning to occupy themselves with the phenomena of social progress. +The thing it really concerns us to know is the natural history of +society. We want all facts which help us to understand how a nation has +grown and organised itself. Among these, let us of course have an +account of its government; with as little as may be of gossip about the +men who officered it, and as much as possible about the structure, +principles, methods, prejudices, corruptions, etc., which it exhibited: +and let this account include not only the nature and actions of the +central government, but also those of local governments, down to their +minutest ramifications. Let us of course also have a parallel +description of the ecclesiastical government—its organisation, its +conduct, its power, its relations to the State; and accompanying this, +the ceremonial, creed, and religious ideas—not only those +nominally believed, but those really believed and acted upon. Let us at +the same time be informed of the control exercised by class over class, +as displayed in social observances—in titles, salutations, and +forms of address. Let us know, too, what were all the other customs +which regulated the popular life out of doors and in-doors: including +those concerning the relations of the sexes, and the relations of +parents to children. The superstitions, also, from the more important +myths down to the charms in common use, should be indicated. Next should +come a delineation of the industrial system: showing to what extent the +division of labour was carried; how trades were regulated, whether by +caste, guilds, or otherwise; what was the connection between employers +and employed; what were the agencies for distributing commodities; what +were the means of communication; what was the circulating medium. +Accompanying all which should be given an account of the industrial arts +technically considered: stating the processes in use, and the quality of +the products. Further, the intellectual condition of the nation in its +various grades should be depicted; not only with respect to the kind and +amount of education, but with respect to the progress made in science, +and the prevailing manner of thinking. The degree of æsthetic culture, +as displayed in architecture, sculpture, painting, dress, music, poetry, +and fiction, should be described. Nor should <a name="page_029"></a> +there be omitted a sketch of the daily lives of the people—their +food, their homes, and their amusements. And lastly, to connect the +whole, should be exhibited the morals, theoretical and practical, of all +classes: as indicated in their laws, habits, proverbs, deeds. These +facts, given with as much brevity as consists with clearness and +accuracy, should be so grouped and arranged that they may be +comprehended in their <i>ensemble</i>, and contemplated as mutually-dependent +parts of one great whole. The aim should be so to present them that men +may readily trace the <i>consensus</i> subsisting among them; with the view +of learning what social phenomena co-exist with what other. And then the +corresponding delineations of succeeding ages should be so managed as to +show how each belief, institution, custom, and arrangement was modified; +and how the <i>consensus</i> of preceding structures and functions was +developed into the <i>consensus</i> of succeeding ones. Such alone is the +kind of information respecting past times which can be of service to the +citizen for the regulation of his conduct. The only history that is of +practical value is what may be called Descriptive Sociology. And the +highest office which the historian can discharge, is that of so +narrating the lives of nations, as to furnish materials for a +Comparative Sociology; and for the subsequent determination of the +ultimate laws to which social phenomena conform.</p> + +<p>But now mark, that even supposing an adequate stock of this truly +valuable historical knowledge has been acquired, it is of comparatively +little use without the key. And the key is to be found only in Science. +In the absence of the generalisations of biology and psychology, +rational interpretation of social phenomena is impossible. Only in +proportion as men draw certain rude, empirical inferences respecting +human nature, are they enabled to understand even the simplest facts of +social life: as, for instance, the relation between supply and demand. +And if the most elementary truths of sociology cannot be reached until +some knowledge is obtained of how men generally think, feel, and act +under given circumstances; then it is manifest that there can be nothing +like a wide comprehension of sociology, unless through a competent +acquaintance with man in all his faculties, bodily, and mental. Consider +the matter in the abstract, and this conclusion is self-evident. +Thus:—Society is made up of individuals; all that is done in +society is done by the combined actions of individuals; and therefore, +in individual actions only can be found the solutions of social +phenomena. But the actions of individuals depend on the laws of their +natures; and <a name="page_030"></a> their actions cannot be understood +until these laws are understood. These laws, however, when reduced to +their simplest expressions, prove to be corollaries from the laws of +body and mind in general. Hence it follows, that biology and psychology +are indispensable as interpreters of sociology. Or, to state the +conclusions still more simply:—all social phenomena are phenomena +of life—are the most complex manifestations of life—must +conform to the laws of life—and can be understood only when the +laws of life are understood. Thus, then, for the regulation of this +fourth division of human activities, we are, as before, dependent on +Science. Of the knowledge commonly imparted in educational courses, very +little is of service for guiding a man in his conduct as a citizen. Only +a small part of the history he reads is of practical value; and of this +small part he is not prepared to make proper use. He lacks not only the +materials for, but the very conception of, descriptive sociology; and he +also lacks those generalisations of the organic sciences, without which +even descriptive sociology can give him but small aid.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>And now we come to that remaining division of human life which +includes the relaxations and amusements filling leisure hours. After +considering what training best fits for self-preservation, for the +obtainment of sustenance, for the discharge of parental duties, and for +the regulation of social and political conduct; we have now to consider +what training best fits for the miscellaneous ends not included in +these—for the enjoyment of Nature, of Literature, and of the Fine +Arts, in all their forms. Postponing them as we do to things that bear +more vitally upon human welfare; and bringing everything, as we have, to +the test of actual value; it will perhaps be inferred that we are +inclined to slight these less essential things. No greater mistake could +be made, however. We yield to none in the value we attach to aesthetic +culture and its pleasures. Without painting, sculpture, music, poetry, +and the emotions produced by natural beauty of every kind, life would +lose half its charm. So far from regarding the training and +gratification of the tastes as unimportant, we believe that in time to +come they will occupy a much larger share of human life than now. When +the forces of Nature have been fully conquered to man's use—when +the means of production have been brought to perfection—when +labour has been economised to the highest degree—when education +has been so systematised that a preparation for the more essential +activities may be made with comparative rapidity—and when, <a +name="page_031"></a> consequently, there is a great increase of spare +time; then will the beautiful, both in Art and Nature, rightly fill a +large space in the minds of all.</p> + +<p>But it is one thing to approve of æsthetic culture as largely +conducive to human happiness; and another thing to admit that it is a +fundamental requisite to human happiness. However important it may be, +it must yield precedence to those kinds of culture which bear directly +upon daily duties. As before hinted, literature and the fine arts are +made possible by those activities which make individual and social life +possible; and manifestly, that which is made possible, must be postponed +to that which makes it possible. A florist cultivates a plant for the +sake of its flower; and regards the roots and leaves as of value, +chiefly because they are instrumental in producing the flower. But +while, as an ultimate product, the flower is the thing to which +everything else is subordinate, the florist has learnt that the root and +leaves are intrinsically of greater importance; because on them the +evolution of the flower depends. He bestows every care in rearing a +healthy plant; and knows it would be folly if, in his anxiety to obtain +the flower, he were to neglect the plant. Similarly in the case before +us. Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry, may truly be +called the efflorescence of civilised life. But even supposing they are +of such transcendent worth as to subordinate the civilised life out of +which they grow (which can hardly be asserted), it will still be +admitted that the production of a healthy civilised life must be the +first consideration; and that culture subserving this must occupy the +highest place.</p> + +<p>And here we see most distinctly the vice of our educational system. +It neglects the plant for the sake of the flower. In anxiety for +elegance, it forgets substance. While it gives no knowledge conducive to +self-preservation—while of knowledge that facilitates gaining a +livelihood it gives but the rudiments, and leaves the greater part to be +picked up any how in after life—while for the discharge of +parental functions it makes not the slightest provision—and while +for the duties of citizenship it prepares by imparting a mass of facts, +most of which are irrelevant, and the rest without a key; it is diligent +in teaching whatever adds to refinement, polish, éclat. Fully as we may +admit that extensive acquaintance with modern languages is a valuable +accomplishment, which, through reading, conversation, and travel, aids +in giving a certain finish; it by no means follows that this result is +rightly purchased at the cost of the vitally <a name="page_032"></a> +important knowledge sacrificed to it. Supposing it true that classical +education conduces to elegance and correctness of style; it cannot be +said that elegance and correctness of style are comparable in importance +to a familiarity with the principles that should guide the rearing of +children. Grant that the taste may be improved by reading the poetry +written in extinct languages; yet it is not to be inferred that such +improvement of taste is equivalent in value to an acquaintance with the +laws of health. Accomplishments, the fine arts, <i>belles-lettres</i>, and +all those things which, as we say, constitute the efflorescence of +civilisation, should be wholly subordinate to that instruction and +discipline in which civilisation rests. <i>As they occupy the leisure part +of life, so should they occupy the leisure part of education.</i></p> + +<p>Recognising thus the true position of aesthetics, and holding that +while the cultivation of them should form a part of education from its +commencement, such cultivation should be subsidiary; we have now to +inquire what knowledge is of most use to this end—what knowledge +best fits for this remaining sphere of activity? To this question the +answer is still the same as heretofore. Unexpected though the assertion +may be, it is nevertheless true, that the highest Art of every kind is +based on Science—that without Science there can be neither perfect +production nor full appreciation. Science, in that limited acceptation +current in society, may not have been possessed by various artists of +high repute; but acute observers as such artists have been, they have +always possessed a stock of those empirical generalisations which +constitute science in its lowest phase; and they have habitually fallen +far below perfection, partly because their generalisations were +comparatively few and inaccurate. That science necessarily underlies the +fine arts, becomes manifest, <i>à priori</i>, when we remember that +art-products are all more or less representative of objective or +subjective phenomena; that they can be good only in proportion as they +conform to the laws of these phenomena; and that before they can thus +conform, the artist must know what these laws are. That this <i>à priori</i> +conclusion tallies with experience, we shall soon see.</p> + +<p>Youths preparing for the practice of sculpture have to acquaint +themselves with the bones and muscles of the human frame in their +distribution, attachments, and movements. This is a portion of science; +and it has been found needful to impart it for the prevention of those +many errors which sculptors who do not possess it commit. A knowledge of +mechanical principles <a name="page_033"></a> is also requisite; and +such knowledge not being usually possessed, grave mechanical mistakes +are frequently made. Take an instance. For the stability of a figure it +is needful that the perpendicular from the centre of gravity—"the +line of direction," as it is called—should fall within the base of +support; and hence it happens, that when a man assumes the attitude +known as "standing at ease," in which one leg is straightened and the +other relaxed, the line of direction falls within the foot of the +straightened leg. But sculptors unfamiliar with the theory of +equilibrium, not uncommonly so represent this attitude, that the line of +direction falls midway between the feet. Ignorance of the law of +momentum leads to analogous blunders: as witness the admired Discobolus, +which, as it is posed, must inevitably fall forward the moment the quoit +is delivered.</p> + +<p>In painting, the necessity for scientific information, empirical if +not rational, is still more conspicuous. What gives the grotesqueness of +Chinese pictures, unless their utter disregard of the laws of +appearances—their absurd linear perspective, and their want of +aerial perspective? In what are the drawings of a child so faulty, if +not in a similar absence of truth—an absence arising, in great +part, from ignorance of the way in which the aspects of things vary with +the conditions? Do but remember the books and lectures by which students +are instructed; or consider the criticisms of Ruskin; or look at the +doings of the Pre-Raffaelites; and you will see that progress in +painting implies increasing knowledge of how effects in Nature are +produced. The most diligent observation, if unaided by science, fails to +preserve from error. Every painter will endorse the assertion that +unless it is known what appearances must exist under given +circumstances, they often will not be perceived; and to know what +appearances must exist, is, in so far, to understand the science of +appearances. From want of science Mr. J. Lewis, careful painter as he +is, casts the shadow of a lattice-window in sharply-defined lines upon +an opposite wall; which he would not have done, had he been familiar +with the phenomena of penumbræ. From want of science, Mr. Rosetti, +catching sight of a peculiar iridescence displayed by certain hairy +surfaces under particular lights (an iridescence caused by the +diffraction of light in passing the hairs), commits the error of showing +this iridescence on surfaces and in positions where it could not +occur.</p> + +<p>To say that music, too, has need of scientific aid will cause still +more surprise. Yet it may be shown that music is but an <a +name="page_034"></a> idealisation of the natural language of emotion; +and that consequently, music must be good or bad according as it +conforms to the laws of this natural language. The various inflections +of voice which accompany feelings of different kinds and intensities, +are the germs out of which music is developed. It is demonstrable that +these inflections and cadences are not accidental or arbitrary; but that +they are determined by certain general principles of vital action; and +that their expressiveness depends on this. Whence it follows that +musical phrases and the melodies built of them, can be effective only +when they are in harmony with these general principles. It is difficult +here properly to illustrate this position. But perhaps it will suffice +to instance the swarms of worthless ballads that infest drawing-rooms, +as compositions which science would forbid. They sin against science by +setting to music ideas that are not emotional enough to prompt musical +expression; and they also sin against science by using musical phrases +that have no natural relations to the ideas expressed: even where these +are emotional. They are bad because they are untrue. And to say they are +untrue, is to say they are unscientific.</p> + +<p>Even in poetry the same thing holds. Like music, poetry has its root +in those natural modes of expression which accompany deep feeling. Its +rhythm, its strong and numerous metaphors, its hyperboles, its violent +inversions, are simply exaggerations of the traits of excited speech. To +be good, therefore, poetry must pay attention to those laws of nervous +action which excited speech obeys. In intensifying and combining the +traits of excited speech, it must have due regard to +proportion—must not use its appliances without restriction; but, +where the ideas are least emotional, must use the forms of poetical +expression sparingly; must use them more freely as the emotion rises; +and must carry them to their greatest extent, only where the emotion +reaches a climax. The entire contravention of these principles results +in bombast or doggerel. The insufficient respect for them is seen in +didactic poetry. And it is because they are rarely fully obeyed, that so +much poetry is inartistic.</p> + +<p>Not only is it that the artist, of whatever kind, cannot produce a +truthful work without he understands the laws of the phenomena he +represents; but it is that he must also understand how the minds of +spectators or listeners will be affected by the several peculiarities of +his work—a question in psychology. What impression any art-product +generates, manifestly depends upon the mental natures of those to whom +it is presented; and as all <a name="page_035"></a> mental natures have +certain characteristics in common, there must result certain +corresponding general principles on which alone art-products can be +successfully framed. These general principles cannot be fully understood +and applied, unless the artist sees how they follow from the laws of +mind. To ask whether the composition of a picture is good is really to +ask how the perceptions and feelings of observers will be affected by +it. To ask whether a drama is well constructed, is to ask whether its +situations are so arranged as duly to consult the power of attention of +an audience, and duly to avoid overtaxing any one class of feelings. +Equally in arranging the leading divisions of a poem or fiction, and in +combining the words of a single sentence, the goodness of the effect +depends upon the skill with which the mental energies and +susceptibilities of the reader are economised. Every artist, in the +course of his education and after-life, accumulates a stock of maxims by +which his practice is regulated. Trace such maxims to their roots, and +they inevitably lead you down to psychological principles. And only when +the artist understands these psychological principles and their various +corollaries can he work in harmony with them.</p> + +<p>We do not for a moment believe that science will make an artist. +While we contend that the leading laws both of objective and subjective +phenomena must be understood by him, we by no means contend that +knowledge of such laws will serve in place of natural perception. Not +the poet only, but the artist of every type, is born, not made. What we +assert is, that innate faculty cannot dispense with the aid of organised +knowledge. Intuition will do much, but it will not do all. Only when +Genius is married to Science can the highest results be produced.</p> + +<p>As we have above asserted, Science is necessary not only for the most +successful production, but also for the full appreciation, of the fine +arts. In what consists the greater ability of a man than of a child to +perceive the beauties of a picture; unless it is in his more extended +knowledge of those truths in nature or life which the picture renders? +How happens the cultivated gentleman to enjoy a fine poem so much more +than a boor does; if it is not because his wider acquaintance with +objects and actions enables him to see in the poem much that the boor +cannot see? And if, as is here so obvious, there must be some +familiarity with the things represented, before the representation can +be appreciated, then, the representation can be completely appreciated +only when the things represented are completely understood. <a +name="page_036"></a> The fact is, that every additional truth which a +word of art expresses, gives an additional pleasure to the percipient +mind—a pleasure that is missed by those ignorant of this truth. +The more realities an artist indicates in any given amount of work, the +more faculties does he appeal to; the more numerous ideas does he +suggest; the more gratification does he afford. But to receive this +gratification the spectator, listener, or reader, must know the +realities which the artist has indicated; and to know these realities is +to have that much science.</p> + +<p>And now let us not overlook the further great fact, that not only +does science underlie sculpture, painting, music, poetry, but that +science is itself poetic. The current opinion that science and poetry +are opposed, is a delusion. It is doubtless true that as states of +consciousness, cognition and emotion tend to exclude each other. And it +is doubtless also true that an extreme activity of the reflective powers +tends to deaden the feelings; while an extreme activity of the feelings +tends to deaden the reflective powers: in which sense, indeed, all +orders of activity are antagonistic to each other. But it is not true +that the facts of science are unpoetical; or that the cultivation of +science is necessarily unfriendly to the exercise of imagination and the +love of the beautiful. On the contrary, science opens up realms of +poetry where to the unscientific all is a blank. Those engaged in +scientific researches constantly show us that they realise not less +vividly, but more vividly, than others, the poetry of their subjects. +Whoso will dip into Hugh Miller's works of geology, or read Mr. Lewes's +<i>Sea-side Studies</i>, will perceive that science excites poetry rather +than extinguishes it. And he who contemplates the life of Goethe, must +see that the poet and the man of science can co-exist in equal activity. +Is it not, indeed, an absurd and almost a sacrilegious belief, that the +more a man studies Nature the less he reveres it? Think you that a drop +of water, which to the vulgar eye is but a drop of water, loses anything +in the eye of the physicist who knows that its elements are held +together by a force which, if suddenly liberated, would produce a flash +of lightning? Think you that what is carelessly looked upon by the +uninitiated as a mere snow-flake, does not suggest higher associations +to one who had seen through a microscope the wondrously-varied and +elegant forms of snow-crystals? Think you that the rounded rock marked +with parallel scratches, calls up as much poetry in an ignorant mind as +in the mind of a geologist, who knows that over this rock a glacier slid +a million years ago? The truth is, that those who <a +name="page_037"></a> have never entered upon scientific pursuits are +blind to most of the poetry by which they are surrounded. Whoever has +not in youth collected plants and insects, knows not half the halo of +interest which lanes and hedge-rows can assume. Whoever has not sought +for fossils, has little idea of the poetical associations that surround +the places where imbedded treasures were found. Whoever at the sea-side +has not had a microscope and aquarium, has yet to learn what the highest +pleasures of the sea-side are. Sad, indeed, is it to see how men occupy +themselves with trivialities, and are indifferent to the grandest +phenomena—care not to understand the architecture of the Heavens, +but are deeply interested in some contemptible controversy about the +intrigues of Mary Queen of Scots!—are learnedly critical over a +Greek ode, and pass by without a glance that grand epic written by the +finger of God upon the strata of the Earth!</p> + +<p>We find, then, that even for this remaining division of human +activities, scientific culture is the proper preparation. We find that +aesthetics in general are necessarily based upon scientific principles; +and can be pursued with complete success only through an acquaintance +with these principles. We find that for the criticism and due +appreciation of works of art, a knowledge of the constitution of things, +or in other words, a knowledge of science, is requisite. And we not only +find that science is the handmaid to all forms of art and poetry, but +that, rightly regarded, science is itself poetic.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Thus far our question has been, the worth of knowledge of this or +that kind for purposes of guidance. We have now to judge the relative +value of different kinds of knowledge for purposes of discipline. This +division of our subject we are obliged to treat with comparative +brevity; and happily, no very lengthened treatment of it is needed. +Having found what is best for the one end, we have by implication found +what is best for the other. We may be quite sure that the acquirement of +those classes of facts which are most useful for regulating conduct, +involves a mental exercise best fitted for strengthening the faculties. +It would be utterly contrary to the beautiful economy of Nature, if one +kind of culture were needed for the gaining of information and another +kind were needed as a mental gymnastic. Everywhere throughout creation +we find faculties developed through the performance of those functions +which it is their office to perform; not through the performance of +artificial exercises devised to fit them for those functions. The Red <a +name="page_038"></a> Indian acquires the swiftness and agility which +make him a successful hunter, by the actual pursuit of animals; and +through the miscellaneous activities of his life, he gains a better +balance of physical powers than gymnastics ever give. That skill in +tracking enemies and prey which he had reached after long practice, +implies a subtlety of perception far exceeding anything produced by +artificial training. And similarly in all cases. From the Bushman whose +eye, habitually employed in identifying distant objects that are to be +pursued or fled from, has acquired a telescopic range, to the accountant +whose daily practice enables him to add up several columns of figures +simultaneously; we find that the highest power of a faculty results from +the discharge of those duties which the conditions of life require it to +discharge. And we may be certain, <i>à priori</i>, that the same law holds +throughout education. The education of most value for guidance, must at +the same time be the education of most value for discipline. Let us +consider the evidence.</p> + +<p>One advantage claimed for that devotion to language-learning which +forms so prominent a feature in the ordinary <i>curriculum</i>, is, that the +memory is thereby strengthened. This is assumed to be an advantage +peculiar to the study of words. But the truth is, that the sciences +afford far wider fields for the exercise of memory. It is no slight task +to remember everything about our solar system; much more to remember all +that is known concerning the structure of our galaxy. The number of +compound substances, to which chemistry daily adds, is so great that +few, save professors, can enumerate them; and to recollect the atomic +constitutions and affinities of all these compounds, is scarcely +possible without making chemistry the occupation of life. In the +enormous mass of phenomena presented by the Earth's crust, and in the +still more enormous mass of phenomena presented by the fossils it +contains, there is matter which it takes the geological student years of +application to master. Each leading division of physics—sound, +heat, light, electricity—includes facts numerous enough to alarm +any one proposing to learn them all. And when we pass to the organic +sciences, the effort of memory required becomes still greater. In human +anatomy alone, the quantity of detail is so great, that the young +surgeon has commonly to get it up half-a-dozen times before he can +permanently retain it. The number of species of plants which botanists +distinguish, amounts to some 320,000; while the varied forms of animal +life with which the zoologist deals, are estimated at some 2,000,000. So +vast is the accumulation of <a name="page_039"></a> facts which men of +science have before them, that only by dividing and subdividing their +labours can they deal with it. To a detailed knowledge of his own +division, each adds but a general knowledge of the allied ones; joined +perhaps to a rudimentary acquaintance with some others. Surely, then, +science, cultivated even to a very moderate extent, affords adequate +exercise for memory. To say the very least, it involves quite as good a +discipline for this faculty as language does.</p> + +<p>But now mark that while, for the training of mere memory, science is +as good as, if not better than, language; it has an immense superiority +in the kind of memory it trains. In the acquirement of a language, the +connections of ideas to be established in the mind correspond to facts +that are in great measure accidental; whereas, in the acquirement of +science, the connections of ideas to be established in the mind +correspond to facts that are mostly necessary. It is true that the +relations of words to their meanings are in one sense natural; that the +genesis of these relations may be traced back a certain distance, though +rarely to the beginning; and that the laws of this genesis form a branch +of mental science—the science of philology. But since it will not +be contended that in the acquisition of languages, as ordinarily carried +on, these natural relations between words and their meanings are +habitually traced, and their laws explained; it must be admitted that +they are commonly learned as fortuitous relations. On the other hand, +the relations which science presents are causal relations; and, when +properly taught, are understood as such. While language familiarises +with non-rational relations, science familiarises with rational +relations. While the one exercises memory only, the other exercises both +memory and understanding.</p> + +<p>Observe next, that a great superiority of science over language as a +means of discipline, is, that it cultivates the judgment. As, in a +lecture on mental education delivered at the Royal Institution, +Professor Faraday well remarks, the most common intellectual fault is +deficiency of judgment. "Society, speaking generally," he says, "is not +only ignorant as respects education of the judgment, but it is also +ignorant of its ignorance." And the cause to which he ascribes this +state, is want of scientific culture. The truth of his conclusion is +obvious. Correct judgment with regard to surrounding objects, events, +and consequences, becomes possible only through knowledge of the way in +which surrounding phenomena depend on each other. No extent of +acquaintance with the meanings of words, will guarantee <a +name="page_040"></a> correct inferences respecting causes and effects. +The habit of drawing conclusions from data, and then of verifying those +conclusions by observation and experiment, can alone give the power of +judging correctly. And that it necessitates this habit is one of the +immense advantages of science.</p> + +<p>Not only, however, for intellectual discipline is science the best; +but also for <i>moral</i> discipline. The learning of languages tends, if +anything, further to increase the already undue respect for authority. +Such and such are the meanings of these words, says the teacher of the +dictionary. So and so is the rule in this case, says the grammar. By the +pupil these dicta are received as unquestionable. His constant attitude +of mind is that of submission to dogmatic teaching. And a necessary +result is a tendency to accept without inquiry whatever is established. +Quite opposite is the mental tone generated by the cultivation of +science. Science makes constant appeal to individual reason. Its truths +are not accepted on authority alone; but all are at liberty to test +them—nay, in many cases, the pupil is required to think out his +own conclusions. Every step in a scientific investigation is submitted +to his judgment. He is not asked to admit it without seeing it to be +true. And the trust in his own powers thus produced is further increased +by the uniformity with which Nature justifies his inferences when they +are correctly drawn. From all which there flows that independence which +is a most valuable element in character. Nor is this the only moral +benefit bequeathed by scientific culture. When carried on, as it should +always be, as much as possible under the form of original research, it +exercises perseverance and sincerity. As says Professor Tyndall of +inductive inquiry, "It requires patient industry, and an humble and +conscientious acceptance of what Nature reveals. The first condition of +success is an honest receptivity and a willingness to abandon all +preconceived notions, however cherished, if they be found to contradict +the truth. Believe me, a self-renunciation which has something noble in +it, and of which the world never hears, is often enacted in the private +experience of the true votary of science."</p> + +<p>Lastly we have to assert—and the assertion will, we doubt not, +cause extreme surprise—that the discipline of science is superior +to that of our ordinary education, because of the <i>religious</i> culture +that it gives. Of course we do not here use the words scientific and +religious in their ordinary limited acceptations; but in their widest +and highest acceptations. Doubtless, to the superstitions that pass +under the name of religion, science <a name="page_041"></a> is +antagonistic; but not to the essential religion which these +superstitions merely hide. Doubtless, too, in much of the science that +is current, there is a pervading spirit of irreligion; but not in that +true science which had passed beyond the superficial into the +profound.</p> + +<blockquote>"True science and true religion," says Professor Huxley at +the close of a recent course of lectures, "are twin-sisters, and the +separation of either from the other is sure to prove the death of both. +Science prospers exactly in proportion as it is religious; and religion +flourishes in exact proportion to the scientific depth and firmness of +its basis. The great deeds of philosophers have been less the fruit of +their intellect than of the direction of that intellect by an eminently +religious tone of mind. Truth has yielded herself rather to their +patience, their love, their single-heartedness, and their self-denial, +than to their logical acumen."</blockquote> + +<p>So far from science being irreligious, as many think, it is the +neglect of science that is irreligious—it is the refusal to study +the surrounding creation that is irreligious. Take a humble simile. +Suppose a writer were daily saluted with praises couched in superlative +language. Suppose the wisdom, the grandeur, the beauty of his works, +were the constant topics of the eulogies addressed to him. Suppose those +who unceasingly uttered these eulogies on his works were content with +looking at the outsides of them; and had never opened them, much less +tried to understand them. What value should we put upon their praises? +What should we think of their sincerity? Yet, comparing small things to +great, such is the conduct of mankind in general, in reference to the +Universe and its Cause. Nay, it is worse. Not only do they pass by +without study, these things which they daily proclaim to be so +wonderful; but very frequently they condemn as mere triflers those who +give time to the observation of Nature—they actually scorn those +who show any active interest in these marvels. We repeat, then, that not +science, but the neglect of science, is irreligious. Devotion to +science, is a tacit worship—a tacit recognition of worth in the +things studied; and by implication in their Cause. It is not a mere +lip-homage, but a homage expressed in actions—not a mere professed +respect, but a respect proved by the sacrifice of time, thought, and +labour.</p> + +<p>Nor is it thus only that true science is essentially religious. It is +religious, too, inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an +implicit faith in, those uniformities of action which all things +disclose. By accumulated experiences the man of science acquires a +thorough belief in the unchanging relations of phenomena—in the +invariable connection of cause and consequence—in the necessity of +good or evil results. Instead of the rewards <a name="page_042"></a> +and punishments of traditional belief, which people vaguely hope they +may gain, or escape, spite of their disobedience; he finds that there +are rewards and punishments in the ordained constitution of things; and +that the evil results of disobedience are inevitable. He sees that the +laws to which we must submit are both inexorable and beneficent. He sees +that in conforming to them, the process of things is ever towards a +greater perfection and a higher happiness. Hence he is led constantly to +insist on them, and is indignant when they are disregarded. And thus +does he, by asserting the eternal principles of things and the necessity +of obeying them, prove himself intrinsically religious.</p> + +<p>Add lastly the further religious aspect of science, that it alone can +give us true conceptions of ourselves and our relation to the mysteries +of existence. At the same time that it shows us all which can be known, +it shows us the limits beyond which we can know nothing. Not by dogmatic +assertion, does it teach the impossibility of comprehending the Ultimate +Cause of things; but it leads us clearly to recognise this impossibility +by bringing us in every direction to boundaries we cannot cross. It +realises to us in a way which nothing else can, the littleness of human +intelligence in the face of that which transcends human intelligence. +While towards the traditions and authorities of men its attitude may be +proud, before the impenetrable veil which hides the Absolute its +attitude is humble—a true pride and a true humility. Only the +sincere man of science (and by this title we do not mean the mere +calculator of distances, or analyser of compounds, or labeller of +species; but him who through lower truths seeks higher, and eventually +the highest)—only the genuine man of science, we say, can truly +know how utterly beyond, not only human knowledge but human conception, +is the Universal Power of which Nature, and Life, and Thought are +manifestations.</p> + +<p>We conclude, then, that for discipline, as well as for guidance, +science is of chiefest value. In all its effects, learning the meanings +of things, is better than learning the meanings of words. Whether for +intellectual, moral, or religious training, the study of surrounding +phenomena is immensely superior to the study of grammars and +lexicons.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Thus to the question we set out with—What knowledge is of most +worth?—the uniform reply is—Science. This is the verdict on +all the counts. For direct self-preservation, or the maintenance of life +and health, the all-important knowledge <a name="page_043"></a> +is—Science. For that indirect self-preservation which we call +gaining a livelihood, the knowledge of greatest value is—Science. +For the due discharge of parental functions, the proper guidance is to +be found only in—Science. For that interpretation of national +life, past and present, without which the citizen cannot rightly +regulate his conduct, the indispensable key is—Science. Alike for +the most perfect production and highest enjoyment of art in all its +forms, the needful preparation is still—Science. And for purposes +of discipline—intellectual, moral, religious—the most +efficient study is, once more—Science. The question which at first +seemed so perplexed, has become, in the course of our inquiry, +comparatively simple. We have not to estimate the degrees of importance +of different orders of human activity, and different studies as +severally fitting us for them; since we find that the study of Science, +in its most comprehensive meaning, is the best preparation for all these +orders of activity. We have not to decide between the claims of +knowledge of great though conventional value, and knowledge of less +though intrinsic value; seeing that the knowledge which proves to be of +most value in all other respects, is intrinsically most valuable: its +worth is not dependent upon opinion, but is as fixed as is the relation +of man to the surrounding world. Necessary and eternal as are its +truths, all Science concerns all mankind for all time. Equally at +present and in the remotest future, must it be of incalculable +importance for the regulation of their conduct, that men should +understand the science of life, physical, mental, and social; and that +they should understand all other science as a key to the science of +life.</p> + +<p>And yet this study, immensely transcending all other in importance, +is that which, in an age of boasted education, receives the least +attention. While what we call civilisation could never have arisen had +it not been for science, science forms scarcely an appreciable element +in our so-called civilised training. Though to the progress of science +we owe it, that millions find support where once there was food only for +thousands; yet of these millions but a few thousands pay any respect to +that which has made their existence possible. Though increasing +knowledge of the properties and relations of things has not only enabled +wandering tribes to grow into populous nations, but has given to the +countless members of these populous nations, comforts and pleasures +which their few naked ancestors never even conceived, or could have +believed, <a name="page_044"></a> yet is this kind of knowledge only +now receiving a grudging recognition in our highest educational +institutions. To the slowly growing acquaintance with the uniform +co-existences and sequences of phenomena—to the establishment of +invariable laws, we owe our emancipation from the grossest +superstitions. But for science we should be still worshipping fetishes; +or, with hecatombs of victims, propitiating diabolical deities. And yet +this science, which, in place of the most degrading conceptions of +things, has given us some insight into the grandeurs of creation, is +written against in our theologies and frowned upon from our pulpits.</p> + +<p>Paraphrasing an Eastern fable, we may say that in the family of +knowledges, Science is the household drudge, who, in obscurity, hides +unrecognised perfections. To her has been committed all the works; by +her skill, intelligence, and devotion, have all conveniences and +gratifications been obtained; and while ceaselessly ministering to the +rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters +might flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel +holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the <i>dénouement</i>, when the +positions will be changed; and while these haughty sisters sink into +merited neglect, Science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth and +beauty, will reign supreme.</p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_045"></a>INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION</h2></center> + + +<p>There cannot fail to be a relationship between the successive systems +of education, and the successive social states with which they have +co-existed. Having a common origin in the national mind, the +institutions of each epoch, whatever be their special functions, must +have a family likeness. When men received their creed and its +interpretations from an infallible authority deigning no explanations, +it was natural that the teaching of children should be purely dogmatic. +While "believe and ask no questions" was the maxim of the Church, it was +fitly the maxim of the school. Conversely, now that Protestantism has +gained for adults a right of private judgment and established the +practice of appealing to reason, there is harmony in the change that has +made juvenile instruction a process of exposition addressed to the +understanding. Along with political despotism, stern in its commands, +ruling by force of terror, visiting trifling crimes with death, and +implacable in its vengeance on the disloyal, there necessarily grew up +an academic discipline similarly harsh—a discipline of multiplied +injunctions and blows for every breach of them—a discipline of +unlimited autocracy upheld by rods, and ferules, and the black-hole. On +the other hand, the increase of political liberty, the abolition of laws +restricting individual action, and the amelioration of the criminal +code, have been accompanied by a kindred progress towards non-coercive +education: the pupil is hampered by fewer restraints, and other means +than punishments are used to govern him. In those ascetic days when men, +acting on the greatest-misery principle, held that the more +gratifications they denied themselves the more virtuous they were, they, +as a matter of course, considered that the best education which most +thwarted the wishes of their children, and cut short all spontaneous +activity with—"You mustn't do so." While, on the contrary, now +that happiness is coming to be regarded as a legitimate aim—now +that hours of labour are being shortened and popular recreations +provided—parents and teachers are beginning to see that most +childish desires may rightly be gratified, that childish sports should +be encouraged, and that the tendencies of the growing mind are not +altogether so diabolical <a name="page_046"></a> as was supposed. The +age in which all believed that trades must be established by bounties +and prohibitions; that manufacturers needed their materials and +qualities and prices to be prescribed; and that the value of money could +be determined by law; was an age which unavoidably cherished the notions +that a child's mind could be made to order; that its powers were to be +imparted by the schoolmaster; that it was a receptacle into which +knowledge was to be put, and there built up after the teacher's ideal. +In this free-trade era, however, when we are learning that there is much +more self-regulation in things than was supposed; that labour, and +commerce, and agriculture, and navigation, can do better without +management than with it; that political governments, to be efficient, +must grow up from within and not be imposed from without; we are also +being taught that there is a natural process of mental evolution which +is not to be disturbed without injury; that we may not force on the +unfolding mind our artificial forms; but that psychology, also, +discloses to us a law of supply and demand to which, if we would not do +harm, we must conform. Thus, alike in its oracular dogmatism, in its +harsh discipline, in its multiplied restrictions, in its professed +asceticism, and in its faith in the devices of men, the old educational +regime was akin to the social systems with which it was contemporaneous; +and similarly, in the reverse of these characteristics, our modern modes +of culture correspond to our more liberal religious and political +institutions.</p> + +<p>But there remain further parallelisms to which we have not yet +adverted: that, namely, between the processes by which these respective +changes have been wrought out; and that between the several states of +heterogeneous opinion to which they have led. Some centuries ago there +was uniformity of belief—religious, political, and educational. +All men were Romanists, all were Monarchists, all were disciples of +Aristotle; and no one thought of calling in question that grammar-school +routine under which all were brought up. The same agency has in each +case replaced this uniformity by a constantly-increasing diversity. That +tendency towards assertion of the individuality, which, after +contributing to produce the great Protestant movement, has since gone on +to produce an ever-increasing number of sects—that tendency which +initiated political parties, and out of the two primary ones has, in +these modern days, evolved a multiplicity to which every year +adds—that tendency which led to the Baconian rebellion against the +<a name="page_047"></a> schools, and has since originated here and +abroad, sundry new systems of thought—is a tendency which, in +education also, has caused divisions and the accumulation of methods. As +external consequences of the same internal change, these processes have +necessarily been more or less simultaneous. The decline of authority, +whether papal, philosophic, kingly, or tutorial, is essentially one +phenomenon; in each of its aspects a leaning towards free action is seen +alike in the working out of the change itself, and in the new forms of +theory and practice to which the change has given birth.</p> + +<p>While many will regret this multiplication of schemes of juvenile +culture, the catholic observer will discern in it a means of ensuring +the final establishment of a rational system. Whatever may be thought of +theological dissent, it is clear that dissent in education results in +facilitating inquiry by the division in labour. Were we in possession of +the true method, divergence from it would, of course, be prejudicial; +but the true method having to be found, the efforts of numerous +independent seekers carrying out their researches in different +directions, constitute a better agency for finding it than any that +could be devised. Each of them struck by some new thought which probably +contains more or less of basis in facts—each of them zealous on +behalf of his plan, fertile in expedients to test its correctness, and +untiring in his efforts to make known its success—each of them +merciless in his criticism on the rest; there cannot fail, by +composition of forces, to be a gradual approximation of all towards the +right course. Whatever portion of the normal method any one has +discovered, must, by the constant exhibition of its results, force +itself into adoption; whatever wrong practices he has joined with it +must, by repeated experiment and failure, be exploded. And by this +aggregation of truths and elimination of errors, there must eventually +be developed a correct and complete body of doctrine. Of the three +phases through which human opinion passes—the unanimity of the +ignorant, the disagreement of the inquiring, and the unanimity of the +wise—it is manifest that the second is the parent of the third. +They are not sequences in time only, they are sequences in causation. +However impatiently, therefore, we may witness the present conflict of +educational systems, and however much we may regret its accompanying +evils, we must recognise it as a transition stage needful to be passed +through, and beneficent in its ultimate effects.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, may we not advantageously take stock of our <a +name="page_048"></a> progress? After fifty years of discussion, +experiment, and comparison of results, may we not expect a few steps +towards the goal to be already made good? Some old methods must by this +time have fallen out of use; some new ones must have become established; +and many others must be in process of general abandonment or adoption. +Probably we may see in these various changes, when put side by side, +similar characteristics—may find in them a common tendency; and +so, by inference, may get a clue to the direction in which experience is +leading us, and gather hints how we may achieve yet further +improvements. Let us then, as a preliminary to a deeper consideration of +the matter, glance at the leading contrasts between the education of the +past and that of the present.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>The suppression of every error is commonly followed by a temporary +ascendency of the contrary one; and so it happened, that after the ages +when physical development alone was aimed at, there came an age when +culture of the mind was the sole solicitude—when children had +lesson-books put before them at between two and three years old, and the +getting of knowledge was thought the one thing needful. As, further, it +usually happens that after one of these reactions the next advance is +achieved by co-ordinating the antagonist errors, and perceiving that +they are opposite sides of one truth; so, we are now coming to the +conviction that body and mind must both be cared for, and the whole +thing being unfolded. The forcing-system has been, by many, given up; +and precocity is discouraged. People are beginning to see that the first +requisite to success in life, is to be a good animal. The best brain is +found of little service, if there be not enough vital energy to work it; +and hence to obtain the one by sacrificing the source of the other, is +now considered a folly—a folly which the eventual failure of +juvenile prodigies constantly illustrates. Thus we are discovering the +wisdom of the saying, that one secret in education is "to know how +wisely to lose time."</p> + +<p>The once universal practice of learning by rote, is daily falling +more into discredit. All modern authorities condemn the old mechanical +way of teaching the alphabet. The multiplication table is now frequently +taught experimentally. In the acquirement of languages, the +grammar-school plan is being superseded by plans based on the +spontaneous process followed by the child in gaining its mother tongue. +Describing the methods there used, the "Reports on the Training School +at <a name="page_049"></a> Battersea" say:—"The instruction in +the whole preparatory course is chiefly oral, and is illustrated as much +as possible by appeals to nature." And so throughout. The rote-system, +like ether systems of its age, made more of the forms and symbols than +of the things symbolised. To repeat the words correctly was everything; +to understand their meaning nothing; and thus the spirit was sacrificed +to the letter. It is at length perceived that, in this case as in +others, such a result is not accidental but necessary—that in +proportion as there is attention to the signs, there must be inattention +to the things signified; or that, as Montaigne long ago +said—<i>Sçavoir par cœur n'est pas sçavoir</i>.</p> + +<p>Along with rote-teaching, is declining also the nearly-allied +teaching by rules. The particulars first, and then the generalisation, +is the new method—a method, as the Battersea School Reports +remarks, which, though "the reverse of the method usually followed, +which consists in giving the pupil the rule first," is yet proved by +experience to be the right one. Rule-teaching is now condemned as +imparting a merely empirical knowledge—as producing an appearance +of understanding without the reality. To give the net product of +inquiry, without the inquiry that leads to it, is found to be both +enervating and inefficient. General truths to be of due and permanent +use, must be earned. "Easy come easy go," is a saying as applicable to +knowledge as to wealth. While rules, lying isolated in the +mind—not joined to its other contents as out-growths from +them—are continually forgotten; the principles which those rules +express piecemeal, become, when once reached by the understanding, +enduring possessions. While the rule-taught youth is at sea when beyond +his rules, the youth instructed in principles solves a new case as +readily as an old one. Between a mind of rules and a mind of principles, +there exists a difference such as that between a confused heap of +materials, and the same materials organised into a complete whole, with +all its parts bound together. Of which types this last has not only the +advantage that its constituent parts are better retained, but the much +greater advantage that it forms an efficient agent for inquiry, for +independent thought, for discovery—ends for which the first is +useless. Nor let it be supposed that this is a simile only: it is the +literal truth. The union of facts into generalisations <i>is</i> the +organisation of knowledge, whether considered as an objective phenomenon +or a subjective one; and the mental grasp may be measured by the extent +to which this organisation is carried.</p> + +<p><a name="page_050"></a>From the substitution of principles for rules, +and the necessarily co-ordinate practice of leaving abstractions +untaught till the mind has been familiarised with the facts from which +they are abstracted, has resulted the postponement of some once early +studies to a late period. This is exemplified in the abandonment of that +intensely stupid custom, the teaching of grammar to children. As M. +Marcel says:—"It may without hesitation be affirmed that grammar +is not the stepping-stone, but the finishing instrument." As Mr. Wyse +argues:—"Grammar and Syntax are a collection of laws and rules. +Rules are gathered from practice; they are the results of induction to +which we come by long observation and comparison of facts. It is, in +fine, the science, the philosophy of language. In following the process +of nature, neither individuals nor nations ever arrive at the science +<i>first</i>. A language is spoken, and poetry written, many years before +either a grammar or prosody is even thought of. Men did not wait till +Aristotle had constructed his logic, to reason." In short, as grammar +was made after language, so ought it to be taught after language: an +inference which all who recognise the relationship between the evolution +of the race and that of the individual, will see to be unavoidable.</p> + +<p>Of new practices that have grown up during the decline of these old +ones, the most important is the systematic culture of the powers of +observation. After long ages of blindness, men are at last seeing that +the spontaneous activity of the observing faculties in children has a +meaning and a use. What was once thought mere purposeless action, or +play, or mischief, as the case might be, is now recognised as the +process of acquiring a knowledge on which all after-knowledge is based. +Hence the well-conceived but ill-conducted system of <i>object-lessons</i>. +The saying of Bacon, that physics is the mother of the sciences, has +come to have a meaning in education. Without an accurate acquaintance +with the visible and tangible properties of things, our conceptions must +be erroneous, our inferences fallacious, and our operations +unsuccessful. "The education of the senses neglected, all after +education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, an insufficiency, which +it is impossible to cure." Indeed, if we consider it, we shall find that +exhaustive observation is an element in all great success. It is not to +artists, naturalists, and men of science only, that it is needful; it is +not only that the physician depends on it for the correctness of his +diagnosis, and that to the engineer it is so important that some years +in the workshop are prescribed for him; but we may see that the <a +name="page_051"></a> philosopher, also, is fundamentally one who +<i>observes</i> relationships of things which others had overlooked, and that +the poet, too, is one who <i>sees</i> the fine facts in nature which all +recognise when pointed out, but did not before remark. Nothing requires +more to be insisted on than that vivid and complete impressions are +all-essential. No sound fabric of wisdom can be woven out of a rotten +raw-material.</p> + +<p>While the old method of presenting truths in the abstract has been +falling out of use, there has been a corresponding adoption of the new +method of presenting them in the concrete. The rudimentary facts of +exact science are now being learnt by direct intuition, as textures, and +tastes, and colours are learnt. Employing the ball-frame for first +lessons in arithmetic exemplifies this. It is well illustrated, too, in +Professor De Morgan's mode of explaining the decimal notation. M. +Marcel, rightly repudiating the old system of tables, teaches weights +and measures by referring to the actual yard and foot, pound and ounce, +gallon and quart; and lets the discovery of their relationships be +experimental. The use of geographical models and models of the regular +bodies, etc., as introductory to geography and geometry respectively, +are facts of the same class. Manifestly, a common trait of these methods +is, that they carry each child's mind through a process like that which +the mind of humanity at large has gone through. The truths of number, of +form, of relationship in position, were all originally drawn from +objects; and to present these truths to the child in the concrete is to +let him learn them as the race learnt them. By and by, perhaps, it will +be seen that he cannot possibly learn them in any other way; for that if +he is made to repeat them as abstractions, the abstractions can have no +meaning for him, until he finds that they are simply statements of what +he intuitively discerns.</p> + +<p>But of all the changes taking place, the most significant is the +growing desire to make the acquirement of knowledge pleasurable rather +than painful—a desire based on the more or less distinct +perception, that at each age the intellectual action which a child likes +is a healthful one for it; and conversely. There is a spreading opinion +that the rise of an appetite for any kind of information implies that +the unfolding mind has become fit to assimilate it, and needs it for +purposes of growth; and that, on the other hand, the disgust felt +towards such information is a sign either that it is prematurely +presented, or that it is presented in an indigestible form. Hence the +efforts to make early education amusing, and all education interesting. +<a name="page_052"></a> Hence the lectures on the value of play. Hence +the defence of nursery rhymes and fairy tales. Daily we more and more +conform our plans to juvenile opinion. Does the child like this or that +kind of teaching?—does he take to it? we constantly ask. "His +natural desire of variety should be indulged," says M. Marcel; "and the +gratification of his curiosity should be combined with his improvement." +"Lessons," he again remarks, "should cease before the child evinces +symptoms of weariness." And so with later education. Short breaks during +school-hours, excursions into the country, amusing lectures, choral +songs—in these and many like traits the change may be discerned. +Asceticism is disappearing out of education as out of life; and the +usual test of political legislation—its tendency to promote +happiness—is beginning to be, in a great degree, the test of +legislation for the school and the nursery.</p> + +<p>What now is the common characteristic of these several changes? Is it +not an increasing conformity to the methods of Nature? The +relinquishment of early forcing, against which Nature rebels, and the +leaving of the first years for exercise of the limbs and senses, show +this. The superseding of rote-learnt lessons by lessons orally and +experimentally given, like those of the field and play-ground, shows +this. The disuse of rule-teaching, and the adoption of teaching by +principles—that is, the leaving of generalisations until there are +particulars to base them on—show this. The system of +object-lessons shows this. The teaching of the rudiments of science in +the concrete instead of the abstract, shows this. And above all, this +tendency is shown in the variously-directed efforts to present knowledge +in attractive forms, and so to make the acquirement of it pleasurable. +For, as it is the order of Nature in all creatures that the +gratification accompanying the fulfilment of needful functions serves as +a stimulus to their fulfilment—as, during the self-education of +the young child, the delight taken in the biting of corals and the +pulling to pieces of toys, becomes the prompter to actions which teach +it the properties of matter; it follows that, in choosing the succession +of subjects and the modes of instruction which most interest the pupil, +we are fulfilling Nature's behests, and adjusting our proceedings to the +laws of life.</p> + +<p>Thus, then, we are on the highway towards the doctrine long ago +enunciated by Pestalozzi, that alike in its order and its methods, +education must conform to the natural process of mental +evolution—that there is a certain sequence in which <a +name="page_053"></a> the faculties spontaneously develop, and a certain +kind of knowledge which each requires during its development; and that +it is for us to ascertain this sequence, and supply this knowledge. All +the improvements above alluded to are partial applications of this +general principle. A nebulous perception of it now prevails among +teachers; and it is daily more insisted on in educational works. "The +method of nature is the archetype of all methods," says M. Marcel. "The +vital principle in the pursuit is to enable the pupil rightly to +instruct himself," writes Mr. Wyse. The more science familiarises us +with the constitution of things, the more do we see in them an inherent +self-sufficingness. A higher knowledge tends continually to limit our +interference with the processes of life. As in medicine the old "heroic +treatment" has given place to mild treatment, and often no treatment +save a normal regimen—as we have found that it is not needful to +mould the bodies of babes by bandaging them in papoose-fashion or +otherwise—as in gaols it is being discovered that no +cunningly-devised discipline of ours is so efficient in producing +reformation as the natural discipline of self-maintenance by productive +labour; so in education, we are finding that success is to be achieved +only by making our measures subservient to that spontaneous unfolding +which all minds go through in their progress to maturity.</p> + +<p>Of course, this fundamental principle of tuition, that the +arrangement of matter and method must correspond with the order of +evolution and mode of activity of the faculties—a principle so +obviously true, that once stated it seems almost self-evident—has +never been wholly disregarded. Teachers have unavoidably made their +school-courses coincide with it in some degree, for the simple reason +that education is possible only on that condition. Boys were never +taught the rule-of-three until after they had learnt addition. They were +not set to write exercises before they had got into their copybooks. +Conic sections have always been preceded by Euclid. But the error of the +old methods consists in this, that they do not recognise in detail what +they are obliged to recognise in general. Yet the principle applies +throughout. If from the time when a child is able to conceive two things +as related in position, years must elapse before it can form a true +concept of the Earth, as a sphere made up of land and sea, covered with +mountains, forests, rivers, and cities, revolving on its axis, and +sweeping round the Sun—if it gets from the one concept to the +other by <a name="page_054"></a> degrees—if the intermediate +concepts which it forms are consecutively larger and more complicated; +is it not manifest that there is a general succession through which +alone it can pass; that each larger concept is made by the combination +of smaller ones, and presupposes them; and that to present any of these +compound concepts before the child is in possession of its constituent +ones, is only less absurd than to present the final concept of the +series before the initial one? In the mastering of every subject some +course of increasingly complex ideas has to be gone through. The +evolution of the corresponding faculties consists in the assimilation of +these; which, in any true sense, is impossible without they are put into +the mind in the normal order. And when this order is not followed, the +result is, that they are received with apathy or disgust; and that +unless the pupil is intelligent enough eventually to fill up the gaps +himself, they lie in his memory as dead facts, capable of being turned +to little or no use.</p> + +<p>"But why trouble ourselves about any <i>curriculum</i> at all?" it may be +asked. "If it be true that the mind like the body has a predetermined +course of evolution—if it unfolds spontaneously—if its +successive desires for this or that kind of information arise when these +are severally required for its nutrition—if there thus exists in +itself a prompter to the right species of activity at the right time; +why interfere in any way? Why not leave children <i>wholly</i> to the +discipline of nature?—why not remain quite passive and let them +get knowledge as they best can?—why not be consistent throughout?" +This is an awkward-looking question. Plausibly implying as it does, that +a system of complete <i>laissez-faire</i> is the logical outcome of the +doctrines set forth, it seems to furnish a disproof of them by <i>reductio +ad absurdum</i>. In truth, however, they do not, when rightly understood, +commit us to any such untenable position. A glance at the physical +analogies will clearly show this. It is a general law of life that the +more complex the organism to be produced, the longer the period during +which it is dependent on a parent organism for food and protection. The +difference between the minute, rapidly-formed, and self-moving spore of +a conferva, and the slowly-developed seed of a tree, with its multiplied +envelopes and large stock of nutriment laid by to nourish the germ +during its first stages of growth, illustrates this law in its +application to the vegetal world. Among animals we may trace it in a +series of contrasts from the monad whose spontaneously-divided halves +are as self-sufficing the moment <a name="page_055"></a> after their +separation as was the original whole; up to man, whose offspring not +only passes through a protracted gestation, and subsequently long +depends on the breast for sustenance; but after that must have its food +artificially administered; must, when it has learned to feed itself, +continue to have bread, clothing, and shelter provided; and does not +acquire the power of complete self-support until a time varying from +fifteen to twenty years after its birth. Now this law applies to the +mind as to the body. For mental pabulum also, every higher creature, and +especially man, is at first dependent on adult aid. Lacking the ability +to move about, the babe is almost as powerless to get materials on which +to exercise its perceptions as it is to get supplies for its stomach. +Unable to prepare its own food, it is in like manner unable to reduce +many kinds of knowledge to a fit form for assimilation. The language +through which all higher truths are to be gained, it wholly derives from +those surrounding it. And we see in such an example as the Wild Boy of +Aveyron, the arrest of development that results when no help is received +from parents and nurses. Thus, in providing from day to day the right +kind of facts, prepared in the right manner, and giving them in due +abundance at appropriate intervals, there is as much scope for active +ministration to a child's mind as to its body. In either case, it is the +chief function of parents to see that the <i>conditions</i> requisite to +growth are maintained. And as, in supplying aliment, and clothing, and +shelter, they may fulfil this function without at all interfering with +the spontaneous development of the limbs and viscera, either in their +order or mode; so, they may supply sounds for imitation, objects for +examination, books for reading, problems for solution, and, if they use +neither direct nor indirect coercion, may do this without in any way +disturbing the normal process of mental evolution; or rather, may +greatly facilitate that process. Hence the admission of the doctrines +enunciated does not, as some might argue, involve the abandonment of +teaching; but leaves ample room for an active and elaborate course of +culture.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Passing from generalities to special considerations, it is to be +remarked that in practice the Pestalozzian system seems scarcely to have +fulfilled the promise of its theory. We hear of children not at all +interested in its lessons,—disgusted with them rather; and, so far +as we can gather, the Pestalozzian school have not turned out any +unusual proportion of distinguished men: if even they have reached the +average. We are <a name="page_056"></a> not surprised at this. The +success of every appliance depends mainly upon the intelligence with +which it is used. It is a trite remark that, having the choicest tools, +an unskilful artisan will botch his work; and bad teachers will fail +even with the best methods. Indeed, the goodness of the method becomes +in such case a cause of failure; as, to continue the simile, the +perfection of the tool becomes in undisciplined hands a source of +imperfection in results. A simple, unchanging, almost mechanical routine +of tuition, may be carried out by the commonest intellects, with such +small beneficial effect as it is capable of producing; but a complete +system—a system as heterogeneous in its appliances as the mind in +its faculties—a system proposing a special means for each special +end, demands for its right employment powers such as few teachers +possess. The mistress of a dame-school can hear spelling-lessons; and +any hedge-schoolmaster can drill boys in the multiplication-table. But +to teach spelling rightly by using the powers of the letters instead of +their names, or to instruct in numerical combinations by experimental +synthesis, a modicum of understanding is needful; and to pursue a like +rational course throughout the entire range of studies, asks an amount +of judgment, of invention, of intellectual sympathy, of analytical +faculty, which we shall never see applied to it while the tutorial +official is held in such small esteem. True education is practicable +only by a true philosopher. Judge, then, what prospect a philosophical +method now has of being acted out! Knowing so little as we yet do of +psychology, and ignorant as our teachers are of that little, what chance +has a system which requires psychology for its basis?</p> + +<p>Further hindrance and discouragement has arisen from confounding the +Pestalozzian principle with the forms in which it has been embodied. +Because particular plans have not answered expectation, discredit has +been cast upon the doctrine associated with them: no inquiry being made +whether these plans truly conform to the doctrine. Judging as usual by +the concrete rather than the abstract, men have blamed the theory for +the bunglings of the practice. It is as though the first futile attempt +to construct a steam-engine had been held to prove that steam could not +be used as a motive power. Let it be constantly borne in mind that while +right in his fundamental ideas, Pestalozzi was not therefore right in +all his applications of them. As described even by his admirers, +Pestalozzi was a man of partial intuitions—a man who had +occasional flashes of insight <a name="page_057"></a> rather than a man +of systematic thought. His first great success at Stantz was achieved +when he had no books or appliances of ordinary teaching, and when "the +only object of his attention was to find out at each moment what +instruction his children stood peculiarly in need of, and what was the +best manner of connecting it with the knowledge they already possessed." +Much of his power was due, not to calmly reasoned-out plans of culture, +but to his profound sympathy, which gave him a quick perception of +childish needs and difficulties. He lacked the ability logically to +co-ordinate and develop the truths which he thus from time to time laid +hold of; and had in great measure to leave this to his assistants, +Kruesi, Tobler, Buss, Niederer, and Schmid. The result is, that in their +details his own plans, and those vicariously devised, contain numerous +crudities and inconsistencies. His nursery-method, described in <i>The +Mother's Manual</i>, beginning as it does with a nomenclature of the +different parts of the body, and proceeding next to specify their +relative positions, and next their connections, may be proved not at all +in accordance with the initial stages of mental evolution. His process +of teaching the mother-tongue by formal exercises in the meanings of +words and in the construction of sentences, is quite needless, and must +entail on the pupil loss of time, labour, and happiness. His proposed +lessons in geography are utterly unpestalozzian. And often where his +plans are essentially sound, they are either incomplete or vitiated by +some remnant of the old regime. While, therefore, we would defend in its +entire extent the general doctrine which Pestalozzi inaugurated, we +think great evil likely to result from an uncritical reception of his +specific methods. That tendency, constantly exhibited by mankind, to +canonise the forms and practices along with which any great truth has +been bequeathed to them—their liability to prostrate their +intellects before the prophet, and swear by his every word—their +proneness to mistake the clothing of the idea for the idea itself; +renders it needful to insist strongly upon the distinction between the +fundamental principle of the Pestalozzian system, and the set of +expedients devised for its practice; and to suggest that while the one +may be considered as established, the other is probably nothing but an +adumbration of the normal course. Indeed, on looking at the state of our +knowledge, we may be quite sure that is the case. Before educational +methods can be made to harmonise in character and arrangement with the +faculties in their mode and order of unfolding, it is first needful that +we ascertain with some completeness how the <a name="page_058"></a> +faculties <i>do</i> unfold. At present we have acquired, on this point, only +a few general notions. These general notions must be developed in +detail—must be transformed into a multitude of specific +propositions, before we can be said to possess that <i>science</i> on which +the <i>art</i> of education must be based. And then, when we have definitely +made out in what succession and in what combinations the mental powers +become active, it remains to choose out of the many possible ways of +exercising each of them, that which best conforms to its natural mode of +action. Evidently, therefore, it is not to be supposed that even our +most advanced modes of teaching are the right ones, or nearly the right +ones.</p> + +<p>Bearing in mind then this distinction between the principle and the +practice of Pestalozzi, and inferring from the grounds assigned that the +last must necessarily be very defective, the reader will rate at its +true worth the dissatisfaction with the system which some have +expressed; and will see that the realisation of the Pestalozzian idea +remains to be achieved. Should he argue, however, from what has just +been said, that no such realisation is at present practicable, and that +all effort ought to be devoted to the preliminary inquiry; we reply, +that though it is not possible for a scheme of culture to be perfected +either in matter or form until a rational psychology has been +established, it is possible, with the aid of certain guiding principles, +to make empirical approximations towards a perfect scheme. To prepare +the way for further research we will now specify these principles. Some +of them have been more or less distinctly implied in the foregoing +pages; but it will be well here to state them all in logical order.</p> + +<p>1. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the +complex, is a truth which has always been to some extent acted upon: not +professedly, indeed, nor by any means consistently. The mind develops. +Like all things that develop it progresses from the homogeneous to the +heterogeneous; and a normal training system, being an objective +counterpart of this subjective process, must exhibit a like progression. +Moreover, thus interpreting it, we may see that this formula has much +wider application than at first appears. For its <i>rationale</i> involves, +not only that we should proceed from the single to the combined in the +teaching of each branch of knowledge; but that we should do the like +with knowledge as a whole. As the mind, consisting at first of but few +active faculties, has its later-completed <a name="page_059"></a> +faculties successively brought into play, and ultimately comes to have +all its faculties in simultaneous action; it follows that our teaching +should begin with but few subjects at once, and successively adding to +these, should finally carry on all subjects abreast. Not only in its +details should education proceed from the simple to the complex, but in +its <i>ensemble</i> also.</p> + +<p>2. The development of the mind, as all other development, is an +advance from the indefinite to the definite. In common with the rest of +the organism, the brain reaches its finished structure only at maturity; +and in proportion as its structure is unfinished, its actions are +wanting in precision. Hence like the first movements and the first +attempts at speech, the first perceptions and thoughts are extremely +vague. As from a rudimentary eye, discerning only the difference between +light and darkness, the progress is to an eye that distinguishes kinds +and gradations of colour, and details of form, with the greatest +exactness; so, the intellect as a whole and in each faculty, beginning +with the rudest discriminations among objects and actions, advances +towards discriminations of increasing nicety and distinctness. To this +general law our educational course and methods must conform. It is not +practicable, nor would it be desirable if practicable, to put precise +ideas into the undeveloped mind. We may indeed at an early age +communicate the verbal forms in which such ideas are wrapped up; and +teachers, who habitually do this, suppose that when the verbal forms +have been correctly learnt, the ideas which should fill them have been +acquired. But a brief cross-examination of the pupil proves the +contrary. It turns out either that the words have been committed to +memory with little or no thought about their meaning, or else that the +perception of their meaning which has been gained is a very cloudy one. +Only as the multiplication of experiences gives materials for definite +conceptions—only as observation year by year discloses the less +conspicuous attributes which distinguish things and processes previously +confounded together—only as each class of co-existences and +sequences becomes familiar through the recurrence of cases coming under +it—only as the various classes of relations get accurately marked +off from each other by mutual limitation, can the exact definitions of +advanced knowledge become truly comprehensible. Thus in education we +must be content to set out with crude notions. These we must aim to make +gradually clearer by facilitating the acquisition of experiences such as +will correct, first their greatest errors, and afterwards their +successively <a name="page_060"></a> less marked errors. And the +scientific formulæ must be given only as fast as the conceptions are +perfected.</p> + +<p>3. To say that our lessons ought to start from the concrete and end +in the abstract, may be considered as in part a repetition of the first +of the foregoing principles. Nevertheless it is a maxim that must be +stated: if with no other view, then with the view of showing in certain +cases what are truly the simple and the complex. For unfortunately there +has been much misunderstanding on this point. General formulas which men +have devised to express groups of details, and which have severally +simplified their conceptions by uniting many facts into one fact, they +have supposed must simplify the conceptions of a child also. They have +forgotten that a generalisation is simple only in comparison with the +whole mass of particular truths it comprehends—that it is more +complex than any one of these truths taken singly—that only after +many of these single truths have been acquired does the generalisation +ease the memory and help the reason—and that to a mind not +possessing these single truths it is necessarily a mystery. Thus +confounding two kinds of simplification, teachers have constantly erred +by setting out with "first principles": a proceeding essentially, though +not apparently, at variance with the primary rule; which implies that +the mind should be introduced to principles through the medium of +examples, and so should be led from the particular to the +general—from the concrete to the abstract.</p> + +<p>4. The education of the child must accord both in mode and +arrangement with the education of mankind, considered historically. In +other words, the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the +same course as the genesis of knowledge in the race. In strictness, this +principle may be considered as already expressed by implication; since +both, being processes of evolution, must conform to those same general +laws of evolution above insisted on, and must therefore agree with each +other. Nevertheless this particular parallelism is of value for the +specific guidance it affords. To M. Comte we believe society owes the +enunciation of it; and we may accept this item of his philosophy without +at all committing ourselves to the rest. This doctrine may be upheld by +two reasons, quite independent of any abstract theory; and either of +them sufficient to establish it. One is deducible from the law of +hereditary transmission as considered in its wider consequences. For if +it be true that men exhibit likeness to ancestry, both in aspect and +character—if it be true that certain mental manifestations, as +insanity, occur in successive <a name="page_061"></a> members of the +same family at the same age—if, passing from individual cases in +which the traits of many dead ancestors mixing with those of a few +living ones greatly obscure the law, we turn to national types, and +remark how the contrasts between them are persistent from age to +age—if we remember that these respective types came from a common +stock, and that hence the present marked differences between them must +have arisen from the action of modifying circumstances upon successive +generations who severally transmitted the accumulated effects to their +descendants—if we find the differences to be now organic, so that +a French child grows into a French man even when brought up among +strangers—and if the general fact thus illustrated is true of the +whole nature, intellect inclusive; then it follows that if there be an +order in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of +knowledge, there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these +kinds of knowledge in the same order. So that even were the order +intrinsically indifferent, it would facilitate education to lead the +individual mind through the steps traversed by the general mind. But the +order is <i>not</i> intrinsically indifferent; and hence the fundamental +reason why education should be a repetition of civilisation in little. +It is provable both that the historical sequence was, in its main +outlines, a necessary one; and that the causes which determined it apply +to the child as to the race. Not to specify these causes in detail, it +will suffice here to point out that as the mind of humanity placed in +the midst of phenomena and striving to comprehend them, has, after +endless comparisons, speculations, experiments, and theories, reached +its present knowledge of each subject by a specific route; it may +rationally be inferred that the relationship between mind and phenomena +is such as to prevent this knowledge from being reached by any other +route; and that as each child's mind stands in this same relationship to +phenomena, they can be accessible to it only through the same route. +Hence in deciding upon the right method of education, an inquiry into +the method of civilisation will help to guide us.</p> + +<p>5. One of the conclusions to which such an inquiry leads, is, that in +each branch of instruction we should proceed from the empirical to the +rational. During human progress, every science is evolved out of its +corresponding art. It results from the necessity we are under, both +individually and as a race, of reaching the abstract by way of the +concrete, that there must be practice and an accruing experience with +its empirical generalisation, before there can be science. Science is +organised <a name="page_062"></a> knowledge; and before knowledge can +be organised, some of it must be possessed. Every study, therefore, +should have a purely experimental introduction; and only after an ample +fund of observations has been accumulated, should reasoning begin. As +illustrative applications of this rule, we may instance the modern +course of placing grammar, not before language, but after it; or the +ordinary custom of prefacing perspective by practical drawing. By and by +further applications of it will be indicated.</p> + +<p>6. A second corollary from the foregoing general principle, and one +which cannot be too strenuously insisted on, is, that in education the +process of self-development should be encouraged to the uttermost. +Children should be led to make their own investigations, and to draw +their own inferences. They should be <i>told</i> as little as possible, and +induced to <i>discover</i> as much as possible. Humanity has progressed +solely by self-instruction; and that to achieve the best results, each +mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually +proved by the marked success of self-made men. Those who have been +brought up under the ordinary school-drill, and have carried away with +them the idea that education is practicable only in that style, will +think it hopeless to make children their own teachers. If, however, they +will consider that the all-important knowledge of surrounding objects +which a child gets in its early years is got without help—if they +will remember that the child is self-taught in the use of its mother +tongue—if they will estimate the amount of that experience of +life, that out-of-school wisdom, which every boy gathers for +himself—if they will mark the unusual intelligence of the +uncared-for London <i>gamin</i>, as shown in whatever directions his +faculties have been tasked—if, further, they will think how many +minds have struggled up unaided, not only through the mysteries of our +irrationally-planned <i>curriculum</i>, but through hosts of other obstacles +besides; they will find it a not unreasonable conclusion that if the +subjects be put before him in right order and right form, any pupil of +ordinary capacity will surmount his successive difficulties with but +little assistance. Who indeed can watch the ceaseless observation, and +inquiry, and inference going on in a child's mind, or listen to its +acute remarks on matters within the range of its faculties, without +perceiving that these powers it manifests, if brought to bear +systematically upon studies <i>within the same range</i>, would readily +master them without help? This need for perpetual telling results from +our stupidity, not <a name="page_063"></a> from the child's. We drag it +away from the facts in which it is interested, and which it is actively +assimilating of itself. We put before it facts far too complex for it to +understand; and therefore distasteful to it. Finding that it will not +voluntarily acquire these facts, we thrust them into its mind by force +of threats and punishment. By thus denying the knowledge it craves, and +cramming it with knowledge it cannot digest, we produce a morbid state +of its faculties; and a consequent disgust for knowledge in general. And +when, as a result partly of the stolid indolence we have brought on, and +partly of still-continued unfitness in its studies, the child can +understand nothing without explanation, and becomes a mere passive +recipient of our instruction, we infer that education must necessarily +be carried on thus. Having by our method induced helplessness, we make +the helplessness a reason for our method. Clearly then, the experience +of pedagogues cannot rationally be quoted against the system we are +advocating. And whoever sees this, will see that we may safely follow +the discipline of Nature throughout—may, by a skilful +ministration, make the mind as self-developing in its later stages as it +is in its earlier ones; and that only by doing this can we produce the +highest power and activity.</p> + +<p>7. As a final test by which to judge any plan of culture, should come +the question,—Does it create a pleasurable excitement in the +pupils? When in doubt whether a particular mode or arrangement is or is +not more in harmony with the foregoing principles than some other, we +may safely abide by this criterion. Even when, as considered +theoretically, the proposed course seems the best, yet if it produces no +interest, or less interest than some other course, we should relinquish +it; for a child's intellectual instincts are more trustworthy than our +reasonings. In respect to the knowing-faculties, we may confidently +trust in the general law, that under normal conditions, healthful action +is pleasurable, while action which gives pain is not healthful. Though +at present very incompletely conformed to by the emotional nature, yet +by the intellectual nature, or at least by those parts of it which the +child exhibits, this law is almost wholly conformed to. The repugnances +to this and that study which vex the ordinary teacher, are not innate, +but result from his unwise system. Fellenberg says, "Experience has +taught me that <i>indolence</i> in young persons is so directly opposite to +their natural disposition to activity, that unless it is the consequence +of bad education, it is almost <a name="page_064"></a> invariably +connected with some constitutional defect." And the spontaneous activity +to which children are thus prone, is simply the pursuit of those +pleasures which the healthful exercise of the faculties gives. It is +true that some of the higher mental powers, as yet but little developed +in the race, and congenitally possessed in any considerable degree only +by the most advanced, are indisposed to the amount of exertion required +of them. But these, in virtue of their very complexity, will, in a +normal course of culture, come last into exercise; and will therefore +have no demands made on them until the pupil has arrived at an age when +ulterior motives can be brought into play, and an indirect pleasure made +to counterbalance a direct displeasure. With all faculties lower than +these, however, the immediate gratification consequent on activity, is +the normal stimulus; and under good management the only needful +stimulus. When we have to fall back on some other, we must take the fact +as evidence that we are on the wrong track. Experience is daily showing +with greater clearness, that there is always a method to be found +productive of interest—even of delight; and it ever turns out that +this is the method proved by all other tests to be the right one.</p> + +<p>With most, these guiding principles will weigh but little if left in +this abstract form. Partly, therefore, to exemplify their application, +and partly with a view of making sundry specific suggestions, we propose +now to pass from the theory of education to the practice of it.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>It was the opinion of Pestalozzi, and one which has ever since his +day been gaining ground, that education of some kind should begin from +the cradle. Whoever has watched, with any discernment, the wide-eyed +gaze of the infant at surrounding objects knows very well that education +<i>does</i> begin thus early, whether we intend it or not; and that these +fingerings and suckings of everything it can lay hold of, these +open-mouthed listenings to every sound, are first steps in the series +which ends in the discovery of unseen planets, the invention of +calculating engines, the production of great paintings, or the +composition of symphonies and operas. This activity of the faculties +from the very first, being spontaneous and inevitable, the question is +whether we shall supply in due variety the materials on which they may +exercise themselves; and to the question so put, none but an affirmative +answer can be given. As before said, however, agreement with +Pestalozzi's theory does not involve agreement <a name="page_065"></a> +with his practice; and here occurs a case in point. Treating of +instruction in spelling he says:—</p> + +<blockquote>"The spelling-book ought, therefore, to contain all the +sounds of the language, and these ought to be taught in every family +from the earliest infancy. The child who learns his spelling book ought +to repeat them to the infant in the cradle, before it is able to +pronounce even one of them, so that they may be deeply impressed upon +its mind by frequent repetition."</blockquote> + +<p>Joining this with the suggestions for "a nursery method," set down in +his <i>Mother's Manual</i>, in which he makes the names, positions, +connections, numbers, properties, and uses of the limbs and body his +first lessons, it becomes clear that Pestalozzi's notions on early +mental development were too crude to enable him to devise judicious +plans. Let us consider the course which Psychology dictates.</p> + +<p>The earliest impressions which the mind can assimilate are the +undecomposable sensations produced by resistance, light, sound, etc. +Manifestly, decomposable states of consciousness cannot exist before the +states of consciousness out of which they are composed. There can be no +idea of form until some familiarity with light in its gradations and +qualities, or resistance in its different intensities, has been +acquired; for, as has been long known, we recognise visible form by +means of varieties of light, and tangible form by means of varieties of +resistance. Similarly, no articulate sound is cognisable until the +inarticulate sounds which go to make it up have been learned. And thus +must it be in every other case. Following, therefore, the necessary law +of progression from the simple to the complex, we should provide for the +infant a sufficiency of objects presenting different degrees and kinds +of resistance, a sufficiency of objects reflecting different amounts and +qualities of light, and a sufficiency of sounds contrasted in their +loudness, their pitch and their <i>timbre</i>. How fully this <i>à priori</i> +conclusion is confirmed by infantile instincts, all will see on being +reminded of the delight which every young child has in biting its toys, +in feeling its brother's bright jacket-buttons, and pulling papa's +whiskers—how absorbed it becomes in gazing at any gaudily-painted +object, to which it applies the word "pretty," when it can pronounce it, +wholly because of the bright colours—and how its face broadens +into a laugh at the tattlings of its nurse, the snapping of a visitor's +fingers, or any sound which it has not before heard. Fortunately, the +ordinary practices of the nursery fulfil these early requirements of +education to a considerable degree. Much, however, remains to be done; +and it is of more importance that <a name="page_066"></a> it should be +done than at first appears. Every faculty during that spontaneous +activity which accompanies its evolution is capable of receiving more +vivid impressions than at any other period. Moreover, as these simplest +elements have to be mastered, and as the mastery of them whenever +achieved must take time, it becomes an economy of time to occupy this +first stage of childhood, during which no other intellectual action is +possible, in gaining a complete familiarity with them in all their +modifications. Nor let us omit the fact, that both temper and health +will be improved by the continual gratification resulting from a due +supply of these impressions which every child so greedily assimilates. +Space, could it be spared, might here be well filled by some suggestions +towards a more systematic ministration to these simplest of the +perceptions. But it must suffice to point out that any such +ministration, recognising the general law of evolution from the +indefinite to the definite, should proceed upon the corollary that in +the development of every faculty, markedly contrasted impressions are +the first to be distinguished; that hence sounds greatly differing in +loudness and pitch, colours very remote from each other, and substances +widely unlike in hardness or texture, should be the first supplied; and +that in each case the progression must be by slow degrees to impressions +more nearly allied.</p> + +<p>Passing on to object-lessons, which manifestly form a natural +continuation of this primary culture of the senses, it is to be +remarked, that the system commonly pursued is wholly at variance with +the method of Nature, as exhibited alike in infancy, in adult life, and +in the course of civilisation. "The child," says M. Marcel, "must be +<i>shown</i> how all the parts of an object are connected, etc.;" and the +various manuals of these object-lessons severally contain lists of the +facts which the child is to be <i>told</i> respecting each of the things put +before it. Now it needs but a glance at the daily life of the infant to +see that all the knowledge of things which is gained before the +acquirement of speech, is self-gained—that the qualities of +hardness and weight associated with certain appearances, the possession +of particular forms and colours by particular persons, the production of +special sounds by animals of special aspects, are phenomena which it +observes for itself. In manhood too, when there are no longer teachers +at hand, the observations and inferences hourly required for guidance +must be made unhelped; and success in life depends upon the accuracy and +completeness with which they are made. Is it probable, then, that while +the <a name="page_067"></a> process displayed in the evolution of +humanity at large is repeated alike by the infant and the man, a reverse +process must be followed during the period between infancy and manhood? +and that too, even in so simple a thing as learning the properties of +objects? Is it not obvious, on the contrary, that one method must be +pursued throughout? And is not Nature perpetually thrusting this method +upon us, if we had but the wit to see it, and the humility to adopt it? +What can be more manifest than the desire of children for intellectual +sympathy? Mark how the infant sitting on your knee thrusts into your +face the toy it holds, that you too may look at it. See when it makes a +creak with its wet finger on the table, how it turns and looks at you; +does it again, and again looks at you; thus saying as clearly as it +can—"Hear this new sound." Watch the elder children coming into +the room exclaiming—"Mamma, see what a curious thing," "Mamma, +look at this," "Mamma, look at that:" a habit which they would continue, +did not the silly mamma tell them not to tease her. Observe that, when +out with the nurse-maid, each little one runs up to her with the new +flower it has gathered, to show her how pretty it is, and to get her +also to say it is pretty. Listen to the eager volubility with which +every urchin describes any novelty he has been to see, if only he can +find some one who will attend with any interest. Does not the induction +lie on the surface? Is it not clear that we must conform our course to +these intellectual instincts—that we must just systematise the +natural process—that we must listen to all the child has to tell +us about each object; must induce it to say everything it can think of +about such object; must occasionally draw its attention to facts it has +not yet observed, with the view of leading it to notice them itself +whenever they recur; and must go on by and by to indicate or supply new +series of things for a like exhaustive examination? Note the way in +which, on this method, the intelligent mother conducts her lessons. Step +by step she familiarises her little boy with the names of the simpler +attributes, hardness, softness, colour, taste, size: in doing which she +finds him eagerly help by bringing this to show her that it is red, and +the other to make her feel that it is hard, as fast as she gives him +words for these properties. Each additional property, as she draws his +attention to it in some fresh thing which he brings her, she takes care +to mention in connection with those he already knows; so that by the +natural tendency to imitate, he may get into the habit of repeating them +one after another. Gradually as there <a name="page_068"></a> occur +cases in which he omits to name one or more of the properties he has +become acquainted with, she introduces the practice of asking him +whether there is not something more that he can tell her about the thing +he has got. Probably he does not understand. After letting him puzzle +awhile she tells him; perhaps laughing at him a little for his failure. +A few recurrences of this and he perceives what is to be done. When next +she says she knows something more about the object than he has told her, +his pride is roused; he looks at it intently; he thinks over all that he +has heard; and the problem being easy, presently finds it out. He is +full of glee at his success, and she sympathises with him. In common +with every child, he delights in the discovery of his powers. He wishes +for more victories, and goes in quest of more things about which to tell +her. As his faculties unfold she adds quality after quality to his list: +progressing from hardness and softness to roughness and smoothness, from +colour to polish, from simple bodies to composite ones—thus +constantly complicating the problem as he gains competence, constantly +taxing his attention and memory to a greater extent, constantly +maintaining his interest by supplying him with new impressions such as +his mind can assimilate, and constantly gratifying him by conquests over +such small difficulties as he can master. In doing this she is +manifestly but following out that spontaneous process which was going on +during a still earlier period—simply aiding self-evolution; and is +aiding it in the mode suggested by the boy's instinctive behaviour to +her. Manifestly, too, the course she is adopting is the one best +calculated to establish a habit of exhaustive observation; which is the +professed aim of these lessons. To <i>tell</i> a child this and to <i>show</i> it +the other, is not to teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere +recipient of another's observations: a proceeding which weakens rather +than strengthens its powers of self-instruction—which deprives it +of the pleasures resulting from successful activity—which presents +this all-attractive knowledge under the aspect of formal +tuition—and which thus generates that indifference and even +disgust not unfrequently felt towards these object-lessons. On the other +hand, to pursue the course above described is simply to guide the +intellect to its appropriate food; to join with the intellectual +appetites their natural adjuncts—<i>amour propre</i> and the desire for +sympathy; to induce by the union of all these an intensity of attention +which insures perceptions both vivid and complete; and to habituate the +mind from the <a name="page_069"></a> beginning to that practice of +self-help which it must ultimately follow.</p> + +<p>Object-lessons should not only be carried on after quite a different +fashion from that commonly pursued, but should be extended to a range of +things far wider, and continued to a period far later, than now. They +should not be limited to the contents of the house; but should include +those of the fields and the hedges, the quarry and the sea-shore. They +should not cease with early childhood; but should be so kept up during +youth, as insensibly to merge into the investigations of the naturalist +and the man of science. Here again we have but to follow Nature's +leadings. Where can be seen an intenser delight than that of children +picking up new flowers and watching new insects; or hoarding pebbles and +shells? And who is there but perceives that by sympathising with them +they may be led on to any extent of inquiry into the qualities and +structures of these things? Every botanist who has had children with him +in the woods and lanes must have noticed how eagerly they joined in his +pursuits, how keenly they searched out plants for him, how intently they +watched while he examined them, how they overwhelmed him with questions. +The consistent follower of Bacon—the "servant and interpreter of +nature," will see that we ought modestly to adopt the course of culture +thus indicated. Having become familiar with the simpler properties of +inorganic objects, the child should by the same process be led on to an +exhaustive examination of the things it picks up in its daily +walks—the less complex facts they present being alone noticed at +first: in plants, the colours, numbers, and forms of the petals, and +shapes of the stalks and leaves; in insects, the numbers of the wings, +legs, and antennæ, and their colours. As these become fully appreciated +and invariably observed, further facts may be successively introduced: +in the one case, the numbers of stamens and pistils, the forms of the +flowers, whether radial or bilateral in symmetry, the arrangement and +character of the leaves, whether opposite or alternate, stalked or +sessile, smooth or hairy, serrated, toothed, or crenate; in the other, +the divisions of the body, the segments of the abdomen, the markings of +the wings, the number of joints in the legs, and the forms of the +smaller organs—the system pursued throughout being that of making +it the child's ambition to say respecting everything it finds all that +can be said. Then when a fit age has been reached, the means of +preserving these plants, which have become so interesting in virtue of +the knowledge <a name="page_070"></a> obtained of them, may as a great +favour be supplied; and eventually, as a still greater favour, may also +be supplied the apparatus needful for keeping the larvæ of our common +butterflies and moths through their transformations—a practice +which, as we can personally testify, yields the highest gratification; +is continued with ardour for years; when joined with the formation of an +entomological collection, adds immense interest to Saturday-afternoon +rambles; and forms an admirable introduction to the study of +physiology.</p> + +<p>We are quite prepared to hear from many that all this is throwing +away time and energy; and that children would be much better occupied in +writing their copies or learning their pence-tables, and so fitting +themselves for the business of life. We regret that such crude ideas of +what constitutes education, and such a narrow conception of utility, +should still be prevalent. Saying nothing on the need for a systematic +culture of the perceptions and the value of the practices above +inculcated as subserving that need, we are prepared to defend them even +on the score of the knowledge gained. If men are to be mere cits, mere +porers over ledgers, with no ideas beyond their trades—if it is +well that they should be as the cockney whose conception of rural +pleasures extends no further than sitting in a tea-garden smoking pipes +and drinking porter; or as the squire who thinks of woods as places for +shooting in, of uncultivated plants as nothing but weeds, and who +classifies animals into game, vermin, and stock—then indeed it is +needless to learn anything that does not directly help to replenish the +till and fill the larder. But if there is a more worthy aim for us than +to be drudges—if there are other uses in the things around than +their power to bring money—if there are higher faculties to be +exercised than acquisitive and sensual ones—if the pleasures which +poetry and art and science and philosophy can bring are of any moment; +then is it desirable that the instinctive inclination which every child +shows to observe natural beauties and investigate natural phenomena, +should be encouraged. But this gross utilitarianism which is content to +come into the world and quit it again without knowing what kind of a +world it is or what it contains, may be met on its own ground. It will +by and by be found that a knowledge of the laws of life is more +important than any other knowledge whatever—that the laws of life +underlie not only all bodily and mental processes, but by implication +all the transactions of the house and the street, all commerce, all +politics, all morals—and <a name="page_071"></a> that therefore +without a comprehension of them, neither personal nor social conduct can +be rightly regulated. It will eventually be seen too, that the laws of +life are essentially the same throughout the whole organic creation; and +further, that they cannot be properly understood in their complex +manifestations until they have been studied in their simpler ones. And +when this is seen, it will be also seen that in aiding the child to +acquire the out-of-door information for which it shows so great an +avidity, and in encouraging the acquisition of such information +throughout youth, we are simply inducing it to store up the raw material +for future organisation—the facts that will one day bring home to +it with due force, those great generalisations of science by which +actions may be rightly guided.</p> + +<p>The spreading recognition of drawing as an element of education is +one among many signs of the more rational views on mental culture now +beginning to prevail. Once more it may be remarked that teachers are at +length adopting the course which Nature has perpetually been pressing on +their notice. The spontaneous attempts made by children to represent the +men, houses, trees, and animals around them—on a slate if they can +get nothing better, or with lead-pencil on paper if they can beg +them—are familiar to all. To be shown through a picture-book is +one of their highest gratifications; and as usual, their strong +imitative tendency presently generates in them the ambition to make +pictures themselves also. This effort to depict the striking things they +see is a further instinctive exercise of the perceptions—a means +whereby still greater accuracy and completeness of observation are +induced. And alike by trying to interest us in their discoveries of the +sensible properties of things, and by their endeavours to draw, they +solicit from us just that kind of culture which they most need.</p> + +<p>Had teachers been guided by Nature's hints, not only in making +drawing a part of education but in choosing modes of teaching it, they +would have done still better than they have done. What is that the child +first tries to represent? Things that are large, things that are +attractive in colour, things round which its pleasurable associations +most cluster—human beings from whom it has received so many +emotions; cows and dogs which interest by the many phenomena they +present; houses that are hourly visible and strike by their size and +contrast of parts. And which of the processes of representation gives it +most delight? Colouring. Paper and pencil are good in default of +something better; but a box of paints and <a name="page_072"></a> a +brush—these are the treasures. The drawing of outlines immediately +becomes secondary to colouring—is gone through mainly with a view +to the colouring; and if leave can be got to colour a book of prints, +how great is the favour! Now, ridiculous as such a position will seem to +drawing-masters who postpone colouring and who teach form by a dreary +discipline of copying lines, we believe that the course of culture thus +indicated is the right one. The priority of colour to form, which, as +already pointed out, has a psychological basis, should be recognised +from the beginning; and from the beginning also, the things imitated +should be real. That greater delight in colour which is not only +conspicuous in children but persists in most persons throughout life, +should be continuously employed as the natural stimulus to the mastery +of the comparatively difficult and unattractive form: the pleasure of +the subsequent tinting should be the prospective reward for the labour +of delineation. And these efforts to represent interesting actualities +should be encouraged; in the conviction that as, by a widening +experience, simpler and more practicable objects become interesting, +they too will be attempted; and that so a gradual approximation will be +made towards imitations having some resemblance to the realities. The +extreme indefiniteness which, in conformity with the law of evolution, +these first attempts exhibit, is anything but a reason for ignoring +them. No matter how grotesque the shapes produced; no matter how daubed +and glaring the colours. The question is not whether the child is +producing good drawings. The question is, whether it is developing its +faculties. It has first to gain some command over its fingers, some +crude notions of likeness; and this practice is better than any other +for these ends, since it is the spontaneous and interesting one. During +early childhood no formal drawing-lessons are possible. Shall we +therefore repress, or neglect to aid, these efforts at self-culture? or +shall we encourage and guide them as normal exercises of the perceptions +and the powers of manipulation? If by furnishing cheap woodcuts to be +painted, and simple contour-maps to have their boundary lines tinted, we +can not only pleasurably draw out the faculty of colour, but can +incidentally produce some familiarity with the outlines of things and +countries, and some ability to move the brush steadily; and if by the +supply of tempting objects we can keep up the instinctive practice of +making representations, however rough; it must happen that when the age +for lessons in drawing is reached, there will exist a facility that +would else have been <a name="page_073"></a> absent. Time will have +been gained; and trouble, both to teacher and pupil, saved.</p> + +<p>From what has been said, it may be readily inferred that we condemn +the practice of drawing from copies; and still more so that formal +discipline in making straight lines and curved lines and compound lines, +with which it is the fashion of some teachers to begin. We regret that +the Society of Arts has recently, in its series of manuals on +"Rudimentary Art Instruction," given its countenance to an elementary +drawing-book, which is the most vicious in principle that we have seen. +We refer to the <i>Outline from Outline, or from the Flat</i>, by John Bell, +sculptor. As explained in the prefatory note, this publication proposes +"to place before the student a simple, yet logical mode of instruction;" +and to this end sets out with a number of definitions thus:—</p> + +<blockquote><p>"A simple line in drawing is a thin mark drawn from one +point to another.</p> + +<p>"Lines may be divided, as to their nature in drawing, into two +classes:—</p> + +<p>"1. <i>Straight</i>, which are marks that go the shortest road between two +points, as A B.</p> + +<p>"2. Or <i>Curved</i>, which are marks which do not go the shortest road +between two points, as C D."</p></blockquote> + +<p>And so the introduction progresses to horizontal lines, perpendicular +lines, oblique lines, angles of the several kinds, and the various +figures which lines and angles make up. The work is, in short, a grammar +of form, with exercises. And thus the system of commencing with a dry +analysis of elements, which, in the teaching of language, has been +exploded, is to be re-instituted in the teaching of drawing. We are to +set out with the definite, instead of with the indefinite. The abstract +is to be preliminary to the concrete. Scientific conceptions are to +precede empirical experiences. That this is an inversion of the normal +order, we need scarcely repeat. It has been well said concerning the +custom of prefacing the art of speaking any tongue by a drilling in the +parts of speech and their functions, that it is about as reasonable as +prefacing the art of walking by a course of lessons on the bones, +muscles, and nerves of the legs; and much the same thing may be said of +the proposal to preface the art of representing objects, by a +nomenclature and definitions of the lines which they yield on analysis. +These technicalities are alike repulsive and needless. They render the +study distasteful at the very outset; and all with the view of teaching +that which, in the course of practice, will be learnt unconsciously. +Just as the child incidentally gathers the meanings <a +name="page_074"></a> of ordinary words from the conversations going on +around it, without the help of dictionaries; so, from the remarks on +objects, pictures, and its own drawings, will it presently acquire, not +only without effort but even pleasurably, those same scientific terms +which, when taught at first, are a mystery and a weariness.</p> + +<p>If any dependence is to be placed on the general principles of +education that have been laid down, the process of learning to draw +should be throughout continuous with those efforts of early childhood, +described above as so worthy of encouragement. By the time that the +voluntary practice thus initiated has given some steadiness of hand, and +some tolerable ideas of proportion, there will have arisen a vague +notion of body as presenting its three dimensions in perspective. And +when, after sundry abortive, Chinese-like attempts to render this +appearance on paper, there has grown up a pretty clear perception of the +thing to be done, and a desire to do it, a first lesson in empirical +perspective may be given by means of the apparatus occasionally used in +explaining perspective as a science. This sounds alarming; but the +experiment is both comprehensible and interesting to any boy or girl of +ordinary intelligence. A plate of glass so framed as to stand vertically +on the table, being placed before the pupil, and a book or like simple +object laid on the other side of it, he is requested, while keeping the +eye in one position, to make ink-dots on the glass so that they may +coincide with, or hide, the corners of this object. He is next told to +join these dots by lines; on doing which he perceives that the lines he +makes hide, or coincide with, the outlines of the object. And then by +putting a sheet of paper on the other side of the glass, it is made +manifest to him that the lines he has thus drawn represent the object as +he saw it. They not only look like it, but he perceives that they must +be like it, because he made them agree with its outlines; and by +removing the paper he can convince himself that they do agree with its +outlines. The fact is new and striking; and serves him as an +experimental demonstration, that lines of certain lengths, placed in +certain directions on a plane, can represent lines of other lengths, and +having other directions, in space. By gradually changing the position of +the object, he may be led to observe how some lines shorten and +disappear, while others come into sight and lengthen. The convergence of +parallel lines, and, indeed, all the leading facts of perspective, may, +from time to time, be similarly illustrated to him. If he has been duly +accustomed to self-help, he will gladly, <a name="page_075"></a> when +it is suggested, attempt to draw one of these outlines on paper, by the +eye only; and it may soon be made an exciting aim to produce, +unassisted, a representation as like as he can to one subsequently +sketched on the glass. Thus, without the unintelligent, mechanical +practice of copying other drawings, but by a method at once simple and +attractive—rational, yet not abstract—a familiarity with the +linear appearances of things, and a faculty of rendering them, may be +step by step acquired. To which advantages add these:—that even +thus early the pupil learns, almost unconsciously, the true theory of a +picture (namely, that it is a delineation of objects as they appear when +projected on a plane placed between them and the eye); and that when he +reaches a fit age for commencing scientific perspective, he is already +thoroughly acquainted with the facts which form its logical basis.</p> + +<p>As exhibiting a rational mode of conveying primary conceptions in +geometry, we cannot do better than quote the following passage from Mr. +Wyse:—</p> + +<blockquote><p>"A child has been in the habit of using cubes for +arithmetic; let him use them also for the elements of geometry. I would +begin with solids, the reverse of the usual plan. It saves all the +difficulty of absurd definitions, and bad explanations on points, lines, +and surfaces, which are nothing but abstractions.... A cube presents +many of the principal elements of geometry; it at once exhibits points, +straight lines, parallel lines, angles, parallelograms, etc., etc. These +cubes are divisible into various parts. The pupil has already been +familiarised with such divisions in numeration, and he now proceeds to a +comparison of their several parts, and of the relation of these parts to +each other.... From thence he advances to globes, which furnish him with +elementary notions of the circle, of curves generally, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>"Being tolerably familiar with solids, he may now substitute planes. +The transition may be made very easy. Let the cube, for instance, be cut +into thin divisions, and placed on paper; he will then see as many plane +rectangles as he has divisions; so with all the others. Globes may be +treated in the same manner; he will thus see how surfaces really are +generated, and be enabled to abstract them with facility in every +solid.</p> + +<p>"He has thus acquired the alphabet and reading of geometry. He now +proceeds to write it.</p> + +<p>"The simplest operation, and therefore the first, is merely to place +these planes on a piece of paper, and pass the pencil round them. When +this has been frequently done, the plane may be put at a little +distance, and the child required to copy it, and so +on."</p></blockquote> + +<p>A stock of geometrical conceptions having been obtained, in some such +manner as this recommended by Mr. Wyse, a further step may be taken, by +introducing the practice of testing the correctness of figures drawn by +eye: thus both exciting an ambition to make them exact, and continually +illustrating the difficulty of fulfilling that ambition. There can be +little doubt that geometry had its origin (as, indeed, the word implies) +in <a name="page_076"></a> the methods discovered by artizans and +others, of making accurate measurements for the foundations of +buildings, areas of inclosures, and the like; and that its truths came +to be treasured up, merely with a view to their immediate utility. They +would be introduced to the pupil under analogous relationships. In +cutting out pieces for his card-houses, in drawing ornamental diagrams +for colouring, and in those various instructive occupations which an +inventive teacher will lead him into, he may for a length of time be +advantageously left, like the primitive builder, to tentative processes; +and so will learn through experience the difficulty of achieving his +aims by the unaided senses. When, having meanwhile undergone a valuable +discipline of the perceptions, he has reached a fit age for using a pair +of compasses, he will, while duly appreciating these as enabling him to +verify his ocular guesses, be still hindered by the imperfections of the +approximative method. In this stage he may be left for a further period: +partly as being yet too young for anything higher; partly because it is +desirable that he should be made to feel still more strongly the want of +systematic contrivances. If the acquisition of knowledge is to be made +continuously interesting; and if, in the early civilisation of the +child, as in the early civilisation of the race, science is valued only +as ministering to art; it is manifest that the proper preliminary to +geometry, is a long practice in those constructive processes which +geometry will facilitate. Observe that here, too, Nature points the way. +Children show a strong propensity to cut out things in paper, to make, +to build—a propensity which, if encouraged and directed, will not +only prepare the way for scientific conceptions, but will develop those +powers of manipulation in which most people are so deficient.</p> + +<p>When the observing and inventive faculties have attained the +requisite power, the pupil may be introduced to empirical geometry; that +is—geometry dealing with methodical solutions, but not with the +demonstrations of them. Like all other transitions in education, this +should be made not formally but incidentally; and the relationship to +constructive art should still be maintained. To make, out of cardboard, +a tetrahedron like one given to him, is a problem which will interest +the pupil and serve as a convenient starting-point. In attempting this, +he finds it needful to draw four equilateral triangles arranged in +special positions. Being unable in the absence of an exact method to do +this accurately, he discovers on putting the triangles into their +respective positions, that he cannot make their sides <a +name="page_077"></a> fit; and that their angles do not meet at the +apex. He may now be shown how, by describing a couple of circles, each +of these triangles may be drawn with perfect correctness and without +guessing; and after his failure he will value the information. Having +thus helped him to the solution of his first problem, with the view of +illustrating the nature of geometrical methods, he is in future to be +left to solve the questions put to him as best he can. To bisect a line, +to erect a perpendicular, to describe a square, to bisect an angle, to +draw a line parallel to a given line, to describe a hexagon, are +problems which a little patience will enable him to find out. And from +these he may be led on step by step to more complex questions: all of +which, under judicious management, he will puzzle through unhelped. +Doubtless, many of those brought up under the old regime, will look upon +this assertion sceptically. We speak from facts, however; and those +neither few nor special. We have seen a class of boys become so +interested in making out solutions to such problems, as to look forward +to their geometry-lesson as a chief event of the week. Within the last +month, we have heard of one girl's school, in which some of the young +ladies voluntarily occupy themselves with geometrical questions out of +school-hours; and of another, where they not only do this, but where one +of them is begging for problems to find out during the holidays: both +which facts we state on the authority of the teacher. Strong proofs, +these, of the practicability and the immense advantage of +self-development! A branch of knowledge which, as commonly taught, is +dry and even repulsive, is thus, by following the method of Nature, made +extremely interesting and profoundly beneficial. We say profoundly +beneficial, because the effects are not confined to the gaining of +geometrical facts, but often revolutionise the whole state of mind. It +has repeatedly occurred that those who have been stupefied by the +ordinary school-drill—by its abstract formulas, its wearisome +tasks, its cramming—have suddenly had their intellects roused by +thus ceasing to make them passive recipients, and inducing them to +become active discoverers. The discouragement caused by bad teaching +having been diminished by a little sympathy, and sufficient perseverance +excited to achieve a first success, there arises a revulsion of feeling +affecting the whole nature. They no longer find themselves incompetent; +they, too, can do something. And gradually as success follows success, +the incubus of despair disappears, and they attack the difficulties of +their other studies with a courage insuring conquest.</p> + +<p><a name="page_078"></a>A few weeks after the foregoing remarks were +originally published, Professor Tyndall in a lecture at the Royal +Institution "On the Importance of the Study of Physics as a Branch of +Education," gave some conclusive evidence to the same effect. His +testimony, based on personal observation, is of such great value that we +cannot refrain from quoting it. Here it is.</p> + +<blockquote>"One of the duties which fell to my share, during the period +to which I have referred, was the instruction of a class in mathematics, +and I usually found that Euclid and the ancient geometry generally, when +addressed to the understanding, formed a very attractive study for +youth. But it was my habitual practice to withdraw the boys from the +routine of the book, and to appeal to their self-power in the treatment +of questions not comprehended in that routine. At first, the change from +the beaten track usually excited a little aversion: the youth felt like +a child amid strangers; but in no single instance have I found this +aversion to continue. When utterly disheartened, I have encouraged the +boy by that anecdote of Newton, where he attributes the difference +between him and other men, mainly to his own patience; or of Mirabeau, +when he ordered his servant, who had stated something to be impossible, +never to use that stupid word again. Thus cheered, he has returned to +his task with a smile, which perhaps had something of doubt in it, but +which, nevertheless, evinced a resolution to try again. I have seen the +boy's eye brighten, and at length, with a pleasure of which the ecstasy +of Archimedes was but a simple expansion, heard him exclaim, 'I have it, +sir.' The consciousness of self-power, thus awakened, was of immense +value; and animated by it, the progress of the class was truly +astonishing. It was often my custom to give the boys their choice of +pursuing their propositions in the book, or of trying their strength at +others not to be found there. Never in a single instance have I known +the book to be chosen. I was ever ready to assist when I deemed help +needful, but my offers of assistance were habitually declined. The boys +had tasted the sweets of intellectual conquest and demanded victories of +their own. I have seen their diagrams scratched on the walls, cut into +the beams upon the play ground, and numberless other illustrations of +the living interest they took in the subject. For my own part, as far as +experience in teaching goes, I was a mere fledgling: I knew nothing of +the rules of pedagogics, as the Germans name it; but I adhered to the +spirit indicated at the commencement of this discourse, and endeavoured +to make geometry a <i>means</i> and not a <i>branch</i> of education. The +experiment was successful, and some of the most delightful hours of my +existence have been spent in marking the vigorous and cheerful expansion +of mental power, when appealed to in the manner I have +described."</blockquote> + +<p>This empirical geometry which presents an endless series of problems, +should be continued along with other studies for years; and may +throughout be advantageously accompanied by those concrete applications +of its principles which serve as its preliminary. After the cube, the +octahedron, and the various forms of pyramid and prism have been +mastered, may come the more complex regular bodies—the +dodecahedron and icosahedron—to construct which out of single +pieces of cardboard, requires considerable ingenuity. From these, the +transition may naturally be made to such modified forms of the regular +bodies as are met <a name="page_079"></a> with in crystals—the +truncated cube, the cube with its dihedral as well as its solid angles +truncated, the octahedron and the various prisms as similarly modified: +in imitating which numerous forms assumed by different metals and salts, +an acquaintance with the leading facts of mineralogy will be +incidentally gained.<a href="#page_079_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>After long continuance in exercises of this kind, rational geometry, +as may be supposed, presents no obstacles. Habituated to contemplate +relationships of form and quantity, and vaguely perceiving from time to +time the necessity of certain results as reached by certain means, the +pupil comes to regard the demonstrations of Euclid as the missing +supplements to his familiar problems. His well-disciplined faculties +enable him easily to master its successive propositions, and to +appreciate their value; and he has the occasional gratification of +finding some of his own methods proved to be true. Thus he enjoys what +is to the unprepared a dreary task. It only remains to add, that his +mind will presently arrive at a fit condition for that most valuable of +all exercises for the reflective faculties—the making of original +demonstrations. Such theorems as those appended to the successive books +of the Messrs. Chambers's Euclid, will soon become practicable to him; +and in proving them, the process of self-development will be not +intellectual only, but moral.</p> + +<p>To continue these suggestions much further, would be to write a +detailed treatise on education, which we do not purpose. The foregoing +outlines of plans for exercising the perceptions in early childhood, for +conducting object-lessons, for teaching drawing and geometry, must be +considered simply as illustrations of the method dictated by the general +principles previously specified. We believe that on examination they +will be found not only to progress from the simple to the complex, from +the indefinite to the definite, from the concrete to the abstract, from +the empirical to the rational; but to satisfy the further requirements, +that education shall be a repetition of civilisation in little, that it +shall be as much as possible a process of self-evolution, and that it +shall be pleasurable. The fulfilment of all these conditions by one type +of method, tends alike to verify the conditions, and to prove that type +of the method the right one. Mark too, that this method is the logical +outcome of the tendency characterising all modern improvements in +tuition—that it is but an adoption <a name="page_080"></a> in +full of the natural system which they adopt partially—that it +displays this complete adoption of the natural system, both by +conforming to the above principles, and by following the suggestions +which the unfolding mind itself gives: facilitating its spontaneous +activities, and so aiding the developments which Nature is busy with. +Thus there seems abundant reason to conclude, that the mode of procedure +above exemplified, closely approximates to the true one.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>A few paragraphs must be added in further inculcation of the two +general principles, that are alike the most important and the least +attended to; namely, the principle that throughout youth, as in early +childhood and in maturity, the process shall be one of self-instruction; +and the obverse principle, that the mental action induced shall be +throughout intrinsically grateful. If progression from simple to +complex, from indefinite to definite, and from concrete to abstract, be +considered the essential requirements as dictated by abstract +psychology; then do the requirements that knowledge shall be +self-mastered, and pleasurably mastered, become tests by which we may +judge whether the dictates of abstract psychology are being obeyed. If +the first embody the leading generalisations of the <i>science</i> of mental +growth, the last are the chief canons of the <i>art</i> of fostering mental +growth. For manifestly, if the steps in our <i>curriculum</i> are so arranged +that they can be successively ascended by the pupil himself with little +or no help, they must correspond with the stages of evolution in his +faculties; and manifestly, if the successive achievements of these steps +are intrinsically gratifying to him, it follows that they require no +more than a normal exercise of his powers.</p> + +<p>But making education a process of self-evolution, has other +advantages than this of keeping our lessons in the right order. In the +first place, it guarantees a vividness and permanency of impression +which the usual methods can never produce. Any piece of knowledge which +the pupil has himself acquired—any problem which he has himself +solved, becomes, by virtue of the conquest, much more thoroughly his +than it could else be. The preliminary activity of mind which his +success implies, the concentration of thought necessary to it, and the +excitement consequent on his triumph, conspire to register the facts in +his memory in a way that no mere information heard from a teacher, or +read in a school-book, can be registered. Even if he fails, the tension +to which his faculties have been wound up, insures his <a +name="page_081"></a> remembrance of the solution when given to him, +better than half-a-dozen repetitions would. Observe, again, that this +discipline necessitates a continuous organisation of the knowledge he +acquires. It is in the very nature of facts and inferences assimilated +in this normal manner, that they successively become the premises of +further conclusions—the means of solving further questions. The +solution of yesterday's problem helps the pupil in mastering to-day's. +Thus the knowledge is turned into faculty as soon as it is taken in, and +forthwith aids in the general function of thinking—does not lie +merely written on the pages of an internal library, as when rote-learnt. +Mark further, the moral culture which this constant self-help involves. +Courage in attacking difficulties, patient concentration of the +attention, perseverance through failures—these are characteristics +which after-life specially requires; and these are characteristics which +this system of making the mind work for its food specially produces. +That it is thoroughly practicable to carry out instruction after this +fashion, we can ourselves testify; having been in youth thus led to +solve the comparatively complex problems of perspective. And that +leading teachers have been tending in this direction, is indicated alike +in the saying of Fellenberg, that "the individual, independent activity +of the pupil is of much greater importance than the ordinary busy +officiousness of many who assume the office of educators;" in the +opinion of Horace Mann, that "unfortunately education amongst us at +present consists too much in <i>telling</i>, not in <i>training</i>;" and in the +remark of M. Marcel, that "what the learner discovers by mental exertion +is better known than what is told to him."</p> + +<p>Similarly with the correlative requirement, that the method of +culture pursued shall be one productive of an intrinsically happy +activity,—an activity not happy because of extrinsic rewards to be +obtained, but because of its own healthfulness. Conformity to this +requirement, besides preventing us from thwarting the normal process of +evolution, incidentally secures positive benefits of importance. Unless +we are to return to an ascetic morality (or rather <i>im</i>-morality) the +maintenance of youthful happiness must be considered as in itself a +worthy aim. Not to dwell upon this, however, we go on to remark that a +pleasurable state of feeling is far more favourable to intellectual +action than a state of indifference or disgust. Every one knows that +things read, heard, or seen with interest, are better remembered than +things read, heard, or seen with <a name="page_082"></a> apathy. In the +one case the faculties appealed to are actively occupied with the +subject presented; in the other they are inactively occupied with it, +and the attention is continually drawn away by more attractive thoughts. +Hence the impressions are respectively strong and weak. Moreover, to the +intellectual listlessness which a pupil's lack of interest in any study +involves, must be added the paralysing fear of consequences. This, by +distracting his attention, increases the difficulty he finds in bringing +his faculties to bear upon facts that are repugnant to them. Clearly, +therefore, the efficiency of tuition will, other things equal, be +proportionate to the gratification with which tasks are performed.</p> + +<p>It should be considered also, that grave moral consequences depend +upon the habitual pleasure or pain which daily lessons produce. No one +can compare the faces and manners of two boys—the one made happy +by mastering interesting subjects, and the other made miserable by +disgust with his studies, by consequent inability, by cold looks, by +threats, by punishment—without seeing that the disposition of the +one is being benefited and that of the other injured. Whoever has marked +the effects of success and failure upon the mind, and the power of the +mind over the body, will see that in the one case both temper and health +are favourably affected, while in the other there is danger of permanent +moroseness, or permanent timidity, and even of permanent constitutional +depression. There remains yet another indirect result of no small +moment. The relationship between teachers and their pupils is, other +things equal, rendered friendly and influential, or antagonistic and +powerless, according as the system of culture produces happiness or +misery. Human beings are at the mercy of their associated ideas. A daily +minister of pain cannot fail to be regarded with secret dislike; and if +he causes no emotions but painful ones, will inevitably be hated. +Conversely, he who constantly aids children to their ends, hourly +provides them with the satisfactions of conquest, hourly encourages them +through their difficulties and sympathises in their successes, will be +liked; nay, if his behaviour is consistent throughout, must be loved. +And when we remember how efficient and benign is the control of a master +who is felt to be a friend, when compared with the control of one who is +looked upon with aversion, or at best indifference, we may infer that +the indirect advantages of conducting education on the happiness +principle do not fall far short of the direct ones. To all who question +the possibility of acting out the system here <a name="page_083"></a> +advocated, we reply as before, that not only does theory point to it, +but experience commends it. To the many verdicts of distinguished +teachers who since Pestalozzi's time have testified this, may be here +added that of Professor Pillans, who asserts that "where young people +are taught as they ought to be, they are quite as happy in school as at +play, seldom less delighted, nay, often more, with the well-directed +exercise of their mental energies than with that of their muscular +powers."</p> + +<p>As suggesting a final reason for making education a process of self-instruction, + and by consequence a process of pleasurable instruction, we may advert to the + fact that, in proportion as it is made so, is there a probability that it will + not cease when schooldays end. As long as the acquisition of knowledge is rendered + habitually repugnant, so long will there be a prevailing tendency to discontinue + it when free from the coercion of parents and masters. And when the acquisition + of knowledge has been rendered habitually gratifying, then will there be as + prevailing a tendency to continue, without superintendence, that self-culture + previously carried on under superintendence. These results are inevitable. While + the laws of mental association remain true—while men dislike the things + and places that suggest painful recollections, and delight in those which call + to mind by-gone pleasures—painful lessons will make knowledge repulsive, + and pleasurable lessons will make it attractive. The men to whom in boyhood + information came in dreary tasks along with threats of punishment, and who were + never led into habits of independent inquiry, are unlikely to be students in + after years; while those to whom it came in the natural forms, at the proper + times, and who remember its facts as not only interesting in themselves, but + as the occasions of a long series of gratifying successes, are likely to continue + through life that self-instruction commenced in youth.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_079_note_1"></a><a href="#page_079">Footnote 1</a>: +Those who seek aid in carrying out the system of culture above +described, will find it in a little work entitled <i>Inventional +Geometry</i>; published by J. and C. Mozley, Paternoster Row, +London.</small></p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_084"></a>MORAL EDUCATION</h2></center> + + +<p>The greatest defect in our programmes of education is entirely +overlooked. While much is being done in the detailed improvement of our +systems in respect both of matter and manner, the most pressing +desideratum has not yet been even recognised as a desideratum. To +prepare the young for the duties of life is tacitly admitted to be the +end which parents and schoolmasters should have in view; and happily, +the value of the things taught, and the goodness of the methods followed +in teaching them, are now ostensibly judged by their fitness to this +end. The propriety of substituting for an exclusively classical +training, a training in which the modern languages shall have a share, +is argued on this ground. The necessity of increasing the amount of +science is urged for like reasons. But though some care is taken to fit +youth of both sexes for society and citizenship, no care whatever is +taken to fit them for the position of parents. While it is seen that for +the purpose of gaining a livelihood, an elaborate preparation is needed, +it appears to be thought that for the bringing up of children, no +preparation whatever is needed. While many years are spent by a boy in +gaining knowledge of which the chief value is that it constitutes "the +education of a gentleman;" and while many years are spent by a girl in +those decorative acquirements which fit her for evening parties; not an +hour is spent by either in preparation for that gravest of all +responsibilities—the management of a family. Is it that this +responsibility is but a remote contingency? On the contrary, it is sure +to devolve on nine out of ten. Is it that the discharge of it is easy? +Certainly not: of all functions which the adult has to fulfil, this is +the most difficult. Is it that each may be trusted by self-instruction +to fit himself, or herself, for the office of parent? No: not only is +the need for such self-instruction unrecognised, but the complexity of +the subject renders it the one of all others in which self-instruction +is least likely to succeed. No rational plea can be put forward for +leaving the Art of Education out of our <i>curriculum</i>. Whether as bearing +on the happiness of parents themselves, or whether as affecting the +characters and lives of their children and remote <a +name="page_085"></a> descendants, we must admit that a knowledge of the +right methods of juvenile culture, physical, intellectual, and moral, is +a knowledge of extreme importance. This topic should be the final one in +the course of instruction passed through by each man and woman. As +physical maturity is marked by the ability to produce offspring, so +mental maturity is marked by the ability to train those offspring. <i>The +subject which involves all other subjects, and therefore the subject in +which education should culminate, is the Theory and Practice of +Education.</i></p> + +<p>In the absence of this preparation, the management of children, and +more especially the moral management, is lamentably bad. Parents either +never think about the matter at all, or else their conclusions are crude +and inconsistent. In most cases, and especially on the part of mothers, +the treatment adopted on every occasion is that which the impulse of the +moment prompts: it springs not from any reasoned-out conviction as to +what will most benefit the child, but merely expresses the dominant +parental feelings, whether good or ill; and varies from hour to hour as +these feelings vary. Or if the dictates of passion are supplemented by +any definite doctrines and methods, they are those handed down from the +past, or those suggested by the remembrances of childhood, or those +adopted from nurses and servants—methods devised not by the +enlightenment, but by the ignorance, of the time. Commenting on the +chaotic state of opinion and practice relative to family government, +Richter writes:—</p> + +<blockquote>"If the secret variances of a large class of ordinary +fathers were brought to light, and laid down as a plan of studies and +reading, catalogued for a moral education, they would run somewhat after +this fashion:—In the first hour 'pure morality must be read to the +child, either by myself or the tutor;' in the second, 'mixed morality, +or that which may be applied to one's own advantage;' in the third, 'do +you not see that your father does so and so?' in the fourth, 'you are +little, and this is only fit for grown-up people;' in the fifth, 'the +chief matter is that you should succeed in the world, and become +something in the state;' in the sixth, 'not the temporary, but the +eternal, determines the worth of a man;' in the seventh, 'therefore +rather suffer injustice, and be kind;' in the eighth, 'but defend +yourself bravely if any one attack you;' in the ninth, 'do not make a +noise, dear child;' in the tenth, 'a boy must not sit so quiet;' in the +eleventh, 'you must obey your parents better;' in the twelfth, 'and +educate yourself.' So by the hourly change of his principles, the father +conceals their untenableness and onesidedness. As for his wife, she is +neither like him, nor yet like that harlequin who came on to the stage +with a bundle of papers under each arm, and answered to the inquiry, +what he had under his right arm, 'orders,' and to what he had under his +left arm, 'counter-orders.' But the mother might be much better compared +to a giant Briareus, who had a hundred arms, and a bundle of papers +under each."</blockquote> + +<p><a name="page_086"></a>This state of things is not to be readily +changed. Generations must pass before a great amelioration of it can be +expected. Like political constitutions, educational systems are not +made, but grow; and within brief periods growth is insensible. Slow, +however, as must be any improvement, even that improvement implies the +use of means; and among the means is discussion.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>We are not among those who believe in Lord Palmerston's dogma, that +"all children are born good." On the whole, the opposite dogma, +untenable as it is, seems to us less wide of the truth. Nor do we agree +with those who think that, by skilful discipline, children may be made +altogether what they should be. Contrariwise, we are satisfied that +though imperfections of nature may be diminished by wise management, +they cannot be removed by it. The notion that an ideal humanity might be +forthwith produced by a perfect system of education, is near akin to +that implied in the poems of Shelley, that would mankind give up their +old institutions and prejudices, all the evils in the world would at +once disappear: neither notion being acceptable to such as have +dispassionately studied human affairs.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, we may fitly sympathise with those who entertain these +too sanguine hopes. Enthusiasm, pushed even to fanaticism, is a useful +motive-power—perhaps an indispensable one. It is clear that the +ardent politician would never undergo the labours and make the +sacrifices he does, did he not believe that the reform he fights for is +the one thing needful. But for his conviction that drunkenness is the +root of all social evils, the teetotaler would agitate far less +energetically. In philanthropy, as in other things, great advantage +results from division of labour; and that there may be division of +labour, each class of philanthropists must be more or less subordinated +to its function—must have an exaggerated faith in its work. Hence, +of those who regard education, intellectual or moral, as the panacea, we +may say that their undue expectations are not without use; and that +perhaps it is part of the beneficent order of things that their +confidence cannot be shaken.</p> + +<p>Even were it true, however, that by some possible system of moral +control, children could be moulded into the desired form; and even could +every parent be indoctrinated with this system, we should still be far +from achieving the object in view. It is forgotten that the carrying out +of any such system presupposes, on the part of adults, a degree of +intelligence, of goodness, of self-control, possessed by no one. The +error made by those <a name="page_087"></a> who discuss questions of +domestic discipline, lies in ascribing all the faults and difficulties +to the children, and none to the parents. The current assumption +respecting family government, as respecting national government, is, +that the virtues are with the rulers and the vices with the ruled. +Judging by educational theories, men and women are entirely transfigured +in their relations to offspring. The citizens we do business with, the +people we meet in the world, we know to be very imperfect creatures. In +the daily scandals, in the quarrels of friends, in bankruptcy +disclosures, in lawsuits, in police reports, we have constantly thrust +before us the pervading selfishness, dishonesty, brutality. Yet when we +criticise nursery-management and canvass the misbehaviour of juveniles, +we habitually take for granted that these culpable persons are free from +moral delinquency in the treatment of their boys and girls! So far is +this from the truth, that we do not hesitate to blame parental +misconduct for a great part of the domestic disorder commonly ascribed +to the perversity of children. We do not assert this of the more +sympathetic and self-restrained, among whom we hope most of our readers +may be classed; but we assert it of the mass. What kind of moral culture +is to be expected from a mother who, time after time, angrily shakes her +infant because it will not suck; which we once saw a mother do? How much +sense of justice is likely to be instilled by a father who, on having +his attention drawn by a scream to the fact that his child's finger is +jammed between the window-sash and sill, begins to beat the child +instead of releasing it? Yet that there are such fathers is testified to +us by an eye-witness. Or, to take a still stronger case, also vouched +for by direct testimony—what are the educational prospects of the +boy who, on being taken home with a dislocated thigh, is saluted with a +castigation? It is true that these are extreme instances—instances +exhibiting in human beings that blind instinct which impels brutes to +destroy the weakly and injured of their own race. But extreme though +they are, they typify feelings and conduct daily observable in many +families. Who has not repeatedly seen a child slapped by nurse or parent +for a fretfulness probably resulting from bodily derangement? Who, when +watching a mother snatch up a fallen little one, has not often traced, +both in the rough manner and in the sharply-uttered +exclamation—"You stupid little thing!"—an irascibility +foretelling endless future squabbles? Is there not in the harsh tones in +which a father bids his children be quiet, evidence of a deficient +fellow-feeling with them? Are <a name="page_088"></a> not the constant, +and often quite needless, thwartings that the young experience—the +injunctions to sit still, which an active child cannot obey without +suffering great nervous irritation, the commands not to look out of the +window when travelling by railway, which on a child of any intelligence +entails serious deprivation—are not these thwartings, we ask, +signs of a terrible lack of sympathy? The truth is, that the +difficulties of moral education are necessarily of dual +origin—necessarily result from the combined faults of parents and +children. If hereditary transmission is a law of nature, as every +naturalist knows it to be, and as our daily remarks and current proverbs +admit it to be; then, on the average of cases, the defects of children +mirror the defects of their parents;—on the average of cases, we +say, because, complicated as the results are by the transmitted traits +of remoter ancestors, the correspondence is not special but only +general. And if, on the average of cases, this inheritance of defects +exists, then the evil passions which parents have to check in their +children, imply like evil passions in themselves: hidden, it may be, +from the public eye, or perhaps obscured by other feelings, but still +there. Evidently, therefore, the general practice of any ideal system of +discipline is hopeless: parents are not good enough.</p> + +<p>Moreover, even were there methods by which the desired end could be +at once effected; and even had fathers and mothers sufficient insight, +sympathy, and self-command to employ these methods consistently; it +might still be contended that it would be of no use to reform +family-government faster than other things are reformed. What is it that +we aim to do? Is it not that education of whatever kind has for its +proximate end to prepare a child for the business of life—to +produce a citizen who, while he is well conducted, is also able to make +his way in the world? And does not making his way in the world (by which +we mean, not the acquirement of wealth, but of the funds requisite for +bringing up a family)—does not this imply a certain fitness for +the world as it now is? And if by any system of culture an ideal human +being could be produced, is it not doubtful whether he would be fit for +the world as it now is? May we not, on the contrary, suspect that his +too keen sense of rectitude, and too elevated standard of conduct, would +make life intolerable or even impossible? And however admirable the +result might be, considered individually, would it not be self-defeating +in so far as society and posterity are concerned? There is much reason +for thinking that as in a nation <a name="page_089"></a> so in a +family, the kind of government is, on the whole, about as good as the +general state of human nature permits it to be. We may argue that in the +one case, as in the other, the average character of the people +determines the quality of the control exercised. In both cases it may be +inferred that amelioration of the average character leads to an +amelioration of system; and further, that were it possible to ameliorate +the system without the average character being first ameliorated, evil +rather than good would follow. Such degree of harshness as children now +experience from their parents and teachers, may be regarded as but a +preparation for that greater harshness which they will meet on entering +the world. And it may be urged that were it possible for parents and +teachers to treat them with perfect equity and entire sympathy, it would +but intensify the sufferings which the selfishness of men must, in after +life, inflict on them.<a href="#page_089_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>"But does not this prove too much?" some one will ask. "If no system +of moral training can forthwith make children what they should be; if, +even were there a system that would do this, existing parents are too +imperfect to carry it out; and if even could such a system be +successfully carried out, its results would be disastrously incongruous +with the present state of society; does it not follow that to reform the +system now in use is neither practicable nor desirable?" No. It merely +follows that reform in domestic government must go on, <i>pari passu</i>, +with other reforms. It merely follows that methods of discipline neither +can be nor should be ameliorated, except by instalments. It merely +follows that the dictates of abstract rectitude will, in practice, +inevitably be subordinated by the present state of human nature—by +the imperfections alike of children, of parents, and of society; and can +only be better fulfilled as the general character becomes better.</p> + +<p><a name="page_090"></a>"At any rate, then," may rejoin our critic, +"it is clearly useless to set up any ideal standard of family +discipline. There can be no advantage in elaborating and recommending +methods that are in advance of the time." Again we contend for the +contrary. Just as in the case of political government, though pure +rectitude may be at present impracticable, it is requisite to know where +the right lies, in order that the changes we make may be <i>towards</i> the +right instead of <i>away</i> from it; so, in the case of domestic government, +an ideal must be upheld, that there may be gradual approximations to it. +We need fear no evil consequences from the maintenance of such an ideal. +On the average the constitutional conservatism of mankind is strong +enough to prevent too rapid a change. Things are so organised that until +men have grown up to the level of a higher belief, they cannot receive +it: nominally, they may hold it, but not virtually. And even when the +truth gets recognised, the obstacles to conformity with it are so +persistent as to outlive the patience of philanthropists and even of +philosophers. We may be sure, therefore, that the difficulties in the +way of a normal government of children, will always put an adequate +check upon the efforts to realise it.</p> + +<p>With these preliminary explanations, let us go on to consider the +true aims and methods of moral education. After a few pages devoted to +the settlement of general principles, during the perusal of which we +bespeak the reader's patience, we shall aim by illustrations to make +clear the right methods of parental behaviour in the hourly occurring +difficulties of family government.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>When a child falls, or runs its head against the table, it suffers a +pain, the remembrance of which tends to make it more careful; and by +repetition of such experiences, it is eventually disciplined into proper +guidance of its movements. If it lays hold of the fire-bars, thrusts its +hand into a candle-flame, or spills boiling water on any part of its +skin, the resulting burn or scald is a lesson not easily forgotten. So +deep an impression is produced by one or two events of this kind, that +no persuasion will afterwards induce it thus to disregard the laws of +its constitution.</p> + +<p>Now in these cases, Nature illustrates to us in the simplest way, the +true theory and practice of moral discipline—a theory and practice +which, however much they may seem to the superficial like those commonly +received, we shall find on examination to differ from them very +widely.</p> + +<p><a name="page_091"></a>Observe, first, that in bodily injuries and +their penalties we have misconduct and its consequences reduced to their +simplest forms. Though, according to their popular acceptations, <i>right</i> +and <i>wrong</i> are words scarcely applicable to actions that have none but +direct bodily effects; yet whoever considers the matter will see that +such actions must be as much classifiable under these heads as any other +actions. From whatever assumption they start, all theories of morality +agree that conduct whose total results, immediate and remote, are +beneficial, is good conduct; while conduct whose total results, +immediate and remote, are injurious, is bad conduct. The <i>ultimate</i> +standards by which all men judge of behaviour, are the resulting +happiness or misery. We consider drunkenness wrong because of the +physical degeneracy and accompanying moral evils entailed on the +drunkard and his dependents. Did theft give pleasure both to taker and +loser, we should not find it in our catalogue of sins. Were it +conceivable that kind actions multiplied human sufferings, we should +condemn them—should not consider them kind. It needs but to read +the first newspaper-leader, or listen to any conversation on social +affairs, to see that acts of parliament, political movements, +philanthropic agitations, in common with the doings of individuals are +judged by their anticipated results in augmenting the pleasures or pains +of men. And if on analysing all secondary superinduced ideas, we find +these to be our final tests of right and wrong, we cannot refuse to +class bodily conduct as right or wrong according to the beneficial or +detrimental results produced.</p> + +<p>Note, in the second place, the character of the punishments by which +these physical transgressions are prevented. Punishments, we call them, +in the absence of a better word; for they are not punishments in the +literal sense. They are not artificial and unnecessary inflictions of +pain; but are simply the beneficent checks to actions that are +essentially at variance with bodily welfare—checks in the absence +of which life would be quickly destroyed by bodily injuries. It is the +peculiarity of these penalties, if we must so call them, that they are +simply the <i>unavoidable consequences</i> of the deeds which they follow: +they are nothing more than the <i>inevitable reactions</i> entailed by the +child's actions.</p> + +<p>Let it be further borne in mind that these painful reactions are +proportionate to the transgressions. A slight accident brings a slight +pain; a more serious one, a severer pain. It is not ordained that an +urchin who tumbles over the doorstep, shall suffer in excess of the +amount necessary; with the view of <a name="page_092"></a> making it +still more cautious than the necessary suffering will make it. But from +its daily experience it is left to learn the greater or less penalties +of greater or less errors; and to behave accordingly.</p> + +<p>And then mark, lastly, that these natural reactions which follow the +child's wrong actions, are constant, direct, unhesitating, and not to be +escaped. No threats; but a silent, rigorous performance. If a child runs +a pin into its finger, pain follows. If it does it again, there is again +the same result: and so on perpetually. In all its dealing with +inorganic Nature it finds this unswerving persistence, which listens to +no excuse, and from which there is no appeal; and very soon recognising +this stern though beneficent discipline, it becomes extremely careful +not to transgress.</p> + +<p>Still more significant will these general truths appear, when we +remember that they hold throughout adult life as well as throughout +infantine life. It is by an experimentally-gained knowledge of the +natural consequences, that men and women are checked when they go wrong. +After home-education has ceased, and when there are no longer parents +and teachers to forbid this or that kind of conduct, there comes into +play a discipline like that by which the young child is trained to +self-guidance. If the youth entering on the business of life idles away +his time and fulfils slowly or unskilfully the duties entrusted to him, +there by and by follows the natural penalty: he is discharged, and left +to suffer for awhile the evils of a relative poverty. On the unpunctual +man, ever missing his appointments of business and pleasure, there +continually fall the consequent inconveniences, losses, and +deprivations. The tradesmen who charges too high a rate of profit, loses +his customers, and so is checked in his greediness. Diminishing practice +teaches the inattentive doctor to bestow more trouble on his patients. +The too credulous creditor and the over-sanguine speculator, alike learn +by the difficulties which rashness entails on them, the necessity of +being more cautious in their engagements. And so throughout the life of +every citizen. In the quotation so often made <i>apropos</i> of such +cases—"The burnt child dreads the fire"—we see not only that +the analogy between this social discipline and Nature's early discipline +of infants is universally recognised; but we also see an implied +conviction that this discipline is of the most efficient kind. Nay +indeed, this conviction is more than implied; it is distinctly stated. +Every one has heard others confess that only by "dearly bought <a +name="page_093"></a> experience" had they been induced to give up some +bad or foolish course of conduct formerly pursued. Every one has heard, +in the criticism passed on the doings of this spendthrift or the other +schemer, the remark that advice was useless, and that nothing but +"bitter experience" would produce any effect: nothing, that is, but +suffering the unavoidable consequences. And if further proof be needed +that the natural reaction is not only the most efficient penalty, but +that no humanly-devised penalty can replace it, we have such further +proof in the notorious ill-success of our various penal systems. Out of +the many methods of criminal discipline that have been proposed and +legally enforced, none have answered the expectations of their +advocates. Artificial punishments have failed to produce reformation; +and have in many cases increased the criminality. The only successful +reformatories are those privately-established ones which approximate +their regime to the method of Nature—which do little more than +administer the natural consequences of criminal conduct: diminishing the +criminal's liberty of action as much as is needful for the safety of +society, and requiring him to maintain himself while living under this +restraint. Thus we see, both that the discipline by which the young +child is taught to regulate its movements is the discipline by which the +great mass of adults are kept in order, and more or less improved; and +that the discipline humanly-devised for the worst adults, fails when it +diverges from this divinely-ordained discipline, and begins to succeed +on approximating to it.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Have we not here, then, the guiding principle of moral education? +Must we not infer that the system so beneficent in its effects during +infancy and maturity, will be equally beneficent throughout youth? Can +any one believe that the method which answers so well in the first and +the last divisions of life, will not answer in the intermediate +division? Is it not manifest that as "ministers and interpreters of +Nature" it is the function of parents to see that their children +habitually experience the true consequences of their conduct—the +natural reactions: neither warding them off, nor intensifying them, nor +putting artificial consequences in place of them? No unprejudiced reader +will hesitate in his assent.</p> + +<p>Probably, however, not a few will contend that already most parents +do this—that the punishments they inflict are, in the majority of +cases, the true consequences of ill-conduct—that parental anger, +venting itself in harsh words and deeds, is the <a name="page_094"></a> +result of a child's transgression—and that, in the suffering, +physical or moral, which the child is subject to, it experiences the +natural reaction of its misbehaviour. Along with much error this +assertion contains some truth. It is unquestionable that the displeasure +of fathers and mothers is a true consequence of juvenile delinquency; +and that the manifestation of it is a normal check upon such +delinquency. The scoldings, and threats, and blows, which a passionate +parent visits on offending little ones, are doubtless effects actually +drawn from such a parent by their offences; and so are, in some sort, to +be considered as among the natural reactions of their wrong actions. Nor +are we prepared to say that these modes of treatment are not relatively +right—right, that is, in relation to the uncontrollable children +of ill-controlled adults; and right in relation to a state of society in +which such ill-controlled adults make up the mass of the people. As +already suggested, educational systems, like political and other +institutions, are generally as good as the state of human nature +permits. The barbarous children of barbarous parents are probably only +to be restrained by the barbarous methods which such parents +spontaneously employ; while submission to these barbarous methods is +perhaps the best preparation such children can have for the barbarous +society in which they are presently to play a part. Conversely, the +civilised members of a civilised society will spontaneously manifest +their displeasure in less violent ways—will spontaneously use +milder measures—measures strong enough for their better-natured +children. Thus it is true that, in so far as the expression of parental +feeling is concerned, the principle of the natural reaction is always +more or less followed. The system of domestic government ever gravitates +towards its right form.</p> + +<p>But now observe two important facts. The first fact is that, in +states of rapid transition like ours, which witness a continuous battle +between old and new theories and old and new practices, the educational +methods in use are apt to be considerably out of harmony with the times. +In deference to dogmas fit only for the ages that uttered them, many +parents inflict punishments that do violence to their own feelings, and +so visit on their children <i>un</i>natural reactions; while other parents, +enthusiastic in their hopes of immediate perfection, rush to the +opposite extreme. The second fact is, that the discipline of chief value +is not the experience of parental approbation or disapprobation; but it +is the experience of those results which would ultimately flow from the +conduct in the absence of parental opinion or <a name="page_095"></a> +interference. The truly instructive and salutary consequences are not +those inflicted by parents when they take upon themselves to be Nature's +proxies; but they are those inflicted by Nature herself. We will +endeavour to make this distinction clear by a few illustrations, which, +while they show what we mean by natural reactions as contrasted with +artificial ones, will afford some practical suggestions.</p> + +<p>In every family where there are young children there daily occur +cases of what mothers and servants call "making a litter." A child has +had out its box of toys, and leaves them scattered about the floor. Or a +handful of flowers, brought in from a morning walk, is presently seen +dispersed over tables and chairs. Or a little girl, making +doll's-clothes, disfigures the room with shreds. In most cases the +trouble of rectifying this disorder falls anywhere but where it should. +Occurring in the nursery, the nurse herself, with many grumblings about +"tiresome little things," undertakes the task; if below-stairs, the task +usually devolves either on one of the elder children or on the +housemaid: the transgressor being visited with nothing more than a +scolding. In this very simple case, however, there are many parents wise +enough to follow out, more or less consistently, the normal +course—that of making the child itself collect the toys or shreds. +The labour of putting things in order is the true consequence of having +put them in disorder. Every trader in his office, every wife in her +household, has daily experience of this fact. And if education be a +preparation for the business of life, then every child should also, from +the beginning, have daily experience of this fact. If the natural +penalty be met by refractory behaviour (which it may perhaps be where +the system of moral discipline previously pursued has been bad), then +the proper course is to let the child feel the ulterior reaction caused +by its disobedience. Having refused or neglected to pick up and put away +the things it has scattered about, and having thereby entailed the +trouble of doing this on some one else, the child should, on subsequent +occasions, be denied the means of giving this trouble. When next it +petitions for its toy-box, the reply of its mamma should be—"The +last time you had your toys you left them lying on the floor, and Jane +had to pick them up. Jane is too busy to pick up every day the things +you leave about; and I cannot do it myself. So that, as you will not put +away your toys when you have done with them, I cannot let you have +them." This is obviously a natural consequence, neither increased nor +lessened; and must be so recognised by a child. The penalty <a +name="page_096"></a> comes, too, at the moment when it is most keenly +felt. A new-born desire is balked at the moment of anticipated +gratification; and the strong impression so produced can scarcely fail +to have an effect on the future conduct: an effect which, by consistent +repetition, will do whatever can be done in curing the fault. Add to +which, that, by this method, a child is early taught the lesson which +cannot be learnt too soon, that in this world of ours pleasures are +rightly to be obtained only by labour.</p> + +<p>Take another case. Not long since we had frequently to hear the +reprimands visited on a little girl who was scarcely ever ready in time +for the daily walk. Of eager disposition, and apt to become absorbed in +the occupation of the moment, Constance never thought of putting on her +things till the rest were ready. The governess and the other children +had almost invariably to wait; and from the mamma there almost +invariably came the same scolding. Utterly as this system failed, it +never occurred to the mamma to let Constance experience the natural +penalty. Nor, indeed, would she try it when it was suggested to her. In +the world, unreadiness entails the loss of some advantage that would +else have been gained: the train is gone; or the steam-boat is just +leaving its moorings; or the best things in the market are sold; or all +the good seats in the concert-room are filled. And every one, in cases +perpetually occurring, may see that it is the prospective deprivations +which prevent people from being too late. Is not the inference obvious? +Should not the prospective deprivations control a child's conduct also? +If Constance is not ready at the appointed time, the natural result is +that of being left behind, and losing her walk. And after having once or +twice remained at home while the rest were enjoying themselves in the +fields—after having felt that this loss of a much-prized +gratification was solely due to want of promptitude; amendment would in +all probability take place. At any rate, the measure would be more +effective than that perpetual scolding which ends only in producing +callousness.</p> + +<p>Again, when children, with more than usual carelessness, break or +lose the things given to them, the natural penalty—the penalty +which makes grown-up persons more careful—is the consequent +inconvenience. The lack of the lost or damaged article, and the cost of +replacing it, are the experiences by which men and women are disciplined +in these matters; and the experiences of children should be as much as +possible assimilated to theirs. We do not refer to that early period at +which toys are pulled to pieces in the process of learning their +physical properties, <a name="page_097"></a> and at which the results +of carelessness cannot be understood; but to a later period, when the +meaning and advantages of property are perceived. When a boy, old enough +to possess a penknife, uses it so roughly as to snap the blade, or +leaves it in the grass by some hedge-side where he was cutting a stick, +a thoughtless parent, or some indulgent relative, will commonly +forthwith buy him another, not seeing that, by doing this, a valuable +lesson is prevented. In such a case, a father may properly explain that +penknives cost money, and that to get money requires labour; that he +cannot afford to purchase new penknives for one who loses or breaks +them; and that until he sees evidence of greater carefulness he must +decline to make good the loss. A parallel discipline will serve to check +extravagance.</p> + +<p>These few familiar instances, here chosen because of the simplicity +with which they illustrate our point, will make clear to every one the +distinction between those natural penalties which we contend are the +truly efficient ones, and those artificial penalties commonly +substituted for them. Before going on to exhibit the higher and subtler +applications of the principle exemplified, let us note its many and +great superiorities over the principle, or rather the empirical +practice, which prevails in most families.</p> + +<p>One superiority is that the pursuance of it generates right +conceptions of cause and effect; which by frequent and consistent +experience are eventually rendered definite and complete. Proper conduct +in life is much better guaranteed when the good and evil consequences of +actions are understood, than when they are merely believed on authority. +A child who finds that disorderliness entails the trouble of putting +things in order, or who misses a gratification from dilatoriness, or +whose carelessness is followed by the want of some much-prized +possession, not only suffers a keenly-felt consequence, but gains a +knowledge of causation: both the one and the other being just like those +which adult life will bring. Whereas a child who in such cases receives +a reprimand, or some factitious penalty, not only experiences a +consequence for which it often cares very little, but misses that +instruction respecting the essential natures of good and evil conduct, +which it would else have gathered. It is a vice of the common system of +artificial rewards and punishments, long since noticed by the +clear-sighted, that by substituting for the natural results of +misbehaviour certain tasks or castigations, it produces a radically +wrong moral standard. Having throughout infancy and boyhood always +regarded parental or tutorial displeasure <a name="page_098"></a> as +the chief result of a forbidden action, the youth has gained an +established association of ideas between such action and such +displeasure, as cause and effect. Hence when parents and tutors have +abdicated, and their displeasure is not to be feared, the restraints on +forbidden actions are in great measure removed: the true restraints, the +natural reactions, having yet to be learnt by sad experience. As writes +one who has had personal knowledge of this short-sighted +system:—"Young men let loose from school, particularly those whose +parents have neglected to exert their influence, plunge into every +description of extravagance; they know no rule of action—they are +ignorant of the reasons for moral conduct—they have no foundation +to rest upon—and until they have been severely disciplined by the +world are extremely dangerous members of society."</p> + +<p>Another great advantage of this natural discipline is, that it is a +discipline of pure justice; and will be recognised as such by every +child. Whoso suffers nothing more than the evil which in the order of +nature results from his own misbehaviour, is much less likely to think +himself wrongly treated than if he suffers an artificially inflicted +evil; and this will hold of children as of men. Take the case of a boy +who is habitually reckless of his clothes—scrambles through hedges +without caution, or is utterly regardless of mud. If he is beaten, or +sent to bed, he is apt to consider himself ill-used; and is more likely +to brood over his injuries than to repent of his transgressions. But +suppose he is required to rectify as far as possible the harm he has +done—to clean off the mud with which he has covered himself, or to +mend the tear as well as he can. Will he not feel that the evil is one +of his own producing? Will he not while paying this penalty be +continuously conscious of the connection between it and its cause? And +will he not, spite his irritation, recognise more or less clearly the +justice of the arrangement? If several lessons of this kind fail to +produce amendment—if suits of clothes are prematurely +spoiled—if the father, pursuing this same system of discipline, +declines to spend money for new ones until the ordinary time has +elapsed—and if meanwhile, there occur occasions on which, having +no decent clothes to go in, the boy is debarred from joining the rest of +the family on holiday excursions and <i>fête</i> days, it is manifest that +while he will keenly feel the punishment, he can scarcely fail to trace +the chain of causation, and to perceive that his own carelessness is the +origin of it. And seeing this, he will not have any such sense of +injustice as if there were no obvious connection between the +transgression and its penalty.</p> + +<p><a name="page_099"></a>Again, the tempers both of parents and +children are much less liable to be ruffled under this system than under +the ordinary system. When instead of letting children experience the +painful results which naturally follow from wrong conduct, parents +themselves inflict certain other painful results, they produce double +mischief. Making, as they do, multiplied family laws; and identifying +their own supremacy and dignity with the maintenance of these laws; +every transgression is regarded as an offence against themselves, and a +cause of anger on their part. And then come the further vexations which +result from taking upon themselves, in the shape of extra labour or +cost, those evil consequences which should have been allowed to fall on +the wrong-doers. Similarly with the children. Penalties which the +necessary reaction of things brings round upon them—penalties +which are inflicted by impersonal agency, produce an irritation that is +comparatively slight and transient; whereas, penalties voluntarily +inflicted by a parent, and afterwards thought of as caused by him or +her, produce an irritation both greater and more continued. Just +consider how disastrous would be the result if this empirical method +were pursued from the beginning. Suppose it were possible for parents to +take upon themselves the physical sufferings entailed on their children +by ignorance and awkwardness; and that while bearing these evil +consequences they visited on their children certain other evil +consequences, with the view of teaching them the impropriety of their +conduct. Suppose that when a child, who had been forbidden to meddle +with the kettle, spilt boiling water on its foot, the mother vicariously +assumed the scald and gave a blow in place of it; and similarly in all +other cases. Would not the daily mishaps be sources of far more anger +than now? Would there not be chronic ill-temper on both sides? Yet an +exactly parallel policy is pursued in after-years. A father who beats +his boy for carelessly or wilfully breaking a sister's toy, and then +himself pays for a new toy, does substantially this same +thing—inflicts an artificial penalty on the transgressor, and +takes the natural penalty on himself: his own feelings and those of the +transgressor being alike needlessly irritated. Did he simply require +restitution to be made, he would produce far less heart-burning. If he +told the boy that a new toy must be bought at his, the boy's, cost; and +that his supply of pocket-money must be withheld to the needful extent; +there would be much less disturbance of temper on either side: while in +the deprivation afterwards felt, the boy would experience the equitable +and salutary consequence. <a name="page_100"></a> In brief, the system +of discipline by natural reactions is less injurious to temper, both +because it is perceived to be nothing more than pure justice, and +because it in great part substitutes the impersonal agency of Nature for +the personal agency of parents.</p> + +<p>Whence also follows the manifest corollary, that under this system +the parental and filial relation, being a more friendly, will be a more +influential one. Whether in parent or child, anger, however caused, and +to whomsoever directed, is detrimental. But anger in a parent towards a +child, and in a child towards a parent, is especially detrimental; +because it weakens that bond of sympathy which is essential to +beneficent control. From the law of association of ideas, it inevitably +results, both in young and old, that dislike is contracted towards +things which in experience are habitually connected with disagreeable +feelings. Or where attachment originally existed, it is diminished, or +turned into repugnance, according to the quantity of painful impressions +received. Parental wrath, venting itself in reprimands and castigations, +cannot fail, if often repeated, to produce filial alienation; while the +resentment and sulkiness of children cannot fail to weaken the affection +felt for them, and may even end in destroying it. Hence the numerous +cases in which parents (and especially fathers, who are commonly deputed +to inflict the punishment) are regarded with indifference, if not with +aversion; and hence the equally numerous cases in which children are +looked upon as inflictions. Seeing then, as all must do, that +estrangement of this kind is fatal to a salutary moral culture, it +follows that parents cannot be too solicitous in avoiding occasions of +direct antagonism with their children. And therefore they cannot too +anxiously avail themselves of this discipline of natural consequences; +which, by relieving them from penal functions, prevents mutual +exasperations and estrangements.</p> + +<p>The method of moral culture by experience of the normal reactions, +which is the divinely-ordained method alike for infancy and for adult +life, we thus find to be equally applicable during the intermediate +childhood and youth. Among the advantages of this method we +see:—First: that it gives that rational knowledge of right and +wrong conduct which results from personal experience of their good and +bad consequences. Second: that the child, suffering nothing more than +the painful effects of its own wrong actions, must recognise more or +less clearly the justice of the penalties. Third: that recognising <a +name="page_101"></a> the justice of the penalties, and receiving them +through the working of things rather than at the hands of an individual, +its temper is less disturbed; while the parent fulfilling the +comparatively passive duty of letting the natural penalties be felt, +preserves a comparative equanimity. Fourth: that mutual exasperations +being thus prevented, a much happier, and a more influential relation, +will exist between parent and child.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>"But what is to be done in cases of more serious misconduct?" some +will ask. "How is this plan to be carried out when a petty theft has +been committed? or when a lie has been told? or when some younger +brother or sister has been ill-used?"</p> + +<p>Before replying to these questions, let us consider the bearings of a +few illustrative facts.</p> + +<p>Living in the family of his brother-in-law, a friend of ours had +undertaken the education of his little nephew and niece. This he had +conducted, more perhaps from natural sympathy than from reasoned-out +conclusions, in the spirit of the method above set forth. The two +children were in doors his pupils and out of doors his companions. They +daily joined him in walks and botanising excursions, eagerly sought +plants for him, looked on while he examined and identified them, and in +this and other ways were ever gaining pleasure and instruction in his +society. In short, morally considered, he stood to them much more in the +position of parent than either their father or mother did. Describing to +us the results of this policy, he gave, among other instances, the +following. One evening, having need for some article lying in another +part of the house, he asked his nephew to fetch it. Interested as the +boy was in some amusement of the moment, he, contrary to his wont, +either exhibited great reluctance or refused, we forget which. His +uncle, disapproving of a coercive course, went himself for that which he +wanted: merely exhibiting by his manner the annoyance this ill-behaviour +gave him. And when, later in the evening, the boy made overtures for the +usual play, they were gravely repelled—the uncle manifested just +that coldness naturally produced in him; and so let the boy feel the +necessary consequences of his conduct. Next morning at the usual time +for rising, our friend heard a new voice outside the door, and in walked +his little nephew with the hot water. Peering about the room to see what +else could be done, the boy then exclaimed, "Oh! you want your boots;" +and forthwith rushed downstairs to fetch <a name="page_102"></a> them. +In this and other ways he showed a true penitence for his misconduct. He +endeavoured by unusual services to make up for the service he had +refused. His better feelings had made a real conquest over his lower +ones; and acquired strength by the victory. And having felt what it was +to be without it, he valued more than before the friendship he thus +regained.</p> + +<p>This gentleman is now himself a father; acts on the same system; and +finds it answer completely. He makes himself thoroughly his children's +friend. The evening is longed for by them because he will be at home; +and they especially enjoy Sunday because he is with them all day. Thus +possessing their perfect confidence and affection, he finds that the +simple display of his approbation or disapprobation gives him abundant +power of control. If, on his return home, he hears that one of his boys +has been naughty, he behaves towards him with that coolness which the +consciousness of the boy's misconduct naturally produces; and he finds +this a most efficient punishment. The mere withholding of the usual +caresses, is a source of much distress—produces a more prolonged +fit of crying than a beating would do. And the dread of this purely +moral penalty is, he says, ever present during his absence: so much so, +that frequently during the day his children ask their mamma how they +have behaved, and whether the report will be good. Recently, the eldest, +an active urchin of five, in one of those bursts of animal spirits +common in healthy children, committed sundry extravagances during his +mamma's absence—cut off part of his brother's hair and wounded +himself with a razor taken from his father's dressing-case. Hearing of +these occurrences on his return, the father did not speak to the boy +either that night or next morning. Besides the immediate tribulation the +effect was, that when, a few days after, the mamma was about to go out, +she was entreated by the boy not to do so; and on inquiry, it appeared +his fear was that he might again transgress in her absence.</p> + +<p>We have introduced these facts before replying to the +question—"What is to be done with the graver offences?" for the +purpose of first exhibiting the relation that may and ought to be +established between parents and children; for on the existence of this +relation depends the successful treatment of these graver offences. And +as a further preliminary, we must now point out that the establishment +of this relation will result from adopting the system here advocated. +Already we have shown that by simply letting a child experience the +painful <a name="page_103"></a> reactions of its own wrong actions, a +parent avoids antagonism and escapes being regarded as an enemy; but it +remains to be shown that where this course has been consistently pursued +from the beginning, a feeling of active friendship will be +generated.</p> + +<p>At present, mothers and fathers are mostly considered by their +offspring as friend enemies. Determined as the impressions of children +inevitably are by the treatment they receive; and oscillating as that +treatment does between bribery and thwarting, between petting and +scolding, between gentleness and castigation; they necessarily acquire +conflicting beliefs respecting the parental character. A mother commonly +thinks it sufficient to tell her little boy that she is his best friend; +and assuming that he ought to believe her, concludes that he will do so. +"It is all for your good;" "I know what is proper for you better than +you do yourself;" "You are not old enough to understand it now, but when +you grow up you will thank me for doing what I do;"—these, and +like assertions, are daily reiterated. Meanwhile the boy is daily +suffering positive penalties; and is hourly forbidden to do this, that, +and the other, which he wishes to do. By words he hears that his +happiness is the end in view; but from the accompanying deeds he +habitually receives more or less pain. Incompetent as he is to +understand that future which his mother has in view, or how this +treatment conduces to the happiness of that future, he judges by the +results he feels; and finding such results anything but pleasurable, he +becomes sceptical respecting her professions of friendship. And is it +not folly to expect any other issue? Must not the child reason from the +evidence he has got? and does not this evidence seem to warrant his +conclusion? The mother would reason in just the same way if similarly +placed. If, among her acquaintance, she found some one who was +constantly thwarting her wishes, uttering sharp reprimands, and +occasionally inflicting actual penalties on her, she would pay small +attention to any professions of anxiety for her welfare which +accompanied these acts. Why, then, does she suppose that her boy will do +otherwise?</p> + +<p>But now observe how different will be the results if the system we +contend for be consistently pursued—if the mother not only avoids +becoming the instrument of punishment, but plays the part of a friend, +by warning her boy of the punishments which Nature will inflict. Take a +case; and that it may illustrate the mode in which this policy is to be +early initiated, let it be one of the simplest cases. Suppose that, <a +name="page_104"></a> prompted by the experimental spirit so conspicuous +in children, whose proceedings instinctively conform to the inductive +method of inquiry—suppose that so prompted, the boy is amusing +himself by lighting pieces of paper in the candle and watching them +burn. A mother of the ordinary unreflective stamp, will either, on the +plea of keeping him "out of mischief," or from fear that he will burn +himself, command him to desist; and in case of non-compliance will +snatch the paper from him. But, should he be fortunate enough to have a +mother of some rationality, who knows that this interest with which he +is watching the paper burn, results from a healthy inquisitiveness, and +who has also the wisdom to consider the results of interference, she +will reason thus:—"If I put a stop to this I shall prevent the +acquirement of a certain amount of knowledge. It is true that I may save +the child from a burn; but what then? He is sure to burn himself +sometime; and it is quite essential to his safety in life that he should +learn by experience the properties of flame. If I forbid him from +running this present risk, he will certainly hereafter run the same or a +greater risk when no one is present to prevent him; whereas, should he +have an accident now that I am by, I can save him from any great injury. +Moreover, were I to make him desist, I should thwart him in the pursuit +of what is in itself a purely harmless, and indeed, instructive +gratification; and he would regard me with more or less ill-feeling. +Ignorant as he is of the pain from which I would save him, and feeling +only the pain of a balked desire, he could not fail to look on me as the +cause of that pain. To save him from a hurt which he cannot conceive, +and which has therefore no existence for him, I hurt him in a way which +he feels keenly enough; and so become, from his point of view, a +minister of evil. My best course then, is simply to warn him of the +danger, and to be ready to prevent any serious damage." And following +out this conclusion, she says to the child—"I fear you will hurt +yourself if you do that." Suppose, now, that the boy, persevering as he +will probably do, ends by burning his hand. What are the results? In the +first place he has gained an experience which he must gain eventually, +and which, for his own safety, he cannot gain too soon. And in the +second place, he has found that his mother's disapproval or warning was +meant for his welfare: he has a further positive experience of her +benevolence—a further reason for placing confidence in her +judgment and kindness—a further reason for loving her.</p> + +<p>Of course, in those occasional hazards where there is a risk <a +name="page_105"></a> of broken limbs or other serious injury, forcible +prevention is called for. But leaving out extreme cases, the system +pursued should be, not that of guarding a child from the small risks +which it daily runs, but that of advising and warning it against them. +And by pursuing this course, a much stronger filial affection will be +generated than commonly exists. If here, as elsewhere, the discipline of +the natural reactions is allowed to come into play—if in those +out-door scramblings and in-door experiments, by which children are +liable to injure themselves, they are allowed to persist, subject only +to dissuasion more or less earnest according to the danger, there cannot +fail to arise an ever-increasing faith in the parental friendship and +guidance. Not only, as before shown, does the adoption of this course +enable fathers and mothers to avoid the odium which attaches to the +infliction of positive punishment; but, as we here see, it enables them +to avoid the odium which attaches to constant thwartings; and even to +turn those incidents that commonly cause squabbles, into a means of +strengthening the mutual good feeling. Instead of being told in words, +which deeds seem to contradict, that their parents are their best +friends, children will learn this truth by a consistent daily +experience; and so learning it, will acquire a degree of trust and +attachment which nothing else can give.</p> + +<p>And now, having indicated the more sympathetic relation which must +result from the habitual use of this method, let us return to the +question above put—How is this method to be applied to the graver +offences?</p> + +<p>Note, in the first place, that these graver offences are likely to be +both less frequent and less grave under the régime we have described +than under the ordinary régime. The ill-behaviour of many children is +itself a consequence of that chronic irritation in which they are kept +by bad management. The state of isolation and antagonism produced by +frequent punishment, necessarily deadens the sympathies; necessarily, +therefore, opens the way to those transgressions which the sympathies +check. That harsh treatment which children of the same family inflict on +each other, is often, in great measure, a reflex of the harsh treatment +they receive from adults—partly suggested by direct example, and +partly generated by the ill-temper and the tendency to vicarious +retaliation, which follow chastisements and scoldings. It cannot be +questioned that the greater activity of the affections and happier state +of feeling, maintained in children by the discipline we have described, +must prevent them from sinning against each other so gravely and so <a +name="page_106"></a> frequently. The still more reprehensible offences, +as lies and petty thefts, will, by the same causes, be diminished. +Domestic estrangement is a fruitful source of such transgressions. It is +a law of human nature, visible enough to all who observe, that those who +are debarred the higher gratifications fall back upon the lower; those +who have no sympathetic pleasures seek selfish ones; and hence, +conversely, the maintenance of happier relations between parents and +children is calculated to diminish the number of those offences of which +selfishness is the origin.</p> + +<p>When, however, such offences are committed, as they will occasionally +be even under the best system, the discipline of consequences may still +be resorted to; and if there exists that bond of confidence and +affection above described, this discipline will be efficient. For what +are the natural consequences, say, of a theft? They are of two +kinds—direct and indirect. The direct consequence, as dictated by +pure equity, is that of making restitution. A just ruler (and every +parent should aim to be one) will demand that, when possible, a wrong +act shall be undone by a right one; and in the case of theft this +implies either the restoration of the thing stolen, or, if it is +consumed, the giving of an equivalent: which, in the case of a child, +may be effected out of its pocket-money. The indirect and more serious +consequence is the grave displeasure of parents—a consequence +which inevitably follows among all peoples civilised enough to regard +theft as a crime. "But," it will be said, "the manifestation of parental +displeasure, either in words or blows, is the ordinary course in these +cases: the method leads here to nothing new." Very true. Already we have +admitted that, in some directions, this method is spontaneously pursued. +Already we have shown that there is a tendency for educational systems +to gravitate towards the true system. And here we may remark, as before, +that the intensity of this natural reaction will, in the beneficent +order of things, adjust itself to the requirements—that this +parental displeasure will vent itself in violent measures during +comparatively barbarous times, when children are also comparatively +barbarous; and will express itself less cruelly in those more advanced +social states in which, by implication, the children are amenable to +milder treatment. But what it chiefly concerns us here to observe is, +that the manifestation of strong parental displeasure, produced by one +of these graver offences, will be potent for good, just in proportion to +the warmth of the attachment existing between parent and child. Just in +proportion as the discipline of natural consequences has been <a +name="page_107"></a> consistently pursued in other cases, will it be +efficient in this case. Proof is within the experience of all, if they +will look for it.</p> + +<p>For does not every one know that when he has offended another, the +amount of regret he feels (of course, leaving worldly considerations out +of the question) varies with the degree of sympathy he has for that +other? Is he not conscious that when the person offended is an enemy, +the having given him annoyance is apt to be a source rather of secret +satisfaction than of sorrow? Does he not remember that where umbrage has +been taken by some total stranger, he has felt much less concern than he +would have done had such umbrage been taken by one with whom he was +intimate? While, conversely, has not the anger of an admired and +cherished friend been regarded by him as a serious misfortune, long and +keenly regretted? Well, the effects of parental displeasure on children +must similarly vary with the pre-existing relationship. Where there is +an established alienation, the feeling of a child who has transgressed +is a purely selfish fear of the impending physical penalties or +deprivations; and after these have been inflicted, the injurious +antagonism and dislike which result, add to the alienation. On the +contrary, where there exists a warm filial affection produced by a +consistent parental friendship, the state of mind caused by parental +displeasure is not only a salutary check to future misconduct of like +kind, but is intrinsically salutary. The moral pain consequent on +having, for the time being, lost so loved a friend, stands in place of +the physical pain usually inflicted; and proves equally, if not more, +efficient. While instead of the fear and vindictiveness excited by the +one course, there are excited by the other a sympathy with parental +sorrow, a genuine regret for having caused it, and a desire, by some +atonement, to reestablish the friendly relationship. Instead of bringing +into play those egotistic feelings whose predominance is the cause of +criminal acts, there are brought into play those altruistic feelings +which check criminal acts. Thus the discipline of natural consequences +is applicable to grave as well as trivial faults; and the practice of it +conduces not simply to the repression, but to the eradication of such +faults.</p> + +<p>In brief, the truth is that savageness begets savageness, and +gentleness begets gentleness. Children who are unsympathetically treated +become unsympathetic; whereas treating them with due fellow-feeling is a +means of cultivating their fellow-feeling. With family governments as +with political <a name="page_108"></a> ones, a harsh despotism itself +generates a great part of the crimes it has to repress; while on the +other hand a mild and liberal rule both avoids many causes of +dissension, and so ameliorates the tone of feeling as to diminish the +tendency to transgression. As John Locke long since remarked, "Great +severity of punishment does but very little good, nay, great harm, in +education; and I believe it will be found that, <i>cæteris paribus</i>, those +children who have been most chastised seldom make the best men." In +confirmation of which opinion we may cite the fact not long since made +public by Mr. Rogers, Chaplain of the Pentonville Prison, that those +juvenile criminals who have been whipped are those who most frequently +return to prison. Conversely, the beneficial effects of a kinder +treatment are well illustrated in a fact stated to us by a French lady, +in whose house we recently stayed in Paris. Apologising for the +disturbance daily caused by a little boy who was unmanageable both at +home and at school, she expressed her fear that there was no remedy save +that which had succeeded in the case of an elder brother; namely, +sending him to an English school. She explained that at various schools +in Paris this elder brother had proved utterly untractable; that in +despair they had followed the advice to send him to England; and that on +his return home he was as good as he had before been bad. This +remarkable change she ascribed entirely to the comparative mildness of +the English discipline.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>After the foregoing exposition of principles, our remaining space may +best be occupied by a few of the chief maxims and rules deducible from +them; and with a view to brevity we will put these in a hortatory +form.</p> + +<p>Do not expect from a child any great amount of moral goodness. During +early years every civilised man passes through that phase of character +exhibited by the barbarous race from which he is descended. As the +child's features—flat nose, forward-opening nostrils, large lips, +wide-apart eyes, absent frontal sinus, etc.—resemble for a time +those of the savage, so, too, do his instincts. Hence the tendencies to +cruelty, to thieving, to lying, so general among +children—tendencies which, even without the aid of discipline, +will become more or less modified just as the features do. The popular +idea that children are "innocent," while it is true with respect to evil +<i>knowledge</i>, is totally false with respect to evil <i>impulses</i>; as half +an hour's observation in the nursery will prove to any one. Boys when <a +name="page_109"></a> left to themselves, as at public schools, treat +each other more brutally than men do; and were they left to themselves +at an earlier age their brutality would be still more conspicuous.</p> + +<p>Not only is it unwise to set up a high standard of good conduct for +children, but it is even unwise to use very urgent incitements to good +conduct. Already most people recognise the detrimental results of +intellectual precocity; but there remains to be recognised the fact that +<i>moral precocity</i> also has detrimental results. Our higher moral +faculties, like our higher intellectual ones, are comparatively complex. +By consequence, both are comparatively late in their evolution. And with +the one as with the other, an early activity produced by stimulation +will be at the expense of the future character. Hence the not uncommon +anomaly that those who during childhood were models of juvenile +goodness, by and by undergo a seemingly inexplicable change for the +worse, and end by being not above but below par; while relatively +exemplary men are often the issue of a childhood by no means +promising.</p> + +<p>Be content, therefore, with moderate measures and moderate results. +Bear in mind that a higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must be +reached by slow growth; and you will then have patience with those +imperfections which your child hourly displays. You will be less prone +to that constant scolding, and threatening, and forbidding, by which +many parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in the foolish hope +that they will thus make their children what they should be.</p> + +<p>This liberal form of domestic government, which does not seek +despotically to regulate all the details of a child's conduct, +necessarily results from the system we advocate. Satisfy yourself with +seeing that your child always suffers the natural consequences of his +actions, and you will avoid that excess of control in which so many +parents err. Leave him wherever you can to the discipline of experience, +and you will save him from that hot-house virtue which over-regulation +produces in yielding natures, or that demoralising antagonism which it +produces in independent ones.</p> + +<p>By aiming in all cases to insure the natural reactions to your +child's actions, you will put an advantageous check on your own temper. +The method of moral education pursued by many, we fear by most, parents, +is little else than that of venting their anger in the way that first +suggests itself. The slaps, and rough shakings and sharp words, with +which a mother commonly visits her offspring's small offences (many of +them not offences <a name="page_110"></a> considered intrinsically), +are generally but the manifestations of her ill-controlled +feelings—result much more from the promptings of those feelings +than from a wish to benefit the offenders. But by pausing in each case +of transgression to consider what is the normal consequence, and how it +may best be brought home to the transgressor, some little time is +obtained for the mastery of yourself; the mere blind anger first aroused +settles down into a less vehement feeling, and one not so likely to +mislead you.</p> + +<p>Do not, however, seek to behave as a passionless instrument. Remember +that besides the natural reactions to your child's actions which the +working of things tends to bring round on him, your own approbation or +disapprobation is also a natural reaction, and one of the ordained +agencies for guiding him. The error we have been combating is that of +<i>substituting</i> parental displeasure and its artificial penalties, for +the penalties which Nature has established. But while it should not be +<i>substituted</i> for these natural penalties, we by no means argue that it +should not, in some form, <i>accompany</i> them. Though the <i>secondary</i> kind +of punishment should not usurp the place of the <i>primary</i> kind; it may, +in moderation, rightly supplement the primary kind. Such amount of +sorrow or indignation as you feel, should be expressed in words or +manner; subject, of course, to the approval of your judgment. The kind +and degree of feeling produced in you will necessarily depend on your +own character; and it is therefore useless to say it should be this or +that. Nevertheless, you may endeavour to modify the feeling into that +which you believe ought to be entertained. Beware, however, of the two +extremes; not only in respect of the intensity, but in respect of the +duration, of your displeasure. On the one hand, avoid that weak +impulsiveness, so general among mothers, which scolds and forgives +almost in the same breath. On the other hand, do not unduly continue to +show estrangement of feeling, lest you accustom your child to do without +your friendship, and so lose your influence over him. The moral +reactions called forth from you by your child's actions, you should as +much as possible assimilate to those which you conceive would be called +forth from a parent of perfect nature.</p> + +<p>Be sparing of commands. Command only when other means are +inapplicable, or have failed. "In frequent orders the parents' advantage +is more considered than the child's," says Richter. As in primitive +societies a breach of law is punished, not so much because it is +intrinsically wrong as because it is a <a name="page_111"></a> +disregard of the king's authority—a rebellion against him; so in +many families, the penalty visited on a transgressor is prompted less by +reprobation of the offence than by anger at the disobedience. Listen to +the ordinary speeches—"How <i>dare</i> you disobey me?" "I tell you +I'll <i>make</i> you do it, sir." "I'll soon teach you who is +<i>master</i>"—and then consider what the words, the tone, and the +manner imply. A determination to subjugate is far more conspicuous in +them, than anxiety for the child's welfare. For the time being the +attitude of mind differs but little from that of a despot bent on +punishing a recalcitrant subject. The right-feeling parent, however, +like the philanthropic legislator, will rejoice not in coercion, but in +dispensing with coercion. He will do without law wherever other modes of +regulating conduct can be successfully employed; and he will regret the +having recourse to law when law is necessary. As Richter +remarks—"The best rule in politics is said to be '<i>pas trop +gouverner</i>:' it is also true in education." And in spontaneous +conformity with this maxim, parents whose lust of dominion is restrained +by a true sense of duty, will aim to make their children control +themselves as much as possible, and will fall back upon absolutism only +as a last resort.</p> + +<p>But whenever you <i>do</i> command, command with decision and consistency. +If the case is one which really cannot be otherwise dealt with, then +issue your fiat, and having issued it, never afterwards swerve from it. +Consider well what you are going to do; weigh all the consequences; +think whether you have adequate firmness of purpose; and then, if you +finally make the law, enforce obedience at whatever cost. Let your +penalties be like the penalties inflicted by inanimate +Nature—inevitable. The hot cinder burns a child the first time he +seizes it; it burns him the second time; it burns him the third time; it +burns him every time; and he very soon learns not to touch the hot +cinder. If you are equally consistent—if the consequences which +you tell your child will follow specified acts, follow with like +uniformity, he will soon come to respect your laws as he does those of +Nature. And this respect once established, will prevent endless domestic +evils. Of errors in education one of the worst is inconsistency. As in a +community, crimes multiply when there is no certain administration of +justice; so in a family, an immense increase of transgressions results +from a hesitating or irregular infliction of punishments. A weak mother, +who perpetually threatens and rarely performs—who makes rules in +haste and repents of them at leisure—who <a name="page_112"></a> +treats the same offence now with severity and now with leniency, as the +passing humour dictates, is laying up miseries for herself and her +children. She is making herself contemptible in their eyes; she is +setting them an example of uncontrolled feelings; she is encouraging +them to transgress by the prospect of probable impunity: she is +entailing endless squabbles and accompanying damage to her own temper +and the tempers of her little ones; she is reducing their minds to a +moral chaos, which after years of bitter experience will with difficulty +bring into order. Better even a barbarous form of domestic government +carried out consistently, than a humane one inconsistently carried out. +Again we say, avoid coercive measures whenever it is possible to do so; +but when you find despotism really necessary, be despotic in good +earnest.</p> + +<p>Remember that the aim of your discipline should be to produce a +<i>self-governing</i> being; not to produce a being to be <i>governed by +others</i>. Were your children fated to pass their lives as slaves, you +could not too much accustom them to slavery during their childhood; but +as they are by and by to be free men, with no one to control their daily +conduct, you cannot too much accustom them to self-control while they +are still under your eye. This it is which makes the system of +discipline by natural consequences so especially appropriate to the +social state which we in England have now reached. In feudal times, when +one of the chief evils the citizen had to fear was the anger of his +superiors, it was well that during childhood, parental vengeance should +be a chief means of government. But now that the citizen has little to +fear from any one—now that the good or evil which he experiences +is mainly that which in the order of things results from his own +conduct, he should from his first years begin to learn, experimentally, +the good or evil consequences which naturally follow this or that +conduct. Aim, therefore, to diminish the parental government, as fast as +you can substitute for it in your child's mind that self-government +arising from a foresight of results. During infancy a considerable +amount of absolutism is necessary. A three-year old urchin playing with +an open razor, cannot be allowed to learn by this discipline of +consequences; for the consequences may be too serious. But as +intelligence increases, the number of peremptory interferences may be, +and should be, diminished, with the view of gradually ending them as +maturity is approached. All transitions are dangerous; and the most +dangerous is the transition from the restraint of the family circle to +the non-restraint <a name="page_113"></a> of the world. Hence the +importance of pursuing the policy we advocate; which, by cultivating a +boy's faculty of self-restraint, by continually increasing the degree in +which he is left to his self-restraint, and by so bringing him, step by +step, to a state of unaided self-restraint, obliterates the ordinary +sudden and hazardous change from externally-governed youth to +internally-governed maturity. Let the history of your domestic rule +typify, in little, the history of our political rule: at the outset, +autocratic control, where control is really needful; by and by an +incipient constitutionalism, in which the liberty of the subject gains +some express recognition; successive extensions of this liberty of the +subject; gradually ending in parental abdication.</p> + +<p>Do not regret the display of considerable self-will on the part of +your children. It is the correlative of that diminished coerciveness so +conspicuous in modern education. The greater tendency to assert freedom +of action on the one side, corresponds to the smaller tendency to +tyrannise on the other. They both indicate an approach to the system of +discipline we contend for, under which children will be more and more +led to rule themselves by the experience of natural consequences; and +they are both accompaniments of our more advanced social state. The +independent English boy is the father of the independent English man; +and you cannot have the last without the first. German teachers say that +they had rather manage a dozen German boys than one English one. Shall +we, therefore, wish that our boys had the manageableness of German ones, +and with it the submissiveness and political serfdom of adult Germans? +Or shall we not rather tolerate in our boys those feelings which make +them free men, and modify our methods accordingly?</p> + +<p>Lastly, always recollect that to educate rightly is not a simple and +easy thing, but a complex and extremely difficult thing, the hardest +task which devolves on adult life. The rough-and-ready style of domestic +government is indeed practicable by the meanest and most uncultivated +intellects. Slaps and sharp words are penalties that suggest themselves +alike to the least reclaimed barbarian and the stolidest peasant. Even +brutes can use this method of discipline; as you may see in the growl +and half-bite with which a bitch will check a too-exigeant puppy. But if +you would carry out with success a rational and civilised system, you +must be prepared for considerable mental exertion—for some study, +some ingenuity, some patience, some self-control. You will have +habitually to <a name="page_114"></a> consider what are the results +which in adult life follow certain kinds of acts; and you must then +devise methods by which parallel results shall be entailed on the +parallel acts of your children. It will daily be needful to analyse the +motives of juvenile conduct—to distinguish between acts that are +really good and those which, though simulating them, proceed from +inferior impulses; while you will have to be ever on your guard against +the cruel mistake not unfrequently made, of translating neutral acts +into transgressions, or ascribing worse feelings than were entertained. +You must more or less modify your method to suit the disposition of each +child; and must be prepared to make further modifications as each +child's disposition enters on a new phase. Your faith will often be +taxed to maintain the requisite perseverance in a course which seems to +produce little or no effect. Especially if you are dealing with children +who have been wrongly treated, you must be prepared for a lengthened +trial of patience before succeeding with better methods; since that +which is not easy even where a right state of feeling has been +established from the beginning, becomes doubly difficult when a wrong +state of feeling has to be set right. Not only will you have constantly +to analyse the motives of your children, but you will have to analyse +your own motives—to discriminate between those internal +suggestions springing from a true parental solicitude and those which +spring from your own selfishness, your love of ease, your lust of +dominion. And then, more trying still, you will have not only to detect, +but to curb these baser impulses. In brief, you will have to carry on +your own higher education at the same time that you are educating your +children. Intellectually you must cultivate to good purpose that most +complex of subjects—human nature and its laws, as exhibited in +your children, in yourself, and in the world. Morally, you must keep in +constant exercise your higher feelings, and restrain your lower. It is a +truth yet remaining to be recognised, that the last stage in the mental +development of each man and woman is to be reached only through a proper +discharge of the parental duties. And when this truth is recognised, it +will be seen how admirable is the arrangement through which human beings +are led by their strongest affections to subject themselves to a +discipline that they would else elude.</p> + +<p>While some will regard this conception of education as it should be +with doubt and discouragement, others will, we think, perceive in the +exalted ideal which it involves, evidence <a name="page_115"></a> of +its truth. That it cannot be realised by the impulsive, the +unsympathetic, and the short-sighted, but demands the higher attributes +of human nature, they will see to be evidence of its fitness for the +more advanced states of humanity. Though it calls for much labour and +self-sacrifice, they will see that it promises an abundant return of +happiness, immediate and remote. They will see that while in its +injurious effects on both parent and child a bad system is twice cursed, +a good system is twice blessed—it blesses him that trains and him +that's trained.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_089_note_1"></a><a href="#page_089">Footnote 1</a>: +Of this nature is the plea put in by some for the rough treatment +experienced by boys at our public schools; where, as it is said, they +are introduced to a miniature world whose hardships prepare them for +those of the real world. It must be admitted that the plea has some +force; but it is a very insufficient plea. For whereas domestic and +school discipline, though they should not be much better than the +discipline of adult life, should be somewhat better; the discipline +which boys meet with at Eton, Winchester, Harrow, etc., is worse than +that of adult life—more unjust and cruel. Instead of being an aid +to human progress, which all culture should be, the culture of our +public schools, by accustoming boys to a despotic form of government and +an intercourse regulated by brute force, tends to fit them for a lower +state of society than that which exists. And chiefly recruited as our +legislature is from among those who are brought up at such schools, this +barbarising influence becomes a hindrance to national +progress.</small></p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_116"></a>PHYSICAL EDUCATION</h2></center> + + +<p>Equally at the squire's table after the withdrawal of the ladies, at +the farmers' market-ordinary, and at the village ale-house, the topic +which, after the political question of the day, excites the most general +interest, is the management of animals. Riding home from hunting, the +conversation usually gravitates towards horse-breeding, and pedigrees, +and comments on this or that "good point;" while a day on the moors is +very unlikely to end without something being said on the treatment of +dogs. When crossing the fields together from church, the tenants of +adjacent farms are apt to pass from criticisms on the sermon to +criticisms on the weather, the crops, and the stock; and thence to slide +into discussions on the various kinds of fodder and their feeding +qualities. Hodge and Giles, after comparing notes over their respective +pig-styes, show by their remarks that they have been observant of their +masters' beasts and sheep; and of the effects produced on them by this +or that kind of treatment. Nor is it only among the rural population +that the regulations of the kennel, the stable, the cow-shed, and the +sheep-pen, are favourite subjects. In towns, too, the numerous artisans +who keep dogs, the young men who are rich enough to now and then indulge +their sporting tendencies, and their more staid seniors who talk over +agricultural progress or read Mr. Mechi's annual reports and Mr. Caird's +letters to the <i>Times</i>, form, when added together, a large portion of +the inhabitants. Take the adult males throughout the kingdom, and a +great majority will be found to show some interest in the breeding, +rearing, or training of animals, of one kind or other.</p> + +<p>But, during after-dinner conversations, or at other times of like +intercourse, who hears anything said about the rearing of children? When +the country gentleman has paid his daily visit to the stable, and +personally inspected the condition and treatment of his horses; when he +has glanced at his minor live stock, and given directions about them; +how often does he go up to the nursery and examine into its dietary, its +hours, its ventilation? On his library-shelves may be found White's +<i>Farriery</i>, Stephens's <i>Book of the Farm</i>, Nimrod <i>on the Condition of +Hunters</i>; and with the contents of these he is more or less <a +name="page_117"></a> familiar; but how many books has he read on the +management of infancy and childhood? The fattening properties of +oil-cake, the relative values of hay and chopped straw, the dangers of +unlimited clover, are points on which every landlord, farmer, and +peasant has some knowledge; but what percentage of them inquire whether +the food they give their children is adapted to the constitutional needs +of growing boys and girls? Perhaps the business-interests of these +classes will be assigned as accounting for this anomaly. The explanation +is inadequate, however; seeing that the same contrast holds among other +classes. Of a score of townspeople, few, if any, would prove ignorant of +the fact that it is undesirable to work a horse soon after it has eaten; +and yet, of this same score, supposing them all to be fathers, probably +not one would be found who had considered whether the time elapsing +between his children's dinner and their resumption of lessons was +sufficient. Indeed, on cross-examination, nearly every man would +disclose the latent opinion that the regimen of the nursery was no +concern of his. "Oh, I leave all those things to the women," would +probably be the reply. And in most cases the tone of this reply would +convey the implication, that such cares are not consistent with +masculine dignity.</p> + +<p>Regarded from any but a conventional point of view, the fact seems +strange that while the raising of first-rate bullocks is an occupation +on which educated men willingly bestow much time and thought, the +bringing up of fine human beings is an occupation tacitly voted unworthy +of their attention. Mammas who have been taught little but languages, +music, and accomplishments, aided by nurses full of antiquated +prejudices, are held competent regulators of the food, clothing, and +exercise of children. Meanwhile the fathers read books and periodicals, +attend agricultural meetings, try experiments, and engage in +discussions, all with the view of discovering how to fatten prize pigs! +We see infinite pains taken to produce a racer that shall win the Derby: +none to produce a modern athlete. Had Gulliver narrated of the Laputans +that the men vied with each other in learning how best to rear the +offspring of other creatures, and were careless of learning how best to +rear their own offspring, he would have paralleled any of the other +absurdities he ascribes to them.</p> + +<p>The matter is a serious one, however. Ludicrous as is the antithesis, +the fact it expresses is not less disastrous. As remarks a suggestive +writer, the first requisite to success in life is "to be a good animal;" +and to be a nation of good animals <a name="page_118"></a> is the first +condition to national prosperity. Not only is it that the event of a war +often turns on the strength and hardiness of soldiers; but it is that +the contests of commerce are in part determined by the bodily endurance +of producers. Thus far we have found no reason to fear trials of +strength with other races in either of these fields. But there are not +wanting signs that our powers will presently be taxed to the uttermost. +The competition of modern life is so keen, that few can bear the +required application without injury. Already thousands break down under +the high pressure they are subject to. If this pressure continues to +increase, as it seems likely to do, it will try severely even the +soundest constitutions. Hence it is becoming of especial importance that +the training of children should be so carried on, as not only to fit +them mentally for the struggle before them, but also to make them +physically fit to bear its excessive wear and tear.</p> + +<p>Happily the matter is beginning to attract attention. The writings of +Mr. Kingsley indicate a reaction against over-culture; carried perhaps, +as reactions usually are, somewhat too far. Occasional letters and +leaders in the newspapers have shown an awakening interest in physical +training. And the formation of a school, significantly nicknamed that of +"muscular Christianity," implies a growing opinion that our present +methods of bringing up children do not sufficiently regard the welfare +of the body. The topic is evidently ripe for discussion.</p> + +<p>To conform the regimen of the nursery and the school to the +established truths of modern science—this is the desideratum. It +is time that the benefits which our sheep and oxen are deriving from the +investigations of the laboratory, should be participated in by our +children. Without calling in question the great importance of +horse-training and pig-feeding, we would suggest that, as the rearing of +well-grown men and women is also of some moment, these conclusions which +theory indicates and practice indorses, ought to be acted on in the last +case as in the first. Probably not a few will be startled—perhaps +offended—by this collocation of ideas. But it is a fact not to be +disputed, and to which we must reconcile ourselves, that man is subject +to the same organic laws as inferior creatures. No anatomist, no +physiologist, no chemist, will for a moment hesitate to assert, that the +general principles which are true of the vital processes in animals are +equally true of the vital processes in man. And a candid admission of +this fact is not without its reward: namely, that the generalisations +established <a name="page_119"></a> by observation and experiment on +brutes, become available for human guidance. Rudimentary as is the +Science of Life, it has already attained to certain fundamental +principles underlying the development of all organisms, the human +included. That which has now to be done, and that which we shall +endeavour in some measure to do, is to trace the bearings of these +fundamental principles on the physical training of childhood and +youth.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>The rhythmical tendency which is traceable in all departments of +social life—which is illustrated in the access of despotism after +revolution, or, among ourselves, in the alternation of reforming epochs +and conservative epochs—which, after a dissolute age, brings an +age of asceticism, and conversely,—which, in commerce, produces +the recurring inflations and panics—which carries the devotees of +fashion from one absurd extreme to the opposite one;—this +rhythmical tendency affects also our table-habits, and by implication, +the dietary of the young. After a period distinguished by hard drinking +and hard eating, has come a period of comparative sobriety, which, in +teetotalism and vegetarianism, exhibits extreme forms of protest against +the riotous living of the past. And along with this change in the +regimen of adults, has come a parallel change in the regimen for boys +and girls. In past generations the belief was, that the more a child +could be induced to eat, the better; and even now, among farmers and in +remote districts, where traditional ideas most linger, parents may be +found who tempt their children into repletion. But among the educated +classes, who chiefly display this reaction towards abstemiousness, there +may be seen a decided leaning to the under-feeding, rather than the +over-feeding, of children. Indeed their disgust for by-gone animalism, +is more clearly shown in the treatment of their offspring than in the +treatment of themselves; for while their disguised asceticism is, in so +far as their personal conduct is concerned, kept in check by their +appetites, it has full play in legislating for juveniles.</p> + +<p>That over-feeding and under-feeding are both bad, is a truism. Of the +two, however, the last is the worst. As writes a high authority, "the +effects of casual repletion are less prejudicial, and more easily +corrected, than those of inanition."<a +href="#page_119_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a> Besides, where there has been +no injudicious interference, repletion seldom occurs. "Excess is the +vice rather of adults than of the young, <a name="page_120"></a> who +are rarely either gourmands or epicures, unless through the fault of +those who rear them."<a href="#page_120_note_2"><sup>2</sup></a> This +system of restriction which many parents think so necessary, is based +upon inadequate observation, and erroneous reasoning. There is an +over-legislation in the nursery, as well as an over-legislation in the +State; and one of the most injurious forms of it is this limitation in +the quantity of food.</p> + +<p>"But are children to be allowed to surfeit themselves? Shall they be +suffered to take their fill of dainties and make themselves ill, as they +certainly will do?" As thus put, the question admits of but one reply. +But as thus put, it assumes the point at issue. We contend that, as +appetite is a good guide to all the lower creation—as it is a good +guide to the infant—as it is a good guide to the invalid—as +it is a good guide to the differently-placed races of men—and as +it is a good guide for every adult who leads a healthful life; it may +safely be inferred that it is a good guide for childhood. It would be +strange indeed were it here alone untrustworthy.</p> + +<p>Perhaps some will read this reply with impatience; being able, as +they think, to cite facts totally at variance with it. It may appear +absurd if we deny the relevancy of these facts. And yet the paradox is +quite defensible. The truth is, that the instances of excess which such +persons have in mind, are usually the <i>consequences</i> of the restrictive +system they seem to justify. They are the sensual reactions caused by an +ascetic regimen. They illustrate on a small scale that commonly-remarked +truth, that those who during youth have been subject to the most +rigorous discipline, are apt afterwards to rush into the wildest +extravagances. They are analogous to those frightful phenomena, once not +uncommon in convents, where nuns suddenly lapsed from the extremest +austerities into an almost demoniac wickedness. They simply exhibit the +uncontrollable vehemence of long-denied desires. Consider the ordinary +tastes and the ordinary treatment of children. The love of sweets is +conspicuous and almost universal among them. Probably ninety-nine people +in a hundred presume that there is nothing more in this than +gratification of the palate; and that, in common with other sensual +desires, it should be discouraged. The physiologist, however, whose +discoveries lead him to an ever-increasing reverence for the +arrangements of things, suspects something more in this love of sweets +than is currently supposed; and inquiry confirms the suspicion. He finds +that sugar plays an important <a name="page_121"></a> part in the vital +processes. Both saccharine and fatty matters are eventually oxidised in +the body; and there is an accompanying evolution of heat. Sugar is the +form to which sundry other compounds have to be reduced before they are +available as heat-making food; and this <i>formation</i> of sugar is carried +on in the body. Not only is starch changed into sugar in the course of +digestion, but it has been proved by M. Claude Bernard that the liver is +a factory in which other constituents of food are transformed into +sugar: the need for sugar being so imperative that it is even thus +produced from nitrogenous substances when no others are given. Now, when +to the fact that children have a marked desire for this valuable +heat-food, we join the fact that they have usually a marked dislike to +that food which gives out the greatest amount of heat during oxidation +(namely, fat), we have reason for thinking that excess of the one +compensates for defect of the other—that the organism demands more +sugar because it cannot deal with much fat. Again, children are fond of +vegetable acids. Fruits of all kinds are their delight; and, in the +absence of anything better, they will devour unripe gooseberries and the +sourest of crabs. Now not only are vegetable acids, in common with +mineral ones, very good tonics, and beneficial as such when taken in +moderation; but they have, when administered in their natural forms, +other advantages. "Ripe fruit," says Dr. Andrew Combe, "is more freely +given on the Continent than in this country; and, particularly when the +bowels act imperfectly, it is often very useful." See, then, the discord +between the instinctive wants of children and their habitual treatment. +Here are two dominant desires, which in all probability express certain +needs of the child's constitution; and not only are they ignored in the +nursery-regimen, but there is a general tendency to forbid the +gratification of them. Bread-and-milk in the morning, tea and +bread-and-butter at night, or some dietary equally insipid, is rigidly +adhered to; and any ministration to the palate is thought needless, or +rather, wrong. What is the consequence? When, on fête-days, there is +unlimited access to good things—when a gift of pocket-money brings +the contents of the confectioner's window within reach, or when by some +accident the free run of a fruit-garden is obtained; then the +long-denied, and therefore intense, desires lead to great excesses. +There is an impromptu carnival, due partly to release from past +restraints, and partly to the consciousness that a long Lent will begin +on the morrow. And then, when the evils of repletion display <a +name="page_122"></a> themselves, it is argued that children must not be +left to the guidance of their appetites! These disastrous results of +artificial restrictions, are themselves cited as proving the need for +further restrictions! We contend, therefore, that the reasoning used to +justify this system of interference is vicious. We contend that, were +children allowed daily to partake of these more sapid edibles, for which +there is a physiological requirement, they would rarely exceed, as they +now mostly do when they have the opportunity: were fruit, as Dr. Combe +recommends, "to constitute a part of the regular food" (given, as he +advises, not between meals, but along with them), there would be none of +that craving which prompts the devouring of crabs and sloes. And +similarly in other cases.</p> + +<p>Not only is it that the <i>à priori</i> reasons for trusting the appetites +of children are strong; and that the reasons assigned for distrusting +them are invalid; but it is that no other guidance is worthy of +confidence. What is the value of this parental judgment, set up as an +alternative regulator? When to "Oliver asking for more," the mamma or +governess says "No," on what data does she proceed? She <i>thinks</i> he has +had enough. But where are her grounds for so thinking? Has she some +secret understanding with the boy's stomach—some <i>clairvoyant</i> +power enabling her to discern the needs of his body? If not, how can she +safely decide? Does she not know that the demand of the system for food +is determined by numerous and involved causes—varies with the +temperature, with the hygrometric state of the air, with the electric +state of the air—varies also according to the exercise taken, +according to the kind and quantity of food eaten at the last meal, and +according to the rapidity with which the last meal was digested? How can +she calculate the result of such a combination of causes? As we heard +said by the father of a five-years-old boy, who stands a head taller +than most of his age, and is proportionately robust, rosy, and +active:—"I can see no artificial standard by which to mete out his +food. If I say, 'this much is enough,' it is a mere guess; and the guess +is as likely to be wrong as right. Consequently, having no faith in +guesses, I let him eat his fill." And certainly, any one judging of his +policy by its effects, would be constrained to admit its wisdom. In +truth, this confidence, with which most parents legislate for the +stomachs of their children, proves their unacquaintance with physiology: +if they knew more, they would be more modest. "The pride of science is +humble when compared with the pride of ignorance." If any one would +learn <a name="page_123"></a> how little faith is to be placed in human +judgments, and how much in the pre-established arrangements of things, +let him compare the rashness of the inexperienced physician with the +caution of the most advanced; or let him dip into Sir John Forbes's +work, <i>On Nature and Art in the Cure of Disease</i>; and he will see that, +in proportion as men gain knowledge of the laws of life, they come to +have less confidence in themselves, and more in Nature.</p> + +<p>Turning from the question of <i>quantity</i> of food to that of <i>quality</i>, +we may discern the same ascetic tendency. Not simply a restricted diet, +but a comparatively low diet, is thought proper for children. The +current opinion is, that they should have but little animal food. Among +the less wealthy classes, economy seems to have dictated this +opinion—the wish has been father to the thought. Parents not +affording to buy much meat, answer the petitions of juveniles +with—"Meat is not good for little boys and girls;" and this, at +first probably nothing but a convenient excuse, has by repetition grown +into an article of faith. While the classes with whom cost is no +consideration, have been swayed partly by the example of the majority, +partly by the influence of nurses drawn from the lower classes, and in +some measure by the reaction against past animalism.</p> + +<p>If, however, we inquire for the basis of this opinion, we find little +or none. It is a dogma repeated and received without proof, like that +which, for thousands of years, insisted on swaddling-clothes. Very +probably for the infant's stomach, not yet endowed with much muscular +power, meat, which requires considerable trituration before it can be +made into chyme, is an unfit aliment. But this objection does not tell +against animal food from which the fibrous part has been extracted; nor +does it apply when, after the lapse of two or three years, considerable +muscular vigour has been acquired. And while the evidence in support of +this dogma, partially valid in the case of very young children, is not +valid in the case of older children, who are, nevertheless, ordinarily +treated in conformity with it, the adverse evidence is abundant and +conclusive. The verdict of science is exactly opposite to the popular +opinion. We have put the question to two of our leading physicians, and +to several of the most distinguished physiologists, and they uniformly +agree in the conclusion, that children should have a diet not <i>less</i> +nutritive, but, if anything, <i>more</i> nutritive than that of adults.</p> + +<p>The grounds for this conclusion are obvious, and the reasoning <a +name="page_124"></a> simple. It needs but to compare the vital +processes of a man with those of a boy, to see that the demand for +sustenance is relatively greater in the boy than in the man. What are +the ends for which a man requires food? Each day his body undergoes more +or less wear—wear through muscular exertion, wear of the nervous +system through mental actions, wear of the viscera in carrying on the +functions of life; and the tissue thus wasted has to be renewed. Each +day, too, by radiation, his body loses a large amount of heat; and as, +for the continuance of the vital actions, the temperature of the body +must be maintained, this loss has to be compensated by a constant +production of heat: to which end certain constituents of the body are +ever undergoing oxidation. To make up for the day's waste, and to supply +fuel for the day's expenditure of heat, are, then, the sole purposes for +which the adult requires food. Consider now the case of the boy. He, +too, wastes the substance of his body by action; and it needs but to +note his restless activity to see that, in proportion to his bulk, he +probably wastes as much as a man. He, too, loses heat by radiation; and, +as his body exposes a greater surface in proportion to its mass than +does that of a man, and therefore loses heat more rapidly, the quantity +of heat-food he requires is, bulk for bulk, greater than that required +by a man. So that even had the boy no other vital processes to carry on +than the man has, he would need, relatively to his size, a somewhat +larger supply of nutriment. But, besides repairing his body and +maintaining its heat, the boy has to make new tissue—to grow. +After waste and thermal loss have been provided for, such surplus of +nutriment as remains goes to the further building up of the frame; and +only in virtue of this surplus is normal growth possible; the growth +that sometimes takes place in the absence of it, causing a manifest +prostration consequent upon defective repair. It is true that because of +a certain mechanical law which cannot be here explained, a small +organism has an advantage over a large one in the ratio between the +sustaining and destroying forces—an advantage, indeed, to which +the very possibility of growth is owing. But this admission only makes +it the more obvious that though much adverse treatment may be borne +without this excess of vitality being quite out-balanced; yet any +adverse treatment, by diminishing it, must diminish the size or +structural perfection reached. How peremptory is the demand of the +unfolding organism for materials, is seen alike in that "schoolboy +hunger," which after-life rarely parallels in intensity, and <a +name="page_125"></a> in the comparatively quick return of appetite. And +if there needs further evidence of this extra necessity for nutriment, +we have it in the fact that, during the famines following shipwrecks and +other disasters, the children are the first to die.</p> + +<p>This relatively greater need for nutriment being admitted, as it must +be, the question that remains is—shall we meet it by giving an +excessive quantity of what may be called dilute food, or a more moderate +quantity of concentrated food? The nutriment obtainable from a given +weight of meat is obtainable only from a larger weight of bread, or from +a still larger weight of potatoes, and so on. To fulfil the requirement, +the quantity must be increased as the nutritiveness is diminished. +Shall, we, then, respond to the extra wants of the growing child by +giving an adequate quantity of food as good as that of adults? Or, +regardless of the fact that its stomach has to dispose of a relatively +larger quantity even of this good food, shall we further tax it by +giving an inferior food in still greater quantity?</p> + +<p>The answer is tolerably obvious. The more the labour of digestion is +economised, the more energy is left for the purposes of growth and +action. The functions of the stomach and intestines cannot be performed +without a large supply of blood and nervous power; and in the +comparative lassitude that follows a hearty meal, every adult has proof +that this supply of blood and nervous power is at the expense of the +system at large. If the requisite nutriment is obtained from a great +quantity of innutritious food, more work is entailed on the viscera than +when it is obtained from a moderate quantity of nutritious food. This +extra work is so much loss—a loss which in children shows itself +either in diminished energy, or in smaller growth, or in both. The +inference is, then, that they should have a diet which combines, as much +as possible, nutritiveness and digestibility.</p> + +<p>It is doubtless true that boys and girls may be reared upon an +exclusively, or almost exclusively, vegetable diet. Among the upper +classes are to be found children to whom comparatively little meat is +given; and who, nevertheless, grow and appear in good health. Animal +food is scarcely tasted by the offspring of labouring people; and yet +they reach a healthy maturity. But these seemingly adverse facts have by +no means the weight commonly supposed. In the first place, it does not +follow that those who in early years flourish on bread and potatoes, +will eventually reach a fine development; and a comparison between the +agricultural labourers and the gentry, <a name="page_126"></a> in +England, or between the middle and lower classes in France is by no +means in favour of vegetable feeders. In the second place, the question +is not simply a question of <i>bulk</i>, but also a question of <i>quality</i>. A +soft, flabby flesh makes as good a show as a firm one; but though to the +careless eye, a child of full, flaccid tissue may appear the equal of +one whose fibres are well toned, a trial of strength will prove the +difference. Obesity in adults is often a sign of feebleness. Men lose +weight in training. Hence the appearance of these low-fed children is +far from conclusive. In the third place, besides <i>size</i>, we have to +consider <i>energy</i>. Between children of the meat-eating classes and those +of the bread-and-potato-eating classes, there is a marked contrast in +this respect. Both in mental and physical vivacity the peasant-boy is +greatly inferior to the son of a gentleman.</p> + +<p>If we compare different kinds of animals, or different races of men, +or the same animals or men when differently fed, we find still more +distinct proof that <i>the degree of energy essentially depends on the +nutritiveness of the food</i>.</p> + +<p>In a cow, subsisting on so innutritive a food as grass, we see that +the immense quantity required necessitates an enormous digestive system; +that the limbs, small in comparison with the body, are burdened by its +weight; that in carrying about this heavy body and digesting this +excessive quantity of food, much force is expended; and that, having but +little remaining, the creature is sluggish. Compare with the cow a +horse—an animal of nearly allied structure, but habituated to a +more concentrated diet. Here the body, and more especially its abdominal +region, bears a smaller ratio to the limbs; the powers are not taxed by +the support of such massive viscera, nor the digestion of so bulky a +food; and, as a consequence, there is greater locomotive energy and +considerable vivacity. If, again, we contrast the stolid inactivity of +the graminivorous sheep with the liveliness of the dog, subsisting on +flesh or farinaceous matters, or a mixture of the two, we see a +difference similar in kind, but still greater in degree. And after +walking through the Zoological Gardens, and noting the restlessness with +which the carnivorous animals pace up and down their cages, it needs but +to remember that none of the herbivorous animals habitually display this +superfluous energy, to see how clear is the relation between +concentration of food and degree of activity.</p> + +<p>That these differences are not directly consequent on differences of +constitution, as some may argue; but are directly consequent on +differences in the food which the creatures are <a name="page_127"></a> +constituted to subsist on; is proved by the fact, that they are +observable between different divisions of the same species. The +varieties of the horse furnish an illustration. Compare the big-bellied, +inactive, spiritless cart-horse with a racer or hunter, small in the +flanks and full of energy; and then call to mind how much less nutritive +is the diet of the one than that of the other. Or take the case of +mankind. Australians, Bushmen, and others of the lowest savages who live +on roots and berries, varied by larvae of insects and the like meagre +fare, are comparatively puny in stature, have large abdomens, soft and +undeveloped muscles, and are quite unable to cope with Europeans, either +in a struggle or in prolonged exertion. Count up the wild races who are +well grown, strong and active, as the Kaffirs, North-American Indians, +and Patagonians, and you find them large consumers of flesh. The ill-fed +Hindoo goes down before the Englishman fed on more nutritive food; to +whom he is as inferior in mental as in physical energy. And generally, +we think, the history of the world shows that the well-fed races have +been the energetic and dominant races.</p> + +<p>Still stronger, however, becomes the argument, when we find that the +same individual animal is capable of more or less exertion according as +its food is more or less nutritious. This has been demonstrated in the +case of the horse. Though flesh may be gained by a grazing horse, +strength is lost; as putting him to hard work proves. "The consequence +of turning horses out to grass is relaxation of the muscular system." +"Grass is a very good preparation for a bullock for Smithfield market, +but a very bad one for a hunter." It was well known of old that, after +passing the summer in the fields, hunters required some months of +stable-feeding before becoming able to follow the hounds; and that they +did not get into good condition till the beginning of the next spring. +And the modern practice is that insisted on by Mr. Apperley—"Never +to give a hunter what is called 'a summer's run at grass,' and, except +under particular and very favourable circumstances, never to turn him +out at all." That is to say, never give him poor food: great energy and +endurance are to be obtained only by the continued use of nutritive +food. So true is this that, as proved by Mr. Apperley, prolonged +high-feeding enables a middling horse to equal, in his performances, a +first-rate horse fed in the ordinary way. To which various evidences add +the familiar fact that, when a horse is required to do double duty, it +is the practice to give him beans—a food containing a larger <a +name="page_128"></a> proportion of nitrogenous, or flesh-making +material, than his habitual oats.</p> + +<p>Once more, in the case of individual men the truth has been +illustrated with equal, or still greater, clearness. We do not refer to +men in training for feats of strength, whose regimen, however, +thoroughly conforms to the doctrine. We refer to the experience of +railway-contractors and their labourers. It has been for years a +well-established fact that an English navvy, eating largely of flesh, is +far more efficient than a Continental navvy living on farinaceous food: +so much more efficient, that English contractors for Continental +railways found it pay to take their labourers with them. That difference +of diet and not difference of race caused this superiority, has been of +late distinctly shown. For it has turned out, that when the Continental +navvies live in the same style as their English competitors, they +presently rise, more or less nearly, to a par with them in efficiency. +And to this fact let us here add the converse one, to which we can give +personal testimony based upon six months' experience of vegetarianism, +that abstinence from meat entails diminished energy of both body and +mind.</p> + +<p>Do not these various evidences endorse our argument respecting the +feeding of children? Do they not imply that, even supposing the same +stature and bulk to be attained on an innutritive as on a nutritive +diet, the quality of tissue is greatly inferior? Do they not establish +the position that, where energy as well as growth has to be maintained, +it can only be done by high feeding? Do they not confirm the <i>à priori</i> +conclusion that, though a child of whom little is expected in the way of +bodily or mental activity, may thrive tolerably well on farinaceous +substances, a child who is daily required, not only to form the due +amount of new tissue, but to supply the waste consequent on great +muscular action, and the further waste consequent on hard exercise of +brain, must live on substances containing a larger ratio of nutritive +matter? And is it not an obvious corollary, that denial of this better +food will be at the expense either of growth, or of bodily activity, or +of mental activity; as constitution and circumstances determine? We +believe no logical intellect will question it. To think otherwise is to +entertain in a disguised form the old fallacy of the perpetual-motion +schemers—that it is possible to get power out of nothing.</p> + +<p>Before leaving the question of food, a few words must be said on +another requisite—<i>variety</i>. In this respect the dietary of the +young is very faulty. If not, like our soldiers, condemned to <a +name="page_129"></a> "twenty years of boiled beef," our children have +mostly to bear a monotony which, though less extreme and less lasting, +is quite as clearly at variance with the laws of health. At dinner, it +is true, they usually have food that is more or less mixed, and that is +changed day by day. But week after week, month after month, year after +year, comes the same breakfast of bread-and-milk, or, it may be, +oatmeal-porridge. And with like persistence the day is closed, perhaps +with a second edition of the bread-and-milk, perhaps with tea and +bread-and-butter.</p> + +<p>This practice is opposed to the dictates of physiology. The satiety +produced by an often-repeated dish, and the gratification caused by one +long a stranger to the palate, are <i>not</i> meaningless, as people +carelessly assume; but they are the incentives to a wholesome diversity +of diet. It is a fact, established by numerous experiments, that there +is scarcely any one food, however good, which supplies in due +proportions or right forms all the elements required for carrying on the +vital processes in a normal manner: whence it follows that frequent +change of food is desirable to balance the supplies of all the elements. +It is a further fact, known to physiologists, that the enjoyment given +by a much-liked food is a nervous stimulus, which, by increasing the +action of the heart and so propelling the blood with increased vigour, +aids in the subsequent digestion. And these truths are in harmony with +the maxims of modern cattle-feeding, which dictate a rotation of +diet.</p> + +<p>Not only, however, is periodic change of food very desirable; but, +for the same reasons, it is very desirable that a mixture of food should +be taken at each meal. The better balance of ingredients, and the +greater nervous stimulation, are advantages which hold here as before. +If facts are asked for, we may name as one, the comparative ease with +which the stomach disposes of a French dinner, enormous in quantity but +extremely varied in materials. Few will contend that an equal weight of +one kind of food, however well cooked, could be digested with as much +facility. If any desire further facts, they may find them in every +modern book on the management of animals. Animals thrive best when each +meal is made up of several things. The experiments of Goss and Stark +"afford the most decisive proof of the advantage, or rather the +necessity, of a mixture of substances, in order to produce the compound +which is the best adapted for the action of the stomach."<a +href="#page_129_note_3"><sup>3</sup></a></p> + +<p>Should any object, as probably many will, that a rotating <a +name="page_130"></a> dietary for children, and one which also requires +a mixture of food at each meal, would entail too much trouble; we reply, +that no trouble is thought too great which conduces to the mental +development of children, and that for their future welfare, good bodily +development is of still higher importance. Moreover, it seems alike sad +and strange that a trouble which is cheerfully taken in the fattening of +pigs, should be thought too great in the rearing of children.</p> + +<p>One more paragraph, with the view of warning those who may propose to +adopt the regimen indicated. The change must not be made suddenly; for +continued low-feeding so enfeebles the system, as to disable it from at +once dealing with a high diet. Deficient nutrition is itself a cause of +dyspepsia. This is true even of animals. "When calves are fed with +skimmed milk, or whey, or other poor food, they are liable to +indigestion."<a href="#page_130_note_4"><sup>4</sup></a> Hence, +therefore, where the energies are low, the transition to a generous diet +must be gradual: each increment of strength gained, justifying a fresh +addition of nutriment. Further, it should be borne in mind that the +concentration of nutriment may be carried too far. A bulk sufficient to +fill the stomach is one requisite of a proper meal; and this requisite +negatives a diet deficient in those matters which give adequate mass. +Though the size of the digestive organs is less in the well-fed +civilised races than in the ill-fed savage ones, and though their size +may eventually diminish still further, yet, for the time being, the bulk +of the ingesta must be determined by the existing capacity. But, paying +due regard to these two qualifications, our conclusions are—that +the food of children should be highly nutritive; that it should be +varied at each meal and at successive meals; and that it should be +abundant.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>With clothing as with food, the usual tendency is towards an improper +scantiness. Here, too, asceticism peeps out. There is a current theory, +vaguely entertained if not put into a definite formula, that the +sensations are to be disregarded. They do not exist for our guidance, +but to mislead us, seems to be the prevalent belief reduced to its naked +form. It is a grave error: we are much more beneficently constituted. It +is not obedience to the sensations, but disobedience to them, which is +the habitual cause of bodily evils. It is not the eating when hungry, +but the eating in the absence of hunger, which is bad. It is not +drinking when thirsty, but continuing to drink when <a +name="page_131"></a> thirst has ceased, that is the vice. Harm does not +result from breathing that fresh air which every healthy person enjoys; +but from breathing foul air, spite of the protest of the lungs. Harm +does not result from taking that active exercise which, as every child +shows us, Nature strongly prompts; but from a persistent disregard of +Nature's promptings. Not that mental activity which is spontaneous and +enjoyable does the mischief; but that which is persevered in after a hot +or aching head commands desistance. Not that bodily exertion which is +pleasant or indifferent, does injury; but that which is continued when +exhaustion forbids. It is true that, in those who have long led +unhealthy lives, the sensations are not trustworthy guides. People who +have for years been almost constantly in-doors, who have exercised their +brains very much and their bodies scarcely at all, who in eating have +obeyed their clocks without consulting their stomachs, may very likely +be misled by their vitiated feelings. But their abnormal state is itself +the result of transgressing their feelings. Had they from childhood +never disobeyed what we may term the physical conscience, it would not +have been seared, but would have remained a faithful monitor.</p> + +<p>Among the sensations serving for our guidance are those of heat and +cold; and a clothing for children which does not carefully consult these +sensations, is to be condemned. The common notion about "hardening" is a +grievous delusion. Not a few children are "hardened" out of the world; +and those who survive, permanently suffer either in growth or +constitution. "Their delicate appearance furnishes ample indication of +the mischief thus produced, and their frequent attacks of illness might +prove a warning even to unreflecting parents," says Dr. Combe. The +reasoning on which this hardening-theory rests is extremely superficial. +Wealthy parents, seeing little peasant boys and girls playing about in +the open air only half-clothed, and joining with this fact the general +healthiness of labouring people, draw the unwarrantable conclusion that +the healthiness is the result of the exposure, and resolve to keep their +own offspring scantily covered! It is forgotten that these urchins who +gambol upon village-greens are in many respects favourably +circumstanced—that their lives are spent in almost perpetual play; +that they are all day breathing fresh air; and that their systems are +not disturbed by over-taxed brains. For aught that appears to the +contrary, their good health may be maintained, not in consequence of, +but in spite of, their deficient clothing. This <a name="page_132"></a> +alternative conclusion we believe to be the true one; and that an +inevitable detriment results from the loss of animal heat to which they +are subject.</p> + +<p>For when, the constitution being sound enough to bear it, exposure +does produce hardness, it does so at the expense of growth. This truth +is displayed alike in animals and in man. Shetland ponies bear greater +inclemencies than the horses of the south, but are dwarfed. Highland +sheep and cattle, living in a colder climate, are stunted in comparison +with English breeds. In both the arctic and antarctic regions the human +race falls much below its ordinary height: the Laplander and Esquimaux +are very short; and the Terra del Fuegians, who go naked in a wintry +land, are described by Darwin as so stunted and hideous, that "one can +hardly make one's-self believe they are fellow-creatures."</p> + +<p>Science explains this dwarfishness produced by great abstraction of +heat; showing that, food and other things being equal, it unavoidably +results. For, as before pointed out, to make up for that cooling by +radiation which the body is ever undergoing, there must be a constant +oxidation of certain matters forming part of the food. And in proportion +as the thermal loss is great, must the quantity of these matters +required for oxidation be great. But the power of the digestive organs +is limited. Consequently, when they have to prepare a large quantity of +this material needful for maintaining the temperature, they can prepare +but a small quantity of the material which goes to build up the frame. +Excessive expenditure for fuel entails diminished means for other +purposes. Wherefore there necessarily results a body small in size, or +inferior in texture, or both.</p> + +<p>Hence the great importance of clothing. As Liebig says:—"Our +clothing is, in reference to the temperature of the body, merely an +equivalent for a certain amount of food." By diminishing the loss of +heat, it diminishes the amount of fuel needful for maintaining the heat; +and when the stomach has less to do in preparing fuel, it can do more in +preparing other materials. This deduction is confirmed by the experience +of those who manage animals. Cold can be borne by animals only at an +expense of fat, or muscle, or growth, as the case may be. "If fattening +cattle are exposed to a low temperature, either their progress must be +retarded, or a great additional expenditure of food incurred."<a +href="#page_132_note_5"><sup>5</sup></a> Mr. Apperley insists strongly +that, to bring hunters into good condition, it is necessary that the <a +name="page_133"></a> stable should be kept warm. And among those who +rear racers, it is an established doctrine that exposure is to be +avoided.</p> + +<p>The scientific truth thus illustrated by ethnology, and recognised by +agriculturists and sportsmen, applies with double force to children. In +proportion to their smallness and the rapidity of their growth is the +injury from cold great. In France, new-born infants often die in winter +from being carried to the office of the <i>maire</i> for registration. "M. +Quetelet has pointed out, that in Belgium two infants die in January for +one that dies in July." And in Russia the infant mortality is something +enormous. Even when near maturity, the undeveloped frame is +comparatively unable to bear exposure: as witness the quickness with +which young soldiers succumb in a trying campaign. The <i>rationale</i> is +obvious. We have already adverted to the fact that, in consequence of +the varying relation between surface and bulk, a child loses a +relatively larger amount of heat than an adult; and here we must point +out that the disadvantage under which the child thus labours is very +great. Lehmann says:—"If the carbonic acid excreted by children or +young animals is calculated for an equal bodily weight, it results that +children produce nearly twice as much acid as adults." Now the quantity +of carbonic acid given off varies with tolerable accuracy as the +quantity of heat produced. And thus we see that in children the system, +even when not placed at a disadvantage, is called upon to provide nearly +double the proportion of material for generating heat.</p> + +<p>See, then, the extreme folly of clothing the young scantily. What +father, full-grown though he is, losing heat less rapidly as he does, +and having no physiological necessity but to supply the waste of each +day—what father, we ask, would think it salutary to go about with +bare legs, bare arms, and bare neck? Yet this tax on the system, from +which he would shrink, he inflicts on his little ones, who are so much +less able to bear it! or, if he does not inflict it, sees it inflicted +without protest. Let him remember that every ounce of nutriment +needlessly expended for the maintenance of temperature, is so much +deducted from the nutriment going to build up the frame; and that even +when colds, congestions, or other consequent disorders are escaped, +diminished growth or less perfect structure is inevitable.</p> + +<p>"The rule is, therefore, not to dress in an invariable way in all +cases, but to put on clothing in kind and quantity <i>sufficient in the +individual case to protect the body effectually from an abiding +sensation of cold, however slight</i>." This rule, the importance of <a +name="page_134"></a> which Dr. Combe indicates by the italics, is one +in which men of science and practitioners agree. We have met with none +competent to form a judgment on the matter, who do not strongly condemn +the exposure of children's limbs. If there is one point above others in +which "pestilent custom" should be ignored, it is this.</p> + +<p>Lamentable, indeed, is it to see mothers seriously damaging the +constitutions of their children out of compliance with an irrational +fashion. It is bad enough that they should themselves conform to every +folly which our Gallic neighbours please to initiate; but that they +should clothe their children in any mountebank dress which <i>Le petit +Courrier des Dames</i> indicates, regardless of its insufficiency and +unfitness, is monstrous. Discomfort, more or less great, is inflicted; +frequent disorders are entailed; growth is checked or stamina +undermined; premature death not uncommonly caused; and all because it is +thought needful to make frocks of a size and material dictated by French +caprice. Not only is it that for the sake of conformity, mothers thus +punish and injure their little ones by scantiness of covering; but it is +that from an allied motive they impose a style of dress which forbids +healthful activity. To please the eye, colours and fabrics are chosen +totally unfit to bear that rough usage which unrestrained play involves; +and then to prevent damage the unrestrained play is interdicted. "Get up +this moment: you will soil your clean frock," is the mandate issued to +some urchin creeping about on the floor. "Come back: you will dirty your +stockings," calls out the governess to one of her charges, who has left +the footpath to scramble up a bank. Thus is the evil doubled. That they +may come up to their mamma's standard of prettiness, and be admired by +her visitors, children must have habiliments deficient in quantity and +unfit in texture; and that these easily-damaged habiliments may be kept +clean and uninjured, the restless activity so natural and needful for +the young is restrained. The exercise which becomes doubly requisite +when the clothing is insufficient, is cut short, lest it should deface +the clothing. Would that the terrible cruelty of this system could be +seen by those who maintain it! We do not hesitate to say that, through +enfeebled health, defective energies, and consequent non-success in +life, thousands are annually doomed to unhappiness by this unscrupulous +regard for appearances: even when they are not, by early death, +literally sacrificed to the Moloch of maternal vanity. We are reluctant +to counsel strong measures, but really the evils are so great as to +justify, <a name="page_135"></a> or even to demand, a peremptory +interference on the part of fathers.</p> + +<p>Our conclusions are, then—that, while the clothing of children +should never be in such excess as to create oppressive warmth, it should +always be sufficient to prevent any general feeling of cold;<a +href="#page_135_note_6"><sup>6</sup></a> that, instead of the flimsy +cotton, linen, or mixed fabrics commonly used, it should be made of some +good non-conductor, such as coarse woollen cloth; that it should be so +strong as to receive little damage from the hard wear and tear which +childish sports will give it; and that its colours should be such as +will not soon suffer from use and exposure.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>To the importance of bodily exercise most people are in some degree +awake. Perhaps less needs saying on this requisite of physical education +than on most others: at any rate, in so far as boys are concerned. +Public schools and private schools alike furnish tolerably adequate +play-grounds; and there is usually a fair share of time for out-door +games, and a recognition of them as needful. In this, if in no other +direction, it seems admitted that the promptings of boyish instinct may +advantageously be followed; and, indeed, in the modern practice of +breaking the prolonged morning's and afternoon's lessons by a few +minutes' open-air recreation, we see an increasing tendency to conform +school-regulations to the bodily sensations of the pupils. Here, then, +little needs be said in the way of expostulation or suggestion.</p> + +<p>But we have been obliged to qualify this admission by inserting the +clause "in so far as boys are concerned." Unfortunately the fact is +quite otherwise with girls. It chances, somewhat strangely, that we have +daily opportunity of drawing a comparison. We have both a boys' school +and a girls' school within view; and the contrast between them is +remarkable. In the one case, nearly the whole of a large garden is +turned into an open, gravelled space, affording ample scope for games, +and supplied with poles and horizontal bars for gymnastic exercises. +Every day before breakfast, again towards eleven o'clock, again at +mid-day, again in the afternoon, and once more after school is over, the +neighbourhood is awakened by a chorus of shouts and <a +name="page_136"></a> laughter as the boys rush out to play; and for as +long as they remain, both eyes and ears give proof that they are +absorbed in that enjoyable activity which makes the pulse bound and +ensures the healthful activity of every organ. How unlike is the picture +offered by the "Establishment for Young Ladies!" Until the fact was +pointed out, we actually did not know that we had a girl's school as +close to us as the school for boys. The garden, equally large with the +other, affords no sign whatever of any provision for juvenile +recreation; but is entirely laid out with prim grass-plots, +gravel-walks, shrubs, and flowers, after the usual suburban style. +During five months we have not once had our attention drawn to the +premises by a shout or a laugh. Occasionally girls may be observed +sauntering along the paths with lesson-books in their hands, or else +walking arm-in-arm. Once indeed, we saw one chase another round the +garden; but, with this exception, nothing like vigorous exertion has +been visible.</p> + +<p>Why this astounding difference? Is it that the constitution of a girl +differs so entirely from that of a boy as not to need these active +exercises? Is it that a girl has none of the promptings to vociferous +play by which boys are impelled? Or is it that, while in boys these +promptings are to be regarded as stimuli to a bodily activity without +which there cannot be adequate development, to their sisters, Nature has +given them for no purpose whatever—unless it be for the vexation +of school-mistresses? Perhaps, however, we mistake the aim of those who +train the gentler sex. We have a vague suspicion that to produce a +robust <i>physique</i> is thought undesirable; that rude health and abundant +vigour are considered somewhat plebeian; that a certain delicacy, a +strength not competent to more than a mile or two's walk, an appetite +fastidious and easily satisfied, joined with that timidity which +commonly accompanies feebleness, are held more lady-like. We do not +expect that any would distinctly avow this; but we fancy the +governess-mind is haunted by an ideal young lady bearing not a little +resemblance to this type. If so, it must be admitted that the +established system is admirably calculated to realise this ideal. But to +suppose that such is the ideal of the opposite sex is a profound +mistake. That men are not commonly drawn towards masculine women, is +doubtless true. That such relative weakness as asks the protection of +superior strength, is an element of attraction, we quite admit. But the +difference thus responded to by the feelings of men, is the natural, +pre-established difference, which will assert itself without artificial +appliances. And when, by artificial <a name="page_137"></a> appliances, +the degree of this difference is increased, it becomes an element of +repulsion rather than of attraction.</p> + +<p>"Then girls should be allowed to run wild—to become as rude as +boys, and grow up into romps and hoydens!" exclaims some defender of the +proprieties. This, we presume, is the ever-present dread of +school-mistresses. It appears, on inquiry, that at "Establishments for +Young Ladies" noisy play like that daily indulged in by boys, is a +punishable offence; and we infer that it is forbidden, lest unlady-like +habits should be formed. The fear is quite groundless, however. For if +the sportive activity allowed to boys does not prevent them from growing +up into gentlemen; why should a like sportive activity prevent girls +from growing up into ladies? Rough as may have been their play-ground +frolics, youths who have left school do not indulge in leap-frog in the +street, or marbles in the drawing-room. Abandoning their jackets, they +abandon at the same time boyish games; and display an +anxiety—often a ludicrous anxiety—to avoid whatever is not +manly. If now, on arriving at the due age, this feeling of masculine +dignity puts so efficient a restraint on the sports of boyhood, will not +the feeling of feminine modesty, gradually strengthening as maturity is +approached, put an efficient restraint on the like sports of girlhood? +Have not women even a greater regard for appearances than men? and will +there not consequently arise in them even a stronger check to whatever +is rough or boisterous? How absurd is the supposition that the womanly +instincts would not assert themselves but for the rigorous discipline of +school-mistresses!</p> + +<p>In this, as in other cases, to remedy the evils of one artificiality, +another artificiality has been introduced. The natural, spontaneous +exercise having been forbidden, and the bad consequences of no exercise +having become conspicuous, there has been adopted a system of factitious +exercise—gymnastics. That this is better than nothing we admit; +but that it is an adequate substitute for play we deny. The defects are +both positive and negative. In the first place, these formal, muscular +motions, necessarily less varied than those accompanying juvenile +sports, do not secure so equable a distribution of action to all parts +of the body; whence it results that the exertion, falling on special +parts, produces fatigue sooner than it would else have done: to which, +in passing, let us add, that, if constantly repeated, this exertion of +special parts leads to a disproportionate development. Again, the +quantity of exercise thus taken will be deficient, not only in +consequence of uneven distribution; but <a name="page_138"></a> there +will be a further deficiency in consequence of lack of interest. Even +when not made repulsive, as they sometimes are by assuming the shape of +appointed lessons, these monotonous movements are sure to become +wearisome from the absence of amusement. Competition, it is true, serves +as a stimulus; but it is not a lasting stimulus, like that enjoyment +which accompanies varied play. The weightiest objection, however, still +remains. Besides being inferior in respect of the <i>quantity</i> of muscular +exertion which they secure, gymnastics are still more inferior in +respect of the <i>quality</i>. This comparative want of enjoyment which we +have named as a cause of early desistance from artificial exercises, is +also a cause of inferiority in the effects they produce on the system. +The common assumption that, so long as the amount of bodily action is +the same, it matters not whether it be pleasurable or otherwise, is a +grave mistake. An agreeable mental excitement has a highly invigorating +influence. See the effect produced upon an invalid by good news, or by +the visit of an old friend. Mark how careful medical men are to +recommend lively society to debilitated patients. Remember how +beneficial to health is the gratification produced by change of scene. +The truth is that happiness is the most powerful of tonics. By +accelerating the circulation of the blood, it facilitates the +performance of every function; and so tends alike to increase health +when it exists, and to restore it when it has been lost. Hence the +intrinsic superiority of play to gymnastics. The extreme interest felt +by children in their games, and the riotous glee with which they carry +on their rougher frolics, are of as much importance as the accompanying +exertion. And as not supplying these mental stimuli, gymnastics must be +radically defective.</p> + +<p>Granting then, as we do, that formal exercises of the limbs are +better than nothing—granting, further, that they may be used with +advantage as supplementary aids; we yet contend that they can never +serve in place of the exercises prompted by Nature. For girls, as well +as boys, the sportive activities to which the instincts impel, are +essential to bodily welfare. Whoever forbids them, forbids the +divinely-appointed means to physical development.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>A topic still remains—one perhaps more urgently demanding +consideration than any of the foregoing. It is asserted by not a few, +that among the educated classes the younger adults and those who are +verging on maturity, are neither so well grown <a name="page_139"></a> +nor so strong as their seniors. On first hearing this assertion, we +were inclined to class it as one of the many manifestations of the old +tendency to exalt the past at the expense of the present. Calling to +mind the facts that, as measured by ancient armour, modern men are +proved to be larger than ancient men; and that the tables of mortality +show no diminution, but rather an increase, in the duration of life, we +paid little attention to what seemed a groundless belief. Detailed +observation, however, has shaken our opinion. Omitting from the +comparison the labouring classes, we have noticed a majority of cases in +which the children do not reach the stature of their parents; and, in +massiveness, making due allowance for difference of age, there seems a +like inferiority. Medical men say that now-a-days people cannot bear +nearly so much depletion as in times gone by. Premature baldness is far +more common than it used to be. And an early decay of teeth occurs in +the rising generation with startling frequency. In general vigour the +contrast appears equally striking. Men of past generations, living +riotously as they did, could bear more than men of the present +generation, who live soberly, can bear. Though they drank hard, kept +irregular hours, were regardless of fresh air, and thought little of +cleanliness, our recent ancestors were capable of prolonged application +without injury, even to a ripe old age: witness the annals of the bench +and the bar. Yet we who think much about our bodily welfare; who eat +with moderation, and do not drink to excess; who attend to ventilation, +and use frequent ablutions; who make annual excursions, and have the +benefit of greater medical knowledge;—we are continually breaking +down under our work. Paying considerable attention to the laws of +health, we seem to be weaker than our grandfathers who, in many +respects, defied the laws of health. And, judging from the appearance +and frequent ailments of the rising generation, they are likely to be +even less robust than ourselves.</p> + +<p>What is the meaning of this? Is it that past over-feeding, alike of +adults and children, was less injurious than the under-feeding to which +we have adverted as now so general? Is it that the deficient clothing +which this delusive hardening-theory has encouraged, is to blame? Is it +that the greater or less discouragement of juvenile sports, in deference +to a false refinement is the cause? From our reasonings it may be +inferred that each of these has probably had a share in producing the +evil.<a href="#page_139_note_7"><sup>7</sup></a> But <a +name="page_140"></a> there has been yet another detrimental influence +at work, perhaps more potent than any of the others: we +mean—excess of mental application.</p> + +<p>On old and young, the pressure of modern life puts a still-increasing +strain. In all businesses and professions, intenser competition taxes +the energies and abilities of every adult; and, to fit the young to hold +their places under this intenser competition, they are subject to +severer discipline than heretofore. The damage is thus doubled. Fathers, +who find themselves run hard by their multiplying competitors, and, +while labouring under this disadvantage, have to maintain a more +expensive style of living, are all the year round obliged to work early +and late, taking little exercise and getting but short holidays. The +constitutions shaken by this continued over-application, they bequeath +to their children. And then these comparatively feeble children, +predisposed to break down even under ordinary strains on their energies, +are required to go through a <i>curriculum</i> much more extended than that +prescribed for the unenfeebled children of past generations.</p> + +<p>The disastrous consequences that might be anticipated, are everywhere +visible. Go where you will, and before long there come under your notice +cases of children or youths, of either sex, more or less injured by +undue study. Here, to recover from a state of debility thus produced, a +year's rustication has been found necessary. There you find a chronic +congestion of the brain, that has already lasted many months, and +threatens to last much longer. Now you hear of a fever that resulted +from the over-excitement in some way brought on at school. And again, +the instance is that of a youth who has already had once to desist from +his studies, and who, since his return to them, is frequently taken out +of his class in a fainting fit. We state facts—facts not sought +for, but which have been thrust on our observation during the last two +years; and that, too, within a very limited range. Nor have we by any +means exhausted the list. Quite recently we had the opportunity of +marking how the evil becomes hereditary: the case being that of a lady +of <a name="page_141"></a> robust parentage, whose system was so +injured by the <i>régime</i> of a Scotch boarding-school, where she was +under-fed and over-worked, that she invariably suffers from vertigo on +rising in the morning; and whose children, inheriting this enfeebled +brain, are several of them unable to bear even a moderate amount of +study without headache or giddiness. At the present time we have daily +under our eyes, a young lady whose system has been damaged for life by +the college-course through which she has passed. Taxed as she was to +such an extent that she had no energy left for exercise, she is, now +that she has finished her education, a constant complainant. Appetite +small and very capricious, mostly refusing meat; extremities perpetually +cold, even when the weather is warm; a feebleness which forbids anything +but the slowest walking, and that only for a short time; palpitation on +going upstairs; greatly impaired vision—these, joined with checked +growth and lax tissue, are among the results entailed. And to her case +we may add that of her friend and fellow-student; who is similarly weak; +who is liable to faint even under the excitement of a quiet party of +friends; and who has at length been obliged by her medical attendant to +desist from study entirely.</p> + +<p>If injuries so conspicuous are thus frequent, how very general must +be the smaller, and inconspicuous injuries! To one case where positive +illness is traceable to over-application, there are probably at least +half-a-dozen cases where the evil is unobtrusive and slowly +accumulating—cases where there is frequent derangement of the +functions, attributed to this or that special cause, or to +constitutional delicacy; cases where there is retardation and premature +arrest of bodily growth; cases where a latent tendency to consumption is +brought out and established; cases where a predisposition is given to +that now common cerebral disorder brought on by the labour of adult +life. How commonly health is thus undermined, will be clear to all who, +after noting the frequent ailments of hard-worked professional and +mercantile men, will reflect on the much worse effects which undue +application must produce on the undeveloped systems of children. The +young can bear neither so much hardship, nor so much physical exertion, +nor so much mental exertion, as the full grown. Judge, then, if the full +grown manifestly suffer from the excessive mental exertion required of +them, how great must be the damage which a mental exertion, often +equally excessive, inflicts on the young!</p> + +<p>Indeed, when we examine the merciless school drill frequently <a +name="page_142"></a> enforced, the wonder is, not that it does extreme +injury, but that it can be borne at all. Take the instance given by Sir +John Forbes, from personal knowledge; and which he asserts, after much +inquiry, to be an average sample of the middle-class girls'-school +system throughout England. Omitting detailed divisions of time, we quote +the summary of the twenty-four hours.</p> + +<table width="100%" summary="breakdown of a typical 24 hour period at a +girls' school"> + +<tr><td>In bed</td> <td align="right" valign="bottom">9</td> +<td> </td> <td valign="bottom">hours </td> <td +valign="bottom">(the younger 10)</td></tr> + +<tr><td>In school, at their studies and tasks</td> <td align="right" +valign="bottom">9</td> <td> </td> <td align="center" +valign="bottom">"</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td>In school, or in the house, the elder at optional studies or +work, the younger at play</td> <td align="right" valign="bottom">3</td> +<td valign="bottom">½</td> <td align="center" valign="bottom">"</td> <td +valign="bottom">(the younger 2½)</td></tr> + +<tr><td>At meals</td> <td align="right" valign="bottom">1</td> <td +valign="bottom">½</td> <td align="center" valign="bottom">"</td> +<td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td>Exercise in the open air, in the shape of a formal walk, often +with lesson-books in hand, and even this only when the weather is fine +at the appointed time.</td> <td align="right" valign="bottom">1</td> +<td> </td> <td align="center" valign="bottom">"</td> +<td> </td></tr> + +<tr> <td> </td> <td colspan="2" align="right"><hr></td> <td +colspan="2"> </td> + +<tr> <td> </td> <td align="right"> 24</td> <td +colspan="3"> </td> </tr> + +</table> + +<p>And what are the results of this "astounding regimen," as Sir John +Forbes terms it? Of course feebleness, pallor, want of spirits, general +ill-health. But he describes something more. This utter disregard of +physical welfare, out of extreme anxiety to cultivate the +mind—this prolonged exercise of brain and deficient exercise of +limbs,—he found to be habitually followed, not only by disordered +functions but by malformation. He says:—"We lately visited, in a +large town, a boarding-school containing forty girls; and we learnt, on +close and accurate inquiry, that there was <i>not one</i> of the girl who had +been at the school two years (and the majority had been as long) that +was not more or less <i>crooked</i>!"<a +href="#page_142_note_8"><sup>8</sup></a></p> + +<p>It may be that since 1833, when this was written, some improvement +has taken place. We hope it has. But that the system is still +common—nay, that it is in some cases carried to a greater extreme +than ever; we can personally testify. We recently went over a +training-college for young men: one of those instituted of late years +for the purpose of supplying schools with well-disciplined teachers. +Here, under official supervision, where something better than the +judgment of private school-mistresses might have been looked for, we +found the daily routine to be as follows:—</p> + +<table width="100%" summary="daily schedule at a teacher training +college"> + +<tr><td>At</td> <td>6 o'clock the students are called,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>7 to 8 studies,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>8 to 9 scripture-reading, +prayers, and breakfast,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>9 to 12 +studies,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>12 to 1¼ leisure, +nominally devoted to walking or other exercise, but often spent in +study,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><a name="page_143"></a>"</td> +<td>1¼ to 2 dinner, the meal commonly occupying twenty +minutes,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>2 to 5 studies,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>5 to 6 tea and +relaxation,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>6 to 8½ +studies,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>8½ to 9½ private studies +in preparing lessons for the next day,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">"</td> <td>10 to bed.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>Thus, out of the twenty-four hours, eight are devoted to sleep; four +and a quarter are occupied in dressing, prayers, meals, and the brief +periods of rest accompanying them; ten and a half are given to study; +and one and a quarter to exercise, which is optional and often avoided. +Not only, however, are the ten-and-a-half hours of recognised study +frequently increased to eleven-and-a-half by devoting to books the time +set apart for exercise; but some of the students get up at four o'clock +in the morning to prepare their lessons; and are actually encouraged by +their teachers to do this! The course to be passed through in a given +time is so extensive, and the teachers, whose credit is at stake in +getting their pupils well through the examinations, are so urgent, that +pupils are not uncommonly induced to spend twelve and thirteen hours a +day in mental labour!</p> + +<p>It needs no prophet to see that the bodily injury inflicted must be +great. As we were told by one of the inmates, those who arrive with +fresh complexions quickly become blanched. Illness is frequent: there +are always some on the sick-list. Failure of appetite and indigestion +are very common. Diarrhœa is a prevalent disorder: not uncommonly +a third of the whole number of students suffering under it at the same +time. Headache is generally complained of; and by some is borne almost +daily for months. While a certain percentage break down entirely and go +away.</p> + +<p>That this should be the regimen of what is in some sort a model +institution, established and superintended by the embodied enlightenment +of the age, is a startling fact. That the severe examinations, joined +with the short period assigned for preparation, should compel recourse +to a system which inevitably undermines the health of all who pass +through it, is proof, if not of cruelty, then of woeful ignorance.</p> + +<p>The case is no doubt in a great degree exceptional—perhaps to +be paralleled only in other institutions of the same class. But that +cases so extreme should exist at all, goes far to show that the minds of +the rising generation are greatly over-tasked. Expressing as they do the +ideas of the educated community, the requirements of these training +colleges, even in the absence of <a name="page_144"></a> other +evidence, would imply a prevailing tendency to an unduly urgent system +of culture.</p> + +<p>It seems strange that there should be so little consciousness of the +dangers of over-education during youth, when there is so general a +consciousness of the dangers of over-education during childhood. Most +parents are partially aware of the evil consequences that follow +infant-precocity. In every society may be heard reprobation of those who +too early stimulate the minds of their little ones. And the dread of +this early stimulation is great in proportion as there is adequate +knowledge of the effects: witness the implied opinion of one of our most +distinguished professors of physiology, who told us that he did not +intend his little boy to learn any lessons until he was eight years old. +But while to all it is a familiar truth that a forced development of +intelligence in childhood, entails either physical feebleness, or +ultimate stupidity, or early death; it appears not to be perceived that +throughout youth the same truth holds. Yet it unquestionably does so. +There is a given order in which, and a given rate at which, the +faculties unfold. If the course of education conforms itself to that +order and rate, well. If not—if the higher faculties are early +taxed by presenting an order of knowledge more complex and abstract than +can be readily assimilated; or if, by excess of culture, the intellect +in general is developed to a degree beyond that which is natural to its +age; the abnormal advantage gained will inevitably be accompanied by +some equivalent, or more than equivalent, evil.</p> + +<p>For Nature is a strict accountant; and if you demand of her in one +direction more than she is prepared to lay out, she balances the account +by making a deduction elsewhere. If you will let her follow her own +course, taking care to supply, in right quantities and kinds, the raw +materials of bodily and mental growth required at each age, she will +eventually produce an individual more or less evenly developed. If, +however, you insist on premature or undue growth of any one part, she +will, with more or less protest, concede the point; but that she may do +your extra work, she must leave some of her more important work undone. +Let it never be forgotten that the amount of vital energy which the body +at any moment possesses, is limited; and that, being limited, it is +impossible to get from it more than a fixed quantity of results. In a +child or youth the demands upon this vital energy are various and +urgent. As before pointed out, the waste consequent on the day's bodily +exercise has to be met; the wear of brain entailed by the day's study <a +name="page_145"></a> has to be made good; a certain additional growth +of body has to be provided for; and also a certain additional growth of +brain: to which must be added the amount of energy absorbed in digesting +the large quantity of food required for meeting these many demands. Now, +that to divert an excess of energy into any one of these channels is to +abstract it from the others, is both manifest <i>à priori</i>, and proved <i>à +posteriori</i>, by the experience of every one. Every one knows, for +instance, that the digestion of a heavy meal makes such a demand on the +system as to produce lassitude of mind and body, frequently ending in +sleep. Every one knows, too, that excess of bodily exercise diminishes +the power of thought—that the temporary prostration following any +sudden exertion, or the fatigue produced by a thirty miles' walk, is +accompanied by a disinclination to mental effort; that, after a month's +pedestrian tour, the mental inertia is such that some days are required +to overcome it; and that in peasants who spend their lives in muscular +labour the activity of mind is very small. Again, it is a familiar truth +that during those fits of rapid growth which sometimes occur in +childhood, the great abstraction of energy is shown in an attendant +prostration, bodily and mental. Once more, the facts that violent +muscular exertion after eating, will stop digestion; and that children +who are early put to hard labour become stunted; similarly exhibit the +antagonism—similarly imply that excess of activity in one +direction involves deficiency of it in other directions. Now, the law +which is thus manifest in extreme cases, holds in all cases. These +injurious abstractions of energy as certainly take place when the undue +demands are slight and constant, as when they are great and sudden. +Hence, if during youth the expenditure in mental labour exceeds that +which Nature has provided for; the expenditure for other purposes falls +below what it should have been; and evils of one kind or other are +inevitably entailed. Let us briefly consider these evils.</p> + +<p>Supposing the over-activity of brain to exceed the normal activity +only in a moderate degree, there will be nothing more than some slight +reaction on the development of the body: the stature falling a little +below that which it would else have reached; or the bulk being less than +it would have been; or the quality of tissue not being so good. One or +more of these effects must necessarily occur. The extra quantity of +blood supplied to the brain during mental exertion, and during the +subsequent period in which the waste of cerebral substance is being made +good, is blood that would else have been circulating <a +name="page_146"></a> through the limbs and viscera; and the growth or +repair for which that blood would have supplied materials, is lost. The +physical reaction being certain, the question is, whether the gain +resulting from the extra culture is equivalent to the +loss?—whether defect of bodily growth, or the want of that +structural perfection which gives vigour and endurance, is compensated +by the additional knowledge acquired?</p> + +<p>When the excess of mental exertion is greater, there follow results +far more serious; telling not only against bodily perfection, but +against the perfection of the brain itself. It is a physiological law, +first pointed out by M. Isidore St. Hilaire, and to which attention has +been drawn by Mr. Lewes in his essay on "Dwarfs and Giants," that there +is an antagonism between <i>growth</i> and <i>development</i>. By growth, as used +in this antithetical sense, is to be understood <i>increase of size</i>; by +development, <i>increase of structure</i>. And the law is, that great +activity in either of these processes involves retardation or arrest of +the other. A familiar example is furnished by the cases of the +caterpillar and the chrysalis. In the caterpillar there is extremely +rapid augmentation of bulk; but the structure is scarcely at all more +complex when the caterpillar is full-grown than when it is small. In the +chrysalis the bulk does not increase; on the contrary, weight is lost +during this stage of the creature's life; but the elaboration of a more +complex structure goes on with great activity. The antagonism, here so +clear, is less traceable in higher creatures, because the two processes +are carried on together. But we see it pretty well illustrated among +ourselves when we contrast the sexes. A girl develops in body and mind +rapidly, and ceases to grow comparatively early. A boy's bodily and +mental development is slower, and his growth greater. At the age when +the one is mature, finished, and having all faculties in full play, the +other, whose vital energies have been more directed towards increase of +size, is relatively incomplete in structure; and shows it in a +comparative awkwardness, bodily and mental. Now this law is true of each +separate part of the organism, as well as of the whole. The abnormally +rapid advance of any organ in respect of structure, involves premature +arrest of its growth; and this happens with the organ of the mind as +certainly as with any other organ. The brain, which during early years +is relatively large in mass but imperfect in structure, will, if +required to perform its functions with undue activity, undergo a +structural advance greater than is appropriate to its age; but the +ultimate effect <a name="page_147"></a> will be a falling short of the +size and power that would else have been attained. And this is a +part-cause—probably the chief cause—why precocious children, +and youths who up to a certain time were carrying all before them, so +often stop short and disappoint the high hopes of their parents.</p> + +<p>But these results of over-education, disastrous as they are, are +perhaps less disastrous than the effects produced on the +health—the undermined constitution, the enfeebled energies, the +morbid feelings. Recent discoveries in physiology have shown how immense +is the influence of the brain over the functions of the body. Digestion, +circulation, and through these all other organic processes, are +profoundly affected by cerebral excitement. Whoever has seen repeated, +as we have, the experiment first performed by Weber, showing the +consequence of irritating the <i>vagus</i> nerve, which connects the brain +with the viscera—whoever has seen the action of the heart suddenly +arrested by irritating this nerve; slowly recommencing when the +irritation is suspended; and again arrested the moment it is renewed; +will have a vivid conception of the depressing influence which an +over-wrought brain exercises on the body. The effects thus +physiologically explained, are indeed exemplified in ordinary +experience. There is no one but has felt the palpitation accompanying +hope, fear, anger, joy—no one but has observed how laboured +becomes the action of the heart when these feelings are violent. And +though there are many who have never suffered that extreme emotional +excitement which is followed by arrest of the heart's action and +fainting; yet every one knows these to be cause and effect. It is a +familiar fact, too, that disturbance of the stomach results from mental +excitement exceeding a certain intensity. Loss of appetite is a common +consequence alike of very pleasurable and very painful states of mind. +When the event producing a pleasurable or painful state of mind occurs +shortly after a meal, it not unfrequently happens either that the +stomach rejects what has been eaten, or digests it with great difficulty +and under protest. And as every one who taxes his brain much can +testify, even purely intellectual action will, when excessive, produce +analogous effects. Now the relation between brain and body which is so +manifest in these extreme cases, holds equally in ordinary, less-marked +cases. Just as these violent but temporary cerebral excitements produce +violent but temporary disturbances of the viscera; so do the less +violent but chronic cerebral excitements produce less violent but +chronic <a name="page_148"></a> visceral disturbances. This is not +simply an inference:—it is a truth to which every medical man can +bear witness; and it is one to which a long and sad experience enables +us to give personal testimony. Various degrees and forms of bodily +derangement, often taking years of enforced idleness to set partially +right, result from this prolonged over-exertion of mind. Sometimes the +heart is chiefly affected: habitual palpitations; a pulse much +enfeebled; and very generally a diminution in the number of beats from +seventy-two to sixty, or even fewer. Sometimes the conspicuous disorder +is of the stomach: a dyspepsia which makes life a burden, and is +amenable to no remedy but time. In many cases both heart and stomach are +implicated. Mostly the sleep is short and broken. And very generally +there is more or less mental depression.</p> + +<p>Consider, then, how great must be the damage inflicted by undue +mental excitement on children and youths. More or less of this +constitutional disturbance will inevitably follow an exertion of brain +beyond the normal amount; and when not so excessive as to produce +absolute illness, is sure to entail a slowly accumulating degeneracy of +<i>physique</i>. With a small and fastidious appetite, an imperfect +digestion, and an enfeebled circulation, how can the developing body +flourish? The due performance of every vital process depends on an +adequate supply of good blood. Without enough good blood, no gland can +secrete properly, no viscus can fully discharge its office. Without +enough good blood, no nerve, muscle, membrane, or other tissue can be +efficiently repaired. Without enough good blood, growth will neither be +sound nor sufficient. Judge, then, how bad must be the consequences when +to a growing body the weakened stomach supplies blood that is deficient +in quantity and poor in quality; while the debilitated heart propels +this poor and scanty blood with unnatural slowness.</p> + +<p>And if, as all who investigate the matter must admit, physical +degeneracy is a consequence of excessive study, how grave is the +condemnation to be passed on this cramming-system above exemplified. It +is a terrible mistake, from whatever point of view regarded. It is a +mistake in so far as the mere acquirement of knowledge is concerned. For +the mind, like the body, cannot assimilate beyond a certain rate; and if +you ply it with facts faster than it can assimilate them, they are soon +rejected again: instead of being built into the intellectual fabric, +they fall out of recollection after the passing of the examination for +which they were got up. It is a mistake, too, because it <a +name="page_149"></a> tends to make study distasteful. Either through +the painful associations produced by ceaseless mental toil, or through +the abnormal state of brain it leaves behind, it often generates an +aversion to books; and, instead of that subsequent self-culture induced +by rational education, there comes continued retrogression. It is a +mistake, also, inasmuch as it assumes that the acquisition of knowledge +is everything; and forgets that a much more important thing is the +organisation of knowledge, for which time and spontaneous thinking are +requisite. As Humboldt remarks respecting the progress of intelligence +in general, that "the interpretation of Nature is obscured when the +description languishes under too great an accumulation of insulated +facts;" so, it may be remarked respecting the progress of individual +intelligence, that the mind is over-burdened and hampered by an excess +of ill-digested information. It is not the knowledge stored up as +intellectual fat which is of value; but that which is turned into +intellectual muscle. The mistake goes still deeper however. Even were +the system good as producing intellectual efficiency, which it is not, +it would still be bad, because, as we have shown, it is fatal to that +vigour of <i>physique</i> needful to make intellectual training available in +the struggle of life. Those who, in eagerness to cultivate their pupils' +minds, are reckless of their bodies, do not remember that success in the +world depends more on energy than on information; and that a policy +which in cramming with information undermines energy, is self-defeating. +The strong will and untiring activity due to abundant animal vigour, go +far to compensate even great defects of education; and when joined with +that quite adequate education which may be obtained without sacrificing +health, they ensure an easy victory over competitors enfeebled by +excessive study: prodigies of learning though they may be. A +comparatively small and ill-made engine, worked at high pressure, will +do more than a large and well-finished one worked at low-pressure. What +folly is it, then, while finishing the engine, so to damage the boiler +that it will not generate steam! Once more, the system is a mistake, as +involving a false estimate of welfare in life. Even supposing it were a +means to worldly success, instead of a means to worldly failure, yet, in +the entailed ill-health, it would inflict a more than equivalent curse. +What boots it to have attained wealth, if the wealth is accompanied by +ceaseless ailments? What is the worth of distinction, if it has brought +hypochondria with it? Surely no one needs telling that a good digestion, +a bounding pulse, and high spirits, are <a name="page_150"></a> +elements of happiness which no external advantages can out-balance. +Chronic bodily disorder casts a gloom over the brightest prospects; +while the vivacity of strong health gilds even misfortune. We contend, +then, that this over-education is vicious in every way—vicious, as +giving knowledge that will soon be forgotten; vicious, as producing a +disgust for knowledge; vicious, as neglecting that organisation of +knowledge which is more important than its acquisition; vicious, as +weakening or destroying that energy without which a trained intellect is +useless; vicious, as entailing that ill-health for which even success +would not compensate, and which makes failure doubly bitter. On women +the effects of this forcing system are, if possible, even more injurious +than on men. Being in great measure debarred from those vigorous and +enjoyable exercises of body by which boys mitigate the evils of +excessive study, girls feel these evils in their full intensity. Hence, +the much smaller proportion of them who grow up well-made and healthy. +In the pale, angular, flat-chested young ladies, so abundant in London +drawing-rooms, we see the effect of merciless application, unrelieved by +youthful sports; and this physical degeneracy hinders their welfare far +more than their many accomplishments aid it. Mammas anxious to make +their daughters attractive, could scarcely choose a course more fatal +than this, which sacrifices the body to the mind. Either they disregard +the tastes of the opposite sex, or else their conception of those tastes +is erroneous. Men care little for erudition in women; but very much for +physical beauty, good nature, and sound sense. How many conquests does +the blue-stocking make through her extensive knowledge of history? What +man ever fell in love with a woman because she understood Italian? Where +is the Edwin who was brought to Angelina's feet by her German? But rosy +cheeks and laughing eyes are great attractions. A finely rounded figure +draws admiring glances. The liveliness and good humour that overflowing +health produces, go a great way towards establishing attachments. Every +one knows cases where bodily perfections, in the absence of all other +recommendations, have incited a passion that carried all before it; but +scarcely any one can point to a case where intellectual acquirements, +apart from moral or physical attributes, have aroused such a feeling. +The truth is that, out of the many elements uniting in various +proportions to produce in a man's breast the complex emotion we call +love, the strongest are those produced by physical attractions; the next +in order of strength <a name="page_151"></a> are those produced by +moral attractions; the weakest are those produced by intellectual +attractions; and even these are dependent less on acquired knowledge +than on natural faculty—quickness, wit, insight. If any think the +assertion a derogatory one, and inveigh against the masculine character +for being thus swayed; we reply that they little know what they say when +they thus call in question the Divine ordinations. Even were there no +obvious meaning in the arrangement, we might be sure that some important +end was subserved. But the meaning is quite obvious to those who +examine. When we remember that one of Nature's ends, or rather her +supreme end, is the welfare of posterity; further that, in so far as +posterity are concerned, a cultivated intelligence based on a bad +<i>physique</i> is of little worth, since its descendants will die out in a +generation or two; and conversely that a good <i>physique</i>, however poor +the accompanying mental endowments, is worth preserving, because, +throughout future generations, the mental endowments may be indefinitely +developed; we perceive how important is the balance of instincts above +described. But, advantage apart, the instincts being thus balanced, it +is folly to persist in a system which undermines a girl's constitution +that it may overload her memory. Educate as highly as possible—the +higher the better—providing no bodily injury is entailed (and we +may remark, in passing, that a sufficiently high standard might be +reached were the parrot-faculty cultivated less, and the human faculty +more, and were the discipline extended over that now wasted period +between leaving school and being married). But to educate in such +manner, or to such extent, as to produce physical degeneracy, is to +defeat the chief end for which the toil and cost and anxiety are +submitted to. By subjecting their daughters to this high-pressure +system, parents frequently ruin their prospects in life. Besides +inflicting on them enfeebled health, with all its pains and disabilities +and gloom; they not unfrequently doom them to celibacy.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>The physical education of children is thus, in various ways, +seriously faulty. It errs in deficient feeding; in deficient clothing; +in deficient exercise (among girls at least); and in excessive mental +application. Considering the regime as a whole, its tendency is too +exacting: it asks too much and gives too little. In the extent to which +it taxes the vital energies, it makes the juvenile life far more like +the adult life than it should be. It overlooks the truth that, as in the +fœtus the entire vitality is <a name="page_152"></a> expended in +growth—as in the infant, the expenditure of vitality in growth is +so great as to leave extremely little for either physical or mental +action; so throughout childhood and youth, growth is the dominant +requirement to which all others must be subordinated: a requirement +which dictates the giving of much and the taking away of little—a +requirement which, therefore, restricts the exertion of body and mind in +proportion to the rapidity of growth—a requirement which permits +the mental and physical activities to increase only as fast as the rate +of growth diminishes.</p> + +<p>The <i>rationale</i> of this high-pressure education is that it results +from our passing phase of civilisation. In primitive times, when +aggression and defence were the leading social activities, bodily vigour +with its accompanying courage were the desiderata; and then education +was almost wholly physical: mental cultivation was little cared for, and +indeed, as in feudal ages, was often treated with contempt. But now that +our state is relatively peaceful—now that muscular power is of use +for little else than manual labour, while social success of nearly every +kind depends very much on mental power; our education has become almost +exclusively mental. Instead of respecting the body and ignoring the +mind, we now respect the mind and ignore the body. Both these attitudes +are wrong. We do not yet realise the truth that as, in this life of +ours, the physical underlies the mental, the mental must not be +developed at the expense of the physical. The ancient and modern +conceptions must be combined.</p> + +<p>Perhaps nothing will so much hasten the time when body and mind will +both be adequately cared for, as a diffusion of the belief that the +preservation of health is a <i>duty</i>. Few seem conscious that there is +such a thing as physical morality. Men's habitual words and acts imply +the idea that they are at liberty to treat their bodies as they please. +Disorders entailed by disobedience to Nature's dictates, they regard +simply as grievances: not as the effects of a conduct more or less +flagitious. Though the evil consequences inflicted on their dependents, +and on future generations, are often as great as those caused by crime; +yet they do not think themselves in any degree criminal. It is true +that, in the case of drunkenness, the viciousness of a bodily +transgression is recognised; but none appear to infer that, if this +bodily transgression is vicious, so too is every bodily transgression. +The fact is, that all breaches of the laws of health are <i>physical +sins</i>. When this is generally seen, then, and perhaps not till then, +will the physical training of the young receive the attention it +deserves.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_119_note_1"></a><a href="#page_119">Footnote +1</a>: <i>Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine.</i></small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_120_note_2"></a><a href="#page_120">Footnote +2</a>: <i>Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine.</i></small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_129_note_3"></a><a href="#page_129">Footnote +3</a>: <i>Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology.</i></small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_130_note_4"></a><a href="#page_130">Footnote +4</a>: Morton's <i>Cyclopædia of Agriculture</i>.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_132_note_5"></a><a href="#page_132">Footnote +5</a>: Morton's <i>Cyclopædia of Agriculture</i>.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_135_note_6"></a><a href="#page_135">Footnote +6</a>: It is needful to remark that children whose legs and arms have +been from the beginning habitually without covering, cease to be +conscious that the exposed surfaces are cold; just as by use we have all +ceased to be conscious that our faces are cold, even when out of doors. +But though in such children the sensations no longer protest, it does +not follow that the system escapes injury, any more than it follows that +the Fuegian is undamaged by exposure, because he bears with indifference +the melting of the falling snow on his naked body.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_139_note_7"></a><a href="#page_139">Footnote +7</a>: We are not certain that the propagation of subdued forms of +constitutional disease through the agency of vaccination is not a part +cause. Sundry facts in pathology suggest the inference, that when the +system of a vaccinated child is excreting the vaccine virus by means of +pustules, it will tend also to excrete through such pustules other +morbific matters; especially if these morbific matters are of a kind +ordinarily got rid of by the skin, as are some of the worst of them. +Hence it is very possible—probable even—that a child with a +constitutional taint, too slight to show itself in visible disease, may, +through the medium of vitiated vaccine lymph taken from it, convey a +like constitutional taint to other children, and these to +others.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_142_note_8"></a><a href="#page_142">Footnote +8</a>: <i>Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine</i>, vol. i. pp. 697, +698.</small></p> + + + + + +<center><a name="page_153"></a><h2>PART II</h2> + + + + +<h2>PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE<a +href="#page_153_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2></center> + + +<p>The current conception of Progress is somewhat shifting and +indefinite. Sometimes it comprehends little more than simple +growth—as of a nation in the number of its members and the extent +of territory over which it has spread. Sometimes it has reference to +quantity of material products—as when the advance of agriculture +and manufactures is the topic. Sometimes the superior quality of these +products is contemplated: and sometimes the new or improved appliances +by which they are produced. When, again, we speak of moral or +intellectual progress, we refer to the state of the individual or people +exhibiting it; while, when the progress of Knowledge, of Science, of +Art, is commented upon, we have in view certain abstract results of +human thought and action. Not only, however, is the current conception +of Progress more or less vague, but it is in great measure erroneous. It +takes in not so much the reality of Progress as its +accompaniments—not so much the substance as the shadow. That +progress in intelligence seen during the growth of the child into the +man, or the savage into the philosopher, is commonly regarded as +consisting in the greater number of facts known and laws understood: +whereas the actual progress consists in those internal modifications of +which this increased knowledge is the expression. Social progress is +supposed to consist in the produce of a greater quantity and variety of +the articles required for satisfying men's wants; in the increasing +security of person and property; in widening freedom of action: whereas, +rightly understood, social progress consists in those changes of +structure in the social organism which have entailed these consequences. +The current conception is a teleological one. The phenomena are +contemplated solely as bearing on human happiness. Only those changes +are held to constitute progress which directly or indirectly tend to +heighten human happiness. And they are thought to constitute progress +simply <i>because</i> they tend to heighten human happiness. But rightly <a +name="page_154"></a> to understand progress, we must inquire what is +the nature of these changes, considered apart from our interests. +Ceasing, for example, to regard the successive geological modifications +that have taken place in the Earth, as modifications that have gradually +fitted it for the habitation of Man, and as <i>therefore</i> a geological +progress, we must seek to determine the character common to the +modifications—the law to which they all conform. And similarly in +every other case. Leaving out of sight concomitants and beneficial +consequences, let us ask what Progress is in itself.</p> + +<p>In respect to that progress which individual organisms display in the +course of their evolution, this question has been answered by the +Germans. The investigations of Wolff, Goethe, and Von Baer, have +established the truth that the series of changes gone through during the +development of a seed into a tree, or an ovum into an animal, constitute +an advance from homogeneity of structure to heterogeneity of structure. +In its primary stage, every germ consists of a substance that is uniform +throughout, both in texture and chemical composition. The first step is +the appearance of a difference between two parts of this substance; or, +as the phenomenon is called in physiological language, a +differentiation. Each of these differentiated divisions presently begins +itself to exhibit some contrast of parts; and by and by these secondary +differentiations become as definite as the original one. This process is +continuously repeated—is simultaneously going on in all parts of +the growing embryo; and by endless such differentiations there is +finally produced that complex combination of tissues and organs +constituting the adult animal or plant. This is the history of all +organisms whatever. It is settled beyond dispute that organic progress +consists in a change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous.</p> + +<p>Now, we propose in the first place to show, that this law of organic +progress is the law of all progress. Whether it be in the development of +the Earth, in the development of Life upon its surface, in the +development of Society, of Government, of Manufactures, of Commerce, of +Language, Literature, Science, Art, this same evolution of the simple +into the complex, through successive differentiations, holds throughout. +From the earliest traceable cosmical changes down to the latest results +of civilisation, we shall find that the transformation of the +homogeneous into the heterogeneous, is that in which Progress +essentially consists.</p> + +<p>With the view of showing that <i>if</i> the Nebular Hypothesis be <a +name="page_155"></a> true, the genesis of the solar system supplies one +illustration of this law, let us assume that the matter of which the sun +and planets consist was once in a diffused form; and that from the +gravitation of its atoms there resulted a gradual concentration. By the +hypothesis, the solar system in its nascent state existed as an +indefinitely extended and nearly homogeneous medium—a medium +almost homogeneous in density, in temperature, and in other physical +attributes. The first advance towards consolidation resulted in a +differentiation between the occupied space which the nebulous mass still +filled, and the unoccupied space which it previously filled. There +simultaneously resulted a contrast in density and a contrast in +temperature, between the interior and the exterior of this mass. And at +the same time there arose throughout it rotatory movements, whose +velocities varied according to their distances from its centre. These +differentiations increased in number and degree until there was the +organised group of sun, planets, and satellites, which we now +know—a group which represents numerous contrasts of structure and +action among its members. There are the immense contrasts between the +sun and planets, in bulk and in weight; as well as the subordinate +contrasts between one planet and another, and between the planets and +their satellites. There is the similarly marked contrast between the sun +as almost stationary, and the planets as moving round him with great +velocity; while there are the secondary contrasts between the velocities +and periods of the several planets, and between their simple revolutions +and the double ones of their satellites, which have to move round their +primaries while moving round the sun. There is the yet further strong +contrast between the sun and the planets in respect of temperature; and +there is reason to suppose that the planets and satellites differ from +each other in their proper heat, as well as in the heat they receive +from the sun.</p> + +<p>When we bear in mind that, in addition to these various contrasts, +the planets and satellites also differ in respect to their distances +from each other and their primary; in respect to the inclinations of +their orbits, the inclinations of their axes, their times of rotation on +their axes, their specific gravities, and their physical constitutions; +we see what a high degree of heterogeneity the solar system exhibits, +when compared with the almost complete homogeneity of the nebulous mass +out of which it is supposed to have originated.</p> + +<p>Passing from this hypothetical illustration, which must be <a +name="page_156"></a> taken for what it is worth, without prejudice to +the general argument, let us descend to a more certain order of +evidence. It is now generally agreed among geologists that the Earth was +at first a mass of molten matter; and that it is still fluid and +incandescent at the distance of a few miles beneath its surface. +Originally, then, it was homogeneous in consistence, and, in virtue of +the circulation that takes place in heated fluids, must have been +comparatively homogeneous in temperature; and it must have been +surrounded by an atmosphere consisting partly of the elements of air and +water, and partly of those various other elements which assume a gaseous +form at high temperatures. That slow cooling by radiation which is still +going on at an inappreciable rate, and which, though originally far more +rapid than now, necessarily required an immense time to produce any +decided change, must ultimately have resulted in the solidification of +the portion most able to part with its heat—namely, the surface. +In the thin crust thus formed we have the first marked differentiation. +A still further cooling, a consequent thickening of this crust, and an +accompanying deposition of all solidifiable elements contained in the +atmosphere, must finally have been followed by the condensation of the +water previously existing as vapour. A second marked differentiation +must thus have arisen: and as the condensation must have taken place on +the coolest parts of the surface—namely, about the +poles—there must thus have resulted the first geographical +distinction of parts. To these illustrations of growing heterogeneity, +which, though deduced from the known laws of matter, may be regarded as +more or less hypothetical, Geology adds an extensive series that have +been inductively established. Its investigations show that the Earth has +been continually becoming more heterogeneous in virtue of the +multiplication of the strata which form its crust; further, that it has +been becoming more heterogeneous in respect of the composition of these +strata, the latter of which, being made from the detritus of the older +ones, are many of them rendered highly complex by the mixture of +materials they contain; and that this heterogeneity has been vastly +increased by the action of the Earth's still molten nucleus upon its +envelope, whence have resulted not only a great variety of igneous +rocks, but the tilting up of sedimentary strata at all angles, the +formation of faults and metallic veins, the production of endless +dislocations and irregularities. Yet again, geologists teach us that the +Earth's surface has been growing more varied in elevation—that the +most ancient mountain systems are the smallest, and <a +name="page_157"></a> the Andes and Himalayas the most modern; while in +all probability there have been corresponding changes in the bed of the +ocean. As a consequence of these ceaseless differentiations, we now find +that no considerable portion of the Earth's exposed surface is like any +other portion, either in contour, in geologic structure, or in chemical +composition; and that in most parts it changes from mile to mile in all +these characteristics.</p> + +<p>Moreover, it must not be forgotten that there has been simultaneously +going on a gradual differentiation of climates. As fast as the Earth +cooled and its crust solidified, there arose appreciable differences in +temperature between those parts of its surface most exposed to the sun +and those less exposed. Gradually, as the cooling progressed, these +differences became more pronounced; until there finally resulted those +marked contrasts between regions of perpetual ice and snow, regions +where winter and summer alternately reign for periods varying according +to the latitude, and regions where summer follows summer with scarcely +an appreciable variation. At the same time the successive elevations and +subsidences of different portions of the Earth's crust, tending as they +have done to the present irregular distribution of land and sea, have +entailed various modifications of climate beyond those dependent on +latitude; while a yet further series of such modifications have been +produced by increasing differences of elevation in the land, which have +in sundry places brought arctic, temperate, and tropical climates to +within a few miles of each other. And the general result of these +changes is, that not only has every extensive region its own +meteorologic conditions, but that every locality in each region differs +more or less from others in those conditions, as in its structure, its +contour, its soil. Thus, between our existing Earth, the phenomena of +whose varied crust neither geographers, geologists, mineralogists, nor +meteorologists have yet enumerated, and the molten globe out of which it +was evolved, the contrast in heterogeneity is sufficiently striking.</p> + +<p>When from the Earth itself we turn to the plants and animals that +have lived, or still live, upon its surface, we find ourselves in some +difficulty from lack of facts. That every existing organism has been +developed out of the simple into the complex, is indeed the first +established truth of all; and that every organism that has existed was +similarly developed, is an inference which no physiologist will hesitate +to draw. But when we pass from individual forms of life to Life in +general, and inquire whether the same law is seen in the <i>ensemble</i> of +its manifestations,—whether <a name="page_158"></a> modern plants +and animals are of more heterogeneous structure than ancient ones, and +whether the earth's present Flora and Fauna are more heterogeneous than +the Flora and Fauna of the past,—we find the evidence so +fragmentary, that every conclusion is open to dispute. Two-thirds of the +Earth's surface being covered by water; a great part of the exposed land +being inaccessible to, or untravelled by, the geologist; the greater +part of the remainder having been scarcely more than glanced at; and +even the most familiar portions, as England, having been so imperfectly +explored that a new series of strata has been added within these four +years,—it is manifestly impossible for us to say with any +certainty what creatures have, and what have not, existed at any +particular period. Considering the perishable nature of many of the +lower organic forms, the metamorphosis of many sedimentary strata, and +the gaps that occur among the rest, we shall see further reason for +distrusting our deductions. On the one hand, the repeated discovery of +vertebrate remains in strata previously supposed to contain +none,—of reptiles where only fish were thought to exist,—of +mammals where it was believed there were no creatures higher than +reptiles,—renders it daily more manifest how small is the value of +negative evidence.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the worthlessness of the assumption that we have +discovered the earliest, or anything like the earliest, organic remains, +is becoming equally clear. That the oldest known sedimentary rocks have +been greatly changed by igneous action, and that still older ones have +been totally transformed by it, is becoming undeniable. And the fact +that sedimentary strata earlier than any we know, have been melted up, +being admitted, it must also be admitted that we cannot say how far back +in time this destruction of sedimentary strata has been going on. Thus +it is manifest that the title, <i>Palæozoic</i>, as applied to the earliest +known fossiliferous strata, involves a <i>petitio principii</i>; and that, +for aught we know to the contrary, only the last few chapters of the +Earth's biological history may have come down to us. On neither side, +therefore, is the evidence conclusive. Nevertheless we cannot but think +that, scanty as they are, the facts, taken altogether, tend to show both +that the more heterogeneous organisms have been evolved in the later +geologic periods, and that Life in general has been more heterogeneously +manifested as time has advanced. Let us cite, in illustration, the one +case of the <i>vertebrata</i>. The earliest known vertebrate remains are +those of Fishes; and <a name="page_159"></a> Fishes are the most +homogeneous of the vertebrata. Later and more heterogeneous are +Reptiles. Later still, and more heterogeneous still, are Mammals and +Birds. If it be said, as it may fairly be said, that the Palæozoic +deposits, not being estuary deposits, are not likely to contain the +remains of terrestrial vertebrata, which may nevertheless have existed +at that era, we reply that we are merely pointing to the leading facts, +<i>such as they are</i>.</p> + +<p>But to avoid any such criticism, let us take the mammalian +subdivision only. The earliest known remains of mammals are those of +small marsupials, which are the lowest of the mammalian type; while, +conversely, the highest of the mammalian type—Man—is the +most recent. The evidence that the vertebrate fauna, as a whole, has +become more heterogeneous, is considerably stronger. To the argument +that the vertebrate fauna of the Palæozoic period, consisting, so far as +we know, entirely of Fishes, was less heterogeneous than the modern +vertebrate fauna, which includes Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, of +multitudinous genera, it may be replied, as before, that estuary +deposits of the Palæozoic period, could we find them, might contain +other orders of vertebrata. But no such reply can be made to the +argument that whereas the marine vertebrata of the Palæozoic period +consisted entirely of cartilaginous fishes, the marine vertebrata of +later periods include numerous genera of osseous fishes; and that, +therefore, the later marine vertebrate faunas are more heterogeneous +than the oldest known one. Nor, again, can any such reply be made to the +fact that there are far more numerous orders and genera of mammalian +remains in the tertiary formations than in the secondary formations. Did +we wish merely to make out the best case, we might dwell upon the +opinion of Dr. Carpenter, who says that "the general facts of +Palæontology appear to sanction the belief, that <i>the same plan</i> may be +traced out in what may be called <i>the general life of the globe</i>, as in +<i>the individual life</i> of every one of the forms of organised being which +now people it." Or we might quote, as decisive, the judgment of +Professor Owen, who holds that the earlier examples of each group of +creatures severally departed less widely from archetypal generality than +the later ones—were severally less unlike the fundamental form +common to the group as a whole; that is to say—constituted a less +heterogeneous group of creatures; and who further upholds the doctrine +of a biological progression. But in deference to an authority for whom +we have the highest respect, who considers <a name="page_160"></a> that +the evidence at present obtained does not justify a verdict either way, +we are content to leave the question open.</p> + +<p>Whether an advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is or is +not displayed in the biological history of the globe, it is clearly +enough displayed in the progress of the latest and most heterogeneous +creature—Man. It is alike true that, during the period in which +the Earth has been peopled, the human organism has grown more +heterogeneous among the civilised divisions of the species; and that the +species, as a whole, has been growing more heterogeneous in virtue of +the multiplication of races and the differentiation of these races from +each other.</p> + +<p>In proof of the first of these positions, we may cite the fact that, +in the relative development of the limbs, the civilised man departs more +widely from the general type of the placental mammalia than do the lower +human races. While often possessing well-developed body and arms, the +Papuan has extremely small legs: thus reminding us of the quadrumana, in +which there is no great contrast in size between the hind and fore +limbs. But in the European, the greater length and massiveness of the +legs has become very marked—the fore and hind limbs are relatively +more heterogeneous. Again, the greater ratio which the cranial bones +bear to the facial bones illustrates the same truth. Among the +vertebrata in general, progress is marked by an increasing heterogeneity +in the vertebral column, and more especially in the vertebræ +constituting the skull: the higher forms being distinguished by the +relatively larger size of the bones which cover the brain, and the +relatively smaller size of those which form the jaw, etc. Now, this +characteristic, which is stronger in Man than in any other creature, is +stronger in the European than in the savage. Moreover, judging from the +greater extent and variety of faculty he exhibits, we may infer that the +civilised man has also a more complex or heterogeneous nervous system +than the uncivilised man: and indeed the fact is in part visible in the +increased ratio which his cerebrum bears to the subjacent ganglia.</p> + +<p>If further elucidation be needed, we may find it in every nursery. +The infant European has sundry marked points of resemblance to the lower +human races; as in the flatness of the alæ of the nose, the depression +of its bridge, the divergence and forward opening of the nostrils, the +form of the lips, the absence of a frontal sinus, the width between the +eyes, the smallness of the legs. Now, as the development process by +which <a name="page_161"></a> these traits are turned into those of the +adult European, is a continuation of that change from the homogeneous to +the heterogeneous displayed during the previous evolution of the embryo, +which every physiologist will admit; it follows that the parallel +developmental process by which the like traits of the barbarous races +have been turned into those of the civilised races, has also been a +continuation of the change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. +The truth of the second position—that Mankind, as a whole, have +become more heterogeneous—is so obvious as scarcely to need +illustration. Every work on Ethnology, by its divisions and subdivisions +of races, bears testimony to it. Even were we to admit the hypothesis +that Mankind originated from several separate stocks, it would still +remain true, that as, from each of these stocks, there have sprung many +now widely different tribes, which are proved by philological evidence +to have had a common origin, the race as a whole is far less homogeneous +than it once was. Add to which, that we have, in the Anglo-Americans, an +example of a new variety arising within these few generations; and that, +if we may trust to the description of observers, we are likely soon to +have another such example in Australia.</p> + +<p>On passing from Humanity under its individual form, to Humanity as +socially embodied, we find the general law still more variously +exemplified. The change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is +displayed equally in the progress of civilisation as a whole, and in the +progress of every tribe or nation; and is still going on with increasing +rapidity. As we see in existing barbarous tribes, society in its first +and lowest form is a homogeneous aggregation of individuals having like +powers and like functions: the only marked difference of function being +that which accompanies difference of sex. Every man is warrior, hunter, +fisherman, tool-maker, builder; every woman performs the same +drudgeries; every family is self-sufficing, and save for purposes of +aggression and defence, might as well live apart from the rest. Very +early, however, in the process of social evolution, we find an incipient +differentiation between the governing and the governed. Some kind of +chieftainship seems coeval with the first advance from the state of +separate wandering families to that of a nomadic tribe. The authority of +the strongest makes itself felt among a body of savages as in a herd of +animals, or a posse of schoolboys. At first, however, it is indefinite, +uncertain; is shared by others of scarcely inferior power; and is +unaccompanied by any difference <a name="page_162"></a> in occupation +or style of living: the first ruler kills his own game, makes his own +weapons, builds his own hut, and economically considered, does not +differ from others of his tribe. Gradually, as the tribe progresses, the +contrast between the governing and the governed grows more decided. +Supreme power becomes hereditary in one family; the head of that family, +ceasing to provide for his own wants, is served by others; and he begins +to assume the sole office of ruling.</p> + +<p>At the same time there has been arising a co-ordinate species of +government—that of Religion. As all ancient records and traditions +prove, the earliest rulers are regarded as divine personages. The maxims +and commands they uttered during their lives are held sacred after their +deaths, and are enforced by their divinely-descended successors; who in +their turns are promoted to the pantheon of the race, there to be +worshipped and propitiated along with their predecessors: the most +ancient of whom is the supreme god, and the rest subordinate gods. For a +long time these connate forms of government—civil and +religious—continue closely associated. For many generations the +king continues to be the chief priest, and the priesthood to be members +of the royal race. For many ages religious law continues to contain more +or less of civil regulation, and civil law to possess more or less of +religious sanction; and even among the most advanced nations these two +controlling agencies are by no means completely differentiated from each +other.</p> + +<p>Having a common root with these, and gradually diverging from them, +we find yet another controlling agency—that of Manners or +ceremonial usages. All titles of honour are originally the names of the +god-king; afterwards of God and the king; still later of persons of high +rank; and finally come, some of them, to be used between man and man. +All forms of complimentary address were at first the expressions of +submission from prisoners to their conqueror, or from subjects to their +ruler, either human or divine—expressions that were afterwards +used to propitiate subordinate authorities, and slowly descended into +ordinary intercourse. All modes of salutation were once obeisances made +before the monarch and used in worship of him after his death. Presently +others of the god-descended race were similarly saluted; and by degrees +some of the salutations have become the due of all.<a +href="#page_162_note_2"><sup>2</sup></a> Thus, no sooner does the +originally homogeneous social mass differentiate into the governed and +<a name="page_163"></a> the governing parts, than this last exhibits an +incipient differentiation into religious and secular—Church and +State; while at the same time there begins to be differentiated from +both, that less definite species of government which rules our daily +intercourse—a species of government which, as we may see in +heralds' colleges, in books of the peerage, in masters of ceremonies, is +not without a certain embodiment of its own. Each of these is itself +subject to successive differentiations. In the course of ages, there +arises, as among ourselves, a highly complex political organisation of +monarch, ministers, lords and commons, with their subordinate +administrative departments, courts of justice, revenue offices, etc., +supplemented in the provinces by municipal governments, county +governments, parish or union governments—all of them more or less +elaborated. By its side there grows up a highly complex religious +organisation, with its various grades of officials, from archbishops +down to sextons, its colleges, convocations, ecclesiastical courts, +etc.; to all which must be added the ever multiplying independent sects, +each with its general and local authorities. And at the same time there +is developed a highly complex aggregation of customs, manners, and +temporary fashions, enforced by society at large, and serving to control +those minor transactions between man and man which are not regulated by +civil and religious law. Moreover it is to be observed that this ever +increasing heterogeneity in the governmental appliances of each nation, +has been accompanied by an increasing heterogeneity in the governmental +appliances of different nations; all of which are more or less unlike in +their political systems and legislation, in their creeds and religious +institutions, in their customs and ceremonial usages.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously there has been going on a second differentiation of a +more familiar kind; that, namely, by which the mass of the community has +been segregated into distinct classes and orders of workers. While the +governing part has undergone the complex development above detailed, the +governed part has undergone an equally complex development, which has +resulted in that minute division of labour characterising advanced +nations. It is needless to trace out this progress from its first +stages, up through the caste divisions of the East and the incorporated +guilds of Europe, to the elaborate producing and distributing +organisation existing among ourselves. Political economists have long +since described the evolution which, beginning with a tribe whose +members severally perform the same actions each <a name="page_164"></a> +for himself, ends with a civilised community whose members severally +perform different actions for each other; and they have further pointed +out the changes through which the solitary producer of any one commodity +is transformed into a combination of producers who, united under a +master, take separate parts in the manufacture of such commodity. But +there are yet other and higher phases of this advance from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous in the industrial organisation of +society.</p> + +<p>Long after considerable progress has been made in the division of +labour among different classes of workers, there is still little or no +division of labour among the widely separated parts of the community; +the nation continues comparatively homogeneous in the respect that in +each district the same occupations are pursued. But when roads and other +means of transit become numerous and good, the different districts begin +to assume different functions, and to become mutually dependent. The +calico manufacture locates itself in this county, the woollen-cloth +manufacture in that; silks are produced here, lace there; stockings in +one place, shoes in another; pottery, hardware, cutlery, come to have +their special towns; and ultimately every locality becomes more or less +distinguished from the rest by the leading occupation carried on in it. +Nay, more, this subdivision of functions shows itself not only among the +different parts of the same nation, but among different nations. That +exchange of commodities which free-trade promises so greatly to +increase, will ultimately have the effect of specialising, in a greater +or less degree, the industry of each people. So that beginning with a +barbarous tribe, almost if not quite homogeneous in the functions of its +members, the progress has been, and still is, towards an economic +aggregation of the whole human race; growing ever more heterogeneous in +respect of the separate functions assumed by separate nations, the +separate functions assumed by the local sections of each nation, the +separate functions assumed by the many kinds of makers and traders in +each town, and the separate functions assumed by the workers united in +producing each commodity.</p> + +<p>Not only is the law thus clearly exemplified in the evolution of the +social organism, but it is exemplified with equal clearness in the +evolution of all products of human thought and action, whether concrete +or abstract, real or ideal. Let us take Language as our first +illustration.</p> + +<p>The lowest form of language is the exclamation, by which an entire +idea is vaguely conveyed through a single sound; as <a +name="page_165"></a> among the lower animals. That human language ever +consisted solely of exclamations, and so was strictly homogeneous in +respect of its parts of speech, we have no evidence. But that language +can be traced down to a form in which nouns and verbs are its only +elements, is an established fact. In the gradual multiplication of parts +of speech out of these primary ones—in the differentiation of +verbs into active and passive, of nouns into abstract and +concrete—in the rise of distinctions of mood, tense, person, of +number and case—in the formation of auxiliary verbs, of +adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, articles—in the +divergence of those orders, genera, species, and varieties of parts of +speech by which civilised races express minute modifications of +meaning—we see a change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. +And it may be remarked, in passing, that it is more especially in virtue +of having carried this subdivision of function to a greater extent and +completeness, that the English language is superior to all others.</p> + +<p>Another aspect under which we may trace the development of language +is the differentiation of words of allied meanings. Philology early +disclosed the truth that in all languages words may be grouped into +families having a common ancestry. An aboriginal name applied +indiscriminately to each of an extensive and ill-defined class of things +or actions, presently undergoes modifications by which the chief +divisions of the class are expressed. These several names springing from +the primitive root, themselves become the parents of other names still +further modified. And by the aid of those systematic modes which +presently arise, of making derivations and forming compound terms +expressing still smaller distinctions, there is finally developed a +tribe of words so heterogeneous in sound and meaning, that to the +uninitiated it seems incredible that they should have had a common +origin. Meanwhile from other roots there are being evolved other such +tribes, until there results a language of some sixty thousand or more +unlike words, signifying as many unlike objects, qualities, acts.</p> + +<p>Yet another way in which language in general advances from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous, is in the multiplication of languages. +Whether as Max Müller and Bunsen think, all languages have grown from +one stock, or whether, as some philologists say, they have grown from +two or more stocks, it is clear that since large families of languages, +as the Indo-European, are of one parentage, they have become distinct +through a process of continuous divergence. The same diffusion over the +Earth's <a name="page_166"></a> surface which has led to the +differentiation of the race, has simultaneously led to a differentiation +of their speech: a truth which we see further illustrated in each nation +by the peculiarities of dialect found in several districts. Thus the +progress of Language conforms to the general law, alike in the evolution +of languages, in the evolution of families of words, and in the +evolution of parts of speech.</p> + +<p>On passing from spoken to written language, we come upon several +classes of facts, all having similar implications. Written language is +connate with Painting and Sculpture; and at first all three are +appendages of Architecture, and have a direct connection with the +primary form of all Government—the theocratic. Merely noting by +the way the fact that sundry wild races, as for example the Australians +and the tribes of South Africa, are given to depicting personages and +events upon the walls of caves, which are probably regarded as sacred +places, let us pass to the case of the Egyptians. Among them, as also +among the Assyrians, we find mural paintings used to decorate the temple +of the god and the palace of the king (which were, indeed, originally +identical); and as such they were governmental appliances in the same +sense that state-pageants and religious feasts were. Further, they were +governmental appliances in virtue of representing the worship of the +god, the triumphs of the god-king, the submission of his subjects, and +the punishment of the rebellious. And yet again they were governmental, +as being the products of an art reverenced by the people as a sacred +mystery. From the habitual use of this pictorial representations there +naturally grew up the but slightly-modified practice of +picture-writing—a practice which was found still extant among the +Mexicans at the time they were discovered. By abbreviations analogous to +those still going on in our own written and spoken language, the most +familiar of these pictured figures were successively simplified; and +ultimately there grew up a system of symbols, most of which had but a +distant resemblance to the things for which they stood. The inference +that the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians were thus produced, is confirmed +by the fact that the picture-writing of the Mexicans was found to have +given birth to a like family of ideographic forms; and among them, as +among the Egyptians, these had been partially differentiated into the +<i>kuriological</i> or imitative, and the <i>tropical</i> or symbolic: which were, +however, used together in the same record. In Egypt, written language +underwent a further differentiation: whence resulted the <i>hieratic</i> and +the <a name="page_167"></a> <i>epistolographic</i> or <i>enchorial</i>: both of +which are derived from the original hieroglyphic. At the same time we +find that for the expression of proper names which could not be +otherwise conveyed, phonetic symbols were employed; and though it is +alleged that the Egyptians never actually achieved complete alphabetic +writing, yet it can scarcely be doubted that these phonetic symbols +occasionally used in aid of their ideographic ones, were the germs out +of which alphabetic writing grew. Once having become separate from +hieroglyphics, alphabetic writing itself underwent numerous +differentiations—multiplied alphabets were produced; between most +of which, however, more or less connection can still be traced. And in +each civilised nation there has now grown up, for the representation of +one set of sounds, several sets of written signs used for distinct +purposes. Finally, through a yet more important differentiation came +printing; which, uniform in kind as it was at first, has since become +multiform.</p> + +<p>While written language was passing through its earlier stages of +development, the mural decoration which formed its root was being +differentiated into Painting and Sculpture. The gods, kings, men, and +animals represented, were originally marked by indented outlines and +coloured. In most cases these outlines were of such depth, and the +object they circumscribed so far rounded and marked out in its leading +parts, as to form a species of work intermediate between intaglio and +bas-relief. In other cases we see an advance upon this: the raised +spaces between the figures being chiselled off, and the figures +themselves appropriately tinted, a painted bas-relief was produced. The +restored Assyrian architecture at Sydenham exhibits this style of art +carried to greater perfection—the persons and things represented, +though still barbarously coloured, are carved out with more truth and in +greater detail: and in the winged lions and bulls used for the angles of +gateways, we may see a considerable advance towards a completely +sculptured figure; which, nevertheless, is still coloured, and still +forms part of the building. But while in Assyria the production of a +statue proper seems to have been little, if at all, attempted, we may +trace in Egyptian art the gradual separation of the sculptured figure +from the wall. A walk through the collection in the British Museum will +clearly show this; while it will at the same time afford an opportunity +of observing the evident traces which the independent statues bear of +their derivation from bas-relief: seeing that nearly all of them not +only display that union of the limbs with the body <a +name="page_168"></a> which is the characteristic of bas-relief, but +have the back of the statue united from head to foot with a block which +stands in place of the original wall. Greece repeated the leading stages +of this progress. As in Egypt and Assyria, these twin arts were at first +united with each other and with their parent, Architecture, and were the +aids of Religion and Government. On the friezes of Greek temples, we see +coloured bas-reliefs representing sacrifices, battles, processions, +games—all in some sort religious. On the pediments we see painted +sculptures more or less united with the tympanum, and having for +subjects the triumphs of gods or heroes. Even when we come to statues +that are definitely separated from the buildings to which they pertain, +we still find them coloured; and only in the later periods of Greek +civilisation does the differentiation of sculpture from painting appear +to have become complete.</p> + +<p>In Christian art we may clearly trace a parallel re-genesis. All +early paintings and sculptures throughout Europe were religious in +subject—represented Christs, crucifixions, virgins, holy families, +apostles, saints. They formed integral parts of church architecture, and +were among the means of exciting worship; as in Roman Catholic countries +they still are. Moreover, the early sculptures of Christ on the cross, +of virgins, of saints, were coloured: and it needs but to call to mind +the painted madonnas and crucifixes still abundant in continental +churches and highways, to perceive the significant fact that painting +and sculpture continue in closest connection with each other where they +continue in closest connection with their parent. Even when Christian +sculpture was pretty clearly differentiated from painting, it was still +religious and governmental in its subjects—was used for tombs in +churches and statues of kings: while, at the same time, painting, where +not purely ecclesiastical, was applied to the decoration of palaces, and +besides representing royal personages, was almost wholly devoted to +sacred legends. Only in quite recent times have painting and sculpture +become entirely secular arts. Only within these few centuries has +painting been divided into historical, landscape, marine, architectural, +genre, animal, still-life, etc., and sculpture grown heterogeneous in +respect of the variety of real and ideal subjects with which it occupies +itself.</p> + +<p>Strange as it seems then, we find it no less true, that all forms of +written language, of painting, and of sculpture, have a common root in +the politico-religious decorations of ancient temples and palaces. +Little resemblance as they now have, the bust that <a +name="page_169"></a> stands on the console, the landscape that hangs +against the wall, and the copy of the <i>Times</i> lying upon the table, are +remotely akin; not only in nature, but by extraction. The brazen face of +the knocker which the postman has just lifted, is related not only to +the woodcuts of the <i>Illustrated London News</i> which he is delivering, +but to the characters of the <i>billet-doux</i> which accompanies it. Between +the painted window, the prayer-book on which its light falls, and the +adjacent monument, there is consanguinity. The effigies on our coins, +the signs over shops, the figures that fill every ledger, the coats of +arms outside the carriage panel, and the placards inside the omnibus, +are, in common with dolls, blue-books, paper-hangings, lineally +descended from the rude sculpture-paintings in which the Egyptians +represented the triumphs and worship of their god-kings. Perhaps no +example can be given which more vividly illustrates the multiplicity and +heterogeneity of the products that in course of time may arise by +successive differentiations from a common stock.</p> + +<p>Before passing to other classes of facts, it should be observed that +the evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous is displayed not +only in the separation of Painting and Sculpture from Architecture and +from each other, and in the greater variety of subjects they embody, but +it is further shown in the structure of each work. A modern picture or +statue is of far more heterogeneous nature than an ancient one. An +Egyptian sculpture-fresco represents all its figures as on one +plane—that is, at the same distance from the eye; and so is less +heterogeneous than a painting that represents them as at various +distances from the eye. It exhibits all objects as exposed to the same +degree of light; and so is less heterogeneous than a painting which +exhibits different objects and different parts of each object as in +different degrees of light. It uses scarcely any but the primary +colours, and these in their full intensity; and so is less heterogeneous +than a painting which, introducing the primary colours but sparingly, +employs an endless variety of intermediate tints, each of heterogeneous +composition, and differing from the rest not only in quality but in +intensity. Moreover, we see in these earliest works a great uniformity +of conception. The same arrangement of figures is perpetually +reproduced—the same actions, attitudes, faces, dresses. In Egypt +the modes of representation were so fixed that it was sacrilege to +introduce a novelty; and indeed it could have been only in consequence +of a fixed mode of representation that a system of hieroglyphics became +possible. The Assyrian bas-reliefs display parallel <a +name="page_170"></a> characters. Deities, kings, attendants, winged +figures and animals, are severally depicted in like positions, holding +like implements, doing like things, and with like expression or +non-expression of face. If a palm-grove is introduced, all the trees are +of the same height, have the same number of leaves, and are equidistant. +When water is imitated, each wave is a counterpart of the rest; and the +fish, almost always of one kind, are evenly distributed over the +surface. The beards of the kings, the gods, and the winged figures, are +every where similar: as are the names of the lions, and equally so those +of the horses. Hair is represented throughout by one form of curl. The +king's beard is quite architecturally built up of compound tiers of +uniform curls, alternating with twisted tiers placed in a transverse +direction, and arranged with perfect regularity; and the terminal tufts +of the bulls' tails are represented in exactly the same manner. Without +tracing out analogous facts in early Christian art, in which, though +less striking, they are still visible, the advance in heterogeneity will +be sufficiently manifest on remembering that in the pictures of our own +day the composition is endlessly varied; the attitudes, faces, +expressions, unlike; the subordinate objects different in size, form, +position, texture; and more or less of contrast even in the smallest +details. Or, if we compare an Egyptian statue, seated bolt upright on a +block with hands on knees, fingers outspread and parallel, eyes looking +straight forward, and the two sides perfectly symmetrical in every +particular, with a statue of the advanced Greek or the modern school, +which is asymmetrical in respect of the position of the head, the body, +the limbs, the arrangement of the hair, dress, appendages, and in its +relations to neighbouring objects, we shall see the change from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous clearly manifested.</p> + +<p>In the co-ordinate origin and gradual differentiation of Poetry, +Music and Dancing, we have another series of illustrations. Rhythm in +speech, rhythm in sound, and rhythm in motion, were in the beginning +parts of the same thing, and have only in process of time become +separate things. Among various existing barbarous tribes we find them +still united. The dances of savages are accompanied by some kind of +monotonous chant, the clapping of hands, the striking of rude +instruments: there are measured movements, measured words, and measured +tones; and the whole ceremony, usually having reference to war or +sacrifice, is of governmental character. In the early records of the +historic races we similarly find these three forms of metrical <a +name="page_171"></a> action united in religious festivals. In the +Hebrew writings we read that the triumphal ode composed by Moses on the +defeat of the Egyptians, was sung to an accompaniment of dancing and +timbrels. The Israelites danced and sung "at the inauguration of the +golden calf. And as it is generally agreed that this representation of +the Deity was borrowed from the mysteries of Apis, it is probable that +the dancing was copied from that of the Egyptians on those occasions." +There was an annual dance in Shiloh on the sacred festival; and David +danced before the ark. Again, in Greece the like relation is everywhere +seen; the original type being there, as probably in other cases, a +simultaneous chanting and mimetic representation of the life and +adventures of the god. The Spartan dances were accompanied by hymns and +songs; and in general the Greeks had "no festivals or religious +assemblies but what were accompanied with songs and dances"—both +of them being forms of worship used before altars. Among the Romans, +too, there were sacred dances: the Salian and Lupercalian being named as +of that kind. And even in Christian countries, as at Limoges, in +comparatively recent times, the people have danced in the choir in +honour of a saint. The incipient separation of these once united arts +from each other and from religion, was early visible in Greece. Probably +diverging from dances partly religious, partly warlike, as the +Corybantian, came the war dances proper, of which there were various +kinds; and from these resulted secular dances. Meanwhile Music and +Poetry, though still united, came to have an existence separate from +dancing. The aboriginal Greek poems, religious in subject, were not +recited, but chanted; and though at first the chant of the poet was +accompanied by the dance of the chorus, it ultimately grew into +independence. Later still, when the poem had been differentiated into +epic and lyric—when it became the custom to sing the lyric and +recite the epic—poetry proper was born. As during the same period +musical instruments were being multiplied, we may presume that music +came to have an existence apart from words. And both of them were +beginning to assume other forms besides the religious. Facts having like +implications might be cited from the histories of later times and +people: as the practices of our own early minstrels, who sang to the +harp heroic narratives versified by themselves to music of their own +composition: thus uniting the now separate offices of poet, composer, +vocalist, and instrumentalist. But, without further illustration, the +common origin <a name="page_172"></a> and gradual differentiation of +Dancing, Poetry, and Music will be sufficiently manifest.</p> + +<p>The advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is displayed +not only in the separation of these arts from each other and from +religion, but also in the multiplied differentiations which each of them +afterwards undergoes. Not to dwell upon the numberless kinds of dancing +that have, in course of time, come into use; and not to occupy space in +detaining the progress of poetry, as seen in the development of the +various forms of metre, of rhyme, and of general organisation; let us +confine our attention to music as a type of the group. As argued by Dr. +Burney, and as implied by the customs of still extant barbarous races, +the first musical instruments were, without doubt, +percussive—sticks, calabashes, tom-toms—and were used simply +to mark the time of the dance; and in this constant repetition of the +same sound, we see music in its most homogeneous form.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians had a lyre with three strings. The early lyre of the +Greeks had four, constituting their tetrachord. In course of some +centuries lyres of seven and eight strings were employed. And, by the +expiration of a thousand years, they had advanced to their "great +system" of the double octave. Through all which changes there of course +arose a greater heterogeneity of melody. Simultaneously there came into +use the different modes—Dorian, Ionian, Phrygian, Æolian, and +Lydian—answering to our keys; and of these there were ultimately +fifteen. As yet, however, there was but little heterogeneity in the time +of their music.</p> + +<p>Instrumental music during this period being merely the accompaniment +of vocal music, and vocal music being completely subordinated to words, +the singer being also the poet, chanting his own compositions and making +the lengths of his notes agree with the feet of his verses,—there +unavoidably arose a tiresome uniformity of measure, which, as Dr. Burney +says, "no resources of melody could disguise." Lacking the complex +rhythm obtained by our equal bars and unequal notes the only rhythm was +that produced by the quantity of the syllables and was of necessity +comparatively monotonous. And further, it may be observed that the chant +thus resulting, being like recitative, was much less clearly +differentiated from ordinary speech than is our modern song.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, in virtue of the extended range of notes in use, the +variety of modes, the occasional variations of time consequent <a +name="page_173"></a> on changes of metre, and the multiplication of +instruments, music had, towards the close of Greek civilisation, +attained to considerable heterogeneity—not indeed as compared with +our music, but as compared with that which preceded it. As yet, however, +there existed nothing but melody: harmony was unknown. It was not until +Christian church-music had reached some development, that music in parts +was evolved; and then it came into existence through a very unobtrusive +differentiation. Difficult as it may be to conceive <i>à priori</i> how the +advance from melody to harmony could take place without a sudden leap, +it is none the less true that it did so. The circumstance which prepared +the way for it was the employment of two choirs singing alternately the +same air. Afterwards it became the practice—very possibly first +suggested by a mistake—for the second choir to commence before the +first had ceased; thus producing a fugue.</p> + +<p>With the simple airs then in use, a partially harmonious fugue might +not improbably thus result: and a very partially harmonious fugue +satisfied the ears of that age, as we know from still preserved +examples. The idea having once been given, the composing of airs +productive of fugal harmony would naturally grow up; as in some way it +<i>did</i> grow up out of this alternate choir-singing. And from the fugue to +concerted music of two, three, four, and more parts, the transition was +easy. Without pointing out in detail the increasing complexity that +resulted from introducing notes of various lengths, from the +multiplication of keys, from the use of accidentals, from varieties of +time, and so forth, it needs but to contrast music as it is, with music +as it was, to see how immense is the increase of heterogeneity. We see +this if, looking at music in its <i>ensemble</i>, we enumerate its many +different genera and species—if we consider the divisions into +vocal, instrumental, and mixed; and their subdivisions into music for +different voices and different instruments—if we observe the many +forms of sacred music, from the simple hymn, the chant, the canon, +motet, anthem, etc., up to the oratorio; and the still more numerous +forms of secular music, from the ballad up to the serenata, from the +instrumental solo up to the symphony.</p> + +<p>Again, the same truth is seen on comparing any one sample of +aboriginal music with a sample of modern music—even an ordinary +song for the piano; which we find to be relatively highly heterogeneous, +not only in respect of the varieties in the pitch and in the length of +the notes, the number <a name="page_174"></a> of different notes +sounding at the same instant in company with the voice, and the +variations of strength with which they are sounded and sung, but in +respect of the changes of key, the changes of time, the changes of +<i>timbre</i> of the voice, and the many other modifications of expression. +While between the old monotonous dance-chant and a grand opera of our +own day, with its endless orchestral complexities and vocal +combinations, the contrast in heterogeneity is so extreme that it seems +scarcely credible that the one should have been the ancestor of the +other.</p> + +<p>Were they needed, many further illustrations might be cited. Going +back to the early time when the deeds of the god-king, chanted and +mimetically represented in dances round his altar, were further narrated +in picture-writings on the walls of temples and palaces, and so +constituted a rude literature, we might trace the development of +Literature through phases in which, as in the Hebrew Scriptures, it +presents in one work theology, cosmogony, history, biography, civil law, +ethics, poetry; through other phases in which, as in the Iliad, the +religious, martial, historical, the epic, dramatic, and lyric elements +are similarly commingled; down to its present heterogeneous development, +in which its divisions and subdivisions are so numerous and varied as to +defy complete classification. Or we might trace out the evolution of +Science; beginning with the era in which it was not yet differentiated +from Art, and was, in union with Art, the handmaid of Religion; passing +through the era in which the sciences were so few and rudimentary, as to +be simultaneously cultivated by the same philosophers; and ending with +the era in which the genera and species are so numerous that few can +enumerate them, and no one can adequately grasp even one genus. Or we +might do the like with Architecture, with the Drama, with Dress.</p> + +<p>But doubtless the reader is already weary of illustrations; and our +promise has been amply fulfilled. We believe we have shown beyond +question, that that which the German physiologists have found to be the +law of organic development, is the law of all development. The advance +from the simple to the complex, through a process of successive +differentiations, is seen alike in the earliest changes of the Universe +to which we can reason our way back; and in the earliest changes which +we can inductively establish; it is seen in the geologic and climatic +evolution of the Earth, and of every single organism on its surface; it +is seen in the evolution of Humanity, whether contemplated in the +civilised individual, or in the aggregation <a name="page_175"></a> of +races; it is seen in the evolution of Society in respect alike of its +political, its religious, and its economical organisation; and it is +seen in the evolution of all those endless concrete and abstract +products of human activity which constitute the environment of our daily +life. From the remotest past which Science can fathom, up to the +novelties of yesterday, that in which Progress essentially consists, is +the transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>And now, from this uniformity of procedure, may we not infer some +fundamental necessity whence it results? May we not rationally seek for +some all-pervading principle which determines this all-pervading process +of things? Does not the universality of the <i>law</i> imply a universal +<i>cause</i>?</p> + +<p>That we can fathom such cause, noumenally considered, is not to be +supposed. To do this would be to solve that ultimate mystery which must +ever transcend human intelligence. But it still may be possible for us +to reduce the law of all Progress, above established, from the condition +of an empirical generalisation, to the condition of a rational +generalisation. Just as it was possible to interpret Kepler's laws as +necessary consequences of the law of gravitation; so it may be possible +to interpret this law of Progress, in its multiform manifestations, as +the necessary consequence of some similarly universal principle. As +gravitation was assignable as the <i>cause</i> of each of the groups of +phenomena which Kepler formulated; so may some equally simple attribute +of things be assignable as the cause of each of the groups of phenomena +formulated in the foregoing pages. We may be able to affiliate all these +varied and complex evolutions of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, +upon certain simple facts of immediate experience, which, in virtue of +endless repetition, we regard as necessary.</p> + +<p>The probability of a common cause, and the possibility of formulating +it, being granted, it will be well, before going further, to consider +what must be the general characteristics of such cause, and in what +direction we ought to look for it. We can with certainty predict that it +has a high degree of generality; seeing that it is common to such +infinitely varied phenomena: just in proportion to the universality of +its application must be the abstractness of its character. We need not +expect to see in it an obvious solution of this or that form of +Progress; because it equally refers to forms of Progress bearing little +apparent resemblance to them: its association with multiform <a +name="page_176"></a> orders of facts, involves its dissociation from any +particular order of facts. Being that which determines Progress of every +kind—astronomic, geologic, organic, ethnologic, social, economic, +artistic, etc.—it must be concerned with some fundamental +attribute possessed in common by these; and must be expressible in terms +of this fundamental attribute. The only obvious respect in which all +kinds of Progress are alike, is, that they are modes of <i>change</i>; and +hence, in some characteristic of changes in general, the desired +solution will probably be found. We may suspect <i>à priori</i> that in some +law of change lies the explanation of this universal transformation of +the homogeneous into the heterogeneous.</p> + +<p>Thus much premised, we pass at once to the statement of the law, +which is this:—<i>Every active force produces more than one +change</i>—<i>every cause produces more than one effect</i>.</p> + +<p>Before this law can be duly comprehended, a few examples must be +looked at. When one body is struck against another, that which we +usually regard as the effect, is a change of position or motion in one +or both bodies. But a moment's thought shows us that this is a careless +and very incomplete view of the matter. Besides the visible mechanical +result, sound is produced; or, to speak accurately, a vibration in one +or both bodies, and in the surrounding air: and under some circumstances +we call this the effect. Moreover, the air has not only been made to +vibrate, but has had sundry currents caused in it by the transit of the +bodies. Further, there is a disarrangement of the particles of the two +bodies in the neighbourhood of their point of collision; amounting in +some cases to a visible condensation. Yet more, this condensation is +accompanied by the disengagement of heat. In some cases a +spark—that is, light—results, from the incandescence of a +portion struck off; and sometimes this incandescence is associated with +chemical combination.</p> + +<p>Thus, by the original mechanical force expended in the collision, at +least five, and often more, different kinds of changes have been +produced. Take, again, the lighting of a candle. Primarily this is a +chemical change consequent on a rise of temperature. The process of +combination having once been set going by extraneous heat, there is a +continued formation of carbonic acid, water, etc.—in itself a +result more complex than the extraneous heat that first caused it. But +accompanying this process of combination there is a production of heat; +there is a production of light; there is an ascending column of hot +gases <a name="page_177"></a> generated; there are currents established +in the surrounding air. Moreover the decomposition of one force into +many forces does not end here: each of the several changes produced +becomes the parent of further changes. The carbonic acid given off will +by and by combine with some base; or under the influence of sunshine +give up its carbon to the leaf of a plant. The water will modify the +hygrometric state of the air around; or, if the current of hot gases +containing it come against a cold body, will be condensed: altering the +temperature, and perhaps the chemical state, of the surface it covers. +The heat given out melts the subjacent tallow, and expands whatever it +warms. The light, falling on various substances, calls forth from them +reactions by which it is modified; and so divers colours are produced. +Similarly even with these secondary actions, which may be traced out +into ever-multiplying ramifications, until they become too minute to be +appreciated. And thus it is with all changes whatever. No case can be +named in which an active force does not evolve forces of several kinds, +and each of these, other groups of forces. Universally the effect is +more complex than the cause.</p> + +<p>Doubtless the reader already foresees the course of our argument. +This multiplication of results, which is displayed in every event of +to-day, has been going on from the beginning; and is true of the +grandest phenomena of the universe as of the most insignificant. From +the law that every active force produces more than one change, it is an +inevitable corollary that through all time there has been an +ever-growing complication of things. Starting with the ultimate fact +that every cause produces more than one effect, we may readily see that +throughout creation there must have gone on, and must still go on, a +never-ceasing transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous. +But let us trace out this truth in detail.</p> + +<p>Without committing ourselves to it as more than a speculation, though +a highly probable one, let us again commence with the evolution of the +solar system out of a nebulous medium.<a +href="#page_177_note_3"><sup>3</sup></a> From the mutual attraction of +the atoms of a diffused mass whose form is unsymmetrical, there results +not only condensation but rotation: gravitation simultaneously generates +both <a name="page_178"></a> the centripetal and the centrifugal +forces. While the condensation and the rate of rotation are +progressively increasing, the approach of the atoms necessarily +generates a progressively increasing temperature. As this temperature +rises, light begins to be evolved; and ultimately there results a +revolving sphere of fluid matter radiating intense heat and +light—a sun.</p> + +<p>There are good reasons for believing that, in consequence of the high +tangential velocity, and consequent centrifugal force, acquired by the +outer parts of the condensing nebulous mass, there must be a periodical +detachment of rotating rings; and that, from the breaking up of these +nebulous rings, there must arise masses which in the course of their +condensation repeat the actions of the parent mass, and so produce +planets and their satellites—an inference strongly supported by +the still extant rings of Saturn.</p> + +<p>Should it hereafter be satisfactorily shown that planets and +satellites were thus generated, a striking illustration will be afforded +of the highly heterogeneous effects produced by the primary homogeneous +cause; but it will serve our present purpose to point to the fact that +from the mutual attraction of the particles of an irregular nebulous +mass there result condensation, rotation, heat, and light.</p> + +<p>It follows as a corollary from the Nebular Hypothesis, that the Earth +must at first have been incandescent; and whether the Nebular Hypothesis +be true or not, this original incandescence of the Earth is now +inductively established—or, if not established, at least rendered +so highly probable that it is a generally admitted geological doctrine. +Let us look first at the astronomical attributes of this once molten +globe. From its rotation there result the oblateness of its form, the +alternations of day and night, and (under the influence of the moon) the +tides, aqueous and atmospheric. From the inclination of its axis, there +result the precession of the equinoxes and the many differences of the +seasons, both simultaneous and successive, that pervade its surface. +Thus the multiplication of effects is obvious. Several of the +differentiations due to the gradual cooling of the Earth have been +already noticed—as the formation of a crust, the solidification of +sublimed elements, the precipitation of water, etc.,—and we here +again refer to them merely to point out that they are simultaneous +effects of the one cause, diminishing heat.</p> + +<p>Let us now, however, observe the multiplied changes afterwards +arising from the continuance of this one cause. The <a +name="page_179"></a> cooling of the Earth involves its contraction. +Hence the solid crust first formed is presently too large for the +shrinking nucleus; and as it cannot support itself, inevitably follows +the nucleus. But a spheroidal envelope cannot sink down into contact +with a smaller internal spheroid, without disruption; it must run into +wrinkles as the rind of an apple does when the bulk of its interior +decreases from evaporation. As the cooling progresses and the envelope +thickens, the ridges consequent on these contractions must become +greater, rising ultimately into hills and mountains; and the later +systems of mountains thus produced must not only be higher, as we find +them to be, but they must be longer, as we also find them to be. Thus, +leaving out of view other modifying forces, we see what immense +heterogeneity of surface has arisen from the one cause, loss of +heat—a heterogeneity which the telescope shows us to be paralleled +on the face of the moon, where aqueous and atmospheric agencies have +been absent.</p> + +<p>But we have yet to notice another kind of heterogeneity of surface +similarly and simultaneously caused. While the Earth's crust was still +thin, the ridges produced by its contraction must not only have been +small, but the spaces between these ridges must have rested with great +evenness upon the subjacent liquid spheroid; and the water in those +arctic and antarctic regions in which it first condensed, must have been +evenly distributed. But as fast as the crust grew thicker and gained +corresponding strength, the lines of fracture from time to time caused +in it, must have occurred at greater distances apart; the intermediate +surfaces must have followed the contracting nucleus with less +uniformity; and there must have resulted larger areas of land and water. +If any one, after wrapping up an orange in wet tissue paper, and +observing not only how small are the wrinkles, but how evenly the +intervening spaces lie upon the surface of the orange, will then wrap it +up in thick cartridge-paper, and note both the greater height of the +ridges and the much larger spaces throughout which the paper does not +touch the orange, he will realise the fact, that as the Earth's solid +envelope grew thicker, the areas of elevation and depression must have +become greater. In place of islands more or less homogeneously scattered +over an all-embracing sea, there must have gradually arisen +heterogeneous arrangements of continent and ocean, such as we now +know.</p> + +<p>Once more, this double change in the extent and in the elevation of +the lands, involved yet another species of heterogeneity, <a +name="page_180"></a> that of coast-line. A tolerably even surface raised +out of the ocean, must have a simple, regular sea-margin; but a surface +varied by table-lands and intersected by mountain-chains must, when +raised out of the ocean, have an outline extremely irregular both in its +leading features and in its details. Thus endless is the accumulation of +geological and geographical results slowly brought about by this one +cause—the contraction of the Earth.</p> + +<p>When we pass from the agency which geologists term igneous, to +aqueous and atmospheric agencies, we see the like ever growing +complications of effects. The denuding actions of air and water have, +from the beginning, been modifying every exposed surface; everywhere +causing many different changes. Oxidation, heat, wind, frost, rain, +glaciers, rivers, tides, waves, have been unceasingly producing +disintegration; varying in kind and amount according to local +circumstances. Acting upon a tract of granite, they here work scarcely +an appreciable effect; there cause exfoliations of the surface, and a +resulting heap of <i>débris</i> and boulders; and elsewhere, after +decomposing the feldspar into a white clay, carry away this and the +accompanying quartz and mica, and deposit them in separate beds, +fluviatile and marine. When the exposed land consists of several unlike +formations, sedimentary and igneous, the denudation produces changes +proportionably more heterogeneous. The formations being disintegrable in +different degrees, there follows an increased irregularity of surface. +The areas drained by different rivers being differently constituted, +these rivers carry down to the sea different combinations of +ingredients; and so sundry new strata of distinct composition are +formed.</p> + +<p>And here indeed we may see very simply illustrated, the truth, which +we shall presently have to trace out in more involved cases, that in +proportion to the heterogeneity of the object or objects on which any +force expends itself, is the heterogeneity of the results. A continent +of complex structure, exposing many strata irregularly distributed, +raised to various levels, tilted up at all angles, must, under the same +denuding agencies, give origin to immensely multiplied results; each +district must be differently modified; each river must carry down a +different kind of detritus; each deposit must be differently distributed +by the entangled currents, tidal and other, which wash the contorted +shores; and this multiplication of results must manifestly be greatest +where the complexity of the surface is greatest.</p> + +<p><a name="page_181"></a>It is out of the question here to trace in +detail the genesis of those endless complications described by Geology +and Physical Geography: else we might show how the general truth, that +every active force produces more than one change, is exemplified in the +highly involved flow of the tides, in the ocean currents, in the winds, +in the distribution of rain, in the distribution of heat, and so forth. +But not to dwell upon these, let us, for the fuller elucidation of this +truth in relation to the inorganic world, consider what would be the +consequences of some extensive cosmical revolution—say the +subsidence of Central America.</p> + +<p>The immediate results of the disturbance would themselves be +sufficiently complex. Besides the numberless dislocations of strata, the +ejections of igneous matter, the propagation of earthquake vibrations +thousands of miles around, the loud explosions, and the escape of gases; +there would be the rush of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to supply the +vacant space, the subsequent recoil of enormous waves, which would +traverse both these oceans and produce myriads of changes along their +shores, the corresponding atmospheric waves complicated by the currents +surrounding each volcanic vent, and the electrical discharges with which +such disturbances are accompanied. But these temporary effects would be +insignificant compared with the permanent ones. The complex currents of +the Atlantic and Pacific would be altered in direction and amount. The +distribution of heat achieved by these ocean currents would be different +from what it is. The arrangement of the isothermal lines, not even on +the neighbouring continents, but even throughout Europe, would be +changed. The tides would flow differently from what they do now. There +would be more or less modification of the winds in their periods, +strengths, directions, qualities. Rain would fall scarcely anywhere at +the same times and in the same quantities as at present. In short, the +meteorological conditions thousands of miles off, on all sides, would be +more or less revolutionised.</p> + +<p>Thus, without taking into account the infinitude of modifications +which these changes of climate would produce upon the flora and fauna, +both of land and sea, the reader will see the immense heterogeneity of +the results wrought out by one force, when that force expends itself +upon a previously complicated area; and he will readily draw the +corollary that from the beginning the complication has advanced at an +increasing rate.</p> + +<p>Before going on to show how organic progress also depends <a +name="page_182"></a> upon the universal law that every force produces +more than one change, we have to notice the manifestation of this law in +yet another species of inorganic progress—namely, chemical. The +same general causes that have wrought out the heterogeneity of the +Earth, physically considered, have simultaneously wrought out its +chemical heterogeneity. Without dwelling upon the general fact that the +forces which have been increasing the variety and complexity of +geological formations, have, at the same time, been bringing into +contact elements not previously exposed to each other under conditions +favourable to union, and so have been adding to the number of chemical +compounds, let us pass to the more important complications that have +resulted from the cooling of the Earth.</p> + +<p>There is every reason to believe that at an extreme heat the elements +cannot combine. Even under such heat as can be artificially produced, +some very strong affinities yield, as for instance, that of oxygen for +hydrogen; and the great majority of chemical compounds are decomposed at +much lower temperatures. But without insisting upon the highly probable +inference, that when the Earth was in its first state of incandescence +there were no chemical combinations at all, it will suffice our purpose +to point to the unquestionable fact that the compounds that can exist at +the highest temperatures, and which must, therefore, have been the first +that were formed as the Earth cooled, are those of the simplest +constitutions. The protoxides—including under that head the +alkalies, earths, etc.—are, as a class, the most stable compounds +we know: most of them resisting decomposition by any heat we can +generate. These, consisting severally of one atom of each component +element, are combinations of the simplest order—are but one degree +less homogeneous than the elements themselves. More heterogeneous than +these, less stable, and therefore later in the Earth's history, are the +deutoxides, tritoxides, peroxides, etc.; in which two, three, four, or +more atoms of oxygen are united with one atom of metal or other element. +Higher than these in heterogeneity are the hydrates; in which an oxide +of hydrogen, united with an oxide of some other element, forms a +substance whose atoms severally contain at least four ultimate atoms of +three different kinds. Yet more heterogeneous and less stable still are +the salts; which present us with compound atoms each made up of five, +six, seven, eight, ten, twelve, or more atoms, of three, if not more, +kinds. Then there are the hydrated salts, of a yet greater +heterogeneity, which undergo partial decomposition at much <a +name="page_183"></a> lower temperatures. After them come the +further-complicated supersalts and double salts, having a stability +again decreased; and so throughout. Without entering into qualifications +for which we lack space, we believe no chemist will deny it to be a +general law of these inorganic combinations that, <i>other things equal</i>, +the stability decreases as the complexity increases.</p> + +<p>And then when we pass to the compounds of organic chemistry, we find +this general law still further exemplified: we find much greater +complexity and much less stability. An atom of albumen, for instance, +consists of 482 ultimate atoms of five different kinds. Fibrine, still +more intricate in constitution, contains in each atom, 298 atoms of +carbon, 40 of nitrogen, 2 of sulphur, 228 of hydrogen, and 92 of +oxygen—in all, 660 atoms; or, more strictly +speaking—equivalents. And these two substances are so unstable as +to decompose at quite ordinary temperatures; as that to which the +outside of a joint of roast meat is exposed. Thus it is manifest that +the present chemical heterogeneity of the Earth's surface has arisen by +degrees, as the decrease of heat has permitted; and that it has shown +itself in three forms—first, in the multiplication of chemical +compounds; second, in the greater number of different elements contained +in the more modern of these compounds: and third, in the higher and more +varied multiples in which these more numerous elements combine.</p> + +<p>To say that this advance in chemical heterogeneity is due to the one +cause, diminution of the Earth's temperature, would be to say too much; +for it is clear that aqueous and atmospheric agencies have been +concerned; and, further, that the affinities of the elements themselves +are implied. The cause has all along been a composite one: the cooling +of the Earth having been simply the most general of the concurrent +causes, or assemblage of conditions. And here, indeed, it may be +remarked that in the several classes of facts already dealt with +(excepting, perhaps, the first), and still more in those with which we +shall presently deal, the causes are more or less compound; as indeed +are nearly all causes with which we are acquainted. Scarcely any change +can with logical accuracy be wholly ascribed to one agency, to the +neglect of the permanent or temporary conditions under which only this +agency produces the change. But as it does not materially affect our +argument, we prefer, for simplicity's sake, to use throughout the +popular mode of expression.</p> + +<p>Perhaps it will be further objected, that to assign loss of heat as +the cause of any changes, is to attribute these changes not to <a +name="page_184"></a> a force, but to the absence of a force. And this +is true. Strictly speaking, the changes should be attributed to those +forces which come into action when the antagonist force is withdrawn. +But though there is an inaccuracy in saying that the freezing of water +is due to the loss of its heat, no practical error arises from it; nor +will a parallel laxity of expression vitiate our statements respecting +the multiplication of effects. Indeed, the objection serves but to draw +attention to the fact, that not only does the exertion of a force +produce more than one change, but the withdrawal of a force produces +more than one change. And this suggests that perhaps the most correct +statement of our general principle would be its most abstract +statement—every change is followed by more than one other +change.</p> + +<p>Returning to the thread of our exposition, we have next to trace out, +in organic progress, this same all-pervading principle. And here, where +the evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous was first +observed, the production of many changes by one cause is least easy to +demonstrate. The development of a seed into a plant, or an ovum into an +animal, is so gradual, while the forces which determine it are so +involved, and at the same time so unobtrusive, that it is difficult to +detect the multiplication of effects which is elsewhere so obvious. +Nevertheless, guided by indirect evidence, we may pretty safely reach +the conclusion that here too the law holds.</p> + +<p>Observe, first, how numerous are the effects which any marked change +works upon an adult organism—a human being, for instance. An +alarming sound or sigh, besides the impressions on the organs of sense +and the nerves, may produce a start, a scream, a distortion of the face, +a trembling consequent upon a general muscular relaxation, a burst of +perspiration, an excited action of the heart, a rush of blood to the +brain, followed possibly by arrest of the heart's action and by syncope: +and if the system be feeble, an indisposition with its long train of +complicated symptoms may set in. Similarly in cases of disease. A minute +portion of the small-pox virus introduced into the system, will, in a +severe case, cause, during the first stage, rigors, heat of skin, +accelerated pulse, furred tongue, loss of appetite, thirst, epigastric +uneasiness, vomiting, headache, pains in the back and limbs, muscular +weakness, convulsions, delirium, etc.; in the second stage, cutaneous +eruption, itching, tingling, sore throat, swelled fauces, salivation, +cough, hoarseness, dyspnœa, etc.; and in the third stage, +œdematous inflammations, pneumonia, pleurisy, diarrhœa, +inflammation of the brain, ophthalmia, <a name="page_185"></a> +erysipelas, etc.; each of which enumerated symptoms is itself more or +less complex. Medicines, special foods, better air, might in like manner +be instanced as producing multiplied results.</p> + +<p>Now it needs only to consider that the many changes thus wrought by +one force upon an adult organism, will be in part paralleled in an +embryo organism, to understand how here also, the evolution of the +homogeneous into the heterogeneous may be due to the production of many +effects by one cause. The external heat and other agencies which +determine the first complications of the germ, may, by acting upon +these, superinduce further complications; upon these still higher and +more numerous ones; and so on continually: each organ as it is developed +serving, by its actions and reactions upon the rest, to initiate new +complexities. The first pulsations of the fœtal heart must +simultaneously aid the unfolding of every part. The growth of each +tissue, by taking from the blood special proportions of elements, must +modify the constitution of the blood; and so must modify the nutrition +of all the other tissues. The heart's action, implying as it does a +certain waste, necessitates an addition to the blood of effete matters, +which must influence the rest of the system, and perhaps, as some think, +cause the formation of excretory organs. The nervous connections +established among the viscera must further multiply their mutual +influences: and so continually.</p> + +<p>Still stronger becomes the probability of this view when we call to +mind the fact, that the same germ may be evolved into different forms +according to circumstances. Thus, during its earlier stages, every +embryo is sexless—becomes either male or female as the balance of +forces acting upon it determines. Again, it is a well-established fact +that the larva of a working-bee will develop into a queen-bee, if, +before it is too late, its food be changed to that on which the larvæ of +queen-bees are fed. Even more remarkable is the case of certain entozoa. +The ovum of a tape-worm, getting into its natural habitat, the +intestine, unfolds into the well-known form of its parent; but if +carried, as it frequently is, into other parts of the system, it becomes +a sac-like creature, called by naturalists the <i>Echinococcus</i>—a +creature so extremely different from the tape-worm in aspect and +structure, that only after careful investigations has it been proved to +have the same origin. All which instances imply that each advance in +embryonic complication results from the action of incident forces upon +the complication previously existing.</p> + +<p><a name="page_186"></a>Indeed, we may find <i>à priori</i> reason to think +that the evolution proceeds after this manner. For since it is now known +that no germ, animal or vegetable, contains the slightest rudiment, +trace, or indication of the future organism—now that the +microscope has shown us that the first process set up in every +fertilised germ, is a process of repeated spontaneous fissions ending in +the production of a mass of cells, not one of which exhibits any special +character: there seems no alternative but to suppose that the partial +organisation at any moment subsisting in a growing embryo, is +transformed by the agencies acting upon it into the succeeding phase of +organisation, and this into the next, until, through ever-increasing +complexities, the ultimate form is reached. Thus, though the subtilty of +the forces and the slowness of the results, prevent us from <i>directly</i> +showing that the stages of increasing heterogeneity through which every +embryo passes, severally arise from the production of many changes by +one force, yet, <i>indirectly</i>, we have strong evidence that they do +so.</p> + +<p>We have marked how multitudinous are the effects which one cause may +generate in an adult organism; that a like multiplication of effects +must happen in the unfolding organism, we have observed in sundry +illustrative cases; further, it has been pointed out that the ability +which like germs have to originate unlike forms, implies that the +successive transformations result from the new changes superinduced on +previous changes; and we have seen that structureless as every germ +originally is, the development of an organism out of it is otherwise +incomprehensible. Not indeed that we can thus really explain the +production of any plant or animal. We are still in the dark respecting +those mysterious properties in virtue of which the germ, when subject to +fit influences, undergoes the special changes that begin the series of +transformations. All we aim to show, is, that given a germ possessing +these mysterious properties, the evolution of an organism from it, +probably depends upon that multiplication of effects which we have seen +to be the cause of progress in general, so far as we have yet traced +it.</p> + +<p>When, leaving the development of single plants and animals, we pass +to that of the Earth's flora and fauna, the course of our argument again +becomes clear and simple. Though, as was admitted in the first part of +this article, the fragmentary facts Palæontology has accumulated, do not +clearly warrant us in saying that, in the lapse of geologic time, there +have been evolved more heterogeneous organisms, and more heterogeneous +<a name="page_187"></a> assemblages of organisms, yet we shall now see +that there <i>must</i> ever have been a tendency towards these results. We +shall find that the production of many effects by one cause, which, as +already shown, has been all along increasing the physical heterogeneity +of the Earth, has further involved an increasing heterogeneity in its +flora and fauna, individually and collectively. An illustration will +make this clear.</p> + +<p>Suppose that by a series of upheavals, occurring, as they are now +known to do, at long intervals, the East Indian Archipelago were to be, +step by step, raised into a continent, and a chain of mountains formed +along the axis of elevation. By the first of these upheavals, the plants +and animals inhabiting Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, and the rest, would +be subjected to slightly modified sets of conditions. The climate in +general would be altered in temperature, in humidity, and in its +periodical variations; while the local differences would be multiplied. +These modifications would affect, perhaps inappreciably, the entire +flora and fauna of the region. The change of level would produce +additional modifications: varying in different species, and also in +different members of the same species, according to their distance from +the axis of elevation. Plants, growing only on the sea-shore in special +localities, might become extinct. Others, living only in swamps of a +certain humidity, would, if they survived at all, probably undergo +visible changes of appearance. While still greater alterations would +occur in the plants gradually spreading over the lands newly raised +above the sea. The animals and insects living on these modified plants, +would themselves be in some degree modified by change of food, as well +as by change of climate; and the modification would be more marked +where, from the dwindling or disappearance of one kind of plant, an +allied kind was eaten. In the lapse of the many generations arising +before the next upheaval, the sensible or insensible alterations thus +produced in each species would become organised—there would be a +more or less complete adaptation to the new conditions. The next +upheaval would superinduce further organic changes, implying wider +divergences from the primary forms; and so repeatedly.</p> + +<p>But now let it be observed that the revolution thus resulting would +not be a substitution of a thousand more or less modified species for +the thousand original species; but in place of the thousand original +species there would arise several thousand species, or varieties, or +changed forms. Each species being distributed over an area of some +extent, and tending continually <a name="page_188"></a> to colonise the +new area exposed, its different members would be subject to different +sets of changes. Plants and animals spreading towards the equator would +not be affected in the same way with others spreading from it. Those +spreading towards the new shores would undergo changes unlike the +changes undergone by those spreading into the mountains. Thus, each +original race of organisms, would become the root from which diverged +several races differing more or less from it and from each other; and +while some of these might subsequently disappear, probably more than one +would survive in the next geologic period: the very dispersion itself +increasing the chances of survival. Not only would there be certain +modifications thus caused by change of physical conditions and food, but +also in some cases other modifications caused by change of habit. The +fauna of each island, peopling, step by step, the newly-raised tracts, +would eventually come in contact with the faunas of other islands; and +some members of these other faunas would be unlike any creatures before +seen. Herbivores meeting with new beasts of prey, would, in some cases, +be led into modes of defence or escape differing from those previously +used; and simultaneously the beasts of prey would modify their modes of +pursuit and attack. We know that when circumstances demand it, such +changes of habit <i>do</i> take place in animals; and we know that if the new +habits become the dominant ones, they must eventually in some degree +alter the organisation.</p> + +<p>Observe, now, however, a further consequence. There must arise not +simply a tendency towards the differentiation of each race of organisms +into several races; but also a tendency to the occasional production of +a somewhat higher organism. Taken in the mass, these divergent varieties +which have been caused by fresh physical conditions and habits of life, +will exhibit changes quite indefinite in kind and degree; and changes +that do not necessarily constitute an advance. Probably in most cases +the modified type will be neither more nor less heterogeneous than the +original one. In some cases the habits of life adopted being simpler +than before, a less heterogeneous structure will result: there will be a +retrogradation. But it <i>must</i> now and then occur, that some division of +a species, falling into circumstances which give it rather more complex +experiences, and demand actions somewhat more involved, will have +certain of its organs further differentiated in proportionately small +degrees,—will become slightly more heterogeneous.</p> + +<p>Thus, in the natural course of things, there will from time to <a +name="page_189"></a> time arise an increased heterogeneity both of the +Earth's flora and fauna, and of individual races included in them. +Omitting detailed explanations, and allowing for the qualifications +which cannot here be specified, we think it is clear that geological +mutations have all along tended to complicate the forms of life, whether +regarded separately or collectively. The same causes which have led to +the evolution of the Earth's crust from the simple into the complex, +have simultaneously led to a parallel evolution of the Life upon its +surface. In this case, as in previous ones, we see that the +transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous is consequent +upon the universal principle, that every active force produces more than +one change.</p> + +<p>The deduction here drawn from the established truths of geology and +the general laws of life, gains immensely in weight on finding it to be +in harmony with an induction drawn from direct experience. Just that +divergence of many races from one race, which we inferred must have been +continually occurring during geologic time, we know to have occurred +during the pre-historic and historic periods, in man and domestic +animals. And just that multiplication of effects which we concluded must +have produced the first, we see has produced the last. Single causes, as +famine, pressure of population, war, have periodically led to further +dispersions of mankind and of dependent creatures: each such dispersion +initiating new modifications, new varieties of type. Whether all the +human races be or be not derived from one stock, philology makes it +clear that whole groups of races now easily distinguishable from each +other, were originally one race,—that the diffusion of one race +into different climates and conditions of existence, has produced many +modified forms of it.</p> + +<p>Similarly with domestic animals. Though in some cases—as that +of dogs—community of origin will perhaps be disputed, yet in other +cases—as that of the sheep or the cattle of our own +country—it will not be questioned that local differences of +climate, food, and treatment, have transformed one original breed into +numerous breeds now become so far distinct as to produce unstable +hybrids. Moreover, through the complications of effects flowing from +single causes, we here find, what we before inferred, not only an +increase of general heterogeneity, but also of special heterogeneity. +While of the divergent divisions and subdivisions of the human race, +many have undergone changes not constituting an advance; while in some +the type may have degraded; in others it has become decidedly more +heterogeneous. The civilised European departs more widely <a +name="page_190"></a> from the vertebrate archetype than does the +savage. Thus, both the law and the cause of progress, which, from lack +of evidence, can be but hypothetically substantiated in respect of the +earlier forms of life on our globe, can be actually substantiated in +respect of the latest forms.</p> + +<p>If the advance of Man towards greater heterogeneity is traceable to +the production of many effects by one cause, still more clearly may the +advance of Society towards greater heterogeneity be so explained. +Consider the growth of an industrial organisation. When, as must +occasionally happen, some individual of a tribe displays unusual +aptitude for making an article of general use—a weapon, for +instance—which was before made by each man for himself, there +arises a tendency towards the differentiation of that individual into a +maker of such weapon. His companions—warriors and hunters all of +them,—severally feel the importance of having the best weapons +that can be made; and are therefore certain to offer strong inducements +to this skilled individual to make weapons for them. He, on the other +hand, having not only an unusual faculty, but an unusual liking, for +making such weapons (the talent and the desire for any occupation being +commonly associated), is predisposed to fulfil these commissions on the +offer of an adequate reward: especially as his love of distinction is +also gratified. This first specialisation of function, once commenced, +tends ever to become more decided. On the side of the weapon-maker +continued practice gives increased skill—increased superiority to +his products: on the side of his clients, cessation of practice entails +decreased skill. Thus the influences that determine this division of +labour grow stronger in both ways; and the incipient heterogeneity is, +on the average of cases, likely to become permanent for that generation, +if no longer.</p> + +<p>Observe now, however, that this process not only differentiates the +social mass into two parts, the one monopolising, or almost +monopolising, the performance of a certain function, and the other +having lost the habit, and in some measure the power, of performing that +function; but it tends to imitate other differentiations. The advance we +have described implies the introduction of barter,—the maker of +weapons has, on each occasion, to be paid in such other articles as he +agrees to take in exchange. But he will not habitually take in exchange +one kind of article, but many kinds. He does not want mats only, or +skins, or fishing gear, but he wants all these; and on each occasion +will bargain for the particular things he most needs. What follows? <a +name="page_191"></a> If among the members of the tribe there exist any +slight differences of skill in the manufacture of these various things, +as there are almost sure to do, the weapon-maker will take from each one +the thing which that one excels in making: he will exchange for mats +with him whose mats are superior, and will bargain for the fishing gear +of whoever has the best. But he who has bartered away his mats or his +fishing gear, must make other mats or fishing gear for himself; and in +so doing must, in some degree, further develop his aptitude. Thus it +results that the small specialities of faculty possessed by various +members of the tribe, will tend to grow more decided. If such +transactions are from time to time repeated, these specialisations may +become appreciable. And whether or not there ensue distinct +differentiations of other individuals into makers of particular +articles, it is clear that incipient differentiations take place +throughout the tribe: the one original cause produces not only the first +dual effect, but a number of secondary dual effects, like in kind, but +minor in degree. This process, of which traces may be seen among groups +of schoolboys, cannot well produce any lasting effects in an unsettled +tribe; but where there grows up a fixed and multiplying community, these +differentiations become permanent, and increase with each generation. A +larger population, involving a greater demand for every commodity, +intensifies the functional activity of each specialised person or class; +and this renders the specialisation more definite where it already +exists, and establishes it where it is nascent. By increasing the +pressure on the means of subsistence, a larger population again augments +these results; seeing that each person is forced more and more to +confine himself to that which he can do best, and by which he can gain +most. This industrial progress, by aiding future production, opens the +way for a further growth of population, which reacts as before: in all +which the multiplication of effects is manifest. Presently, under these +same stimuli, new occupations arise. Competing workers, ever aiming to +produce improved articles, occasionally discover better processes or raw +materials. In weapons and cutting tools, the substitution of bronze for +stone entails upon him who first makes it a great increase of +demand—so great an increase that he presently finds all his time +occupied in making the bronze for the articles he sells, and is obliged +to depute the fashioning of these to others: and, eventually, the making +of bronze, thus gradually differentiated from a pre-existing occupation, +becomes an occupation by itself.</p> + +<p><a name="page_192"></a>But now mark the ramified changes which follow +this change. Bronze soon replaces stone, not only in the articles it was +first used for, but in many others—in arms, tools, and utensils of +various kinds; and so affects the manufacture of these things. Further, +it affects the processes which these utensils subserve, and the +resulting products—modifies buildings, carvings, dress, personal +decorations. Yet again, it sets going sundry manufactures which were +before impossible, from lack of a material fit for the requisite tools. +And all these changes react on the people—increase their +manipulative skill, their intelligence, their comfort,—refine +their habits and tastes. Thus the evolution of a homogeneous society +into a heterogeneous one, is clearly consequent on the general +principle, that many effects are produced by one cause.</p> + +<p>Our limits will not allow us to follow out this process in its higher +complications: else might we show how the localisation of special +industries in special parts of a kingdom, as well as the minute +subdivision of labour in the making of each commodity, are similarly +determined. Or, turning to a somewhat different order of illustrations, +we might dwell on the multitudinous changes—material, +intellectual, moral—caused by printing; or the further extensive +series of changes wrought by gunpowder. But leaving the intermediate +phases of social development, let us take a few illustrations from its +most recent and its passing phases. To trace the effects of steam-power, +in its manifold applications to mining, navigation, and manufactures of +all kinds, would carry us into unmanageable detail. Let us confine +ourselves to the latest embodiment of steam-power—the locomotive +engine.</p> + +<p>This, as the proximate cause of our railway system, has changed the +face of the country, the course of trade, and the habits of the people. +Consider, first, the complicated sets of changes that precede the making +of every railway—the provisional arrangements, the meetings, the +registration, the trial section, the parliamentary survey, the +lithographed plans, the books of reference, the local deposits and +notices, the application to Parliament, the passing Standing-Orders +Committee, the first, second, and third readings: each of which brief +heads indicates a multiplicity of transactions, and the development of +sundry occupations—as those of engineers, surveyors, +lithographers, parliamentary agents, share-brokers; and the creation of +sundry others—as those of traffic-takers, reference-takers. +Consider, next, the yet more marked changes implied in railway +construction—the <a name="page_193"></a> cuttings, embankings, +tunnellings, diversions of roads; the building of bridges, and stations; +the laying down of ballast, sleepers, and rails; the making of engines, +tenders, carriages, and waggons: which processes, acting upon numerous +trades, increase the importation of timber, the quarrying of stone, the +manufacture of iron, the mining of coal, the burning of bricks: +institute a variety of special manufactures weekly advertised in the +<i>Railway Times</i>; and, finally, open the way to sundry new occupations, +as those of drivers, stokers, cleaners, plate-layers, etc., etc. And +then consider the changes, more numerous and involved still, which +railways in action produce on the community at large. The organisation +of every business is more or less modified: ease of communication makes +it better to do directly what was before done by proxy; agencies are +established where previously they would not have paid; goods are +obtained from remote wholesale houses instead of near retail ones; and +commodities are used which distance once rendered inaccessible. Again, +the rapidity and small cost of carriage tend to specialise more than +ever the industries of different districts—to confine each +manufacture to the parts in which, from local advantages, it can be best +carried on. Further, the diminished cost of carriage, facilitating +distribution, equalises prices, and also, on the average, lowers prices: +thus bringing divers articles within the means of those before unable to +buy them, and so increasing their comforts and improving their habits. +At the same time the practice of travelling is immensely extended. +Classes who never before thought of it, take annual trips to the sea; +visit their distant relations; make tours; and so we are benefited in +body, feelings, and intellect. Moreover, the more prompt transmission of +letters and of news produces further changes—makes the pulse of +the nation faster. Yet more, there arises a wide dissemination of cheap +literature through railway book-stalls, and of advertisements in railway +carriages: both of them aiding ulterior progress.</p> + +<p>And all the innumerable changes here briefly indicated are consequent +on the invention of the locomotive engine. The social organism has been +rendered more heterogeneous in virtue of the many new occupations +introduced, and the many old ones further specialised; prices in every +place have been altered; each trader has, more or less, modified his way +of doing business; and almost every person has been affected in his +actions, thoughts, emotions.</p> + +<p>Illustrations to the same effect might be indefinitely accumulated. +<a name="page_194"></a> That every influence brought to bear upon +society works multiplied effects; and that increase of heterogeneity is +due to this multiplication of effects; may be seen in the history of +every trade, every custom, every belief. But it is needless to give +additional evidence of this. The only further fact demanding notice, is, +that we here see still more clearly than ever, the truth before pointed +out, that in proportion as the area on which any force expends itself +becomes heterogeneous, the results are in a yet higher degree multiplied +in number and kind. While among the primitive tribes to whom it was +first known, caoutchouc caused but a few changes, among ourselves the +changes have been so many and varied that the history of them occupies a +volume.<a href="#page_194_note_4"><sup>4</sup></a> Upon the small, +homogeneous community inhabiting one of the Hebrides, the electric +telegraph would produce, were it used, scarcely any results; but in +England the results it produces are multitudinous. The comparatively +simple organisation under which our ancestors lived five centuries ago, +could have undergone but few modifications from an event like the recent +one at Canton; but now the legislative decision respecting it sets up +many hundreds of complex modifications, each of which will be the parent +of numerous future ones.</p> + +<p>Space permitting, we could willingly have pursued the argument in +relation to all the subtler results of civilisation. As before, we +showed that the law of Progress to which the organic and inorganic +worlds conform, is also conformed to by Language, Sculpture, Music, +etc.; so might we here show that the cause which we have hitherto found +to determine Progress holds in these cases also. We might demonstrate in +detail how, in Science, an advance of one division presently advances +other divisions—how Astronomy has been immensely forwarded by +discoveries in Optics, while other optical discoveries have initiated +Microscopic Anatomy, and greatly aided the growth of +Physiology—how Chemistry has indirectly increased our knowledge of +Electricity, Magnetism, Biology, Geology—how Electricity has +reacted on Chemistry and Magnetism, developed our views of Light and +Heat, and disclosed sundry laws of nervous action.</p> + +<p>In Literature the same truth might be exhibited in the manifold +effects of the primitive mystery-play, not only as originating the +modern drama, but as affecting through it other kinds of poetry and +fiction; or in the still multiplying forms of <a name="page_195"></a> +periodical literature that have descended from the first newspaper, and +which have severally acted and reacted on other forms of literature and +on each other. The influence which a new school of Painting—as +that of the pre-Raffaelites—exercises upon other schools; the +hints which all kinds of pictorial art are deriving from Photography; +the complex results of new critical doctrines, as those of Mr. Ruskin, +might severally be dwelt upon as displaying the like multiplication of +effects. But it would needlessly tax the reader's patience to pursue, in +their many ramifications, these various changes: here become so involved +and subtle as to be followed with some difficulty.</p> + +<p>Without further evidence, we venture to think our case is made out. +The imperfections of statement which brevity has necessitated, do not, +we believe, militate against the propositions laid down. The +qualifications here and there demanded would not, if made, affect the +inferences. Though in one instance, where sufficient evidence is not +attainable, we have been unable to show that the law of Progress +applies; yet there is high probability that the same generalisation +holds which holds throughout the rest of creation. Though, in tracing +the genesis of Progress, we have frequently spoken of complex causes as +if they were simple ones; it still remains true that such causes are far +less complex than their results. Detailed criticisms cannot affect our +main position. Endless facts go to show that every kind of progress is +from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous; and that it is so because +each change is followed by many changes. And it is significant that +where the facts are most accessible and abundant, there are these truths +most manifest.</p> + +<p>However, to avoid committing ourselves to more than is yet proved, we +must be content with saying that such are the law and the cause of all +progress that is known to us. Should the Nebular Hypothesis ever be +established, then it will become manifest that the Universe at large, +like every organism, was once homogeneous; that as a whole, and in every +detail, it has unceasingly advanced towards greater heterogeneity; and +that its heterogeneity is still increasing. It will be seen that as in +each event of to-day, so from the beginning, the decomposition of every +expended force into several forces has been perpetually producing a +higher complication; that the increase of heterogeneity so brought about +is still going on, and must continue to go on; and that thus Progress is +not an accident, not a thing within human control, but a beneficent +necessity.</p> + +<p><a name="page_196"></a>A few words must be added on the ontological +bearings of our argument. Probably not a few will conclude that here is +an attempted solution of the great questions with which Philosophy in +all ages has perplexed itself. Let none thus deceive themselves. Only +such as know not the scope and the limits of Science can fall into so +grave an error. The foregoing generalisations apply, not to the genesis +of things in themselves, but to their genesis as manifested to the human +consciousness. After all that has been said, the ultimate mystery +remains just as it was. The explanation of that which is explicable, +does but bring out into greater clearness the inexplicableness of that +which remains behind. However we may succeed in reducing the equation to +its lowest terms, we are not thereby enabled to determine the unknown +quantity: on the contrary, it only becomes more manifest that the +unknown quantity can never be found.</p> + +<p>Little as it seems to do so, fearless inquiry tends continually to +give a firmer basis to all true Religion. The timid sectarian, alarmed +at the progress of knowledge, obliged to abandon one by one the +superstitions of his ancestors, and daily finding his cherished beliefs +more and more shaken, secretly fears that all things may some day be +explained; and has a corresponding dread of Science: thus evincing the +profoundest of all infidelity—the fear lest the truth be bad. On +the other hand, the sincere man of science, content to follow wherever +the evidence leads him, becomes by each new inquiry more profoundly +convinced that the Universe is an insoluble problem. Alike in the +external and the internal worlds, he sees himself in the midst of +perpetual changes, of which he can discover neither the beginning nor +the end. If, tracing back the evolution of things, he allows himself to +entertain the hypothesis that all matter once existed in a diffused +form, he finds it utterly impossible to conceive how this came to be so; +and equally, if he speculates on the future, he can assign no limit to +the grand succession of phenomena ever unfolding themselves before him. +On the other hand, if he looks inward, he perceives that both +terminations of the thread of consciousness are beyond his grasp: he +cannot remember when or how consciousness commenced, and he cannot +examine the consciousness that at any moment exists; for only a state of +consciousness that is already past can become the object of thought, and +never one which is passing.</p> + +<p>When, again, he turns from the succession of phenomena, external or +internal, to their essential nature, he is equally at <a +name="page_197"></a> fault. Though he may succeed in resolving all +properties of objects into manifestations of force, he is not thereby +enabled to realise what force is; but finds, on the contrary, that the +more he thinks about it, the more he is baffled. Similarly, though +analysis of mental actions may finally bring him down to sensations as +the original materials out of which all thought is woven, he is none the +forwarder; for he cannot in the least comprehend sensation—cannot +even conceive how sensation is possible. Inward and outward things he +thus discovers to be alike inscrutable in their ultimate genesis and +nature. He sees that the Materialist and Spiritualist controversy is a +mere war of words; the disputants being equally absurd—each +believing he understands that which it is impossible for any man to +understand. In all directions his investigations eventually bring him +face to face with the unknowable; and he ever more clearly perceives it +to be the unknowable. He learns at once the greatness and the littleness +of human intellect—its power in dealing with all that comes within +the range of experience; its impotence in dealing with all that +transcends experience. He feels, with a vividness which no others can, +the utter incomprehensibleness of the simplest fact, considered in +itself. He alone truly <i>sees</i> that absolute knowledge is impossible. He +alone <i>knows</i> that under all things there lies an impenetrable +mystery.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_153_note_1"></a><a href="#page_153">Footnote +1</a>: <i>Westminster Review</i>, April 1857.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_162_note_2"></a><a href="#page_162">Footnote +2</a>: For detailed proof of these assertions see <a +href="#page_198">essay on "Manners and Fashion."</a></small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_177_note_3"></a><a href="#page_177">Footnote +3</a>: The idea that the Nebular Hypothesis has been disproved because +what were thought to be existing nebulæ have been resolved into clusters +of stars is almost beneath notice. <i>A priori</i> it was highly improbable, +if not impossible, that nebulous masses should still remain uncondensed, +while others have been condensed millions of years ago.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_194_note_4"></a><a href="#page_194">Footnote +4</a>: <i>Personal Narrative of the Origin of the Caoutchouc, or +India-Rubber Manufacture in England.</i> By Thomas Hancock.</small></p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_198"></a>ON MANNERS AND FASHION<a +href="#page_198_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2></center> + + +<p>Whoever has studied the physiognomy of political meetings, cannot +fail to have remarked a connection between democratic opinions and +peculiarities of costume. At a Chartist demonstration, a lecture on +Socialism, or a <i>soirée</i> of the Friends of Italy, there will be seen +many among the audience, and a still larger ratio among the speakers, +who get themselves up in a style more or less unusual. One gentleman on +the platform divides his hair down the centre, instead of on one side; +another brushes it back off the forehead, in the fashion known as +"bringing out the intellect;" a third has so long forsworn the scissors, +that his locks sweep his shoulders. A considerable sprinkling of +moustaches may be observed; here and there an imperial; and occasionally +some courageous breaker of conventions exhibits a full-grown beard.<a +href="#page_198_note_2"><sup>2</sup></a> This nonconformity in hair is +countenanced by various nonconformities in dress, shown by others of the +assemblage. Bare necks, shirt-collars <i>à la</i> Byron, waistcoats cut +Quaker fashion, wonderfully shaggy great coats, numerous oddities in +form and colour, destroy the monotony usual in crowds. Even those +exhibiting no conspicuous peculiarity, frequently indicate by something +in the pattern or make-up of their clothes, that they pay small regard +to what their tailors tell them about the prevailing taste. And when the +gathering breaks up, the varieties of head-gear displayed—the +number of caps, and the abundance of felt hats—suffice to prove +that were the world at large like-minded, the black cylinders which +tyrannise over us would soon be deposed.</p> + +<p>The foreign correspondence of our daily press shows that this +relationship between political discontent and the disregard of customs +exists on the Continent also. Red republicanism has always been +distinguished by its hirsuteness. The authorities of Prussia, Austria, +and Italy, alike recognise certain forms of hat as indicative of +disaffection, and fulminate against them accordingly. In some places the +wearer of a blouse runs a risk of being classed among the <i>suspects</i>; +and in others, he who would avoid the bureau of police, must beware how +he goes out <a name="page_199"></a> in any but the ordinary colours. +Thus, democracy abroad, as at home, tends towards personal +singularity.</p> + +<p>Nor is this association of characteristics peculiar to modern times, +or to reformers of the State. It has always existed; and it has been +manifested as much in religious agitations as in political ones. Along +with dissent from the chief established opinions and arrangements, there +has ever been some dissent from the customary social practices. The +Puritans, disapproving of the long curls of the Cavaliers, as of their +principles, cut their own hair short, and so gained the name of +"Roundheads." The marked religious nonconformity of the Quakers was +accompanied by an equally-marked nonconformity of manners—in +attire, in speech, in salutation. The early Moravians not only believed +differently, but at the same time dressed differently, and lived +differently, from their fellow Christians.</p> + +<p>That the association between political independence and independence +of personal conduct, is not a phenomenon of to-day only, we may see +alike in the appearance of Franklin at the French court in plain +clothes, and in the white hats worn by the last generation of radicals. +Originality of nature is sure to show itself in more ways than one. The +mention of George Fox's suit of leather, or Pestalozzi's school name, +"Harry Oddity," will at once suggest the remembrance that men who have +in great things diverged from the beaten track, have frequently done so +in small things likewise. Minor illustrations of this truth may be +gathered in almost every circle. We believe that whoever will number up +his reforming and rationalist acquaintances, will find among them more +than the usual proportion of those who in dress or behaviour exhibit +some degree of what the world calls eccentricity.</p> + +<p>If it be a fact that men of revolutionary aims in politics or +religion, are commonly revolutionists in custom also, it is not less a +fact that those whose office it is to uphold established arrangements in +State and Church, are also those who most adhere to the social forms and +observances bequeathed to us by past generations. Practices elsewhere +extinct still linger about the headquarters of government. The monarch +still gives assent to Acts of Parliament in the old French of the +Normans; and Norman French terms are still used in law. Wigs, such as +those we see depicted in old portraits, may yet be found on the heads of +judges and barristers. The Beefeaters at the Tower wear the costume of +Henry VIIth's bodyguard. The University dress of the present year varies +but little from <a name="page_200"></a> that worn soon after the +Reformation. The claret-coloured coat, knee-breeches, lace shirt frills, +ruffles, white silk stockings, and buckled shoes, which once formed the +usual attire of a gentleman, still survive as the court-dress. And it +need scarcely be said that at <i>levées</i> and drawing-rooms, the ceremonies +are prescribed with an exactness, and enforced with a rigour, not +elsewhere to be found.</p> + +<p>Can we consider these two series of coincidences as accidental and +unmeaning? Must we not rather conclude that some necessary relationship +obtains between them? Are there not such things as a constitutional +conservatism, and a constitutional tendency to change? Is there not a +class which clings to the old in all things; and another class so in +love with progress as often to mistake novelty for improvement? Do we +not find some men ready to bow to established authority of whatever +kind; while others demand of every such authority its reason, and reject +it if it fails to justify itself? And must not the minds thus contrasted +tend to become respectively conformist and nonconformist, not only in +politics and religion, but in other things? Submission, whether to a +government, to the dogmas of ecclesiastics, or to that code of behaviour +which society at large has set up, is essentially of the same nature; +and the sentiment which induces resistance to the despotism of rulers, +civil or spiritual, likewise induces resistance to the despotism of the +world's opinion. Look at them fundamentally, and all enactments, alike +of the legislature, the consistory, and the saloon—all +regulations, formal or virtual, have a common character: they are all +limitations of men's freedom. "Do this—Refrain from that," are the +blank formulas into which they may all be written: and in each case the +understanding is that obedience will bring approbation here and paradise +hereafter; while disobedience will entail imprisonment, or sending to +Coventry, or eternal torments, as the case may be. And if restraints, +however named, and through whatever apparatus of means exercised, are +one in their action upon men, it must happen that those who are patient +under one kind of restraint, are likely to be patient under another; and +conversely, that those impatient of restraint in general, will, on the +average, tend to show their impatience in all directions.</p> + +<p>That Law, Religion, and Manners are thus related—that their +respective kinds of operation come under one generalisation—that +they have in certain contrasted characteristics of men a common support +and a common danger—will, however, be most <a name="page_201"></a> +clearly seen on discovering that they have a common origin. Little as +from present appearances we should suppose it, we shall yet find that at +first, the control of religion, the control of laws and the control of +manners, were all one control. However incredible it may now seem, we +believe it to be demonstrable that the rules of etiquette, the +provisions of the statute-book, and the commands of the decalogue, have +grown from the same root. If we go far enough back into the ages of +primeval Fetishism, it becomes manifest that originally Deity, Chief, +and Master of the ceremonies were identical. To make good these +positions, and to show their bearing on what is to follow, it will be +necessary here to traverse ground that is in part somewhat beaten, and +at first sight irrelevant to our topic. We will pass over it as quickly +as consists with the exigencies of the argument.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>That the earliest social aggregations were ruled solely by the will +of the strong man, few dispute. That from the strong man proceeded not +only Monarchy, but the conception of a God, few admit: much as Carlyle +and others have said in evidence of it. If, however, those who are +unable to believe this, will lay aside the ideas of God and man in which +they have been educated, and study the aboriginal ideas of them, they +will at least see some probability in the hypothesis. Let them remember +that before experience had yet taught men to distinguish between the +possible and the impossible; and while they were ready on the slightest +suggestion to ascribe unknown powers to any object and make a fetish of +it; their conceptions of humanity and its capacities were necessarily +vague, and without specific limits. The man who by unusual strength, or +cunning, achieved something that others had failed to achieve, or +something which they did not understand, was considered by them as +differing from themselves; and, as we see in the belief of some +Polynesians that only their chiefs have souls, or in that of the ancient +Peruvians that their nobles were divine by birth, the ascribed +difference was apt to be not one of degree only, but one of kind.</p> + +<p>Let them remember next, how gross were the notions of God, or rather +of gods, prevalent during the same era and afterwards—how +concretely gods were conceived as men of specific aspects dressed in +specific ways—how their names were literally "the strong," "the +destroyer," "the powerful one,"—how, according to the Scandinavian +mythology, the "sacred duty of blood-revenge" was acted on by the gods +themselves,—and how they <a name="page_202"></a> were not only +human in their vindictiveness, their cruelty, and their quarrels with +each other, but were supposed to have amours on earth, and to consume +the viands placed on their altars. Add to which, that in various +mythologies, Greek, Scandinavian, and others, the oldest beings are +giants; that according to a traditional genealogy the gods, demi-gods, +and in some cases men, are descended from these after the human fashion; +and that while in the East we hear of sons of God who saw the daughters +of men that they were fair, the Teutonic myths tell of unions between +the sons of men and the daughters of the gods.</p> + +<p>Let them remember, too, that at first the idea of death differed +widely from that which we have; that there are still tribes who, on the +decease of one of their number, attempt to make the corpse stand, and +put food into his mouth; that the Peruvians had feasts at which the +mummies of their dead Incas presided, when, as Prescott says, they paid +attention "to these insensible remains as if they were instinct with +life;" that among the Fejees it is believed that every enemy has to be +killed twice; that the Eastern Pagans give extension and figure to the +soul, and attribute to it all the same substances, both solid and +liquid, of which our bodies are composed; and that it is the custom +among most barbarous races to bury food, weapons, and trinkets along +with the dead body, under the manifest belief that it will presently +need them.</p> + +<p>Lastly, let them remember that the other world, as originally +conceived, is simply some distant part of this world—some Elysian +fields, some happy hunting-ground, accessible even to the living, and to +which, after death, men travel in anticipation of a life analogous in +general character to that which they led before. Then, co-ordinating +these general facts—the ascription of unknown powers to chiefs and +medicine men; the belief in deities having human forms, passions, and +behaviour; the imperfect comprehension of death as distinguished from +life; and the proximity of the future abode to the present, both in +position and character—let them reflect whether they do not almost +unavoidably suggest the conclusion that the aboriginal god is the dead +chief; the chief not dead in our sense, but gone away carrying with him +food and weapons to some rumoured region of plenty, some promised land, +whither he had long intended to lead his followers, and whence he will +presently return to fetch them.</p> + +<p>This hypothesis once entertained, is seen to harmonise with <a +name="page_203"></a> all primitive ideas and practices. The sons of the +deified chief reigning after him, it necessarily happens that all early +kings are held descendants of the gods; and the fact that alike in +Assyria, Egypt, among the Jews, Phœnicians, and ancient Britons, +kings' names were formed out of the names of the gods, is fully +explained. The genesis of Polytheism out of Fetishism, by the successive +migrations of the race of god-kings to the other world—a genesis +illustrated in the Greek mythology, alike by the precise genealogy of +the deities, and by the specifically asserted apotheosis of the later +ones—tends further to bear it out. It explains the fact that in +the old creeds, as in the still extant creed of the Otaheitans, every +family has its guardian spirit, who is supposed to be one of their +departed relatives; and that they sacrifice to these as minor +gods—a practice still pursued by the Chinese and even by the +Russians. It is perfectly congruous with the Grecian myths concerning +the wars of the Gods with the Titans and their final usurpation; and it +similarly agrees with the fact that among the Teutonic gods proper was +one Freir who came among them by adoption, "but was born among the +<i>Vanes</i>, a somewhat mysterious <i>other</i> dynasty of gods, who had been +conquered and superseded by the stronger and more warlike Odin dynasty." +It harmonises, too, with the belief that there are different gods to +different territories and nations, as there were different chiefs; that +these gods contend for supremacy as chiefs do; and it gives meaning to +the boast of neighbouring tribes—"Our god is greater than your +god." It is confirmed by the notion universally current in early times, +that the gods come from this other abode, in which they commonly live, +and appear among men—speak to them, help them, punish them. And +remembering this, it becomes manifest that the prayers put up by +primitive peoples to their gods for aid in battle, are meant +literally—that their gods are expected to come back from the other +kingdom they are reigning over, and once more fight the old enemies they +had before warred against so implacably; and it needs but to name the +Iliad, to remind every one how thoroughly they believed the expectation +fulfilled.</p> + +<p>All government, then, being originally that of the strong man who has +become a fetish by some manifestation of superiority, there arises, at +his death—his supposed departure on a long projected expedition, +in which he is accompanied by his slaves and concubines sacrificed at +his tomb—their arises, then, the incipient division of religious +from political control, of civil rule from spiritual. His son becomes +deputed chief during his <a name="page_204"></a> absence; his authority +is cited as that by which his son acts; his vengeance is invoked on all +who disobey his son; and his commands, as previously known or as +asserted by his son, become the germ of a moral code; a fact we shall +the more clearly perceive if we remember, that early moral codes +inculcate mainly the virtues of the warrior, and the duty of +exterminating some neighbouring tribe whose existence is an offence to +the deity.</p> + +<p>From this point onwards, these two kinds of authority, at first +complicated together as those of principal and agent, become slowly more +and more distinct. As experience accumulates, and ideas of causation +grow more precise, kings lose their supernatural attributes; and, +instead of God-king, become God-descended king, God-appointed king, the +Lord's anointed, the vicegerent of heaven, ruler reigning by Divine +right. The old theory, however, long clings to men in feeling, after it +has disappeared in name; and "such divinity doth hedge a king," that +even now, many, on first seeing one, feel a secret surprise at finding +him an ordinary sample of humanity. The sacredness attaching to royalty +attaches afterwards to its appended institutions—to legislatures, +to laws. Legal and illegal are synonymous with right and wrong; the +authority of Parliament is held unlimited; and a lingering faith in +governmental power continually generates unfounded hopes from its +enactments. Political scepticism, however, having destroyed the divine +<i>prestige</i> of royalty, goes on ever increasing, and promises ultimately +to reduce the State to a purely secular institution, whose regulations +are limited in their sphere, and have no other authority than the +general will. Meanwhile, the religious control has been little by little +separating itself from the civil, both in its essence and in its forms. +While from the God-king of the savage have arisen in one direction, +secular rulers who, age by age, have been losing the sacred attributes +men ascribed to them; there has arisen in another direction, the +conception of a deity, who, at first human in all things, has been +gradually losing human materiality, human form, human passions, human +modes of action: until now, anthropomorphism has become a reproach.</p> + +<p>Along with this wide divergence in men's ideas of the divine and +civil ruler has been taking place a corresponding divergence in the +codes of conduct respectively proceeding from them. While the king was a +deputy-god—a governor such as the Jews looked for in the +Messiah—a governor considered, as the Czar still is, "our God upon +Earth,"—it, of course, followed that his commands were the supreme +rules. But as men ceased to <a name="page_205"></a> believe in his +supernatural origin and nature, his commands ceased to be the highest; +and there arose a distinction between the regulations made by him, and +the regulations handed down from the old god-kings, who were rendered +ever more sacred by time and the accumulation of myths. Hence came +respectively, Law and Morality: the one growing ever more concrete, the +other more abstract; the authority of the one ever on the decrease, that +of the other ever on the increase; originally the same, but now placed +daily in more marked antagonism.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously there has been going on a separation of the +institutions administering these two codes of conduct. While they were +yet one, of course Church and State were one: the king was arch-priest, +not nominally, but really—alike the giver of new commands and the +chief interpreter of the old commands; and the deputy-priests coming out +of his family were thus simply expounders of the dictates of their +ancestry: at first as recollected, and afterwards as ascertained by +professed interviews with them. This union—which still existed +practically during the middle ages, when the authority of kings was +mixed up with the authority of the pope, when there were bishop-rulers +having all the powers of feudal lords, and when priests punished by +penances—has been, step by step, becoming less close. Though +monarchs are still "defenders of the faith," and ecclesiastical chiefs, +they are but nominally such. Though bishops still have civil power, it +is not what they once had. Protestantism shook loose the bonds of union; +Dissent has long been busy in organising a mechanism for the exercise of +religious control, wholly independent of law; in America, a separate +organisation for that purpose already exists; and if anything is to be +hoped from the Anti-State-Church Association—or, as it has been +newly named, "The Society for the Liberation of Religion from State +Patronage and Control"—we shall presently have a separate +organisation here also.</p> + +<p>Thus alike in authority, in essence, and in form, political and +spiritual rule have been ever more widely diverging from the same root. +That increasing division of labour which marks the progress of society +in other things, marks it also in this separation of government into +civil and religious; and if we observe how the morality which forms the +substance of religions in general, is beginning to be purified from the +associated creeds, we may anticipate that this division will be +ultimately carried much further.</p> + +<p>Passing now to the third species of control—that of +Manners—we <a name="page_206"></a> shall find that this, too, +while it had a common genesis with the others, has gradually come to +have a distinct sphere and a special embodiment. Among early +aggregations of men before yet social observances existed, the sole +forms of courtesy known were the signs of submission to the strong man; +as the sole law was his will, and the sole religion the awe of his +supposed supernaturalness. Originally, ceremonies were modes of +behaviour to the god-king. Our commonest titles have been derived from +his names. And all salutations were primarily worship paid to him. Let +us trace out these truths in detail, beginning with titles.</p> + +<p>The fact already noticed, that the names of early kings among divers +races are formed by the addition of certain syllables to the names of +their gods—which certain syllables, like our <i>Mac</i> and <i>Fitz</i>, +probably mean "son of," or "descended from"—at once gives meaning +to the term <i>Father</i> as a divine title. And when we read, in Selden, +that "the composition out of these names of Deities was not only proper +to Kings: their Grandes and more honourable Subjects" (no doubt members +of the royal race) "had sometimes the like;" we see how the term +<i>Father</i>, properly used by these also, and by their multiplying +descendants, came to be a title used by the people in general. And it is +significant as bearing on this point, that among the most barbarous +nation in Europe, where belief in the divine nature of the ruler still +lingers, <i>Father</i> in this higher sense is still a regal distinction. +When, again, we remember how the divinity at first ascribed to kings was +not a complimentary fiction but a supposed fact; and how, further, under +the Fetish philosophy the celestial bodies are believed to be personages +who once lived among men; we see that the appellations of oriental +rulers, "Brother to the Sun," etc., were probably once expressive of a +genuine belief; and have simply, like many other things, continued in +use after all meaning has gone out of them. We way infer, too, that the +titles, God, Lord, Divinity, were given to primitive rulers +literally—that the <i>nostra divinitas</i> applied to the Roman +emperors, and the various sacred designations that have been borne by +monarchs, down to the still extant phrase, "Our Lord the King," are the +dead and dying forms of what were once living facts. From these names, +God, Father, Lord, Divinity, originally belonging to the God-king, and +afterwards to God and the king, the derivation of our commonest titles +of respect is clearly traceable.</p> + +<p>There is reason to think that these titles were originally proper <a +name="page_207"></a> names. Not only do we see among the Egyptians, +where Pharaoh was synonymous with king, and among the Romans, where to +be Cæsar meant to be Emperor, that the proper names of the greatest men +were transferred to their successors, and so became class names; but in +the Scandinavian mythology we may trace a human title of honour up to +the proper name of a divine personage. In Anglo-Saxon <i>bealdor</i>, or +<i>baldor</i>, means <i>Lord</i>; and Balder is the name of the favourite of +Odin's sons—the gods who with him constitute the Teutonic +Pantheon. How these names of honour became general is easily understood. +The relatives of the primitive kings—the grandees described by +Selden as having names formed on those of the gods, and shown by this to +be members of the divine race—necessarily shared in the epithets, +such as <i>Lord</i>, descriptive of superhuman relationships and nature. +Their ever-multiplying offspring inheriting these, gradually rendered +them comparatively common. And then they came to be applied to every man +of power: partly from the fact that, in these early days when men +conceived divinity simply as a stronger kind of humanity, great persons +could be called by divine epithets with but little exaggeration; partly +from the fact that the unusually potent were apt to be considered as +unrecognised or illegitimate descendants of "the strong, the destroyer, +the powerful one;" and partly, also, from compliment and the desire to +propitiate.</p> + +<p>Progressively as superstition diminished, this last became the sole +cause. And if we remember that it is the nature of compliment, as we +daily hear it, to attribute more than is due—that in the +constantly widening application of "esquire," in the perpetual +repetition of "your honour" by the fawning Irishman, and in the use of +the name "gentleman" to any coalheaver or dustman by the lower classes +of London, we have current examples of the depreciation of titles +consequent on compliment—and that in barbarous times, when the +wish to propitiate was stronger than now, this effect must have been +greater; we shall see that there naturally arose an extensive misuse of +all early distinctions. Hence the facts, that the Jews called Herod a +god; that <i>Father</i>, in its higher sense, was a term used among them by +servants to masters; that <i>Lord</i> was applicable to any person of worth +and power. Hence, too, the fact that, in the later periods of the Roman +Empire, every man saluted his neighbour as <i>Dominus</i> and <i>Rex</i>.</p> + +<p>But it is in the titles of the middle ages, and in the growth of our +modern ones out of them, that the process is most clearly <a +name="page_208"></a> seen. <i>Herr</i>, <i>Don</i>, <i>Signior</i>, <i>Seigneur</i>, +<i>Sennor</i>, were all originally names of rulers—of feudal lords. By +the complimentary use of these names to all who could, on any pretence, +be supposed to merit them, and by successive degradations of them from +each step in the descent to a still lower one, they have come to be +common forms of address. At first the phrase in which a serf accosted +his despotic chief, <i>mein herr</i> is now familiarly applied in Germany to +ordinary people. The Spanish title <i>Don</i>, once proper to noblemen and +gentlemen only, is now accorded to all classes. So, too, is it with +<i>Signior</i> in Italy. <i>Seigneur</i> and <i>Monseigneur</i>, by contraction in +<i>Sieur</i> and <i>Monsieur</i>, have produced the term of respect claimed by +every Frenchman. And whether <i>Sire</i> be or be not a like contraction of +<i>Signior</i>, it is clear that, as it was borne by sundry of the ancient +feudal lords of France, who, as Selden says, "affected rather to bee +stiled by the name of <i>Sire</i> than Baron, as <i>Le Sire de Montmorencie</i>, +<i>Le Sire de Beauieu</i>, and the like," and as it has been commonly used to +monarchs, our word <i>Sir</i>, which is derived from it, originally meant +lord or king. Thus, too, is it with feminine titles. <i>Lady</i>, which, +according to Horne Tooke, means <i>exalted</i>, and was at first given only +to the few, is now given to all women of education. <i>Dame</i>, once an +honourable name to which, in old books, we find the epithets of +"high-born" and "stately" affixed, has now, by repeated widenings of its +application, become relatively a term of contempt. And if we trace the +compound of this, <i>ma Dame</i>, through its contractions—<i>Madam</i>, +<i>ma'am</i>, <i>mam</i>, <i>mum</i>, we find that the "Yes'm" of Sally to her mistress +is originally equivalent to "Yes, my exalted," or "Yes, your highness." +Throughout, therefore, the genesis of words of honour has been the same. +Just as with the Jews and with the Romans, has it been with the modern +Europeans. Tracing these everyday names to their primitive +significations of <i>lord</i> and <i>king</i>, and remembering that in aboriginal +societies these were applied only to the gods and their descendants, we +arrive at the conclusion that our familiar <i>Sir</i> and <i>Monsieur</i> are, in +their primary and expanded meanings, terms of adoration.</p> + +<p>Further to illustrate this gradual depreciation of titles and to +confirm the inference drawn, it may be well to notice in passing, that +the oldest of them have, as might be expected, been depreciated to the +greatest extent. Thus, <i>Master</i>—a word proved by its derivation +and by the similarity of the connate words in other languages (Fr., +<i>maître</i> for <i>master</i>; Russ., <i>master</i>: Dan., <i>meester</i>; Ger., +<i>meister</i>) to have been one of the earliest in use <a +name="page_209"></a> for expressing lordship—has now become +applicable to children only, and under the modification of "Mister," to +persons next above the labourer. Again, knighthood, the oldest kind of +dignity, is also the lowest; and Knight Bachelor, which is the lowest +order of knighthood, is more ancient than any other of the orders. +Similarly, too, with the peerage, Baron is alike the earliest and least +elevated of its divisions. This continual degradation of all names of +honour has, from time to time, made it requisite to introduce new ones +having that distinguishing effect which the originals had lost by +generality of use; just as our habit of misapplying superlatives has, by +gradually destroying their force, entailed the need for fresh ones. And +if, within the last thousand years, this process has produced effects +thus marked, we may readily conceive how, during previous thousands, the +titles of gods and demi-gods came to be used to all persons exercising +power; as they have since come to be used to persons of +respectability.</p> + +<p>If from names of honour we turn to phrases of honour, we find similar +facts. The Oriental styles of address, applied to ordinary +people—"I am your slave," "All I have is yours," "I am your +sacrifice"—attribute to the individual spoken to the same +greatness that <i>Monsieur</i> and <i>My Lord</i> do: they ascribe to him the +character of an all-powerful ruler, so immeasurably superior to the +speaker as to be his owner. So, likewise, with the Polish expressions of +respect—"I throw myself under your feet," "I kiss your feet." In +our now meaningless subscription to a formal letter—"Your most +obedient servant,"—the same thing is visible. Nay, even in the +familiar signature "Yours faithfully," the "yours," if interpreted as +originally meant, is the expression of a slave to his master.</p> + +<p>All these dead forms were once living embodiments of fact—were +primarily the genuine indications of that submission to authority which +they verbally assert; were afterwards naturally used by the weak and +cowardly to propitiate those above them; gradually grew to be considered +the due of such; and, by a continually wider misuse, have lost their +meanings, as <i>Sir</i> and <i>Master</i> have done. That, like titles, they were +in the beginning used only to the God-king, is indicated by the fact +that, like titles, they were subsequently used in common to God and the +king. Religious worship has ever largely consisted of professions of +obedience, of being God's servants, of belonging to him to do what he +will with. Like titles, therefore, these common phrases of honour had a +devotional origin.</p> + +<p><a name="page_210"></a>Perhaps, however, it is in the use of the word +<i>you</i> as a singular pronoun that the popularising of what were once +supreme distinctions is most markedly illustrated. This speaking of a +single individual in the plural was originally an honour given only to +the highest—was the reciprocal of the imperial "we" assumed by +such. Yet now, by being applied to successively lower and lower classes, +it has become all but universal. Only by one sect of Christians, and in +a few secluded districts, is the primitive <i>thou</i> still used. And the +<i>you</i>, in becoming common to all ranks, has simultaneously lost every +vestige of the honour once attaching to it.</p> + +<p>But the genesis of Manners out of forms of allegiance and worship is +above all shown in men's modes of salutation. Note first the +significance of the word. Among the Romans, the <i>salutatio</i> was a daily +homage paid by clients and inferiors to superiors. This was alike the +case with civilians and in the army. The very derivation of our word, +therefore, is suggestive of submission. Passing to particular forms of +obeisance (mark the word again), let us begin with the Eastern one of +baring the feet. This was, primarily, a mark of reverence, alike to a +god and a king. The act of Moses before the burning bush, and the +practice of Mahometans, who are sworn on the Koran with their shoes off, +exemplify the one employment of it; the custom of the Persians, who +remove their shoes on entering the presence of their monarch, +exemplifies the other. As usual, however, this homage, paid next to +inferior rulers, has descended from grade to grade. In India, it is a +common mark of respect; a polite man in Turkey always leaves his shoes +at the door, while the lower orders of Turks never enter the presence of +their superiors but in their stockings; and in Japan, this baring of the +feet is an ordinary salutation of man to man.</p> + +<p>Take another case. Selden, describing the ceremonies of the Romans, +says:—"For whereas it was usual either to kiss the Images of their +Gods, or adoring them, to stand somewhat off before them, solemnly +moving the right hand to the lips, and then, casting it as if they had +cast kisses, to turne the body on the same hand (which was the right +forme of Adoration), it grew also by custom, first that the emperors, +being next to Deities, and by some accounted as Deities, had the like +done to them in acknowledgment of their Greatness." If, now, we call to +mind the awkward salute of a village school-boy, made by putting his +open hand up to his face and describing a semicircle with his forearm; +and if we remember that the salute thus used as a <a +name="page_211"></a> form of reverence in country districts, is most +likely a remnant of the feudal times; we shall see reason for thinking +that our common wave of the hand to a friend across the street, +represents what was primarily a devotional act.</p> + +<p>Similarly have originated all forms of respect depending upon +inclinations of the body. Entire prostration is the aboriginal sign of +submission. The passage of Scripture, "Thou hast put all under his +feet," and that other one, so suggestive in its anthropomorphism, "The +Lord said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine +enemies thy footstool," imply, what the Assyrian sculptures fully bear +out, that it was the practice of the ancient god-kings of the East to +trample upon the conquered. And when we bear in mind that there are +existing savages who signify submission by placing the neck under the +foot of the person submitted to, it becomes obvious that all +prostration, especially when accompanied by kissing the foot, expressed +a willingness to be trodden upon—was an attempt to mitigate wrath +by saying, in signs, "Tread on me if you will." Remembering, further, +that kissing the foot, as of the Pope and of a saint's statue, still +continues in Europe to be a mark of extreme reverence; that prostration +to feudal lords was once general; and that its disappearance must have +taken place, not abruptly, but by gradual modification into something +else; we have ground for deriving from these deepest of humiliations all +inclinations of respect; especially as the transition is traceable. The +reverence of a Russian serf, who bends his head to the ground, and the +salaam of the Hindoo, are abridged prostrations; a bow is a short +salaam; a nod is a short bow.</p> + +<p>Should any hesitate to admit this conclusion, then perhaps, on being +reminded that the lowest of these obeisances are common where the +submission is most abject; that among ourselves the profundity of the +bow marks the amount of respect; and lastly, that the bow is even now +used devotionally in our churches—by Catholics to their altars, +and by Protestants at the name of Christ—they will see sufficient +evidence for thinking that this salutation also was originally +worship.</p> + +<p>The same may be said, too, of the curtsy, or courtesy, as it is +otherwise written. Its derivation from <i>courtoisie</i>, courteousness, that +is, behaviour like that at court, at once shows that it was primarily +the reverence paid to a monarch. And if we call to mind that falling +upon the knees, or upon one knee, has been a common obeisance of +subjects to rulers; that in ancient manuscripts and tapestries, servants +are depicted as assuming this <a name="page_212"></a> attitude while +offering the dishes to their masters at table; and that this same +attitude is assumed towards our own queen at every presentation; we may +infer, what the character of the curtsy itself suggests, that it is an +abridged act of kneeling. As the word has been contracted from +<i>courtoisie</i> into curtsy, so the motion has been contracted from a +placing of the knee on the floor, to a lowering of the knee towards the +floor. Moreover, when we compare the curtsy of a lady with the awkward +one a peasant girl makes, which, if continued, would bring her down on +both knees, we may see in this last a remnant of that greater reverence +required of serfs. And when, from considering that simple kneeling of +the West, still represented by the curtsy, we pass Eastward, and note +the attitude of the Mahometan worshipper, who not only kneels but bows +his head to the ground, we may infer that the curtsy also is an +evanescent form of the aboriginal prostration.</p> + +<p>In further evidence of this it may be remarked, that there has but +recently disappeared from the salutations of men, an action having the +same proximate derivation with the curtsy. That backward sweep of the +foot with which the conventional stage-sailor accompanies his +bow—a movement which prevailed generally in past generations, when +"a bow and a scrape" went together, and which, within the memory of +living persons, was made by boys to their schoolmaster with the effect +of wearing a hole in the floor—is pretty clearly a preliminary to +going on one knee. A motion so ungainly could never have been +intentionally introduced; even if the artificial introduction of +obeisances were possible. Hence we must regard it as the remnant of +something antecedent: and that this something antecedent was humiliating +may be inferred from the phrase, "scraping an acquaintance;" which, +being used to denote the gaining of favour by obsequiousness, implies +that the scrape was considered a mark of servility—that is, of +<i>serf</i>-ility.</p> + +<p>Consider, again, the uncovering of the head. Almost everywhere this +has been a sign of reverence, alike in temples and before potentates; +and it yet preserves among us some of its original meaning. Whether it +rains, hails, or shines, you must keep your head bare while speaking to +the monarch; and on no plea may you remain covered in a place of +worship. As usual, however, this ceremony, at first a submission to gods +and kings, has become in process of time a common civility. Once an +acknowledgment of another's unlimited supremacy, the removal of the hat +is now a salute accorded to very ordinary persons, <a +name="page_213"></a> and that uncovering, originally reserved for +entrance into "the house of God," good manners now dictates on entrance +into the house of a common labourer.</p> + +<p>Standing, too, as a mark of respect, has undergone like extensions in +its application. Shown, by the practice in our churches, to be +intermediate between the humiliation signified by kneeling and the +self-respect which sitting implies, and used at courts as a form of +homage when more active demonstrations of it have been made, this +posture is now employed in daily life to show consideration; as seen +alike in the attitude of a servant before a master, and in that rising +which politeness prescribes on the entrance of a visitor.</p> + +<p>Many other threads of evidence might have been woven into our +argument. As, for example, the significant fact, that if we trace back +our still existing law of primogeniture—if we consider it as +displayed by Scottish clans, in which not only ownership but government +devolved from the beginning on the eldest son of the eldest—if we +look further back, and observe that the old titles of lordship, +<i>Signor</i>, <i>Seigneur</i>, <i>Sennor</i>, <i>Sire</i>, <i>Sieur</i>, all originally mean, +senior, or elder—if we go Eastward, and find that <i>Sheick</i> has a +like derivation, and that the Oriental names for priests, as <i>Pir</i>, for +instance, are literally interpreted <i>old man</i>—if we note in Hebrew +records how primeval is the ascribed superiority of the first-born, how +great the authority of elders, and how sacred the memory of +patriarchs—and if, then, we remember that among divine titles are +"Ancient of Days," and "Father of Gods and men;"—we see how +completely these facts harmonise with the hypothesis, that the +aboriginal god is the first man sufficiently great to become a +tradition, the earliest whose power and deeds made him remembered; that +hence antiquity unavoidably became associated with superiority, and age +with nearness in blood to "the powerful one;" that so there naturally +arose that domination of the eldest which characterises all history, and +that theory of human degeneracy which even yet survives.</p> + +<p>We might further dwell on the facts, that <i>Lord</i> signifies high-born, +or, as the same root gives a word meaning heaven, possibly heaven-born; +that, before it became common, <i>Sir</i> or <i>Sire</i>, as well as <i>Father</i>, was +the distinction of a priest; that <i>worship</i>, originally +worth-ship—a term of respect that has been used commonly, as well +as to magistrates—is also our term for the act of attributing +greatness or worth to the Deity; so that to ascribe worth-ship to a man +is to worship him. We might make <a name="page_214"></a> much of the +evidence that all early governments are more or less distinctly +theocratic; and that among ancient Eastern nations even the commonest +forms and customs appear to have been influenced by religion. We might +enforce our argument respecting the derivation of ceremonies, by tracing +out the aboriginal obeisance made by putting dust on the head, which +probably symbolises putting the head in the dust: by affiliating the +practice prevailing among certain tribes, of doing another honour by +presenting him with a portion of hair torn from the head—an act +which seems tantamount to saying, "I am your slave;" by investigating +the Oriental custom of giving to a visitor any object he speaks of +admiringly, which is pretty clearly a carrying out of the compliment, +"All I have is yours."</p> + +<p>Without enlarging, however, on these and many minor facts, we venture +to think that the evidence already assigned is sufficient to justify our +position. Had the proofs been few or of one kind, little faith could +have been placed in the inference. But numerous as they are, alike in +the case of titles, in that of complimentary phrases, and in that of +salutes—similar and simultaneous, too, as the process of +depreciation has been in all of these; the evidences become strong by +mutual confirmation. And when we recollect, also, that not only have the +results of this process been visible in various nations and in all +times, but that they are occurring among ourselves at the present +moment, and that the causes assigned for previous depreciations may be +seen daily working out other ones—when we recollect this, it +becomes scarcely possible to doubt that the process has been as alleged; +and that our ordinary words, acts, and phrases of civility were +originally acknowledgments of submission to another's omnipotence.</p> + +<p>Thus the general doctrine, that all kinds of government exercised +over men were at first one government—that the political, the +religious, and the ceremonial forms of control are divergent branches of +a general and once indivisible control—begins to look tenable. +When, with the above facts fresh in mind, we read primitive records, and +find that "there were giants in those days"—when we remember that +in Eastern traditions Nimrod, among others, figures in all the +characters of giant king, and divinity—when we turn to the +sculptures exhumed by Mr. Layard, and contemplating in them the effigies +of kings driving over enemies, trampling on prisoners, and adored by +prostrate slaves, then observe how their actions correspond to the +primitive names for the divinity, "the strong," "the <a +name="page_215"></a> destroyer," "the powerful one"—when we find +that the earliest temples were also the residences of the +kings—and when, lastly, we discover that among races of men still +living there are current superstitions analogous to those which old +records and old buildings indicate; we begin to realise the probability +of the hypothesis that has been set forth.</p> + +<p>Going back, in imagination, to the remote era when men's theories of +things were yet unformed; and conceiving to ourselves the conquering +chief as dimly figured in ancient myths, and poems, and ruins; we may +see that all rules of conduct whatever spring from his will. Alike +legislator and judge, all quarrels among his subjects are decided by +him; and his words become the Law. Awe of him is the incipient Religion; +and his maxims furnish its first precepts. Submission is made to him in +the forms he prescribes; and these give birth to Manners. From the +first, time develops political allegiance and the administration of +justice; from the second, the worship of a being whose personality +becomes ever more vague, and the inculcation of precepts ever more +abstract; from the third, forms of honour and the rules of +etiquette.</p> + +<p>In conformity with the law of evolution of all organised bodies, that +general functions are gradually separated into the special functions +constituting them, there have grown up in the social organism for the +better performance of the governmental office, an apparatus of +law-courts, judges, and barristers; a national church, with its bishops +and priests; and a system of caste, titles, and ceremonies, administered +by society at large. By the first, overt aggressions are cognised and +punished; by the second, the disposition to commit such aggressions is +in some degree checked; by the third, those minor breaches of good +conduct, which the others do not notice, are denounced and chastised. +Law and Religion control behaviour in its essentials: Manners control it +in its details. For regulating those daily actions which are too +numerous and too unimportant to be officially directed, there comes into +play this subtler set of restraints. And when we consider what these +restraints are—when we analyse the words, and phrases, and salutes +employed, we see that in origin as in effect, the system is a setting up +of temporary governments between all men who come in contact, for the +purpose of better managing the intercourse between them.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>From the proposition, that these several kinds of government are +essentially one, both in genesis and function, may be deduced <a +name="page_216"></a> several important corollaries, directly bearing on +our special topic.</p> + +<p>Let us first notice, that there is not only a common origin and +office for all forms of rule, but a common necessity for them. The +aboriginal man, coming fresh from the killing of bears and from lying in +ambush for his enemy, has, by the necessities of his condition, a nature +requiring to be curbed in its every impulse. Alike in war and in the +chase, his daily discipline has been that of sacrificing other creatures +to his own needs and passions. His character, bequeathed to him by +ancestors who led similar lives, is moulded by this discipline—is +fitted to this existence. The unlimited selfishness, the love of +inflicting pain, the blood-thirstiness, thus kept active, he brings with +him into the social state. These dispositions put him in constant danger +of conflict with his equally savage neighbour. In small things as in +great, in words as in deeds, he is aggressive; and is hourly liable to +the aggressions of others like natured. Only, therefore, by the most +rigorous control exercised over all actions, can the primitive unions of +men be maintained. There must be a ruler strong, remorseless, and of +indomitable will; there must be a creed terrible in its threats to the +disobedient; and there must be the most servile submission of all +inferiors to superiors. The law must be cruel; the religion must be +stern; the ceremonies must be strict.</p> + +<p>The co-ordinate necessity for these several kinds of restraint might +be largely illustrated from history were there space. Suffice it to +point out, that where the civil power has been weak, the multiplication +of thieves, assassins, and banditti, has indicated the approach of +social dissolution; that when, from the corruptness of its ministry, +religion has lost its influence, as it did just before the Flagellants +appeared, the State has been endangered; and that the disregard of +established social observances has ever been an accompaniment of +political revolutions. Whoever doubts the necessity for a government of +manners proportionate in strength to the co-existing political and +religious governments, will be convinced on calling to mind that until +recently even elaborate codes of behaviour failed to keep gentlemen from +quarrelling in the streets and fighting duels in taverns; and on +remembering further, that even now people exhibit at the doors of a +theatre, where there is no ceremonial law to rule them, a degree of +aggressiveness which would produce confusion if carried into social +intercourse.</p> + +<p>As might be expected, we find that, having a common origin <a +name="page_217"></a> and like general functions, these several +controlling agencies act during each era with similar degrees of vigour. +Under the Chinese despotism, stringent and multitudinous in its edicts +and harsh in the enforcement of them, and associated with which there is +an equally stern domestic despotism exercised by the eldest surviving +male of the family, there exists a system of observances alike +complicated and rigid. There is a tribunal of ceremonies. Previous to +presentation at court, ambassadors pass many days in practising the +required forms. Social intercourse is cumbered by endless compliments +and obeisances. Class distinctions are strongly marked by badges. The +chief regret on losing an only son is, that there will be no one to +perform the sepulchral rites. And if there wants a definite measure of +the respect paid to social ordinances, we have it in the torture to +which ladies submit in having their feet crushed. In India, and indeed +throughout the East, there exists a like connection between the pitiless +tyranny of rulers, the dread terrors of immemorial creeds, and the rigid +restraint of unchangeable customs: the caste regulations continue still +unalterable; the fashions of clothes and furniture have remained the +same for ages; suttees are so ancient as to be mentioned by Strabo and +Diodorus Siculus; justice is still administered at the palace-gates as +of old; in short, "every usage is a precept of religion and a maxim of +jurisprudence."</p> + +<p>A similar relationship of phenomena was exhibited in Europe during +the Middle Ages. While all its governments were autocratic, while +feudalism held sway, while the Church was unshorn of its power, while +the criminal code was full of horrors and the hell of the popular creed +full of terrors, the rules of behaviour were both more numerous and more +carefully conformed to than now. Differences of dress marked divisions +of rank. Men were limited by law to a certain width of shoe-toes; and no +one below a specified degree might wear a cloak less than so many inches +long. The symbols on banners and shields were carefully attended to. +Heraldry was an important branch of knowledge. Precedence was strictly +insisted on. And those various salutes of which we now use the +abridgments were gone through in full. Even during our own last century, +with its corrupt House of Commons and little-curbed monarchs, we may +mark a correspondence of social formalities. Gentlemen were still +distinguished from lower classes by dress; people sacrificed themselves +to inconvenient requirements—as powder, hooped <a +name="page_218"></a> petticoats, and towering head-dresses; and +children addressed their parents as <i>Sir</i> and <i>Madam</i>.</p> + +<p>A further corollary naturally following this last, and almost, +indeed, forming part of it, is, that these several kinds of government +decrease in stringency at the same rate. Simultaneously with the decline +in the influence of priesthoods, and in the fear of eternal +torments—simultaneously with the mitigation of political tyranny, +the growth of popular power, and the amelioration of criminal codes; has +taken place that diminution of formalities and that fading of +distinctive marks, now so observable. Looking at home, we may note that +there is less attention to precedence than there used to be. No one in +our day ends an interview with the phrase "your humble servant." The +employment of the word <i>Sir</i>, once general in social intercourse, is at +present considered bad breeding; and on the occasions calling for them, +it is held vulgar to use the words "Your Majesty," or "Your Royal +Highness," more than once in a conversation. People no longer formally +drink each other's healths; and even the taking wine with each other at +dinner has ceased to be fashionable. The taking-off of hats between +gentlemen has been gradually falling into disuse. Even when the hat is +removed, it is no longer swept out at arm's length, but is simply +lifted. Hence the remark made upon us by foreigners, that we take off +our hats less than any other nation in Europe—a remark that should +be coupled with the other, that we are the freest nation in Europe.</p> + +<p>As already implied, this association of facts is not accidental. +These titles of address and modes of salutation, bearing about them, as +they all do, something of that servility which marks their origin, +become distasteful in proportion as men become more independent +themselves, and sympathise more with the independence of others. The +feeling which makes the modern gentleman tell the labourer standing +bareheaded before him to put on his hat—the feeling which gives us +a dislike to those who cringe and fawn—the feeling which makes us +alike assert our own dignity and respect that of others—the +feeling which thus leads us more and more to discountenance all forms +and names which confess inferiority and submission; is the same feeling +which resists despotic power and inaugurates popular government, denies +the authority of the Church and establishes the right of private +judgment.</p> + +<p>A fourth fact, akin to the foregoing, is, that these several kinds of +government not only decline together, but corrupt <a +name="page_219"></a> together. By the same process that a Court of +Chancery becomes a place not for the administration of justice, but for +the withholding of it—by the same process that a national church, +from being an agency for moral control, comes to be merely a thing of +formulas and tithes and bishoprics—by this same process do titles +and ceremonies that once had a meaning and a power become empty +forms.</p> + +<p>Coats of arms which served to distinguish men in battle, now figure +on the carriage panels of retired grocers. Once a badge of high military +rank, the shoulder-knot has become, on the modern footman, a mark of +servitude. The name Banneret, which once marked a partially-created +Baron—a Baron who had passed his military "little go"—is +now, under the modification of Baronet, applicable to any one favoured +by wealth or interest or party feeling. Knighthood has so far ceased to +be an honour, that men now honour themselves by declining it. The +military dignity <i>Escuyer</i> has, in the modern Esquire, become a wholly +unmilitary affix. Not only do titles, and phrases, and salutes cease to +fulfil their original functions, but the whole apparatus of social forms +tends to become useless for its original purpose—the facilitation +of social intercourse. Those most learned in ceremonies, and most +precise in the observance of them, are not always the best behaved; as +those deepest read in creeds and scriptures are not therefore the most +religious; nor those who have the clearest notions of legality and +illegality, the most honest. Just as lawyers are of all men the least +noted for probity; as cathedral towns have a lower moral character than +most others; so, if Swift is to be believed, courtiers are "the most +insignificant race of people that the island can afford, and with the +smallest tincture of good manners."</p> + +<p>But perhaps it is in that class of social observances comprehended +under the term Fashion, which we must here discuss parenthetically, that +this process of corruption is seen with the greatest distinctness. As +contrasted with Manners, which dictate our minor acts in relation to +other persons, Fashion dictates our minor acts in relation to ourselves. +While the one prescribes that part of our deportment which directly +affects our neighbours; the other prescribes that part of our deportment +which is primarily personal, and in which our neighbours are concerned +only as spectators. Thus distinguished as they are, however, the two +have a common source. For while, as we have shown, Manners originate by +imitation of the behaviour pursued <i>towards</i> the great; Fashion +originates by imitation <i>of</i> <a name="page_220"></a> the behaviour of +the great. While the one has its derivation in the titles, phrases, and +salutes used <i>to</i> those in power; the other is derived from the habits +and appearances exhibited <i>by</i> those in power.</p> + +<p>The Carrib mother who squeezes her child's head into a shape like +that of the chief; the young savage who makes marks on himself similar +to the scars carried by the warriors of his tribe (which is probably the +origin of tattooing); the Highlander who adopts the plaid worn by the +head of his clan; the courtiers who affect greyness, or limp, or cover +their necks, in imitation of their king; and the people who ape the +courtiers; are alike acting under a kind of government connate with that +of Manners, and, like it too, primarily beneficial. For notwithstanding +the numberless absurdities into which this copyism has led the people, +from nose-rings to ear-rings, from painted faces to beauty-spots, from +shaven heads to powdered wigs, from filed teeth and stained nails to +bell-girdles, peaked shoes, and breeches stuffed with bran,—it +must yet be concluded, that as the strong men, the successful men, the +men of will, intelligence, and originality, who have got to the top, +are, on the average, more likely to show judgment in their habits and +tastes than the mass, the imitation of such is advantageous.</p> + +<p>By and by, however, Fashion, corrupting like these other forms of +rule, almost wholly ceases to be an imitation of the best, and becomes +an imitation of quite other than the best. As those who take orders are +not those having a special fitness for the priestly office, but those +who see their way to a living by it; as legislators and public +functionaries do not become such by virtue of their political insight +and power to rule, but by virtue of birth, acreage, and class influence; +so, the self-elected clique who set the fashion, gain this prerogative, +not by their force of nature, their intellect, their higher worth or +better taste, but gain it solely by their unchecked assumption. Among +the initiated are to be found neither the noblest in rank, the chief in +power, the best cultured, the most refined, nor those of greatest +genius, wit, or beauty; and their reunions, so far from being superior +to others, are noted for their inanity. Yet, by the example of these +sham great, and not by that of the truly great, does society at large +now regulate its goings and comings, its hours, its dress, its small +usages. As a natural consequence, these have generally little or none of +that suitableness which the theory of fashion implies they should have. +But instead of a continual progress towards greater elegance and +convenience, <a name="page_221"></a> which might be expected to occur +did people copy the ways of the really best, or follow their own ideas +of propriety, we have a reign of mere whim, of unreason, of change for +the sake of change, of wanton oscillations from either extreme to the +other—a reign of usages without meaning, times without fitness, +dress without taste. And thus life <i>à la mode</i>, instead of being life +conducted in the most rational manner, is life regulated by spendthrifts +and idlers, milliners and tailors, dandies and silly women.</p> + +<p>To these several corollaries—that the various orders of control +exercised over men have a common origin and a common function, are +called out by co-ordinate necessities and co-exist in like stringency, +decline together and corrupt together—it now only remains to add +that they become needless together. Consequent as all kinds of +government are upon the unfitness of the aboriginal man for social life; +and diminishing in coerciveness as they all do in proportion as this +unfitness diminishes; they must one and all come to an end as humanity +acquires complete adaptation to its new conditions. That discipline of +circumstances which has already wrought out such great changes in us, +must go on eventually to work out yet greater ones. That daily curbing +of the lower nature and culture of the higher, which out of cannibals +and devil worshippers has evolved philanthropists, lovers of peace, and +haters of superstition, cannot fail to evolve out of these, men as much +superior to them as they are to their progenitors. The causes that have +produced past modifications are still in action; must continue in action +as long as there exists any incongruity between man's desires and the +requirements of the social state; and must eventually make him +organically fit for the social state. As it is now needless to forbid +man-eating and Fetishism, so will it ultimately become needless to +forbid murder, theft, and the minor offences of our criminal code. When +human nature has grown into conformity with the moral law, there will +need no judges and statute-books; when it spontaneously takes the right +course in all things, as in some things it does already, prospects of +future reward or punishment will not be wanted as incentives; and when +fit behaviour has become instinctive, there will need no code of +ceremonies to say how behaviour shall be regulated.</p> + +<p>Thus, then, may be recognised the meaning, the naturalness, the +necessity of those various eccentricities of reformers which we set out +by describing. They are not accidental; they are not mere personal +caprices, as people are apt to suppose. On <a name="page_222"></a> the +contrary, they are inevitable results of the law of relationship above +illustrated. That community of genesis, function, and decay which all +forms of restraint exhibit, is simply the obverse of the fact at first +pointed out, that they have in two sentiments of human nature a common +preserver and a common destroyer. Awe of power originates and cherishes +them all: love of freedom undermines and periodically weakens them all. +The one defends despotism and asserts the supremacy of laws, adheres to +old creeds and supports ecclesiastical authority, pays respect to titles +and conserves forms; the other, putting rectitude above legality, +achieves periodical instalments of political liberty, inaugurates +Protestantism and works out its consequences, ignores the senseless +dictates of Fashion and emancipates men from dead customs.</p> + +<p>To the true reformer no institution is sacred, no belief above +criticism. Everything shall conform itself to equity and reason; nothing +shall be saved by its prestige. Conceding to each man liberty to pursue +his own ends and satisfy his own tastes, he demands for himself like +liberty; and consents to no restrictions on this, save those which other +men's equal claims involve. No matter whether it be an ordinance of one +man, or an ordinance of all men, if it trenches on his legitimate sphere +of action, he denies its validity. The tyranny that would impose on him +a particular style of dress and a set mode of behaviour, he resists +equally with the tyranny that would limit his buyings and sellings, or +dictate his creed. Whether the regulation be formally made by a +legislature, or informally made by society at large—whether the +penalty for disobedience be imprisonment, or frowns and social +ostracism, he sees to be a question of no moment. He will utter his +belief notwithstanding the threatened punishment; he will break +conventions spite of the petty persecutions that will be visited on him. +Show him that his actions are inimical to his fellow-men, and he will +pause. Prove that he is disregarding their legitimate claims—that +he is doing what in the nature of things must produce unhappiness; and +he will alter his course. But until you do this—until you +demonstrate that his proceedings are essentially inconvenient or +inelegant, essentially irrational, unjust, or ungenerous, he will +persevere.</p> + +<p>Some, indeed, argue that his conduct <i>is</i> unjust and ungenerous. They +say that he has no right to annoy other people by his whims; that the +gentleman to whom his letter comes with no "Esq." appended to the +address, and the lady whose evening <a name="page_223"></a> party he +enters with gloveless hands, are vexed at what they consider his want of +respect, or want of breeding; that thus his eccentricities cannot be +indulged save at the expense of his neighbours' feelings; and that hence +his nonconformity is in plain terms selfishness.</p> + +<p>He answers that this position, if logically developed, would deprive +men of all liberty whatever. Each must conform all his acts to the +public taste, and not his own. The public taste on every point having +been once ascertained, men's habits must thenceforth remain for ever +fixed; seeing that no man can adopt other habits without sinning against +the public taste, and giving people disagreeable feelings. Consequently, +be it an era of pig-tails or high-heeled shoes, of starched ruffs or +trunk-hose, all must continue to wear pig-tails, high-heeled shoes, +starched ruffs, or trunk-hose to the crack of doom.</p> + +<p>If it be still urged that he is not justified in breaking through +others' forms that he may establish his own, and so sacrificing the +wishes of many to the wishes of one, he replies that all religious and +political changes might be negatived on like grounds. He asks whether +Luther's sayings and doings were not extremely offensive to the mass of +his contemporaries; whether the resistance of Hampden was not disgusting +to the time-servers around him; whether every reformer has not shocked +men's prejudices, and given immense displeasure by the opinions he +uttered. The affirmative answer he follows up by demanding what right +the reformer has, then, to utter these opinions; whether he is not +sacrificing the feelings of many to the feelings of one; and so proves +that, to be consistent, his antagonists must condemn not only all +nonconformity in actions, but all nonconformity in thoughts.</p> + +<p>His antagonists rejoin that <i>his</i> position, too, may be pushed to an +absurdity. They argue that if a man may offend by the disregard of some +forms, he may as legitimately do so by the disregard of all; and they +inquire—Why should he not go out to dinner in a dirty shirt, and +with an unshorn chin? Why should he not spit on the drawing-room carpet, +and stretch his heels up to the mantle-shelf?</p> + +<p>The convention-breaker answers, that to ask this, implies a +confounding of two widely-different classes of actions—the actions +that are <i>essentially</i> displeasurable to those around, with the actions +that are but <i>incidentally</i> displeasurable to them. He whose skin is so +unclean as to offend the nostrils of his neighbours, or he who talks so +loudly as to disturb a whole room, may <a name="page_224"></a> be +justly complained of, and rightly excluded by society from its +assemblies. But he who presents himself in a surtout in place of a +dress-coat, or in brown trousers instead of black, gives offence not to +men's senses, or their innate tastes, but merely to their prejudices, +their bigotry of convention. It cannot be said that his costume is less +elegant or less intrinsically appropriate than the one prescribed; +seeing that a few hours earlier in the day it is admired. It is the +implied rebellion, therefore, that annoys. How little the cause of +quarrel has to do with the dress itself, is seen in the fact that a +century ago black clothes would have been thought preposterous for hours +of recreation, and that a few years hence some now forbidden style may +be nearer the requirements of Fashion than the present one. Thus the +reformer explains that it is not against the natural restraints, but +against the artificial ones, that he protests; and that manifestly the +fire of sneers and angry glances which he has to bear, is poured upon +him because he will not bow down to the idol which society has set +up.</p> + +<p>Should he be asked how we are to distinguish between conduct that is +<i>absolutely</i> disagreeable to others, and conduct that is <i>relatively</i> +so, he answers, that they will distinguish themselves if men will let +them. Actions intrinsically repugnant will ever be frowned upon, and +must ever remain as exceptional as now. Actions not intrinsically +repugnant will establish themselves as proper. No relaxation of customs +will introduce the practice of going to a party in muddy boots, and with +unwashed hands; for the dislike of dirt would continue were Fashion +abolished to-morrow. That love of approbation which now makes people so +solicitous to be <i>en règle</i> would still exist—would still make +them careful of their personal appearance—would still induce them +to seek admiration by making themselves ornamental—would still +cause them to respect the natural laws of good behaviour, as they now do +the artificial ones. The change would simply be from a repulsive +monotony to a picturesque variety. And if there be any regulations +respecting which it is uncertain whether they are based on reality or on +convention, experiment will soon decide, if due scope be allowed.</p> + +<p>When at length the controversy comes round, as controversies often +do, to the point whence it started, and the "party of order" repeat +their charge against the rebel, that he is sacrificing the feelings of +others to the gratification of his own wilfulness, he replies once for +all that they cheat themselves by misstatements. He accuses them of +being so despotic, that, not <a name="page_225"></a> content with being +masters over their own ways and habits, they would be masters over his +also; and grumble because he will not let them. He merely asks the same +freedom which they exercise; they, however, propose to regulate his +course as well as their own—to cut and clip his mode of life into +agreement with their approved pattern; and then charge him with +wilfulness and selfishness, because he does not quietly submit! He warns +them that he shall resist, nevertheless; and that he shall do so, not +only for the assertion of his own independence, but for their good. He +tells them that they are slaves, and know it not; that they are +shackled, and kiss their chains; that they have lived all their days in +prison, and complain at the walls being broken down. He says he must +persevere, however, with a view to his own release; and in spite of +their present expostulations, he prophesies that when they have +recovered from the fright which the prospect of freedom produces, they +will thank him for aiding in their emancipation.</p> + +<p>Unamiable as seems this find-fault mood, offensive as is this defiant +attitude, we must beware of overlooking the truths enunciated, in +dislike of the advocacy. It is an unfortunate hindrance to all +innovation, that in virtue of their very function, the innovators stand +in a position of antagonism; and the disagreeable manners, and sayings, +and doings, which this antagonism generates, are commonly associated +with the doctrines promulgated. Quite forgetting that whether the thing +attacked be good or bad, the combative spirit is necessarily repulsive; +and quite forgetting that the toleration of abuses seems amiable merely +from its passivity; the mass of men contract a bias against advanced +views, and in favour of stationary ones, from intercourse with their +respective adherents. "Conservatism," as Emerson says, "is debonnair and +social; reform is individual and imperious." And this remains true, +however vicious the system conserved, however righteous the reform to be +effected. Nay, the indignation of the purists is usually extreme in +proportion as the evils to be got rid of are great. The more urgent the +required change, the more intemperate is the vehemence of its promoters. +Let no one, then, confound with the principles of this social +nonconformity the acerbity and the disagreeable self-assertion of those +who first display it.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>The most plausible objection raised against resistance to +conventions, is grounded on its impolicy, considered even from the +progressist's point of view. It is urged by many of the more <a +name="page_226"></a> liberal and intelligent—usually those who +have themselves shown some independence of behaviour in earlier +days—that to rebel in these small matters is to destroy your own +power of helping on reform in greater matters. "If you show yourself +eccentric in manners or dress, the world," they say, "will not listen to +you. You will be considered as crotchety, and impracticable. The +opinions you express on important subjects, which might have been +treated with respect had you conformed on minor points, will now +inevitably be put down among your singularities; and thus, by dissenting +in trifles, you disable yourself from spreading dissent in +essentials."</p> + +<p>Only noting, as we pass, that this is one of those anticipations +which bring about their own fulfilment—that it is because most who +disapprove these conventions do not show their disapproval, that the few +who do show it look eccentric—and that did all act out their +convictions, no such inference as the above would be drawn, and no such +evil would result;—noting this as we pass, we go on to reply that +these social restraints, and forms, and requirements, are not small +evils, but among the greatest. Estimate their sum total, and we doubt +whether they would not exceed most others. Could we add up the trouble, +the cost, the jealousies, vexations, misunderstandings, the loss of time +and the loss of pleasure, which these conventions entail—could we +clearly realise the extent to which we are all daily hampered by them, +daily enslaved by them; we should perhaps come to the conclusion that +the tyranny of Mrs. Grundy is worse than any other tyranny we suffer +under. Let us look at a few of its hurtful results; beginning with those +of minor importance.</p> + +<p>It produces extravagance. The desire to be <i>comme il faut</i>, which +underlies all conformities, whether of manners, dress, or styles of +entertainment, is the desire which makes many a spendthrift and many a +bankrupt. To "keep up appearances," to have a house in an approved +quarter furnished in the latest taste, to give expensive dinners and +crowded <i>soirées</i>, is an ambition forming the natural outcome of the +conformist spirit. It is needless to enlarge on these follies: they have +been satirised by hosts of writers, and in every drawing-room. All that +here concerns us, is to point out that the respect for social +observances, which men think so praiseworthy, has the same root with +this effort to be fashionable in mode of living; and that, other things +equal, the last cannot be diminished without the first being diminished +also. If, now, we consider all that this <a name="page_227"></a> +extravagance entails—if we count up the robbed tradesmen, the +stinted governesses, the ill-educated children, the fleeced relatives, +who have to suffer from it—if we mark the anxiety and the many +moral delinquencies which its perpetrators involve themselves in; we +shall see that this regard for conventions is not quite so innocent as +it looks.</p> + +<p>Again, it decreases the amount of social intercourse. Passing over +the reckless, and those who make a great display on speculation with the +occasional result of getting on in the world to the exclusion of much +better men, we come to the far larger class who, being prudent and +honest enough not to exceed their means, and yet having a strong wish to +be "respectable," are obliged to limit their entertainments to the +smallest possible number; and that each of these may be turned to the +greatest advantage in meeting the claims upon their hospitality, are +induced to issue their invitations with little or no regard to the +comfort or mutual fitness of their guests. A few inconveniently-large +assemblies, made up of people mostly strange to each other or but +distantly acquainted, and having scarcely any tastes in common, are made +to serve in place of many small parties of friends intimate enough to +have some bond of thought and sympathy. Thus the quantity of intercourse +is diminished, and the quality deteriorated. Because it is the custom to +make costly preparations and provide costly refreshments; and because it +entails both less expense and less trouble to do this for many persons +on a few occasions than for few persons on many occasions; the reunions +of our less wealthy classes are rendered alike infrequent and +tedious.</p> + +<p>Let it be further observed, that the existing formalities of social +intercourse drive away many who most need its refining influence: and +drive them into injurious habits and associations. Not a few men, and +not the least sensible men either, give up in disgust this going out to +stately dinners, and stiff evening-parties; and instead, seek society in +clubs, and cigar-divans, and taverns. "I'm sick of this standing about +in drawing-rooms, talking nonsense, and trying to look happy," will +answer one of them when taxed with his desertion. "Why should I any +longer waste time and money, and temper? Once I was ready enough to rush +home from the office to dress; I sported embroidered shirts, submitted +to tight boots, and cared nothing for tailors' and haberdashers' bills. +I know better now. My patience lasted a good while; for though I found +each night pass stupidly, I always hoped the next would make amends. <a +name="page_228"></a> But I'm undeceived. Cab-hire and kid gloves cost +more than any evening party pays for; or rather—it is worth the +cost of them to avoid the party. No, no; I'll no more of it. Why should +I pay five shillings a time for the privilege of being bored?"</p> + +<p>If, now, we consider that this very common mood tends towards +billiard-rooms, towards long sittings over cigars and brandy-and-water, +towards Evans's and the Coal Hole, towards every place where amusement +may be had; it becomes a question whether these precise observances +which hamper our set meetings, have not to answer for much of the +prevalent dissoluteness. Men must have excitements of some kind or +other; and if debarred from higher ones will fall back upon lower. It is +not that those who thus take to irregular habits are essentially those +of low tastes. Often it is quite the reverse. Among half a dozen +intimate friends, abandoning formalities and sitting at ease round the +fire, none will enter with greater enjoyment into the highest kind of +social intercourse—the genuine communion of thought and feeling; +and if the circle includes women of intelligence and refinement, so much +the greater is their pleasure. It is because they will no longer be +choked with the mere dry husks of conversation which society offers +them, that they fly its assemblies, and seek those with whom they may +have discourse that is at least real, though unpolished. The men who +thus long for substantial mental sympathy, and will go where they can +get it, are often, indeed, much better at the core than the men who are +content with the inanities of gloved and scented party-goers—men +who feel no need to come morally nearer to their fellow creatures than +they can come while standing, tea-cup in hand, answering trifles with +trifles; and who, by feeling no such need, prove themselves +shallow-thoughted and cold-hearted.</p> + +<p>It is true, that some who shun drawing-rooms do so from inability to +bear the restraints prescribed by a genuine refinement, and that they +would be greatly improved by being kept under these restraints. But it +is not less true that, by adding to the legitimate restraints, which are +based on convenience and a regard for others, a host of factitious +restraints based only on convention, the refining discipline, which +would else have been borne with benefit, is rendered unbearable, and so +misses its end. Excess of government invariably defeats itself by +driving away those to be governed. And if over all who desert its +entertainments in disgust either at their emptiness or their formality, +<a name="page_229"></a> society thus loses its salutary +influence—if such not only fail to receive that moral culture +which the company of ladies, when rationally regulated, would give them, +but, in default of other relaxation, are driven into habits and +companionships which often end in gambling and drunkenness; must we not +say that here, too, is an evil not to be passed over as +insignificant?</p> + +<p>Then consider what a blighting effect these multitudinous +preparations and ceremonies have upon the pleasures they profess to +subserve. Who, on calling to mind the occasions of his highest social +enjoyments, does not find them to have been wholly informal, perhaps +impromptu? How delightful a picnic of friends, who forget all +observances save those dictated by good nature! How pleasant the little +unpretended gatherings of book-societies, and the like; or those purely +accidental meetings of a few people well known to each other! Then, +indeed, we may see that "a man sharpeneth the countenance of his +friend." Cheeks flush, and eyes sparkle. The witty grow brilliant, and +even the dull are excited into saying good things. There is an overflow +of topics; and the right thought, and the right words to put it in, +spring up unsought. Grave alternates with gay: now serious converse, and +now jokes, anecdotes, and playful raillery. Every one's best nature is +shown, every one's best feelings are in pleasurable activity; and, for +the time, life seems well worth having.</p> + +<p>Go now and dress for some half-past eight dinner, or some ten o'clock +"at home;" and present yourself in spotless attire, with every hair +arranged to perfection. How great the difference! The enjoyment seems in +the inverse ratio of the preparation. These figures, got up with such +finish and precision, appear but half alive. They have frozen each other +by their primness; and your faculties feel the numbing effects of the +atmosphere the moment you enter it. All those thoughts, so nimble and so +apt awhile since, have disappeared—have suddenly acquired a +preternatural power of eluding you. If you venture a remark to your +neighbour, there comes a trite rejoinder, and there it ends. No subject +you can hit upon outlives half a dozen sentences. Nothing that is said +excites any real interest in you; and you feel that all you say is +listened to with apathy. By some strange magic, things that usually give +pleasure seem to have lost all charm.</p> + +<p>You have a taste for art. Weary of frivolous talk, you turn to the +table, and find that the book of engravings and the portfolio of +photographs are as flat as the conversation. You are <a +name="page_230"></a> fond of music. Yet the singing, good as it is, you +hear with utter indifference; and say "Thank you" with a sense of being +a profound hypocrite. Wholly at ease though you could be, for your own +part, you find that your sympathies will not let you. You see young +gentlemen feeling whether their ties are properly adjusted, looking +vacantly round, and considering what they shall do next. You see ladies +sitting disconsolately, waiting for some one to speak to them, and +wishing they had the wherewith to occupy their fingers. You see the +hostess standing about the doorway, keeping a factitious smile on her +face, and racking her brain to find the requisite nothings with which to +greet her guests as they enter. You see numberless traits of weariness +and embarrassment; and, if you have any fellow-feeling, these cannot +fail to produce a feeling of discomfort. The disorder is catching; and +do what you will you cannot resist the general infection. You struggle +against it; you make spasmodic efforts to be lively; but none of your +sallies or your good stories do more than raise a simper or a forced +laugh: intellect and feeling are alike asphyxiated. And when, at length, +yielding to your disgust, you rush away, how great is the relief when +you get into the fresh air, and see the stars! How you "Thank God, +that's over!" and half resolve to avoid all such boredom for the +future!</p> + +<p>What, now, is the secret of this perpetual miscarriage and +disappointment? Does not the fault lie with all these needless +adjuncts—these elaborate dressings, these set forms, these +expensive preparations, these many devices and arrangements that imply +trouble and raise expectation? Who that has lived thirty years in the +world has not discovered that Pleasure is coy; and must not be too +directly pursued, but must be caught unawares? An air from a +street-piano, heard while at work, will often gratify more than the +choicest music played at a concert by the most accomplished musicians. A +single good picture seen in a dealer's window, may give keener enjoyment +than a whole exhibition gone through with catalogue and pencil. By the +time we have got ready our elaborate apparatus by which to secure +happiness, the happiness is gone. It is too subtle to be contained in +these receivers, garnished with compliments, and fenced round with +etiquette. The more we multiply and complicate appliances, the more +certain are we to drive it away.</p> + +<p>The reason is patent enough. These higher emotions to which social +intercourse ministers, are of extremely complex nature; they +consequently depend for their production upon very <a +name="page_231"></a> numerous conditions; the more numerous the +conditions, the greater the liability that one or other of them will be +disturbed, and the emotions consequently prevented. It takes a +considerable misfortune to destroy appetite; but cordial sympathy with +those around may be extinguished by a look or a word. Hence it follows, +that the more multiplied the <i>unnecessary</i> requirements with which +social intercourse is surrounded, the less likely are its pleasures to +be achieved. It is difficult enough to fulfil continuously all the +<i>essentials</i> to a pleasurable communion with others: how much more +difficult, then, must it be continuously to fulfil a host of +<i>non-essentials</i> also! It is, indeed, impossible. The attempt inevitably +ends in the sacrifice of the first to the last—the essentials to +the non-essentials. What chance is there of getting any genuine response +from the lady who is thinking of your stupidity in taking her in to +dinner on the wrong arm? How are you likely to have agreeable converse +with the gentleman who is fuming internally because he is not placed +next to the hostess? Formalities, familiar as they may become, +necessarily occupy attention—necessarily multiply the occasions +for mistake, misunderstanding, and jealousy, on the part of one or +other—necessarily distract all minds from the thoughts and +feelings that should occupy them—necessarily, therefore, subvert +those conditions under which only any sterling intercourse is to be +had.</p> + +<p>And this indeed is the fatal mischief which these conventions +entail—a mischief to which every other is secondary. They destroy +those highest of our pleasures which they profess to subserve. All +institutions are alike in this, that however useful, and needful even, +they originally were, they not only in the end cease to be so, but +become detrimental. While humanity is growing, they continue fixed; +daily get more mechanical and unvital; and by and by tend to strangle +what they before preserved. It is not simply that they become corrupt +and fail to act: they become obstructions. Old forms of government +finally grow so oppressive, that they must be thrown off even at the +risk of reigns of terror. Old creeds end in being dead formulas, which +no longer aid but distort and arrest the general mind; while the +State-churches administering them, come to be instruments for +subsidising conservatism and repressing progress. Old schemes of +education, incarnated in public schools and colleges, continue filling +the heads of new generations with what has become relatively useless +knowledge, and, by consequence, excluding knowledge which is useful. Not +an <a name="page_232"></a> organisation of any kind—political, +religious, literary, philanthropic—but what, by its +ever-multiplying regulations, its accumulating wealth, its yearly +addition of officers, and the creeping into it of patronage and party +feeling, eventually loses its original spirit, and sinks into a mere +lifeless mechanism, worked with a view to private ends—a mechanism +which not merely fails of its first purpose, but is a positive hindrance +to it.</p> + +<p>Thus is it, too, with social usages. We read of the Chinese that they +have "ponderous ceremonies transmitted from time immemorial," which make +social intercourse a burden. The court forms prescribed by monarchs for +their own exaltation, have, in all times and places, ended in consuming +the comfort of their lives. And so the artificial observances of the +dining-room and saloon, in proportion as they are many and strict, +extinguish that agreeable communion which they were originally intended +to secure. The dislike with which people commonly speak of society that +is "formal," and "stiff," and "ceremonious," implies the general +recognition of this fact; and this recognition, logically developed, +involves that all usages of behaviour which are not based on natural +requirements, are injurious. That these conventions defeat their own +ends is no new assertion. Swift, criticising the manners of his day, +says—"Wise men are often more uneasy at the over-civility of these +refiners than they could possibly be in the conversation of peasants and +mechanics."</p> + +<p>But it is not only in these details that the self-defeating action of +our arrangements is traceable: it is traceable in the very substance and +nature of them. Our social intercourse, as commonly managed, is a mere +semblance of the reality sought. What is it that we want? Some +sympathetic converse with our fellow-creatures: some converse that shall +not be mere dead words, but the vehicle of living thoughts and +feelings—converse in which the eyes and the face shall speak, and +the tones of the voice be full of meaning—converse which shall +make us feel no longer alone, but shall draw us closer to another, and +double our own emotions by adding another's to them. Who is there that +has not, from time to time, felt how cold and flat is all this talk +about politics and science, and the new books and the new men, and how a +genuine utterance of fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of it? Mark the +words of Bacon:—"For a crowd is not a company, and faces are but a +gallery of pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no +love."</p> + +<p><a name="page_233"></a>If this be true, then it is only after +acquaintance has grown into intimacy, and intimacy has ripened into +friendship, that the real communion which men need becomes possible. A +rationally-formed circle must consist almost wholly of those on terms of +familiarity and regard, with but one or two strangers. What folly, then, +underlies the whole system of our grand dinners, our "at homes," our +evening parties—assemblages made up of many who never met before, +many others who just bow to each other, many others who though familiar +feel mutual indifference, with just a few real friends lost in the +general mass! You need but look round at the artificial expressions of +face, to see at once how it is. All have their disguises on; and how can +there be sympathy between masks? No wonder that in private every one +exclaims against the stupidity of these gatherings. No wonder that +hostesses get them up rather because they must than because they wish. +No wonder that the invited go less from the expectation of pleasure than +from fear of giving offence. The whole thing is a gigantic +mistake—an organised disappointment.</p> + +<p>And then note, lastly, that in this case, as in all others, when an +organisation has become effete and inoperative for its legitimate +purpose, it is employed for quite other ones—quite opposite ones. +What is the usual plea put in for giving and attending these tedious +assemblies? "I admit that they are stupid and frivolous enough," replies +every man to your criticisms; "but then, you know, one must keep up +one's connections." And could you get from his wife a sincere answer, it +would be—"Like you, I am sick of these frivolities; but then, we +must get our daughters married." The one knows that there is a +profession to push, a practice to gain, a business to extend: or +parliamentary influence, or county patronage, or votes, or office, to be +got: position, berths, favours, profit. The other's thoughts run upon +husbands and settlements, wives and dowries. Worthless for their +ostensible purpose of daily bringing human beings into pleasurable +relations with each other, these cumbrous appliances of our social +intercourse are now perseveringly kept in action with a view to the +pecuniary and matrimonial results which they indirectly produce.</p> + +<p>Who then shall say that the reform of our system of observances is +unimportant? When we see how this system induces fashionable +extravagance, with its entailed bankruptcy and ruin—when we mark +how greatly it limits the amount of social intercourse among the less +wealthy classes—when <a name="page_234"></a> we find that many +who most need to be disciplined by mixing with the refined are driven +away by it, and led into dangerous and often fatal courses—when we +count up the many minor evils it inflicts, the extra work which its +costliness entails on all professional and mercantile men, the damage to +public taste in dress and decoration by the setting up of its +absurdities as standards for imitation, the injury to health indicated +in the faces of its devotees at the close of the London season, the +mortality of milliners and the like, which its sudden exigencies yearly +involve;—and when to all these we add its fatal sin, that it +blights, withers up, and kills, that high enjoyment it professedly +ministers to—that enjoyment which is a chief end of our hard +struggling in life to obtain—shall we not conclude that to reform +our system of etiquette and fashion, is an aim yielding to few in +urgency?</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>There needs, then, a protestantism in social usages. Forms that have +ceased to facilitate and have become obstructive—whether +political, religious, or other—have ever to be swept away; and +eventually are so swept away in all cases. Signs are not wanting that +some change is at hand. A host of satirists, led on by Thackeray, have +been for years engaged in bringing our sham-festivities, and our +fashionable follies, into contempt; and in their candid moods, most men +laugh at the frivolities with which they and the world in general are +deluded. Ridicule has always been a revolutionary agent. That which is +habitually assailed with sneers and sarcasms cannot long survive. +Institutions that have lost their roots in men's respect and faith are +doomed; and the day of their dissolution is not far off. The time is +approaching, then, when our system of social observances must pass +through some crisis, out of which it will come purified and +comparatively simple.</p> + +<p>How this crisis will be brought about, no one can with any certainty +say. Whether by the continuance and increase of individual protests, or +whether by the union of many persons for the practice and propagation of +some better system, the future alone can decide. The influence of +dissentients acting without co-operation, seems, under the present state +of things, inadequate. Standing severally alone, and having no +well-defined views; frowned on by conformists, and expostulated with +even by those who secretly sympathise with them; subject to petty +persecutions, and unable to trace any benefit produced by their example; +they are apt, one by one, to give up their <a name="page_235"></a> +attempts as hopeless. The young convention-breaker eventually finds +that he pays too heavily for his nonconformity. Hating, for example, +everything that bears about it any remnant of servility, he determines, +in the ardour of his independence, that he will uncover to no one. But +what he means simply as a general protest, he finds that ladies +interpret into a personal disrespect. Though he sees that, from the days +of chivalry downwards, these marks of supreme consideration paid to the +other sex have been but a hypocritical counterpart to the actual +subjection in which men have held them—a pretended submission to +compensate for a real domination; and though he sees that when the true +dignity of women is recognised, the mock dignities given to them will be +abolished; yet he does not like to be thus misunderstood, and so +hesitates in his practice.</p> + +<p>In other cases, again, his courage fails him. Such of his +unconventionalities as can be attributed only to eccentricity, he has no +qualms about: for, on the whole, he feels rather complimented than +otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public opinion. But when +they are liable to be put down to ignorance, to ill-breeding, or to +poverty, he becomes a coward. However clearly the recent innovation of +eating some kinds of fish with knife and fork proves the fork-and-bread +practice to have had little but caprice for its basis, yet he dares not +wholly ignore that practice while fashion partially maintains it. Though +he thinks that a silk handkerchief is quite as appropriate for +drawing-room use as a white cambric one, he is not altogether at ease in +acting out his opinion. Then, too, he begins to perceive that his +resistance to prescription brings round disadvantageous results which he +had not calculated upon. He had expected that it would save him from a +great deal of social intercourse of a frivolous kind—that it would +offend the fools, but not the sensible people; and so would serve as a +self-acting test by which those worth knowing would be separated from +those not worth knowing. But the fools prove to be so greatly in the +majority that, by offending them, he closes against himself nearly all +the avenues though which the sensible people are to be reached. Thus he +finds, that his nonconformity is frequently misinterpreted; that there +are but few directions in which he dares to carry it consistently out; +that the annoyances and disadvantages which it brings upon him are +greater than he anticipated; and that the chances of his doing any good +are very remote. Hence he gradually loses <a name="page_236"></a> +resolution, and lapses, step by step, into the ordinary routine of +observances.</p> + +<p>Abortive as individual protests thus generally turn out, it may +possibly be that nothing effectual will be done until there arises some +organised resistance to this invisible despotism, by which our modes and +habits are dictated. It may happen, that the government of Manners and +Fashion will be rendered less tyrannical, as the political and religious +governments have been, by some antagonistic union. Alike in Church and +State, men's first emancipations from excess of restriction were +achieved by numbers, bound together by a common creed or a common +political faith. What remained undone while there were but individual +schismatics or rebels, was effected when there came to be many acting in +concert. It is tolerably clear that these earliest instalments of +freedom could not have been obtained in any other way; for so long as +the feeling of personal independence was weak and the rule strong, there +could never have been a sufficient number of separate dissentients to +produce the desired results. Only in these later times, during which the +secular and spiritual controls have been growing less coercive, and the +tendency towards individual liberty greater, has it become possible for +smaller and smaller sects and parties to fight against established +creeds and laws; until now men may safely stand even alone in their +antagonism.</p> + +<p>The failure of individual nonconformity to customs, as above +illustrated, suggests that an analogous series of changes may have to be +gone through in this case also. It is true that the <i>lex non scripta</i> +differs from the <i>lex scripta</i> in this, that, being unwritten, it is +more readily altered; and that it has, from time to time, been quietly +ameliorated. Nevertheless, we shall find that the analogy holds +substantially good. For in this case, as in the others, the essential +revolution is not the substituting of any one set of restraints for any +other, but the limiting or abolishing the authority which prescribes +restraints. Just as the fundamental change inaugurated by the +Reformation was not a superseding of one creed by another, but an +ignoring of the arbiter who before dictated creeds—just as the +fundamental change which Democracy long ago commenced, was not from this +particular law to that, but from the despotism of one to the freedom of +all; so, the parallel change yet to be wrought out in this supplementary +government of which we are treating, is not the replacing of absurd +usages by sensible ones, but the dethronement of that secret, +irresponsible power which now <a name="page_237"></a> imposes our +usages, and the assertion of the right of all individuals to choose +their own usages. In rules of living, a West-end clique is our Pope; and +we are all papists, with but a mere sprinkling of heretics. On all who +decisively rebel, comes down the penalty of excommunication, with its +long catalogue of disagreeable and, indeed, serious consequences.</p> + +<p>The liberty of the subject asserted in our constitution, and ever on +the increase, has yet to be wrested from this subtler tyranny. The right +of private judgment, which our ancestors wrung from the church, remains +to be claimed from this dictator of our habits. Or, as before said, to +free us from these idolatries and superstitious conformities, there has +still to come a protestanism in social usages. Parallel, therefore, as +is the change to be wrought out, it seems not improbable that it may be +wrought out in an analogous way. That influence which solitary +dissentients fail to gain, and that perseverance which they lack, may +come into existence when they unite. That persecution which the world +now visits upon them from mistaking their nonconformity for ignorance or +disrespect, may diminish when it is seen to result from principle. The +penalty which exclusion now entails may disappear when they become +numerous enough to form visiting circles of their own. And when a +successful stand has been made, and the brunt of the opposition has +passed, that large amount of secret dislike to our observances which now +pervades society, may manifest itself with sufficient power to effect +the desired emancipation.</p> + +<p>Whether such will be the process, time alone can decide. That +community of origin, growth, supremacy, and decadence, which we have +found among all kinds of government, suggests a community in modes of +change also. On the other hand, Nature often performs substantially +similar operations, in ways apparently different. Hence these details +can never be foretold.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Meanwhile, let us glance at the conclusions that have been reached. +On the one side, government, originally one, and afterwards subdivided +for the better fulfilment of its function, must be considered as having +ever been, in all its branches—political, religious, and +ceremonial—beneficial; and, indeed, absolutely necessary. On the +other side, government, under all its forms, must be regarded as +subserving a temporary office, made needful by the unfitness of +aboriginal humanity for social life; and the successive diminutions of +its coerciveness in State, in Church, and in Custom, must be looked upon +as steps towards <a name="page_238"></a> its final disappearance. To +complete the conception, there requires to be borne in mind the third +fact, that the genesis, the maintenance, and the decline of all +governments, however named, are alike brought about by the humanity to +be controlled: from which may be drawn the inference that, on the +average, restrictions of every kind cannot last much longer than they +are wanted, and cannot be destroyed much faster than they ought to +be.</p> + +<p>Society, in all its developments, undergoes the process of +exuviation. These old forms which it successively throws off, have all +been once vitally united with it—have severally served as the +protective envelopes within which a higher humanity was being evolved. +They are cast aside only when they become hindrances—only when +some inner and better envelope has been formed; and they bequeath to us +all that there was in them good. The periodical abolitions of tyrannical +laws have left the administration of justice not only uninjured, but +purified. Dead and buried creeds have not carried with them the +essential morality they contained, which still exists, uncontaminated by +the sloughs of superstition. And all that there is of justice and +kindness and beauty, embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette, will +live perennially when the forms themselves have been forgotten.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_198_note_1"></a><a href="#page_198">Footnote 1</a>: +<i>Westminster Review</i>, April 1854.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_198_note_2"></a><a href="#page_198">Footnote 2</a>: +This was written before moustaches and beards had become +common.</small></p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_239"></a>ON THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE<a +href="#page_239_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2></center> + + +<p>There has ever prevailed among men a vague notion that scientific +knowledge differs in nature from ordinary knowledge. By the Greeks, with +whom Mathematics—literally <i>things learnt</i>—was alone +considered as knowledge proper, the distinction must have been strongly +felt; and it has ever since maintained itself in the general mind. +Though, considering the contrast between the achievements of science and +those of daily unmethodic thinking, it is not surprising that such a +distinction has been assumed; yet it needs but to rise a little above +the common point of view, to see that no such distinction can really +exist: or that at best, it is but a superficial distinction. The same +faculties are employed in both cases; and in both cases their mode of +operation is fundamentally the same.</p> + +<p>If we say that science is organised knowledge, we are met by the +truth that all knowledge is organised in a greater or less +degree—that the commonest actions of the household and the field +presuppose facts colligated, inferences drawn, results expected; and +that the general success of these actions proves the data by which they +were guided to have been correctly put together. If, again, we say that +science is prevision—is a seeing beforehand—is a knowing in +what times, places, combinations, or sequences, specified phenomena will +be found; we are yet obliged to confess that the definition includes +much that is utterly foreign to science in its ordinary acceptation. For +example, a child's knowledge of an apple. This, as far as it goes, +consists in previsions. When a child sees a certain form and colours, it +knows that if it puts out its hand it will have certain impressions of +resistance, and roundness, and smoothness; and if it bites, a certain +taste. And manifestly its general acquaintance with surrounding objects +is of like nature—is made up of facts concerning them, so grouped +as that any part of a group being perceived, the existence of the other +facts included in it is foreseen.</p> + +<p>If, once more, we say that science is <i>exact</i> prevision, we still +fail to establish the supposed difference. Not only do we find <a +name="page_240"></a> that much of what we call science is not exact, and +that some of it, as physiology, can never become exact; but we find +further, that many of the previsions constituting the common stock alike +of wise and ignorant, <i>are</i> exact. That an unsupported body will fall; +that a lighted candle will go out when immersed in water; that ice will +melt when thrown on the fire—these, and many like predictions +relating to the familiar properties of things have as high a degree of +accuracy as predictions are capable of. It is true that the results +predicated are of a very general character; but it is none the less true +that they are rigorously correct as far as they go: and this is all that +is requisite to fulfil the definition. There is perfect accordance +between the anticipated phenomena and the actual ones; and no more than +this can be said of the highest achievements of the sciences specially +characterised as exact.</p> + +<p>Seeing thus that the assumed distinction between scientific knowledge +and common knowledge is not logically justifiable; and yet feeling, as +we must, that however impossible it may be to draw a line between them, +the two are not practically identical; there arises the +question—What is the relationship that exists between them? A +partial answer to this question may be drawn from the illustrations just +given. On reconsidering them, it will be observed that those portions of +ordinary knowledge which are identical in character with scientific +knowledge, comprehend only such combinations of phenomena as are +directly cognisable by the senses, and are of simple, invariable nature. +That the smoke from a fire which she is lighting will ascend, and that +the fire will presently boil water, are previsions which the +servant-girl makes equally well with the most learned physicist; they +are equally certain, equally exact with his; but they are previsions +concerning phenomena in constant and direct relation—phenomena +that follow visibly and immediately after their +antecedents—phenomena of which the causation is neither remote nor +obscure—phenomena which may be predicted by the simplest possible +act of reasoning.</p> + +<p>If, now, we pass to the previsions constituting what is commonly +known as science—that an eclipse of the moon will happen at a +specified time; and when a barometer is taken to the top of a mountain +of known height, the mercurial column will descend a stated number of +inches; that the poles of a galvanic battery immersed in water will give +off, the one an inflammable and the other an inflaming gas, in definite +ratio—we perceive that the relations involved are not of a kind +habitually presented <a name="page_241"></a> to our senses; that they +depend, some of them, upon special combinations of causes; and that in +some of them the connection between antecedents and consequents is +established only by an elaborate series of inferences. The broad +distinction, therefore, between the two orders of knowledge, is not in +their nature, but in their remoteness from perception.</p> + +<p>If we regard the cases in their most general aspect, we see that the +labourer, who, on hearing certain notes in the adjacent hedge, can +describe the particular form and colours of the bird making them; and +the astronomer, who, having calculated a transit of Venus, can delineate +the black spot entering on the sun's disc, as it will appear through the +telescope, at a specified hour; do essentially the same thing. Each +knows that on fulfilling the requisite conditions, he shall have a +preconceived impression—that after a definite series of actions +will come a group of sensations of a foreknown kind. The difference, +then, is not in the fundamental character of the mental acts; or in the +correctness of the previsions accomplished by them; but in the +complexity of the processes required to achieve the previsions. Much of +our commonest knowledge is, as far as it goes, rigorously precise. +Science does not increase this precision; cannot transcend it. What then +does it do? It reduces other knowledge to the same degree of precision. +That certainty which direct perception gives us respecting coexistences +and sequences of the simplest and most accessible kind, science gives us +respecting coexistences and sequences, complex in their dependencies or +inaccessible to immediate observation. In brief, regarded from this +point of view, science may be called <i>an extension of the perceptions by +means of reasoning</i>.</p> + +<p>On further considering the matter, however, it will perhaps be felt +that this definition does not express the whole fact—that +inseparable as science may be from common knowledge, and completely as +we may fill up the gap between the simplest previsions of the child and +the most recondite ones of the natural philosopher, by interposing a +series of previsions in which the complexity of reasoning involved is +greater and greater, there is yet a difference between the two beyond +that which is here described. And this is true. But the difference is +still not such as enables us to draw the assumed line of demarcation. It +is a difference not between common knowledge and scientific knowledge; +but between the successive phases of science itself, or knowledge +itself—whichever we choose to call it. In its earlier phases +science attains only to <i>certainty</i> of foreknowledge; in its <a +name="page_242"></a> later phases it further attains to <i>completeness</i>. +We begin by discovering <i>a</i> relation: we end by discovering <i>the</i> +relation. Our first achievement is to foretell the <i>kind</i> of phenomenon +which will occur under specific conditions: our last achievement is to +foretell not only the kind but the <i>amount</i>. Or, to reduce the +proposition to its most definite form—undeveloped science is +<i>qualitative</i> prevision: developed science is <i>quantitative</i> +prevision.</p> + +<p>This will at once be perceived to express the remaining distinction +between the lower and the higher stages of positive knowledge. The +prediction that a piece of lead will take more force to lift it than a +piece of wood of equal size, exhibits certainty, but not completeness, +of foresight. The kind of effect in which the one body will exceed the +other is foreseen; but not the amount by which it will exceed. There is +qualitative prevision only. On the other hand, the prediction that at a +stated time two particular planets will be in conjunction; that by means +of a lever having arms in a given ratio, a known force will raise just +so many pounds; that to decompose a specified quantity of sulphate of +iron by carbonate of soda will require so many grains—these +predictions exhibit foreknowledge, not only of the nature of the effects +to be produced, but of the magnitude, either of the effects themselves, +of the agencies producing them, or of the distance in time or space at +which they will be produced. There is not only qualitative but +quantitative prevision.</p> + +<p>And this is the unexpressed difference which leads us to consider +certain orders of knowledge as especially scientific when contrasted +with knowledge in general. Are the phenomena <i>measurable</i>? is the test +which we unconsciously employ. Space is measurable: hence Geometry. +Force and space are measureable: hence Statics. Time, force, and space +are measureable: hence Dynamics. The invention of the barometer enabled +men to extend the principles of mechanics to the atmosphere; and +Aerostatics existed. When a thermometer was devised there arose a +science of heat, which was before impossible. Such of our sensations as +we have not yet found modes of measuring do not originate sciences. We +have no science of smells; nor have we one of tastes. We have a science +of the relations of sounds differing in pitch, because we have +discovered a way to measure them; but we have no science of sounds in +respect to their loudness or their <i>timbre</i>, because we have got no +measures of loudness and <i>timbre</i>.</p> + +<p>Obviously it is this reduction of the sensible phenomena it <a +name="page_243"></a> represents, to relations of magnitude, which gives +to any division of knowledge its especially scientific character. +Originally men's knowledge of weights and forces was in the same +condition as their knowledge of smells and tastes is now—a +knowledge not extending beyond that given by the unaided sensations; and +it remained so until weighing instruments and dynamometers were +invented. Before there were hour-glasses and clepsydras, most phenomena +could be estimated as to their durations and intervals, with no greater +precision than degrees of hardness can be estimated by the fingers. +Until a thermometric scale was contrived, men's judgments respecting +relative amounts of heat stood on the same footing with their present +judgments respecting relative amounts of sound. And as in these initial +stages, with no aids to observation, only the roughest comparisons of +cases could be made, and only the most marked differences perceived; it +is obvious that only the most simple laws of dependence could be +ascertained—only those laws which, being uncomplicated with +others, and not disturbed in their manifestations, required no niceties +of observation to disentangle them. Whence it appears not only that in +proportion as knowledge becomes quantitative do its previsions become +complete as well as certain, but that until its assumption of a +quantitative character it is necessarily confined to the most elementary +relations.</p> + +<p>Moreover it is to be remarked that while, on the one hand, we can +discover the laws of the greater proportion of phenomena only by +investigating them quantitatively; on the other hand we can extend the +range of our quantitative previsions only as fast as we detect the laws +of the results we predict. For clearly the ability to specify the +magnitude of a result inaccessible to direct measurement, implies +knowledge of its mode of dependence on something which can be +measured—implies that we know the particular fact dealt with to be +an instance of some more general fact. Thus the extent to which our +quantitative previsions have been carried in any direction, indicates +the depth to which our knowledge reaches in that direction. And here, as +another aspect of the same fact, we may further observe that as we pass +from qualitative to quantitative prevision, we pass from inductive +science to deductive science. Science while purely inductive is purely +qualitative: when inaccurately quantitative it usually consists of part +induction, part deduction: and it becomes accurately quantitative only +when wholly deductive. We do not mean that the deductive and the +quantitative are coextensive; for there is manifestly much deduction +that is <a name="page_244"></a> qualitative only. We mean that all +quantitative prevision is reached deductively; and that induction can +achieve only qualitative prevision.</p> + +<p>Still, however, it must not be supposed that these distinctions +enable us to separate ordinary knowledge from science, much as they seem +to do so. While they show in what consists the broad contrast between +the extreme forms of the two, they yet lead us to recognise their +essential identity; and once more prove the difference to be one of +degree only. For, on the one hand, the commonest positive knowledge is +to some extent quantitative; seeing that the amount of the foreseen +result is known within certain wide limits. And, on the other hand, the +highest quantitative prevision does not reach the exact truth, but only +a very near approximation to it. Without clocks the savage knows that +the day is longer in the summer than in the winter; without scales he +knows that stone is heavier than flesh: that is, he can foresee +respecting certain results that their amounts will exceed these, and be +less than those—he knows <i>about</i> what they will be. And, with his +most delicate instruments and most elaborate calculations, all that the +man of science can do, is to reduce the difference between the foreseen +and the actual results to an unimportant quantity.</p> + +<p>Moreover, it must be borne in mind not only that all the sciences are +qualitative in their first stages,—not only that some of them, as +Chemistry, have but recently reached the quantitative stage—but +that the most advanced sciences have attained to their present power of +determining quantities not present to the senses, or not directly +measurable, by a slow process of improvement extending through thousands +of years. So that science and the knowledge of the uncultured are alike +in the nature of their previsions, widely as they differ in range; they +possess a common imperfection, though this is immensely greater in the +last than in the first; and the transition from the one to the other has +been through a series of steps by which the imperfection has been +rendered continually less, and the range continually wider.</p> + +<p>These facts, that science and the positive knowledge of the +uncultured cannot be separated in nature, and that the one is but a +perfected and extended form of the other, must necessarily underlie the +whole theory of science, its progress, and the relations of its parts to +each other. There must be serious incompleteness in any history of the +sciences, which, leaving out of view the first steps of their genesis, +commences with them only <a name="page_245"></a> when they assume +definite forms. There must be grave defects, if not a general untruth, +in a philosophy of the sciences considered in their interdependence and +development, which neglects the inquiry how they came to be distinct +sciences, and how they were severally evolved out of the chaos of +primitive ideas.</p> + +<p>Not only a direct consideration of the matter, but all analogy, goes +to show that in the earlier and simpler stages must be sought the key to +all subsequent intricacies. The time was when the anatomy and physiology +of the human being were studied by themselves—when the adult man +was analysed and the relations of parts and of functions investigated, +without reference either to the relations exhibited in the embryo or to +the homologous relations existing in other creatures. Now, however, it +has become manifest that no true conceptions, no true generalisations, +are possible under such conditions. Anatomists and physiologists now +find that the real natures of organs and tissues can be ascertained only +by tracing their early evolution; and that the affinities between +existing genera can be satisfactorily made out only by examining the +fossil genera to which they are allied. Well, is it not clear that the +like must be true concerning all things that undergo development? Is not +science a growth? Has not science, too, its embryology? And must not the +neglect of its embryology lead to a misunderstanding of the principles +of its evolution and of its existing organisation?</p> + +<p>There are <i>à priori</i> reasons, therefore, for doubting the truth of +all philosophies of the sciences which tacitly proceed upon the common +notion that scientific knowledge and ordinary knowledge are separate; +instead of commencing, as they should, by affiliating the one upon the +other, and showing how it gradually came to be distinguishable from the +other. We may expect to find their generalisations essentially +artificial; and we shall not be deceived. Some illustrations of this may +here be fitly introduced, by way of preliminary to a brief sketch of the +genesis of science from the point of view indicated. And we cannot more +readily find such illustrations than by glancing at a few of the various +<i>classifications</i> of the sciences that have from time to time been +proposed. To consider all of them would take too much space: we must +content ourselves with some of the latest.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Commencing with those which may be soonest disposed of, <a +name="page_246"></a> let us notice first the arrangement propounded by +Oken. An abstract of it runs thus:—</p> + +<blockquote><table width="100%" summary="Oken's classification of the +sciences"> + +<tr><td valign="top">Part I.</td> +<td>M<small>ATHESIS</small>.—<i>Pneumatogeny</i>: Primary Art, Primary +Consciousness, God, Primary Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, Man, Space, +Point. Line, Surface, Globe, Rotation.—<i>Hylogeny</i>: Gravity, +Matter, Ether, Heavenly Bodies, Light, Heat, Fire.<br> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2">(He explains that M<small>ATHESIS</small> is the +doctrine of the whole; <i>Pneumatogeny</i> being the doctrine of immaterial +totalities, and <i>Hylogeny</i> that of material +totalities.)<br> </td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Part II.</td> +<td>O<small>NTOLOGY</small>.—<i>Cosmogeny</i>: Rest, Centre, Motion, +Line, Planets, Form, Planetary System, Comets.—<i>Stöchiogeny</i>: +Condensation, Simple Matter, Elements, Air, Water, +Earth—<i>Stöchiology</i>: Functions of the Elements, etc., +etc.—<i>Kingdoms of Nature</i>: Individuals.<br> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2">(He says in explanation that +"O<small>NTOLOGY</small> teaches us the phenomena of matter. The first +of these are the heavenly bodies comprehended by <i>Cosmogeny</i>. These +divide into elements—<i>Stöchiogeny</i>. The earth element divides into +minerals—<i>Mineralogy</i>. These unite into one collective +body—<i>Geogeny</i>. The whole in singulars is the living, or +<i>Organic</i>, which again divides into plants and animals. <i>Biology</i>, +therefore, divides into <i>Organogeny</i>, <i>Phytosophy</i>, +<i>Zoosophy</i>.")<br> </td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>F<small>IRST</small> +K<small>INGDOM</small>.—M<small>INERALS</small>. <i>Mineralogy</i>, +<i>Geology</i>.<br> </td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Part III.</td> +<td>B<small>IOLOGY</small>.—<i>Organosophy</i>, <i>Phytogeny</i>, +<i>Phyto-physiology</i>, <i>Phytology</i>, <i>Zoogeny</i>, <i>Physiology</i>, <i>Zoology</i>, +<i>Psychology</i>.</td></tr> + +</table></blockquote> + +<p>A glance over this confused scheme shows that it is an attempt to +classify knowledge, not after the order in which it has been, or may be, +built up in the human consciousness; but after an assumed order of +creation. It is a pseudo-scientific cosmogony, akin to those which men +have enunciated from the earliest times downwards; and only a little +more respectable. As such it will not be thought worthy of much +consideration by those who, like ourselves, hold that experience is the +sole origin of knowledge. Otherwise, it might have been needful to dwell +on the incongruities of the arrangements—to ask how motion can be +treated of before space? how there can be rotation without matter to +rotate? how polarity can be dealt with without involving points and +lines? But it will serve our present purpose just to point out a few of +the extreme absurdities resulting from the doctrine which Oken seems to +hold in common with Hegel, that "to philosophise on Nature is to +re-think the great thought of Creation." Here is a sample:—</p> + +<p>"Mathematics is the universal science; so also is Physio-philosophy, +although it is only a part, or rather but a condition of the universe; +both are one, or mutually congruent.</p> + +<p><a name="page_247"></a>"Mathematics is, however, a science of mere +forms without substance. Physio-philosophy is, therefore, <i>mathematics +endowed with substance</i>."</p> + +<p>From the English point of view it is sufficiently amusing to find +such a dogma not only gravely stated, but stated as an unquestionable +truth. Here we see the experiences of quantitative relations which men +have gathered from surrounding bodies and generalised (experiences which +had been scarcely at all generalised at the beginning of the historic +period)—we find these generalised experiences, these intellectual +abstractions, elevated into concrete actualities, projected back into +Nature, and considered as the internal framework of things—the +skeleton by which matter is sustained. But this new form of the old +realism is by no means the most startling of the physio-philosophic +principles. We presently read that,</p> + +<p>"The highest mathematical idea, or the fundamental principle of all +mathematics is the zero = 0."....</p> + +<p>"Zero is in itself nothing. Mathematics is based upon nothing, and, +<i>consequently</i>, arises out of nothing.</p> + +<p>"Out of nothing, <i>therefore</i>, it is possible for something to arise; +for mathematics, consisting of propositions, is something, in relation +to 0."</p> + +<p>By such "consequentlys" and "therefores" it is, that men philosophise +when they "re-think the great thought of Creation." By dogmas that +pretend to be reasons, nothing is made to generate mathematics; and by +clothing mathematics with matter, we have the universe! If now we deny, +as we <i>do</i> deny, that the highest mathematical idea is the +zero;—if, on the other hand, we assert, as we <i>do</i> assert, that +the fundamental idea underlying all mathematics, is that of equality; +the whole of Oken's cosmogony disappears. And here, indeed, we may see +illustrated, the distinctive peculiarity of the German method of +procedure in these matters—the bastard <i>à priori</i> method, as it +may be termed. The legitimate <i>à priori</i> method sets out with +propositions of which the negation is inconceivable; the <i>à priori</i> +method as illegitimately applied, sets out either with propositions of +which the negation is <i>not</i> inconceivable, or with propositions like +Oken's, of which the <i>affirmation</i> is inconceivable.</p> + +<p>It is needless to proceed further with the analysis; else might we +detail the steps by which Oken arrives at the conclusions that "the +planets are coagulated colours, for they are coagulated light; that the +sphere is the expanded nothing;" that gravity is "a weighty nothing, a +heavy essence, striving towards a <a name="page_248"></a> centre;" that +"the earth is the identical, water the indifferent, air the different; +or the first the centre, the second the radius, the last the periphery +of the general globe or of fire." To comment on them would be nearly as +absurd as are the propositions themselves. Let us pass on to another of +the German systems of knowledge—that of Hegel.</p> + +<p>The simple fact that Hegel puts Jacob Bœhme on a par with +Bacon, suffices alone to show that his standpoint is far remote from the +one usually regarded as scientific: so far remote, indeed, that it is +not easy to find any common basis on which to found a criticism. Those +who hold that the mind is moulded into conformity with surrounding +things by the agency of surrounding things, are necessarily at a loss +how to deal with those, who, like Schelling and Hegel, assert that +surrounding things are solidified mind—that Nature is "petrified +intelligence." However, let us briefly glance at Hegel's classification. +He divides philosophy into three parts:—</p> + +<ol><li><i>Logic</i>, or the science of the idea in itself, the pure +idea.</li> + +<li><i>The Philosophy of Nature</i>, or the science of the idea considered +under its other form—of the idea as Nature.</li> + +<li><i>The Philosophy of the Mind</i>, or the science of the idea in its +return to itself.</li></ol> + +<p>Of these, the second is divided into the natural sciences, commonly +so called; so that in its more detailed form the series runs +thus:—Logic, Mechanics, Physics, Organic Physics, Psychology.</p> + +<p>Now, if we believe with Hegel, first, that thought is the true +essence of man; second, that thought is the essence of the world; and +that, therefore, there is nothing but thought; his classification, +beginning with the science of pure thought, may be acceptable. But +otherwise, it is an obvious objection to his arrangement, that thought +implies things thought of—that there can be no logical forms +without the substance of experience—that the science of ideas and +the science of things must have a simultaneous origin. Hegel, however, +anticipates this objection, and, in his obstinate idealism, replies, +that the contrary is true; that all contained in the forms, to become +something, requires to be thought: and that logical forms are the +foundations of all things.</p> + +<p>It is not surprising that, starting from such premises, and reasoning +after this fashion, Hegel finds his way to strange conclusions. Out of +<i>space</i> and <i>time</i> he proceeds to build up <i>motion</i>, <i>matter</i>, +<i>repulsion</i>, <i>attraction</i>, <i>weight</i>, and <i>inertia</i>. He then goes <a +name="page_249"></a> on to logically evolve the solar system. In doing +this he widely diverges from the Newtonian theory; reaches by syllogism +the conviction that the planets are the most perfect celestial bodies; +and, not being able to bring the stars within his theory, says that they +are mere formal existences and not living matter, and that as compared +with the solar system they are as little admirable as a cutaneous +eruption or a swarm of flies.<a +href="#page_249_note_2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + +<p>Results so outrageous might be left as self-disproved, were it not +that speculators of this class are not alarmed by any amount of +incongruity with established beliefs. The only efficient mode of +treating systems like this of Hegel, is to show that they are +self-destructive—that by their first steps they ignore that +authority on which all their subsequent steps depend. If Hegel +professes, as he manifestly does, to develop his scheme by +reasoning—if he presents successive inferences as <i>necessarily +following</i> from certain premises; he implies the postulate that a belief +which necessarily follows after certain antecedents is a true belief: +and, did an opponent reply to one of his inferences, that, though it was +impossible to think the opposite, yet the opposite was true, he would +consider the reply irrational. The procedure, however, which he would +thus condemn as destructive of all thinking whatever, is just the +procedure exhibited in the enunciation of his own first principles.</p> + +<p>Mankind find themselves unable to conceive that there can be thought +without things thought of. Hegel, however, asserts that there <i>can</i> be +thought without things thought of. That ultimate test of a true +proposition—the inability of the human mind to conceive the +negation of it—which in all other cases he considers valid, he +considers invalid where it suits his convenience to do so; and yet at +the same time denies the right of an opponent to follow his example. If +it is competent for him to posit dogmas, which are the direct negations +of what human consciousness recognises; then is it also competent for +his antagonists to stop him at every step in his argument by saying, +that though the particular inference he is drawing seems to his mind, +and to all minds, necessarily to follow from the premises, yet it is not +true, but the contrary inference is true. Or, to state the dilemma in +another form:—If he sets out with inconceivable propositions, then +may he with equal propriety make all his succeeding propositions +inconceivable ones—may at every step <a name="page_250"></a> +throughout his reasoning draw exactly the opposite conclusion to that +which seems involved.</p> + +<p>Hegel's mode of procedure being thus essentially suicidal, the +Hegelian classification which depends upon it falls to the ground. Let +us consider next that of M. Comte.</p> + +<p>As all his readers must admit, M. Comte presents us with a scheme of +the sciences which, unlike the foregoing ones, demands respectful +consideration. Widely as we differ from him, we cheerfully bear witness +to the largeness of his views, the clearness of his reasoning, and the +value of his speculations as contributing to intellectual progress. Did +we believe a serial arrangement of the sciences to be possible, that of +M. Comte would certainly be the one we should adopt. His fundamental +propositions are thoroughly intelligible; and if not true, have a great +semblance of truth. His successive steps are logically co-ordinated; and +he supports his conclusions by a considerable amount of +evidence—evidence which, so long as it is not critically examined, +or not met by counter evidence, seems to substantiate his positions. But +it only needs to assume that antagonistic attitude which <i>ought</i> to be +assumed towards new doctrines, in the belief that, if true, they will +prosper by conquering objectors—it needs but to test his leading +doctrines either by other facts than those he cites, or by his own facts +differently applied, to at once show that they will not stand. We will +proceed thus to deal with the general principle on which he bases his +hierarchy of the sciences.</p> + +<p>In the second chapter of his <i>Cours de Philosophic Positive</i>, M. +Comte says:—"Our problem is, then, to find the one <i>rational</i> +order, amongst a host of possible systems." ... "This order is +determined by the degree of simplicity, or, what comes to the same +thing, of generality of their phenomena." And the arrangement he deduces +runs thus: <i>Mathematics</i>, <i>Astronomy</i>, <i>Physics</i>, <i>Chemistry</i>, +<i>Physiology</i>, <i>Social Physics</i>. This he asserts to be "the true +<i>filiation</i> of the sciences." He asserts further, that the principle of +progression from a greater to a less degree of generality, "which gives +this order to the whole body of science, arranges the parts of each +science." And, finally, he asserts that the gradations thus established +<i>à priori</i> among the sciences, and the parts of each science, "is in +essential conformity with the order which has spontaneously taken place +among the branches of natural philosophy;" or, in other +words—corresponds with the order of historic development.</p> + +<p>Let us compare these assertions with the facts. That there may be +perfect fairness, let us make no choice, but take as the <a +name="page_251"></a> field for our comparison, the succeeding section +treating of the first science—Mathematics; and let us use none but +M. Comte's own facts, and his own admissions. Confining ourselves to +this one science, of course our comparisons must be between its several +parts. M. Comte says, that the parts of each science must be arranged in +the order of their decreasing generality; and that this order of +decreasing generality agrees with the order of historical development. +Our inquiry must be, then, whether the history of mathematics confirms +this statement.</p> + +<p>Carrying out his principle, M. Comte divides Mathematics into +"Abstract Mathematics, or the Calculus (taking the word in its most +extended sense) and Concrete Mathematics, which is composed of General +Geometry and of Rational Mechanics." The subject-matter of the first of +these is <i>number</i>; the subject-matter of the second includes <i>space</i>, +<i>time</i>, <i>motion</i>, <i>force</i>. The one possesses the highest possible degree +of generality; for all things whatever admit of enumeration. The others +are less general; seeing that there are endless phenomena that are not +cognisable either by general geometry or rational mechanics. In +conformity with the alleged law, therefore, the evolution of the +calculus must throughout have preceded the evolution of the concrete +sub-sciences. Now somewhat awkwardly for him, the first remark M. Comte +makes bearing upon this point is, that "from an historical point of +view, mathematical analysis <i>appears to have risen out of</i> the +contemplation of geometrical and mechanical facts." True, he goes on to +say that, "it is not the less independent of these sciences logically +speaking;" for that "analytical ideas are, above all others, universal, +abstract, and simple; and geometrical conceptions are necessarily +founded on them."</p> + +<p>We will not take advantage of this last passage to charge M. Comte +with teaching, after the fashion of Hegel, that there can be thought +without things thought of. We are content simply to compare the two +assertions, that analysis arose out of the contemplation of geometrical +and mechanical facts, and that geometrical conceptions are founded upon +analytical ones. Literally interpreted they exactly cancel each other. +Interpreted, however, in a liberal sense, they imply, what we believe to +be demonstrable, that the two had <i>a simultaneous origin</i>. The passage +is either nonsense, or it is an admission that abstract and concrete +mathematics are coeval. Thus, at the very first step, the alleged +congruity between the order of generality and the order of evolution +does not hold good.</p> + +<p><a name="page_252"></a>But may it not be that though abstract and +concrete mathematics took their rise at the same time, the one +afterwards developed more rapidly than the other; and has ever since +remained in advance of it? No: and again we call M. Comte himself as +witness. Fortunately for his argument he has said nothing respecting the +early stages of the concrete and abstract divisions after their +divergence from a common root; otherwise the advent of Algebra long +after the Greek geometry had reached a high development, would have been +an inconvenient fact for him to deal with. But passing over this, and +limiting ourselves to his own statements, we find, at the opening of the +next chapter, the admission, that "the historical development of the +abstract portion of mathematical science has, since the time of +Descartes, been for the most part <i>determined</i> by that of the concrete." +Further on we read respecting algebraic functions that "most functions +were concrete in their origin—even those which are at present the +most purely abstract; and the ancients discovered only through +geometrical definitions elementary algebraic properties of functions to +which a numerical value was not attached till long afterwards, rendering +abstract to us what was concrete to the old geometers." How do these +statements tally with his doctrine? Again, having divided the calculus +into algebraic and arithmetical, M. Comte admits, as perforce he must, +that the algebraic is more general than the arithmetical; yet he will +not say that algebra preceded arithmetic in point of time. And again, +having divided the calculus of functions into the calculus of direct +functions (common algebra) and the calculus of indirect functions +(transcendental analysis), he is obliged to speak of this last as +possessing a higher generality than the first; yet it is far more +modern. Indeed, by implication, M. Comte himself confesses this +incongruity; for he says:—"It might seem that the transcendental +analysis ought to be studied before the ordinary, as it provides the +equations which the other has to resolve; but though the transcendental +<i>is logically independent of the ordinary</i>, it is best to follow the +usual method of study, taking the ordinary first." In all these cases, +then, as well as at the close of the section where he predicts that +mathematicians will in time "create procedures of <i>a wider generality</i>", +M. Comte makes admissions that are diametrically opposed to the alleged +law.</p> + +<p>In the succeeding chapters treating of the concrete department of +mathematics, we find similar contradictions M. Comte himself names the +geometry of the ancients <i>special</i> <a name="page_253"></a> geometry, +and that of moderns the <i>general</i> geometry. He admits that while "the +ancients studied geometry with reference to the bodies under notice, or +specially; the moderns study it with reference to the <i>phenomena</i> to be +considered, or generally." He admits that while "the ancients extracted +all they could out of one line or surface before passing to another," +"the moderns, since Descartes, employ themselves on questions which +relate to any figure whatever." These facts are the reverse of what, +according to his theory, they should be. So, too, in mechanics. Before +dividing it into statics and dynamics, M. Comte treats of the three laws +of <i>motion</i>, and is obliged to do so; for statics, the more <i>general</i> of +the two divisions, though it does not involve motion, is impossible as a +science until the laws of motion are ascertained. Yet the laws of motion +pertain to dynamics, the more <i>special</i> of the divisions. Further on he +points out that after Archimedes, who discovered the law of equilibrium +of the lever, statics made no progress until the establishment of +dynamics enabled us to seek "the conditions of equilibrium through the +laws of the composition of forces." And he adds—"At this day <i>this +is the method universally employed</i>. At the first glance it does not +appear the most rational—dynamics being more complicated than +statics, and precedence being natural to the simpler. It would, in fact, +be more philosophical to refer dynamics to statics, as has since been +done." Sundry discoveries are afterwards detailed, showing how +completely the development of statics has been achieved by considering +its problems dynamically; and before the close of the section M. Comte +remarks that "before hydrostatics could be comprehended under statics, +it was necessary that the abstract theory of equilibrium should be made +so general as to apply directly to fluids as well as solids. This was +accomplished when Lagrange supplied, as the basis of the whole of +rational mechanics, the single principle of virtual velocities." In +which statement we have two facts directly at variance: with M. Comte's +doctrine; first, that the simpler science, statics, reached its present +development only by the aid of the principle of virtual velocities, +which belongs to the more complex science, dynamics; and that this +"single principle" underlying all rational mechanics—this <i>most +general form</i> which includes alike the relations of statical, +hydro-statical, and dynamical forces—was reached so late as the +time of Lagrange.</p> + +<p>Thus it is <i>not</i> true that the historical succession of the divisions +of mathematics has corresponded with the order of decreasing <a +name="page_254"></a> generality. It is <i>not</i> true that abstract +mathematics was evolved antecedently to, and independently of concrete +mathematics. It is <i>not</i> true that of the subdivisions of abstract +mathematics, the more general came before the more special. And it is +<i>not</i> true that concrete mathematics, in either of its two sections, +began with the most abstract and advanced to the less abstract +truths.</p> + +<p>It may be well to mention, parenthetically, that in defending his +alleged law of progression from the general to the special, M. Comte +somewhere comments upon the two meanings of the word <i>general</i>, and the +resulting liability to confusion. Without now discussing whether the +asserted distinction can be maintained in other cases, it is manifest +that it does not exist here. In sundry of the instances above quoted, +the endeavours made by M. Comte himself to disguise, or to explain away, +the precedence of the special over the general, clearly indicate that +the generality spoken of is of the kind meant by his formula. And it +needs but a brief consideration of the matter to show that, even did he +attempt it, he could not distinguish this generality, which, as above +proved, frequently comes last, from the generality which he says always +comes first. For what is the nature of that mental process by which +objects, dimensions, weights, times, and the rest, are found capable of +having their relations expressed numerically? It is the formation of +certain abstract conceptions of unity, duality and multiplicity, which +are applicable to all things alike. It is the invention of general +symbols serving to express the numerical relations of entities, whatever +be their special characters. And what is the nature of the mental +process by which numbers are found capable of having their relations +expressed algebraically? It is just the same. It is the formation of +certain abstract conceptions of numerical functions which are the same +whatever be the magnitudes of the numbers. It is the invention of +general symbols serving to express the relations between numbers, as +numbers express the relations between things. And transcendental +analysis stands to algebra in the same position that algebra stands in +to arithmetic.</p> + +<p>To briefly illustrate their respective powers—arithmetic can +express in one formula the value of a <i>particular</i> tangent to a +<i>particular</i> curve; algebra can express in one formula the values of +<i>all</i> tangents to a <i>particular</i> curve; transcendental analysis can +express in one formula the values of <i>all</i> tangents to <i>all</i> curves. +Just as arithmetic deals with the common properties of lines, areas, +bulks, forces, periods; so does algebra deal with <a +name="page_255"></a> the common properties of the numbers which +arithmetic presents; so does transcendental analysis deal with the +common properties of the equations exhibited by algebra. Thus, the +generality of the higher branches of the calculus, when compared with +the lower, is the same kind of generality as that of the lower branches +when compared with geometry or mechanics. And on examination it will be +found that the like relation exists in the various other cases above +given.</p> + +<p>Having shown that M. Comte's alleged law of progression does not hold +among the several parts of the same science, let us see how it agrees +with the facts when applied to separate sciences. "Astronomy," says M. +Comte, at the opening of Book III., "was a positive science, in its +geometrical aspect, from the earliest days of the school of Alexandria; +but Physics, which we are now to consider, had no positive character at +all till Galileo made his great discoveries on the fall of heavy +bodies." On this, our comment is simply that it is a misrepresentation +based upon an arbitrary misuse of words—a mere verbal artifice. By +choosing to exclude from terrestrial physics those laws of magnitude, +motion, and position, which he includes in celestial physics, M. Comte +makes it appear that the one owes nothing to the other. Not only is this +altogether unwarrantable, but it is radically inconsistent with his own +scheme of divisions. At the outset he says—and as the point is +important we quote from the original—"Pour la <i>physique +inorganique</i> nous voyons d'abord, en nous conformant toujours a l'ordre +de généralité et de dépendance des phénomènes, qu'elle doit être +partagée en deux sections distinctes, suivant qu'elle considère les +phénomènes généraux de l'univers, ou, en particulier, ceux que +présentent les corps terrestres. D'où la physique céleste, ou +l'astronomie, soit géométrique, soit mechanique; et la physique +terrestre."</p> + +<p>Here then we have <i>inorganic physics</i> clearly divided into <i>celestial +physics</i> and <i>terrestrial physics</i>—the phenomena presented by the +universe, and the phenomena presented by earthly bodies. If now +celestial bodies and terrestrial bodies exhibit sundry leading phenomena +in common, as they do, how can the generalisation of these common +phenomena be considered as pertaining to the one class rather than to +the other? If inorganic physics includes geometry (which M. Comte has +made it do by comprehending <i>geometrical</i> astronomy in its +sub-section—celestial physics); and if its +sub-section—terrestrial physics, treats of things having +geometrical properties; how can the laws of <a name="page_256"></a> +geometrical relations be excluded from terrestrial physics? Clearly if +celestial physics includes the geometry of objects in the heavens, +terrestrial physics includes the geometry of objects on the earth. And +if terrestrial physics includes terrestrial geometry, while celestial +physics includes celestial geometry, then the geometrical part of +terrestrial physics precedes the geometrical part of celestial physics; +seeing that geometry gained its first ideas from surrounding objects. +Until men had learnt geometrical relations from bodies on the earth, it +was impossible for them to understand the geometrical relations of +bodies in the heavens.</p> + +<p>So, too, with celestial mechanics, which had terrestrial mechanics +for its parent. The very conception of <i>force</i>, which underlies the +whole of mechanical astronomy, is borrowed from our earthly experiences; +and the leading laws of mechanical action as exhibited in scales, +levers, projectiles, etc., had to be ascertained before the dynamics of +the solar system could be entered upon. What were the laws made use of +by Newton in working out his grand discovery? The law of falling bodies +disclosed by Galileo; that of the composition of forces also disclosed +by Galileo; and that of centrifugal force found out by +Huyghens—all of them generalisations of terrestrial physics. Yet, +with facts like these before him, M. Comte places astronomy before +physics in order of evolution! He does not compare the geometrical parts +of the two together, and the mechanical parts of the two together; for +this would by no means suit his hypothesis. But he compares the +geometrical part of the one with the mechanical part of the other, and +so gives a semblance of truth to his position. He is led away by a +verbal delusion. Had he confined his attention to the things and +disregarded the words, he would have seen that before mankind +scientifically co-ordinated <i>any one class of phenomena</i> displayed in +the heavens, they had previously co-ordinated <i>a parallel class of +phenomena</i> displayed upon the surface of the earth.</p> + +<p>Were it needful we could fill a score pages with the incongruities of +M. Comte's scheme. But the foregoing samples will suffice. So far is his +law of evolution of the sciences from being tenable, that, by following +his example, and arbitrarily ignoring one class of facts, it would be +possible to present, with great plausibility, just the opposite +generalisation to that which he enunciates. While he asserts that the +rational order of the sciences, like the order of their historic +development, "is determined by the degree of simplicity, or, what comes +to the same <a name="page_257"></a> thing, of generality of their +phenomena;" it might contrariwise be asserted, that, commencing with the +complex and the special, mankind have progressed step by step to a +knowledge of greater simplicity and wider generality. So much evidence +is there of this as to have drawn from Whewell, in his <i>History of the +Inductive Sciences</i>, the general remark that "the reader has already +seen repeatedly in the course of this history, complex and derivative +principles presenting themselves to men's minds before simple and +elementary ones."</p> + +<p>Even from M. Comte's own work, numerous facts, admissions, and +arguments, might be picked out, tending to show this. We have already +quoted his words in proof that both abstract and concrete mathematics +have progressed towards a higher degree of generality, and that he looks +forward to a higher generality still. Just to strengthen this adverse +hypothesis, let us take a further instance. From the <i>particular</i> case +of the scales, the law of equilibrium of which was familiar to the +earliest nations known, Archimedes advanced to the more <i>general</i> case +of the unequal lever with unequal weights; the law of equilibrium of +which <i>includes</i> that of the scales. By the help of Galileo's discovery +concerning the composition of forces, D'Alembert "established, for the +first time, the equations of equilibrium of <i>any</i> system of forces +applied to the different points of a solid body"—equations which +include all cases of levers and an infinity of cases besides. Clearly +this is progress towards a higher generality—towards a knowledge +more independent of special circumstances—towards a study of +phenomena "the most disengaged from the incidents of particular cases;" +which is M. Comte's definition of "the most simple phenomena." Does it +not indeed follow from the familiarly admitted fact, that mental advance +is from the concrete to the abstract, from the particular to the +general, that the universal and therefore most simple truths are the +last to be discovered? Is not the government of the solar system by a +force varying inversely as the square of the distance, a simpler +conception than any that preceded it? Should we ever succeed in reducing +all orders of phenomena to some single law—say of atomic action, +as M. Comte suggests—must not that law answer to his test of being +<i>independent</i> of all others, and therefore most simple? And would not +such a law generalise the phenomena of gravity, cohesion, atomic +affinity, and electric repulsion, just as the laws of number generalise +the quantitative phenomena of space, time, and force?</p> + +<p><a name="page_258"></a>The possibility of saying so much in support +of an hypothesis the very reverse of M. Comte's, at once proves that his +generalisation is only a half-truth. The fact is, that neither +proposition is correct by itself; and the actuality is expressed only by +putting the two together. The progress of science is duplex: it is at +once from the special to the general, and from the general to the +special: it is analytical and synthetical at the same time.</p> + +<p>M. Comte himself observes that the evolution of science has been +accomplished by the division of labour; but he quite misstates the mode +in which this division of labour has operated. As he describes it, it +has simply been an arrangement of phenomena into classes, and the study +of each class by itself. He does not recognise the constant effect of +progress in each class upon <i>all</i> other classes; but only on the class +succeeding it in his hierarchical scale. Or if he occasionally admits +collateral influences and intercommunications, he does it so grudgingly, +and so quickly puts the admissions out of sight and forgets them, as to +leave the impression that, with but trifling exceptions, the sciences +aid each other only in the order of their alleged succession. The fact +is, however, that the division of labour in science, like the division +of labour in society, and like the "physiological division of labour" in +individual organisms, has been not only a specialisation of functions, +but a continuous helping of each division by all the others, and of all +by each. Every particular class of inquirers has, as it were, secreted +its own particular order of truths from the general mass of material +which observation accumulates; and all other classes of inquirers have +made use of these truths as fast as they were elaborated, with the +effect of enabling them the better to elaborate each its own order of +truths.</p> + +<p>It was thus in sundry of the cases we have quoted as at variance with +M. Comte's doctrine. It was thus with the application of Huyghens's +optical discovery to astronomical observation by Galileo. It was thus +with the application of the isochronism of the pendulum to the making of +instruments for measuring intervals, astronomical and other. It was thus +when the discovery that the refraction and dispersion of light did not +follow the same law of variation, affected both astronomy and physiology +by giving us achromatic telescopes and microscopes. It was thus when +Bradley's discovery of the aberration of light enabled him to make the +first step towards ascertaining the motions of the stars. It was thus +when Cavendish's torsion-balance experiment determined the specific +gravity of the earth, <a name="page_259"></a> and so gave a datum for +calculating the specific gravities of the sun and planets. It was thus +when tables of atmospheric refraction enabled observers to write down +the real places of the heavenly bodies instead of their apparent places. +It was thus when the discovery of the different expansibilities of +metals by heat, gave us the means of correcting our chronometrical +measurements of astronomical periods. It was thus when the lines of the +prismatic spectrum were used to distinguish the heavenly bodies that are +of like nature with the sun from those which are not. It was thus when, +as recently, an electro-telegraphic instrument was invented for the more +accurate registration of meridional transits. It was thus when the +difference in the rates of a clock at the equator, and nearer the poles, +gave data for calculating the oblateness of the earth, and accounting +for the precession of the equinoxes. It was thus—but it is +needless to continue.</p> + +<p>Here, within our own limited knowledge of its history, we have named +ten additional cases in which the single science of astronomy has owed +its advance to sciences coming <i>after</i> it in M. Comte's series. Not only +its secondary steps, but its greatest revolutions have been thus +determined. Kepler could not have discovered his celebrated laws had it +not been for Tycho Brahe's accurate observations; and it was only after +some progress in physical and chemical science that the improved +instruments with which those observations were made, became possible. +The heliocentric theory of the solar system had to wait until the +invention of the telescope before it could be finally established. Nay, +even the grand discovery of all—the law of +gravitation—depended for its proof upon an operation of physical +science, the measurement of a degree on the Earth's surface. So +completely indeed did it thus depend, that Newton <i>had actually +abandoned his hypothesis</i> because the length of a degree, as then +stated, brought out wrong results; and it was only after Picart's more +exact measurement was published, that he returned to his calculations +and proved his great generalisation. Now this constant intercommunion, +which, for brevity's sake, we have illustrated in the case of one +science only, has been taking place with all the sciences. Throughout +the whole course of their evolution there has been a continuous +<i>consensus</i> of the sciences—a <i>consensus</i> exhibiting a general +correspondence with the <i>consensus</i> of faculties in each phase of mental +development; the one being an objective registry of the subjective state +of the other.</p> + +<p><a name="page_260"></a>From our present point of view, then, it +becomes obvious that the conception of a <i>serial</i> arrangement of the +sciences is a vicious one. It is not simply that the schemes we have +examined are untenable; but it is that the sciences cannot be rightly +placed in any linear order whatever. It is not simply that, as M. Comte +admits, a classification "will always involve something, if not +arbitrary, at least artificial;" it is not, as he would have us believe, +that, neglecting minor imperfections a classification may be +substantially true; but it is that any grouping of the sciences in a +succession gives a radically erroneous idea of their genesis and their +dependencies. There is no "one <i>rational</i> order among a host of possible +systems." There is no "true <i>filiation</i> of the sciences." The whole +hypothesis is fundamentally false. Indeed, it needs but a glance at its +origin to see at once how baseless it is. Why a <i>series</i>? What reason +have we to suppose that the sciences admit of a <i>linear</i> arrangement? +Where is our warrant for assuming that there is some <i>succession</i> in +which they can be placed? There is no reason; no warrant. Whence then +has arisen the supposition? To use M. Comte's own phraseology, we should +say, it is a metaphysical conception. It adds another to the cases +constantly occurring, of the human mind being made the measure of +Nature. We are obliged to think in sequence; it is the law of our minds +that we must consider subjects separately, one after another: +<i>therefore</i> Nature must be serial—<i>therefore</i> the sciences must be +classifiable in a succession. See here the birth of the notion, and the +sole evidence of its truth. Men have been obliged when arranging in +books their schemes of education and systems of knowledge, to choose +<i>some</i> order or other. And from inquiring what is the best order, have +naturally fallen into the belief that there is an order which truly +represents the facts—have persevered in seeking such an order; +quite overlooking the previous question whether it is likely that Nature +has consulted the convenience of book-making.</p> + +<p>For German philosophers, who hold that Nature is "petrified +intelligence," and that logical forms are the foundations of all things, +it is a consistent hypothesis that as thought is serial, Nature is +serial; but that M. Comte, who is so bitter an opponent of all +anthropomorphism, even in its most evanescent shapes, should have +committed the mistake of imposing upon the external world an arrangement +which so obviously springs from a limitation of the human consciousness, +is somewhat strange. And it is the more strange when we call to mind +how, at the outset, <a name="page_261"></a> M. Comte remarks that in +the beginning "<i>toutes les sciences sont cultivées simultanément par les +mêmes esprits</i>;" that this is "<i>inevitable et même indispensable</i>;" and +how he further remarks that the different sciences are "<i>comme les +diverses branches d'un tronc unique</i>." Were it not accounted for by the +distorting influence of a cherished hypothesis, it would be scarcely +possible to understand how, after recognising truths like these, M. +Comte should have persisted in attempting to construct "<i>une échelle +encyclopédique</i>."</p> + +<p>The metaphor which M. Comte has here so inconsistently used to +express the relations of the sciences—branches of one +trunk—is an approximation to the truth, though not the truth +itself. It suggests the facts that the sciences had a common origin; +that they have been developing simultaneously; and that they have been +from time to time dividing and subdividing. But it does not suggest the +yet more important fact, that the divisions and subdivisions thus +arising do not remain separate, but now and again reunite in direct and +indirect ways. They inosculate; they severally send off and receive +connecting growths; and the intercommunion has been ever becoming more +frequent, more intricate, more widely ramified. There has all along been +higher specialisation, that there might be a larger generalisation; and +a deeper analysis, that there might be a better synthesis. Each larger +generalisation has lifted sundry specialisations still higher; and each +better synthesis has prepared the way for still deeper analysis.</p> + +<p>And here we may fitly enter upon the task awhile since +indicated—a sketch of the Genesis of Science, regarded as a +gradual outgrowth from common knowledge—an extension of the +perceptions by the aid of the reason. We propose to treat it as a +psychological process historically displayed; tracing at the same time +the advance from qualitative to quantitative prevision; the progress +from concrete facts to abstract facts, and the application of such +abstract facts to the analysis of new orders of concrete facts; the +simultaneous advance in generalisation and specialisation; the +continually increasing subdivision and reunion of the sciences; and +their constantly improving <i>consensus</i>.</p> + +<p>To trace out scientific evolution from its deepest roots would, of +course, involve a complete analysis of the mind. For as science is a +development of that common knowledge acquired by the unaided senses and +uncultured reason, so is that common <a name="page_262"></a> knowledge +itself gradually built up out of the simplest perceptions. We must, +therefore, begin somewhere abruptly; and the most appropriate stage to +take for our point of departure will be the adult mind of the +savage.</p> + +<p>Commencing thus, without a proper preliminary analysis, we are +naturally somewhat at a loss how to present, in a satisfactory manner, +those fundamental processes of thought out of which science ultimately +originates. Perhaps our argument may be best initiated by the +proposition, that all intelligent action whatever depends upon the +discerning of distinctions among surrounding things. The condition under +which only it is possible for any creature to obtain food and avoid +danger is, that it shall be differently affected by different +objects—that it shall be led to act in one way by one object, and +in another way by another. In the lower orders of creatures this +condition is fulfilled by means of an apparatus which acts +automatically. In the higher orders the actions are partly automatic, +partly conscious. And in man they are almost wholly conscious.</p> + +<p>Throughout, however, there must necessarily exist a certain +classification of things according to their properties—a +classification which is either organically registered in the system, as +in the inferior creation, or is formed by experience, as in ourselves. +And it may be further remarked, that the extent to which this +classification is carried, roughly indicates the height of +intelligence—that while the lowest organisms are able to do little +more than discriminate organic from inorganic matter; while the +generality of animals carry their classifications no further than to a +limited number of plants or creatures serving for food, a limited number +of beasts of prey, and a limited number of places and materials; the +most degraded of the human race possess a knowledge of the distinctive +natures of a great variety of substances, plants, animals, tools, +persons, etc., not only as classes but as individuals.</p> + +<p>What now is the mental process by which classification is effected? +Manifestly it is a recognition of the <i>likeness</i> or <i>unlikeness</i> of +things, either in respect of their sizes, colours, forms, weights, +textures, tastes, etc., or in respect of their modes of action. By some +special mark, sound, or motion, the savage identifies a certain +four-legged creature he sees, as one that is good for food, and to be +caught in a particular way; or as one that is dangerous; and acts +accordingly. He has classed together all the creatures that are <i>alike</i> +in this particular. And manifestly in choosing the wood out of which to +form his bow, <a name="page_263"></a> the plant with which to poison +his arrows, the bone from which to make his fish-hooks, he identifies +them through their chief sensible properties as belonging to the general +classes, wood, plant, and bone, but distinguishes them as belonging to +sub-classes by virtue of certain properties in which they are <i>unlike</i> +the rest of the general classes they belong to; and so forms genera and +species.</p> + +<p>And here it becomes manifest that not only is classification carried +on by grouping together in the mind things that are <i>like</i>; but that +classes and sub-classes are formed and arranged according to the +<i>degrees of unlikeness</i>. Things widely contrasted are alone +distinguished in the lower stages of mental evolution; as may be any day +observed in an infant. And gradually as the powers of discrimination +increase, the widely contrasted classes at first distinguished, come to +be each divided into sub-classes, differing from each other less than +the classes differ; and these sub-classes are again divided after the +same manner. By the continuance of which process, things are gradually +arranged into groups, the members of which are less and less <i>unlike</i>; +ending, finally, in groups whose members differ only as individuals, and +not specifically. And thus there tends ultimately to arise the notion of +<i>complete likeness</i>. For, manifestly, it is impossible that groups +should continue to be subdivided in virtue of smaller and smaller +differences, without there being a simultaneous approximation to the +notion of <i>no difference</i>.</p> + +<p>Let us next notice that the recognition of likeness and unlikeness, +which underlies classification, and out of which continued +classification evolves the idea of complete likeness—let us next +notice that it also underlies the process of <i>naming</i>, and by +consequence <i>language</i>. For all language consists, at the beginning, of +symbols which are as <i>like</i> to the things symbolised as it is +practicable to make them. The language of signs is a means of conveying +ideas by mimicking the actions or peculiarities of the things referred +to. Verbal language is also, at the beginning, a mode of suggesting +objects or acts by imitating the sounds which the objects make, or with +which the acts are accompanied. Originally these two languages were used +simultaneously. It needs but to watch the gesticulations with which the +savage accompanies his speech—to see a Bushman or a Kaffir +dramatising before an audience his mode of catching game—or to +note the extreme paucity of words in all primitive vocabularies; to +infer that at first, attitudes, gestures, <a name="page_264"></a> and +sounds, were all combined to produce as good a <i>likeness</i> as possible, +of the things, animals, persons, or events described; and that as the +sounds came to be understood by themselves the gestures fell into +disuse: leaving traces, however, in the manners of the more excitable +civilised races. But be this as it may, it suffices simply to observe, +how many of the words current among barbarous peoples are like the +sounds appertaining to the things signified; how many of our own oldest +and simplest words have the same peculiarity; how children tend to +invent imitative words; and how the sign-language spontaneously formed +by deaf mutes is invariably based upon imitative actions—to at +once see that the nation of <i>likeness</i> is that from which the +nomenclature of objects takes its rise.</p> + +<p>Were there space we might go on to point out how this law of life is +traceable, not only in the origin but in the development of language; +how in primitive tongues the plural is made by a duplication of the +singular, which is a multiplication of the word to make it <i>like</i> the +multiplicity of the things; how the use of metaphor—that prolific +source of new words—is a suggesting of ideas that are <i>like</i> the +ideas to be conveyed in some respect or other; and how, in the copious +use of simile, fable, and allegory among uncivilised races, we see that +complex conceptions, which there is yet no direct language for, are +rendered, by presenting known conceptions more or less <i>like</i> them.</p> + +<p>This view is further confirmed, and the predominance of this notion +of likeness in primitive times further illustrated, by the fact that our +system of presenting ideas to the eye originated after the same fashion. +Writing and printing have descended from picture-language. The earliest +mode of permanently registering a fact was by depicting it on a wall; +that is—by exhibiting something as <i>like</i> to the thing to be +remembered as it could be made. Gradually as the practice grew habitual +and extensive, the most frequently repeated forms became fixed, and +presently abbreviated; and, passing through the hieroglyphic and +ideographic phases, the symbols lost all apparent relations to the +things signified: just as the majority of our spoken words have +done.</p> + +<p>Observe again, that the same thing is true respecting the genesis of +reasoning. The <i>likeness</i> that is perceived to exist between cases, is +the essence of all early reasoning and of much of our present reasoning. +The savage, having by experience discovered a relation between a certain +object and a certain act, infers that the <i>like</i> relation will be found +in future cases. And <a name="page_265"></a> the expressions we +constantly use in our arguments—"<i>analogy</i> implies," "the cases +are not <i>parallel</i>," "by <i>parity</i> of reasoning," "there is no +<i>similarity</i>,"—show how constantly the idea of likeness underlies +our ratiocinative processes.</p> + +<p>Still more clearly will this be seen on recognising the fact that +there is a certain parallelism between reasoning and classification; +that the two have a common root; and that neither can go on without the +other. For on the one hand, it is a familiar truth that the attributing +to a body in consequence of some of its properties, all those other +properties in virtue of which it is referred to a particular class, is +an act of inference. And, on the other hand, the forming of a +generalisation is the putting together in one class all those cases +which present like relations; while the drawing a deduction is +essentially the perception that a particular case belongs to a certain +class of cases previously generalised. So that as classification is a +grouping together of <i>like things</i>; reasoning is a grouping together of +<i>like relations</i> among things. Add to which, that while the perfection +gradually achieved in classification consists in the formation of groups +of <i>objects</i> which are <i>completely alike</i>; the perfection gradually +achieved in reasoning consists in the formation of groups of <i>cases</i> +which are <i>completely alike</i>.</p> + +<p>Once more we may contemplate this dominant idea of likeness as +exhibited in art. All art, civilised as well as savage, consists almost +wholly in the making of objects <i>like</i> other objects; either as found in +Nature, or as produced by previous art. If we trace back the varied +art-products now existing, we find that at each stage the divergence +from previous patterns is but small when compared with the agreement; +and in the earliest art the persistency of imitation is yet more +conspicuous. The old forms and ornaments and symbols were held sacred, +and perpetually copied. Indeed, the strong imitative tendency +notoriously displayed by the lowest human races, ensures among them a +constant reproducing of likeness of things, forms, signs, sounds, +actions, and whatever else is imitable; and we may even suspect that +this aboriginal peculiarity is in some way connected with the culture +and development of this general conception, which we have found so deep +and widespread in its applications.</p> + +<p>And now let us go on to consider how, by a further unfolding of this +same fundamental notion, there is a gradual formation of the first germs +of science. This idea of likeness which underlies classification, +nomenclature, language spoken and written, <a name="page_266"></a> +reasoning, and art; and which plays so important a part because all +acts of intelligence are made possible only by distinguishing among +surrounding things, or grouping them into like and unlike;—this +idea we shall find to be the one of which science is the especial +product. Already during the stage we have been describing, there has +existed <i>qualitative</i> prevision in respect to the commoner phenomena +with which savage life is familiar; and we have now to inquire how the +elements of <i>quantitative</i> prevision are evolved. We shall find that +they originate by the perfecting of this same idea of likeness; that +they have their rise in that conception of <i>complete likeness</i> which, as +we have seen, necessarily results from the continued process of +classification.</p> + +<p>For when the process of classification has been carried as far as it +is possible for the uncivilised to carry it—when the animal +kingdom has been grouped not merely into quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and +insects, but each of these divided into kinds—when there come to +be sub-classes, in each of which the members differ only as individuals, +and not specifically; it is clear that there must occur a frequent +observation of objects which differ so little as to be +indistinguishable. Among several creatures which the savage has killed +and carried home, it must often happen that some one, which he wished to +identify, is so exactly like another that he cannot tell which is which. +Thus, then, there originates the notion of <i>equality</i>. The things which +among ourselves are called <i>equal</i>—whether lines, angles, weights, +temperatures, sounds or colours—are things which produce in us +sensations that cannot be distinguished from each other. It is true we +now apply the word <i>equal</i> chiefly to the separate phenomena which +objects exhibit, and not to groups of phenomena; but this limitation of +the idea has evidently arisen by subsequent analysis. And that the +notion of equality did thus originate, will, we think, become obvious on +remembering that as there were no artificial objects from which it could +have been abstracted, it must have been abstracted from natural objects; +and that the various families of the animal kingdom chiefly furnish +those natural objects which display the requisite exactitude of +likeness.</p> + +<p>The same order of experiences out of which this general idea of +equality is evolved, gives birth at the same time to a more complex idea +of equality; or, rather, the process just described generates an idea of +equality which further experience separates into two +ideas—<i>equality of things</i> and <i>equality of relations</i>. While +organic, and more especially animal forms, occasionally exhibit <a +name="page_267"></a> this perfection of likeness out of which the +notion of simple equality arises, they more frequently exhibit only that +kind of likeness which we call <i>similarity</i>; and which is really +compound equality. For the similarity of two creatures of the same +species but of different sizes, is of the same nature as the similarity +of two geometrical figures. In either case, any two parts of the one +bear the same ratio to one another as the homologous parts of the other. +Given in any species, the proportions found to exist among the bones, +and we may, and zoologists do, predict from any one, the dimensions of +the rest; just as, when knowing the proportions subsisting among the +parts of a geometrical figure, we may, from the length of one, calculate +the others. And if, in the case of similar geometrical figures, the +similarity can be established only by proving exactness of proportion +among the homologous parts; if we express this relation between two +parts in the one, and the corresponding parts in the other, by the +formula A is to B as <i>a</i> is to <i>b</i>; if we otherwise write this, A to B = +<i>a</i> to <i>b</i>; if, consequently, the fact we prove is that the relation of +A to B <i>equals</i> the relation of <i>a</i> to <i>b</i>; then it is manifest that the +fundamental conception of similarity is <i>equality of relations</i>.</p> + +<p>With this explanation we shall be understood when we say that the +notion of equality of relations is the basis of all exact reasoning. +Already it has been shown that reasoning in general is a recognition of +<i>likeness</i> of relations; and here we further find that while the notion +of likeness of things ultimately evolves the idea of simple equality, +the notion of likeness of relations evolves the idea of equality of +relations: of which the one is the concrete germ of exact science, while +the other is its abstract germ.</p> + +<p>Those who cannot understand how the recognition of similarity in +creatures of the same kind can have any alliance with reasoning, will +get over the difficulty on remembering that the phenomena among which +equality of relations is thus perceived, are phenomena of the same order +and are present to the senses at the same time; while those among which +developed reason perceives relations, are generally neither of the same +order, nor simultaneously present. And if further, they will call to +mind how Cuvier and Owen, from a single part of a creature, as a tooth, +construct the rest by a process of reasoning based on this equality of +relations, they will see that the two things are intimately connected, +remote as they at first seem. But we anticipate. What it concerns us +here to observe is, that from familiarity with <a name="page_268"></a> +organic forms there simultaneously arose the ideas of <i>simple +equality</i>, and <i>equality of relations</i>.</p> + +<p>At the same time, too, and out of the same mental processes, came the +first distinct ideas of <i>number</i>. In the earliest stages, the +presentation of several like objects produced merely an indefinite +conception of multiplicity; as it still does among Australians, and +Bushmen, and Damaras, when the number presented exceeds three or four. +With such a fact before us we may safely infer that the first clear +numerical conception was that of duality as contrasted with unity. And +this notion of duality must necessarily have grown up side by side with +those of likeness and equality; seeing that it is impossible to +recognise the likeness of two things without also perceiving that there +are two. From the very beginning the conception of number must have been +as it is still, associated with the likeness or equality of the things +numbered. If we analyse it, we find that simple enumeration is a +registration of repeated impressions of any kind. That these may be +capable of enumeration it is needful that they be more or less alike; +and before any <i>absolutely true</i> numerical results can be reached, it is +requisite that the units be <i>absolutely equal</i>. The only way in which we +can establish a numerical relationship between things that do not yield +us like impressions, is to divide them into parts that <i>do</i> yield us +like impressions. Two unlike magnitudes of extension, force, time, +weight, or what not, can have their relative amounts estimated only by +means of some small unit that is contained many times in both; and even +if we finally write down the greater one as a unit and the other as a +fraction of it, we state, in the denominator of the fraction, the number +of parts into which the unit must be divided to be comparable with the +fraction.</p> + +<p>It is, indeed, true, that by an evidently modern process of +abstraction, we occasionally apply numbers to unequal units, as the +furniture at a sale or the various animals on a farm, simply as so many +separate entities; but no true result can be brought out by calculation +with units of this order. And, indeed, it is the distinctive peculiarity +of the calculus in general, that it proceeds on the hypothesis of that +absolute equality of its abstract units, which no real units possess; +and that the exactness of its results holds only in virtue of this +hypothesis. The first ideas of number must necessarily then have been +derived from like or equal magnitudes as seen chiefly in organic +objects; and as the like magnitudes most frequently observed <a +name="page_269"></a> magnitudes of extension, it follows that geometry +and arithmetic had a simultaneous origin.</p> + +<p>Not only are the first distinct ideas of number co-ordinate with +ideas of likeness and equality, but the first efforts at numeration +displayed the same relationship. On reading the accounts of various +savage tribes, we find that the method of counting by the fingers, still +followed by many children, is the aboriginal method. Neglecting the +several cases in which the ability to enumerate does not reach even to +the number of fingers on one hand, there are many cases in which it does +not extend beyond ten—the limit of the simple finger notation. The +fact that in so many instances, remote, and seemingly unrelated nations, +have adopted <i>ten</i> as their basic number; together with the fact that in +the remaining instances the basic number is either <i>five</i> (the fingers +of one hand) or <i>twenty</i> (the fingers and toes); almost of themselves +show that the fingers were the original units of numeration. The still +surviving use of the word <i>digit</i>, as the general name for a figure in +arithmetic, is significant; and it is even said that our word <i>ten</i> +(Sax. <i>tyn</i>; Dutch, <i>tien</i>; German, <i>zehn</i>) means in its primitive +expanded form <i>two hands</i>. So that originally, to say there were ten +things, was to say there were two hands of them.</p> + +<p>From all which evidence it is tolerably clear that the earliest mode +of conveying the idea of any number of things, was by holding up as many +fingers as there were things; that is—using a symbol which was +<i>equal</i>, in respect of multiplicity, to the group symbolised. For which +inference there is, indeed, strong confirmation in the recent statement +that our own soldiers are even now spontaneously adopting this device in +their dealings with the Turks. And here it should be remarked that in +this recombination of the notion of equality with that of multiplicity, +by which the first steps in numeration are effected, we may see one of +the earliest of those inosculations between the diverging branches of +science, which are afterwards of perpetual occurrence.</p> + +<p>Indeed, as this observation suggests, it will be well, before tracing +the mode in which exact science finally emerges from the merely +approximate judgments of the senses, and showing the non-serial +evolution of its divisions, to note the non-serial character of those +preliminary processes of which all after development is a continuation. +On reconsidering them it will be seen that not only are they divergent +growths from a common root, not only are they simultaneous in their +progress; but <a name="page_270"></a> that they are mutual aids; and +that none can advance without the rest. That completeness of +classification for which the unfolding of the perceptions paves the way, +is impossible without a corresponding progress in language, by which +greater varieties of objects are thinkable and expressible. On the one +hand it is impossible to carry classification far without names by which +to designate the classes; and on the other hand it is impossible to make +language faster than things are classified.</p> + +<p>Again, the multiplication of classes and the consequent narrowing of +each class, itself involves a greater likeness among the things classed +together; and the consequent approach towards the notion of complete +likeness itself allows classification to be carried higher. Moreover, +classification necessarily advances <i>pari passu</i> with +rationality—the classification of <i>things</i> with the classification +of <i>relations</i>. For things that belong to the same class are, by +implication, things of which the properties and modes of +behaviour—the co-existences and sequences—are more or less +the same; and the recognition of this sameness of co-existences and +sequences is reasoning. Whence it follows that the advance of +classification is necessarily proportionate to the advance of +generalisations. Yet further, the notion of <i>likeness</i>, both in things +and relations, simultaneously evolves by one process of culture the +ideas of <i>equality</i> of things and <i>equality</i> of relations; which are the +respective bases of exact concrete reasoning and exact abstract +reasoning—Mathematics and Logic. And once more, this idea of +equality, in the very process of being formed, necessarily gives origin +to two series of relations—those of magnitude and those of number: +from which arise geometry and the calculus. Thus the process throughout +is one of perpetual subdivision and perpetual intercommunication of the +divisions. From the very first there has been that <i>consensus</i> of +different kinds of knowledge, answering to the <i>consensus</i> of the +intellectual faculties, which, as already said, must exist among the +sciences.</p> + +<p>Let us now go on to observe how, out of the notions of <i>equality</i> and +<i>number</i>, as arrived at in the manner described, there gradually arose +the elements of quantitative prevision.</p> + +<p>Equality, once having come to be definitely conceived, was readily +applicable to other phenomena than those of magnitude. Being predicable +of all things producing indistinguishable impressions, there naturally +grew up ideas of equality in weights, sounds, colours, etc.; and indeed +it can scarcely be doubted that the occasional experience of equal +weights, sounds, and <a name="page_271"></a> colours, had a share in +developing the abstract conception of equality—that the ideas of +equality in size, relations, forces, resistances, and sensible +properties in general, were evolved during the same period. But however +this may be, it is clear that as fast as the notion of equality gained +definiteness, so fast did that lowest kind of quantitative prevision +which is achieved without any instrumental aid, become possible.</p> + +<p>The ability to estimate, however roughly, the amount of a foreseen +result, implies the conception that it will be <i>equal to</i> a certain +imagined quantity; and the correctness of the estimate will manifestly +depend upon the accuracy at which the perceptions of sensible equality +have arrived. A savage with a piece of stone in his hand, and another +piece lying before him of greater bulk of the same kind (a fact which he +infers from the <i>equality</i> of the two in colour and texture) knows about +what effort he must put forth to raise this other piece; and he judges +accurately in proportion to the accuracy with which he perceives that +the one is twice, three times, four times, etc., as large as the other; +that is—in proportion to the precision of his ideas of equality +and number. And here let us not omit to notice that even in these +vaguest of quantitative previsions, the conception of <i>equality of +relations</i> is also involved. For it is only in virtue of an undefined +perception that the relation between bulk and weight in the one stone is +<i>equal</i> to the relation between bulk and weight in the other, that even +the roughest approximation can be made.</p> + +<p>But how came the transition from those uncertain perceptions of +equality which the unaided senses give, to the certain ones with which +science deals? It came by placing the things compared in juxtaposition. +Equality being predicated of things which give us indistinguishable +impressions, and no accurate comparison of impressions being possible +unless they occur in immediate succession, it results that exactness of +equality is ascertainable in proportion to the closeness of the compared +things. Hence the fact that when we wish to judge of two shades of +colour whether they are alike or not, we place them side by side; hence +the fact that we cannot, with any precision, say which of two allied +sounds is the louder, or the higher in pitch, unless we hear the one +immediately after the other; hence the fact that to estimate the ratio +of weights, we take one in each hand, that we may compare their +pressures by rapidly alternating in thought from the one to the other; +hence the fact, that in a piece of music we can continue to make equal +<a name="page_272"></a> beats when the first beat has been given, but +cannot ensure commencing with the same length of beat on a future +occasion; and hence, lastly, the fact, that of all magnitudes, those of +<i>linear extension</i> are those of which the equality is most accurately +ascertainable, and those to which by consequence all others have to be +reduced. For it is the peculiarity of linear extension that it alone +allows its magnitudes to be placed in <i>absolute</i> juxtaposition, or, +rather, in coincident position; it alone can test the equality of two +magnitudes by observing whether they will coalesce, as two equal +mathematical lines do, when placed between the same points; it alone can +test <i>equality</i> by trying whether it will become <i>identity</i>. Hence, +then, the fact, that all exact science is reducible, by an ultimate +analysis, to results measured in equal units of linear extension.</p> + +<p>Still it remains to be noticed in what manner this determination of +equality by comparison of linear magnitudes originated. Once more may we +perceive that surrounding natural objects supplied the needful lessons. +From the beginning there must have been a constant experience of like +things placed side by side—men standing and walking together; +animals from the same herd; fish from the same shoal. And the ceaseless +repetition of these experiences could not fail to suggest the +observation, that the nearer together any objects were, the more visible +became any inequality between them. Hence the obvious device of putting +in apposition things of which it was desired to ascertain the relative +magnitudes. Hence the idea of <i>measure</i>. And here we suddenly come upon +a group of facts which afford a solid basis to the remainder of our +argument; while they also furnish strong evidence in support of the +foregoing speculations. Those who look sceptically on this attempted +rehabilitation of the earliest epochs of mental development, and who +more especially think that the derivation of so many primary notions +from organic forms is somewhat strained, will perhaps see more +probability in the several hypotheses that have been ventured, on +discovering that all measures of <i>extension</i> and <i>force</i> originated from +the lengths and weights of organic bodies; and all measures of <i>time</i> +from the periodic phenomena of either organic or inorganic bodies.</p> + +<p>Thus, among linear measures, the cubit of the Hebrews was the <i>length +of the forearm</i> from the elbow to the end of the middle finger; and the +smaller scriptural dimensions are expressed in <i>hand-breadths</i> and +<i>spans</i>. The Egyptian cubit, which was similarly derived, was divided +into digits, which were <i>finger-breadths</i>; <a name="page_273"></a> and +each finger-breadth was more definitely expressed as being equal to four +<i>grains of barley</i> placed breadthwise. Other ancient measures were the +orgyia or <i>stretch of the arms</i>, the <i>pace</i>, and the <i>palm</i>. So +persistent has been the use of these natural units of length in the +East, that even now some of the Arabs mete out cloth by the forearm. So, +too, is it with European measures. The <i>foot</i> prevails as a dimension +throughout Europe, and has done since the time of the Romans, by whom, +also, it was used: its lengths in different places varying not much more +than men's feet vary. The heights of horses are still expressed in +<i>hands</i>. The inch is the length of the terminal joint of <i>the thumb</i>; as +is clearly shown in France, where <i>pouce</i> means both thumb and inch. +Then we have the inch divided into three <i>barley-corns</i>.</p> + +<p>So completely, indeed, have these organic dimensions served as the +substrata of all mensuration, that it is only by means of them that we +can form any estimate of some of the ancient distances. For example, the +length of a degree on the Earth's surface, as determined by the Arabian +astronomers shortly after the death of Haroun-al-Raschid, was fifty-six +of their miles. We know nothing of their mile further than that it was +4000 cubits; and whether these were sacred cubits or common cubits, +would remain doubtful, but that the length of the cubit is given as +twenty-seven inches, and each inch defined as the thickness of six +barley-grains. Thus one of the earliest measurements of a degree comes +down to us in barley-grains. Not only did organic lengths furnish those +approximate measures which satisfied men's needs in ruder ages, but they +furnished also the standard measures required in later times. One +instance occurs in our own history. To remedy the irregularities then +prevailing, Henry I. commanded that the ulna, or ancient ell, which +answers to the modern yard, should be made of the exact length of <i>his +own arm</i>.</p> + +<p>Measures of weight again had a like derivation. Seeds seem commonly +to have supplied the unit. The original of the carat used for weighing +in India is <i>a small bean</i>. Our own systems, both troy and avoirdupois, +are derived primarily from wheat-corns. Our smallest weight, the grain, +is <i>a grain of wheat</i>. This is not a speculation; it is an historically +registered fact. Henry III. enacted that an ounce should be the weight +of 640 dry grains of wheat from the middle of the ear. And as all the +other weights are multiples or sub-multiples of this, it follows that +the grain of wheat is the basis of our scale. So natural is it to use <a +name="page_274"></a> organic bodies as weights, before artificial +weights have been established, or where they are not to be had, that in +some of the remoter parts of Ireland the people are said to be in the +habit, even now, of putting a man into the scales to serve as a measure +for heavy commodities.</p> + +<p>Similarly with time. Astronomical periodicity, and the periodicity of +animal and vegetable life, are simultaneously used in the first stages +of progress for estimating epochs. The simplest unit of time, the day, +nature supplies ready made. The next simplest period, the mooneth or +month, is also thrust upon men's notice by the conspicuous changes +constituting a lunation. For larger divisions than these, the phenomena +of the seasons, and the chief events from time to time occurring, have +been used by early and uncivilised races. Among the Egyptians the rising +of the Nile served as a mark. The New Zealanders were found to begin +their year from the reappearance of the Pleiades above the sea. One of +the uses ascribed to birds, by the Greeks, was to indicate the seasons +by their migrations. Barrow describes the aboriginal Hottentot as +denoting periods by the number of moons before or after the ripening of +one of his chief articles of food. He further states that the Kaffir +chronology is kept by the moon, and is registered by notches on +sticks—the death of a favourite chief, or the gaining of a +victory, serving for a new era. By which last fact, we are at once +reminded that in early history, events are commonly recorded as +occurring in certain reigns, and in certain years of certain reigns: a +proceeding which practically made a king's reign a measure of +duration.</p> + +<p>And, as further illustrating the tendency to divide time by natural +phenomena and natural events, it may be noticed that even by our own +peasantry the definite divisions of months and years are but little +used; and that they habitually refer to occurrences as "before +sheep-shearing," or "after harvest," or "about the time when the squire +died." It is manifest, therefore, that the more or less equal periods +perceived in Nature gave the first units of measure for time; as did +Nature's more or less equal lengths and weights give the first units of +measure for space and force.</p> + +<p>It remains only to observe, as further illustrating the evolution of +quantitative ideas after this manner, that measures of value were +similarly derived. Barter, in one form or other, is found among all but +the very lowest human races. It is obviously based upon the notion of +<i>equality of worth</i>. And as <a name="page_275"></a> it gradually merges +into trade by the introduction of some kind of currency, we find that +the <i>measures of worth</i>, constituting this currency, are organic bodies; +in some cases <i>cowries</i>, in others <i>cocoa-nuts</i>, in others <i>cattle</i>, in +others <i>pigs</i>; among the American Indians peltry or <i>skins</i>, and in +Iceland <i>dried fish</i>.</p> + +<p>Notions of exact equality and of measure having been reached, there +came to be definite ideas of relative magnitudes as being multiples one +of another; whence the practice of measurement by direct apposition of a +measure. The determination of linear extensions by this process can +scarcely be called science, though it is a step towards it; but the +determination of lengths of time by an analogous process may be +considered as one of the earliest samples of quantitative prevision. For +when it is first ascertained that the moon completes the cycle of her +changes in about thirty days—a fact known to most uncivilised +tribes that can count beyond the number of their fingers—it is +manifest that it becomes possible to say in what number of days any +specified phase of the moon will recur; and it is also manifest that +this prevision is effected by an opposition of two times, after the same +manner that linear space is measured by the opposition of two lines. For +to express the moon's period in days, is to say how many of these units +of measure are contained in the period to be measured—is to +ascertain the distance between two points in time by means of a <i>scale +of days</i>, just as we ascertain the distance between two points in space +by a scale of feet or inches: and in each case the scale coincides with +the thing measured—mentally in the one; visibly in the other. So +that in this simplest, and perhaps earliest case of quantitative +prevision, the phenomena are not only thrust daily upon men's notice, +but Nature is, as it were, perpetually repeating that process of +measurement by observing which the prevision is effected. And thus there +may be significance in the remark which some have made, that alike in +Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, there is an affinity between the word meaning +moon, and that meaning measure.</p> + +<p>This fact, that in very early stages of social progress it is known +that the moon goes through her changes in about thirty days, and that in +about twelve moons the seasons return—this fact that chronological +astronomy assumes a certain scientific character even before geometry +does; while it is partly due to the circumstance that the astronomical +divisions, day, month, and year, are ready made for us, is partly due to +the further circumstances that agricultural and other operations were at +first <a name="page_276"></a> regulated astronomically, and that from +the supposed divine nature of the heavenly bodies their motions +determined the periodical religious festivals. As instances of the one +we have the observation of the Egyptians, that the rising of the Nile +corresponded with the heliacal rising of Sirius; the directions given by +Hesiod for reaping and ploughing, according to the positions of the +Pleiades; and his maxim that "fifty days after the turning of the sun is +a seasonable time for beginning a voyage." As instances of the other, we +have the naming of the days after the sun, moon, and planets; the early +attempts among Eastern nations to regulate the calendar so that the gods +might not be offended by the displacement of their sacrifices; and the +fixing of the great annual festival of the Peruvians by the position of +the sun. In all which facts we see that, at first, science was simply an +appliance of religion and industry.</p> + +<p>After the discoveries that a lunation occupies nearly thirty days, +and that some twelve lunations occupy a year—discoveries of which +there is no historical account, but which may be inferred as the +earliest, from the fact that existing uncivilised races have made +them—we come to the first known astronomical records, which are +those of eclipses. The Chaldeans were able to predict these. "This they +did, probably," says Dr. Whewell in his useful history, from which most +of the materials we are about to use will be drawn, "by means of their +cycle of 223 months, or about eighteen years; for at the end of this +time, the eclipses of the moon begin to return, at the same intervals +and in the same order as at the beginning." Now this method of +calculating eclipses by means of a recurring cycle,—the <i>Saros</i> as +they called it—is a more complex case of prevision by means of +coincidence of measures. For by what observations must the Chaldeans +have discovered this cycle? Obviously, as Delambre infers, by inspecting +their registers; by comparing the successive intervals; by finding that +some of the intervals were alike; by seeing that these equal intervals +were eighteen years apart; by discovering that <i>all</i> the intervals that +were eighteen years apart were equal; by ascertaining that the intervals +formed a series which repeated itself, so that if one of the cycles of +intervals were superposed on another the divisions would fit. This once +perceived, and it manifestly became possible to use the cycle as a scale +of time by which to measure out future periods. Seeing thus that the +process of so predicting eclipses is in essence the same as that of +predicting the moon's monthly changes, by observing the number of days +after which they <a name="page_277"></a> repeat—seeing that the +two differ only in the extent and irregularity of the intervals, it is +not difficult to understand how such an amount of knowledge should so +early have been reached. And we shall be less surprised, on remembering +that the only things involved in these previsions were <i>time</i> and +<i>number</i>; and that the time was in a manner self-numbered.</p> + +<p>Still, the ability to predict events recurring only after so long a +period as eighteen years, implies a considerable advance in +civilisation—a considerable development of general knowledge; and +we have now to inquire what progress in other sciences accompanied, and +was necessary to, these astronomical previsions. In the first place, +there must clearly have been a tolerably efficient system of +calculation. Mere finger-counting, mere head-reckoning, even with the +aid of a regular decimal notation, could not have sufficed for numbering +the days in a year; much less the years, months, and days between +eclipses. Consequently there must have been a mode of registering +numbers; probably even a system of numerals. The earliest numerical +records, if we may judge by the practices of the less civilised races +now existing, were probably kept by notches cut on sticks, or strokes +marked on walls; much as public-house scores are kept now. And there +seems reason to believe that the first numerals used were simply groups +of straight strokes, as some of the still-extant Roman ones are; leading +us to suspect that these groups of strokes were used to represent groups +of fingers, as the groups of fingers had been used to represent groups +of objects—a supposition quite in conformity with the aboriginal +system of picture writing and its subsequent modifications. Be this so +or not, however, it is manifest that before the Chaldeans discovered +their <i>Saros</i>, there must have been both a set of written symbols +serving for an extensive numeration, and a familiarity with the simpler +rules of arithmetic.</p> + +<p>Not only must abstract mathematics have made some progress, but +concrete mathematics also. It is scarcely possible that the buildings +belonging to this era should have been laid out and erected without any +knowledge of geometry. At any rate, there must have existed that +elementary geometry which deals with direct measurement—with the +apposition of lines; and it seems that only after the discovery of those +simple proceedings, by which right angles are drawn, and relative +positions fixed, could so regular an architecture be executed. In the +case of the other division of concrete mathematics—mechanics, we +have definite evidence of progress. We know that the lever and <a +name="page_278"></a> the inclined plane were employed during this +period: implying that there was a qualitative prevision of their +effects, though not a quantitative one. But we know more. We read of +weights in the earliest records; and we find weights in ruins of the +highest antiquity. Weights imply scales, of which we have also mention; +and scales involve the primary theorem of mechanics in its least +complicated form—involve not a qualitative but a quantitative +prevision of mechanical effects. And here we may notice how mechanics, +in common with the other exact sciences, took its rise from the simplest +application of the idea of <i>equality</i>. For the mechanical proposition +which the scales involve, is, that if a lever with <i>equal</i> arms, have +<i>equal</i> weights suspended from them, the weights will remain at <i>equal</i> +altitudes. And we may further notice how, in this first step of rational +mechanics, we see illustrated that truth awhile since referred to, that +as magnitudes of linear extension are the only ones of which the +equality is exactly ascertainable, the equalities of other magnitudes +have at the outset to be determined by means of them. For the equality +of the weights which balance each other in scales, wholly depends upon +the equality of the arms: we can know that the weights are equal only by +proving that the arms are equal. And when by this means we have obtained +a system of weights,—a set of equal units of force, then does a +science of mechanics become possible. Whence, indeed, it follows, that +rational mechanics could not possibly have any other starting-point than +the scales.</p> + +<p>Let us further remember, that during this same period there was a +limited knowledge of chemistry. The many arts which we know to have been +carried on must have been impossible without a generalised experience of +the modes in which certain bodies affect each other under special +conditions. In metallurgy, which was extensively practised, this is +abundantly illustrated. And we even have evidence that in some cases the +knowledge possessed was, in a sense, quantitative. For, as we find by +analysis that the hard alloy of which the Egyptians made their cutting +tools, was composed of copper and tin in fixed proportions, there must +have been an established prevision that such an alloy was to be obtained +only by mixing them in these proportions. It is true, this was but a +simple empirical generalisation; but so was the generalisation +respecting the recurrence of eclipses; so are the first generalisations +of every science.</p> + +<p>Respecting the simultaneous advance of the sciences during <a +name="page_279"></a> this early epoch, it only remains to remark that +even the most complex of them must have made some progress—perhaps +even a greater relative progress than any of the rest. For under what +conditions only were the foregoing developments possible? There first +required an established and organised social system. A long continued +registry of eclipses; the building of palaces; the use of scales; the +practice of metallurgy—alike imply a fixed and populous nation. +The existence of such a nation not only presupposes laws, and some +administration of justice, which we know existed, but it presupposes +successful laws—laws conforming in some degree to the conditions +of social stability—laws enacted because it was seen that the +actions forbidden by them were dangerous to the State. We do not by any +means say that all, or even the greater part, of the laws were of this +nature; but we do say, that the fundamental ones were. It cannot be +denied that the laws affecting life and property were such. It cannot be +denied that, however little these were enforced between class and class, +they were to a considerable extent enforced between members of the same +class. It can scarcely be questioned, that the administration of them +between members of the same class was seen by rulers to be necessary for +keeping their subjects together. And knowing, as we do, that, other +things equal, nations prosper in proportion to the justness of their +arrangements, we may fairly infer that the very cause of the advance of +these earliest nations out of aboriginal barbarism was the greater +recognition among them of the claims to life and property.</p> + +<p>But supposition aside, it is clear that the habitual recognition of +these claims in their laws implied some prevision of social phenomena. +Even thus early there was a certain amount of social science. Nay, it +may even be shown that there was a vague recognition of that fundamental +principle on which all the true social science is based—the equal +rights of all to the free exercise of their faculties. That same idea of +<i>equality</i> which, as we have seen, underlies all other science, +underlies also morals and sociology. The conception of justice, which is +the primary one in morals; and the administration of justice, which is +the vital condition of social existence; are impossible without the +recognition of a certain likeness in men's claims in virtue of their +common humanity. <i>Equity</i> literally means <i>equalness</i>; and if it be +admitted that there were even the vaguest ideas of equity in these +primitive eras, it must be admitted that there was some appreciation of +the equalness of men's liberties <a name="page_280"></a> to pursue the +objects of life—some appreciation, therefore, of the essential +principle of national equilibrium.</p> + +<p>Thus in this initial stage of the positive sciences, before geometry +had yet done more than evolve a few empirical rules—before +mechanics had passed beyond its first theorem—before astronomy had +advanced from its merely chronological phase into the geometrical; the +most involved of the sciences had reached a certain degree of +development—a development without which no progress in other +sciences was possible.</p> + +<p>Only noting as we pass, how, thus early, we may see that the progress +of exact science was not only towards an increasing number of +previsions, but towards previsions more accurately +quantitative—how, in astronomy, the recurring period of the moon's +motions was by and by more correctly ascertained to be nineteen years, +or two hundred and thirty-five lunations; how Callipus further corrected +this Metonic cycle, by leaving out a day at the end of every seventy-six +years; and how these successive advances implied a longer continued +registry of observations, and the co-ordination of a greater number of +facts—let us go on to inquire how geometrical astronomy took its +rise.</p> + +<p>The first astronomical instrument was the gnomon. This was not only +early in use in the East, but it was found also among the Mexicans; the +sole astronomical observations of the Peruvians were made by it; and we +read that 1100 B.C., the Chinese found that, at a certain place, the +length of the sun's shadow, at the summer solstice, was to the height of +the gnomon as one and a half to eight. Here again it is observable, not +only that the instrument is found ready made, but that Nature is +perpetually performing the process of measurement. Any fixed, erect +object—a column, a dead palm, a pole, the angle of a +building—serves for a gnomon; and it needs but to notice the +changing position of the shadow it daily throws to make the first step +in geometrical astronomy. How small this first step was, may be seen in +the fact that the only things ascertained at the outset were the periods +of the summer and winter solstices, which corresponded with the least +and greatest lengths of the mid-shadow; and to fix which, it was needful +merely to mark the point to which each day's shadow reached.</p> + +<p>And now let it not be overlooked that in the observing at what time +during the next year this extreme limit of the shadow was again reached, +and in the inference that the sun had then arrived at the same turning +point in his annual course, we have one of the simplest instances of +that combined use of <i>equal <a name="page_281"></a> magnitudes</i> and +<i>equal relations</i>, by which all exact science, all quantitative +prevision, is reached. For the relation observed was between the length +of the sun's shadow and his position in the heavens; and the inference +drawn was that when, next year, the extremity of his shadow came to the +same point, he occupied the same place. That is, the ideas involved +were, the equality of the shadows, and the equality of the relations +between shadow and sun in successive years. As in the case of the +scales, the equality of relations here recognised is of the simplest +order. It is not as those habitually dealt with in the higher kinds of +scientific reasoning, which answer to the general type—the +relation between two and three equals the relation between six and nine; +but it follows the type—the relation between two and three, equals +the relation between two and three; it is a case of not simply <i>equal</i> +relations, but <i>coinciding</i> relations. And here, indeed, we may see +beautifully illustrated how the idea of equal relations takes its rise +after the same manner that that of equal magnitude does. As already +shown, the idea of equal magnitudes arose from the observed coincidence +of two lengths placed together; and in this case we have not only two +coincident lengths of shadows, but two coincident relations between sun +and shadows.</p> + +<p>From the use of the gnomon there naturally grew up the conception of +angular measurements; and with the advance of geometrical conceptions +there came the hemisphere of Berosus, the equinoctial armil, the +solstitial armil, and the quadrant of Ptolemy—all of them +employing shadows as indices of the sun's position, but in combination +with angular divisions. It is obviously out of the question for us here +to trace these details of progress. It must suffice to remark that in +all of them we may see that notion of equality of relations of a more +complex kind, which is best illustrated in the astrolabe, an instrument +which consisted "of circular rims, movable one within the other, or +about poles, and contained circles which were to be brought into the +position of the ecliptic, and of a plane passing through the sun and the +poles of the ecliptic"—an instrument, therefore, which +represented, as by a model, the relative positions of certain imaginary +lines and planes in the heavens; which was adjusted by putting these +representative lines and planes into parallelism and coincidence with +the celestial ones; and which depended for its use upon the perception +that the relations between these representative lines and planes were +<i>equal</i> to the relations between those represented.</p> + +<p><a name="page_282"></a>Were there space, we might go on to point out +how the conception of the heavens as a revolving hollow sphere, the +discovery of the globular form of the earth, the explanation of the +moon's phases, and indeed all the successive steps taken, involved this +same mental process. But we must content ourselves with referring to the +theory of eccentrics and epicycles, as a further marked illustration of +it. As first suggested, and as proved by Hipparchus to afford an +explanation of the leading irregularities in the celestial motions, this +theory involved the perception that the progressions, retrogressions, +and variations of velocity seen in the heavenly bodies, might be +reconciled with their assumed uniform movement in circles, by supposing +that the earth was not in the centre of their orbits; or by supposing +that they revolved in circles whose centres revolved round the earth; or +by both. The discovery that this would account for the appearances, was +the discovery that in certain geometrical diagrams the relations were +such, that the uniform motion of a point would, when looked at from a +particular position, present analogous irregularities; and the +calculations of Hipparchus involved the belief that the relations +subsisting among these geometrical curves were <i>equal</i> to the relations +subsisting among the celestial orbits.</p> + +<p>Leaving here these details of astronomical progress, and the +philosophy of it, let us observe how the relatively concrete science of +geometrical astronomy, having been thus far helped forward by the +development of geometry in general, reacted upon geometry, caused it +also to advance, and was again assisted by it. Hipparchus, before making +his solar and lunar tables, had to discover rules for calculating the +relations between the sides and angles of triangles—<i>trigonometry</i> +a subdivision of pure mathematics. Further, the reduction of the +doctrine of the sphere to the quantitative form needed for astronomical +purposes, required the formation of a <i>spherical trigonometry</i>, which +was also achieved by Hipparchus. Thus both plane and spherical +trigonometry, which are parts of the highly abstract and simple science +of extension, remained undeveloped until the less abstract and more +complex science of the celestial motions had need of them. The fact +admitted by M. Comte, that since Descartes the progress of the abstract +division of mathematics has been determined by that of the concrete +division, is paralleled by the still more significant fact that even +thus early the progress of mathematics was determined by that of +astronomy.</p> + +<p>And here, indeed, we may see exemplified the truth, which <a +name="page_283"></a> the subsequent history of science frequently +illustrates, that before any more abstract division makes a further +advance, some more concrete division must suggest the necessity for that +advance—must present the new order of questions to be solved. +Before astronomy presented Hipparchus with the problem of solar tables, +there was nothing to raise the question of the relations between lines +and angles; the subject-matter of trigonometry had not been conceived. +And as there must be subject-matter before there can be investigation, +it follows that the progress of the concrete divisions is as necessary +to that of the abstract, as the progress of the abstract to that of the +concrete.</p> + +<p>Just incidentally noticing the circumstance that the epoch we are +describing witnessed the evolution of algebra, a comparatively abstract +division of mathematics, by the union of its less abstract divisions, +geometry and arithmetic—a fact proved by the earliest extant +samples of algebra, which are half algebraic, half geometric—we go +on to observe that during the era in which mathematics and astronomy +were thus advancing, rational mechanics made its second step; and +something was done towards giving a quantitative form to hydrostatics, +optics, and harmonics. In each case we shall see, as before, how the +idea of equality underlies all quantitative prevision; and in what +simple forms this idea is first applied.</p> + +<p>As already shown, the first theorem established in mechanics was, +that equal weights suspended from a lever with equal arms would remain +in equilibrium. Archimedes discovered that a lever with unequal arms was +in equilibrium when one weight was to its arm as the other arm to its +weight; that is—when the numerical relation between one weight and +its arm was <i>equal</i> to the numerical relation between the other arm and +its weight.</p> + +<p>The first advance made in hydrostatics, which we also owe to +Archimedes, was the discovery that fluids press <i>equally</i> in all +directions; and from this followed the solution of the problem of +floating bodies: namely, that they are in equilibrium when the upward +and downward pressures are <i>equal</i>.</p> + +<p>In optics, again, the Greeks found that the angle of incidence is +<i>equal</i> to the angle of reflection; and their knowledge reached no +further than to such simple deductions from this as their geometry +sufficed for. In harmonics they ascertained the fact that three strings +of <i>equal</i> lengths would yield the octave, fifth and fourth, when +strained by weights having certain definite ratios; and they did not +progress much beyond this. In the one of which cases we see geometry +used in elucidation of the laws <a name="page_284"></a> of light; and +in the other, geometry and arithmetic made to measure the phenomena of +sound.</p> + +<p>Did space permit, it would be desirable here to describe the state of +the less advanced sciences—to point out how, while a few had thus +reached the first stages of quantitative prevision, the rest were +progressing in qualitative prevision—how some small +generalisations were made respecting evaporation, and heat, and +electricity, and magnetism, which, empirical as they were, did not in +that respect differ from the first generalisations of every +science—how the Greek physicians had made advances in physiology +and pathology, which, considering the great imperfection of our present +knowledge, are by no means to be despised—how zoology had been so +far systematised by Aristotle, as, to some extent, enabled him from the +presence of certain organs to predict the presence of others—how +in Aristotle's <i>Politics</i> there is some progress towards a scientific +conception of social phenomena, and sundry previsions respecting +them—and how in the state of the Greek societies, as well as in +the writings of Greek philosophers, we may recognise not only an +increasing clearness in that conception of equity on which the social +science is based, but also some appreciation of the fact that social +stability depends upon the maintenance of equitable regulations. We +might dwell at length upon the causes which retarded the development of +some of the sciences, as, for example, chemistry; showing that relative +complexity had nothing to do with it—that the oxidation of a piece +of iron is a simpler phenomenon than the recurrence of eclipses, and the +discovery of carbonic acid less difficult than that of the precession of +the equinoxes—but that the relatively slow advance of chemical +knowledge was due, partly to the fact that its phenomena were not daily +thrust on men's notice as those of astronomy were; partly to the fact +that Nature does not habitually supply the means, and suggest the modes +of investigation, as in the sciences dealing with time, extension, and +force; and partly to the fact that the great majority of the materials +with which chemistry deals, instead of being ready to hand, are made +known only by the arts in their slow growth; and partly to the fact that +even when known, their chemical properties are not self-exhibited, but +have to be sought out by experiment.</p> + +<p>Merely indicating all these considerations, however, let us go on to +contemplate the progress and mutual influence of the sciences in modern +days; only parenthetically noticing how, on the revival of the +scientific spirit, the successive stages achieved <a +name="page_285"></a> exhibit the dominance of the same law hitherto +traced—how the primary idea in dynamics, a uniform force, was +defined by Galileo to be a force which generates <i>equal</i> velocities in +<i>equal</i> successive times—how the uniform action of gravity was +first experimentally determined by showing that the time elapsing before +a body thrown up, stopped, was <i>equal</i> to the time it took to +fall—how the first fact in compound motion which Galileo +ascertained was, that a body projected horizontally will have a uniform +motion onwards and a uniformly accelerated motion downwards; that is, +will describe <i>equal</i> horizontal spaces in <i>equal</i> times, compounded +with <i>equal</i> vertical increments in <i>equal</i> times—how his +discovery respecting the pendulum was, that its oscillations occupy +<i>equal</i> intervals of time whatever their length—how the principle +of virtual velocities which he established is, that in any machine the +weights that balance each other are reciprocally as their virtual +velocities; that is, the relation of one set of weights to their +velocities <i>equals</i> the relation of the other set of velocities to their +weights; and how thus his achievements consisted in showing the +equalities of certain magnitudes and relations, whose equalities had not +been previously recognised.</p> + +<p>When mechanics had reached the point to which Galileo brought +it—when the simple laws of force had been disentangled from the +friction and atmospheric resistance by which all their earthly +manifestations are disguised—when progressing knowledge of +<i>physics</i> had given a due insight into these disturbing +causes—when, by an effort of abstraction, it was perceived that +all motion would be uniform and rectilinear unless interfered with by +external forces—and when the various consequences of this +perception had been worked out; then it became possible, by the union of +geometry and mechanics, to initiate physical astronomy. Geometry and +mechanics having diverged from a common root in men's sensible +experiences; having, with occasional inosculations, been separately +developed, the one partly in connection with astronomy, the other solely +by analysing terrestrial movements; now join in the investigations of +Newton to create a true theory of the celestial motions. And here, also, +we have to notice the important fact that, in the very process of being +brought jointly to bear upon astronomical problems, they are themselves +raised to a higher phase of development. For it was in dealing with the +questions raised by celestial dynamics that the then incipient +infinitesimal calculus was unfolded by Newton and his continental +successors; <a name="page_286"></a> and it was from inquiries into the +mechanics of the solar system that the general theorems of mechanics +contained in the <i>Principia</i>,—many of them of purely terrestrial +application—took their rise. Thus, as in the case of Hipparchus, +the presentation of a new order of concrete facts to be analysed, led to +the discovery of new abstract facts; and these abstract facts having +been laid hold of, gave means of access to endless groups of concrete +facts before incapable of quantitative treatment.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, physics had been carrying further that progress without +which, as just shown, rational mechanics could not be disentangled. In +hydrostatics, Stevinus had extended and applied the discovery of +Archimedes. Torricelli had proved atmospheric pressure, "by showing that +this pressure sustained different liquids at heights inversely +proportional to their densities;" and Pascal "established the necessary +diminution of this pressure at increasing heights in the atmosphere:" +discoveries which in part reduced this branch of science to a +quantitative form. Something had been done by Daniel Bernouilli towards +the dynamics of fluids. The thermometer had been invented; and a number +of small generalisations reached by it. Huyghens and Newton had made +considerable progress in optics; Newton had approximately calculated the +rate of transmission of sound; and the continental mathematicians had +succeeded in determining some of the laws of sonorous vibrations. +Magnetism and electricity had been considerably advanced by Gilbert. +Chemistry had got as far as the mutual neutralisation of acids and +alkalies. And Leonardo da Vinci had advanced in geology to the +conception of the deposition of marine strata as the origin of fossils. +Our present purpose does not require that we should give particulars. +All that it here concerns us to do is to illustrate the <i>consensus</i> +subsisting in this stage of growth, and afterwards. Let us look at a few +cases.</p> + +<p>The theoretic law of the velocity of sound enunciated by Newton on +purely mechanical considerations, was found wrong by one-sixth. The +error remained unaccounted for until the time of Laplace, who, +suspecting that the heat disengaged by the compression of the undulating +strata of the air, gave additional elasticity, and so produced the +difference, made the needful calculations and found he was right. Thus +acoustics was arrested until thermology overtook and aided it. When +Boyle and Marriot had discovered the relation between the <a +name="page_287"></a> density of gases and the pressures they are +subject to; and when it thus became possible to calculate the rate of +decreasing density in the upper parts of the atmosphere, it also became +possible to make approximate tables of the atmospheric refraction of +light. Thus optics, and with it astronomy, advanced with barology. After +the discovery of atmospheric pressure had led to the invention of the +air-pump by Otto Guericke; and after it had become known that +evaporation increases in rapidity as atmospheric pressure decreases; it +became possible for Leslie, by evaporation in a vacuum, to produce the +greatest cold known; and so to extend our knowledge of thermology by +showing that there is no zero within reach of our researches. When +Fourier had determined the laws of conduction of heat, and when the +Earth's temperature had been found to increase below the surface one +degree in every forty yards, there were data for inferring the past +condition of our globe; the vast period it has taken to cool down to its +present state; and the immense age of the solar system—a purely +astronomical consideration.</p> + +<p>Chemistry having advanced sufficiently to supply the needful +materials, and a physiological experiment having furnished the requisite +hint, there came the discovery of galvanic electricity. Galvanism +reacting on chemistry disclosed the metallic bases of the alkalies, and +inaugurated the electro-chemical theory; in the hands of Oersted and +Ampère it led to the laws of magnetic action; and by its aid Faraday has +detected significant facts relative to the constitution of light. +Brewster's discoveries respecting double refraction and dipolarisation +proved the essential truth of the classification of crystalline forms +according to the number of axes, by showing that the molecular +constitution depends upon the axes. In these and in numerous other +cases, the mutual influence of the sciences has been quite independent +of any supposed hierarchical order. Often, too, their inter-actions are +more complex than as thus instanced—involve more sciences than +two. One illustration of this must suffice. We quote it in full from the +<i>History of the Inductive Sciences</i>. In book xi., chap, ii., on "The +Progress of the Electrical Theory," Dr. Whewell writes:—</p> + +<blockquote>"Thus at that period, mathematics was behind experiment, and +a problem was proposed, in which theoretical results were wanted for +comparison with observation, but could not be accurately obtained; as +was the case in astronomy also, till the time of the approximate +solution of the problem of three bodies, and the consequent formation of +the tables of the moon and planets, on the theory of universal +gravitation. After some time, electrical theory was relieved from this +reproach, mainly in <a name="page_288"></a> consequence of the progress +which astronomy had occasioned in pure mathematics. About 1801 there +appeared in the <i>Bulletin des Sciences</i>, an exact solution of the +problem of the distribution of electric fluid on a spheroid, obtained by +Biot, by the application of the peculiar methods which Laplace had +invented for the problem of the figure of the planets. And, in 1811, M. +Poisson applied Laplace's artifices to the case of two spheres acting +upon one another in contact, a case to which many of Coulomb's +experiments were referrible; and the agreement of the results of theory +and observation, thus extricated from Coulomb's numbers obtained above +forty years previously, was very striking and convincing."</blockquote> + +<p>Not only do the sciences affect each other after this direct manner, +but they affect each other indirectly. Where there is no dependence, +there is yet analogy—<i>equality of relations</i>; and the discovery of +the relations subsisting among one set of phenomena, constantly suggests +a search for the same relations among another set. Thus the established +fact that the force of gravitation varies inversely as the square of the +distance, being recognised as a necessary characteristic of all +influences proceeding from a centre, raised the suspicion that heat and +light follow the same law; which proved to be the case—a suspicion +and a confirmation which were repeated in respect to the electric and +magnetic forces. Thus again the discovery of the polarisation of light +led to experiments which ended in the discovery of the polarisation of +heat—a discovery that could never have been made without the +antecedent one. Thus, too, the known refrangibility of light and heat +lately produced the inquiry whether sound also is not refrangible; which +on trial it turns out to be.</p> + +<p>In some cases, indeed, it is only by the aid of conceptions derived +from one class of phenomena that hypotheses respecting other classes can +be formed. The theory, at one time favoured, that evaporation is a +solution of water in air, was an assumption that the relation between +water and air is <i>like</i> the relation between salt and water; and could +never have been conceived if the relation between salt and water had not +been previously known. Similarly the received theory of +evaporation—that it is a diffusion of the particles of the +evaporating fluid in virtue of their atomic repulsion—could not +have been entertained without a foregoing experience of magnetic and +electric repulsions. So complete in recent days has become this +<i>consensus</i> among the sciences, caused either by the natural +entanglement of their phenomena, or by analogies in the relations of +their phenomena, that scarcely any considerable discovery concerning one +order of facts now takes place, without very shortly leading to +discoveries concerning other orders.</p> + +<p><a name="page_289"></a>To produce a tolerably complete conception of +this process of scientific evolution, it would be needful to go back to +the beginning, and trace in detail the growth of classifications and +nomenclatures; and to show how, as subsidiary to science, they have +acted upon it, and it has reacted upon them. We can only now remark +that, on the one hand, classifications and nomenclatures have aided +science by continually subdividing the subject-matter of research, and +giving fixity and diffusion to the truths disclosed; and that on the +other hand, they have caught from it that increasing quantitativeness, +and that progress from considerations touching single phenomena to +considerations touching the relations among many phenomena, which we +have been describing.</p> + +<p>Of this last influence a few illustrations must be given. In +chemistry it is seen in the facts, that the dividing of matter into the +four elements was ostensibly based upon the single property of weight; +that the first truly chemical division into acid and alkaline bodies, +grouped together bodies which had not simply one property in common, but +in which one property was constantly related to many others; and that +the classification now current, places together in groups <i>supporters of +combustion</i>, <i>metallic and non-metallic bases</i>, <i>acids</i>, <i>salts</i>, etc., +bodies which are often quite unlike in sensible qualities, but which are +like in the majority of their <i>relations</i> to other bodies. In mineralogy +again, the first classifications were based upon differences in aspect, +texture, and other physical attributes. Berzelius made two attempts at a +classification based solely on chemical constitution. That now current, +recognises as far as possible the <i>relations</i> between physical and +chemical characters. In botany the earliest classes formed were <i>trees</i>, +<i>shrubs</i>, and <i>herbs</i>: magnitude being the basis of distinction. +Dioscorides divided vegetables into <i>aromatic</i>, <i>alimentary</i>, +<i>medicinal</i>, and <i>vinous</i>: a division of chemical character. Cæsalpinus +classified them by the seeds, and seed-vessels, which he preferred +because of the <i>relations</i> found to subsist between the character of the +fructification and the general character of the other parts.</p> + +<p>While the "natural system" since developed, carrying out the doctrine +of Linnæus, that "natural orders must be formed by attention not to one +or two, but to <i>all</i> the parts of plants," bases its divisions on like +peculiarities which are found to be <i>constantly related</i> to the greatest +number of other like peculiarities. And similarly in zoology, the +successive classifications, from having been originally determined by +external and often <a name="page_290"></a> subordinate characters not +indicative of the essential nature, have been gradually more and more +determined by those internal and fundamental differences, which have +uniform <i>relations</i> to the greatest number of other differences. Nor +shall we be surprised at this analogy between the modes of progress of +positive science and classification, when we bear in mind that both +proceed by making generalisations; that both enable us to make +previsions differing only in their precision; and that while the one +deals with equal properties and relations, the other deals with +properties and relations that approximate towards equality in variable +degrees.</p> + +<p>Without further argument, it will, we think, be sufficiently clear +that the sciences are none of them separately evolved—are none of +them independent either logically or historically; but that all of them +have, in a greater or less degree, required aid and reciprocated it. +Indeed, it needs but to throw aside these, and contemplate the mixed +character of surrounding phenomena, to at once see that these notions of +division and succession in the kinds of knowledge are none of them +actually true, but are simple scientific fictions: good, if regarded +merely as aids to study; bad, if regarded as representing realities in +Nature. Consider them critically, and no facts whatever are presented to +our senses uncombined with other facts—no facts whatever but are +in some degree disguised by accompanying facts: disguised in such a +manner that all must be partially understood before any one can be +understood. If it be said, as by M. Comte, that gravitating force should +be treated of before other forces, seeing that all things are subject to +it, it may on like grounds be said that heat should be first dealt with; +seeing that thermal forces are everywhere in action; that the ability of +any portion of matter to manifest visible gravitative phenomena depends +on its state of aggregation, which is determined by heat; that only by +the aid of thermology can we explain those apparent exceptions to the +gravitating tendency which are presented by steam and smoke, and so +establish its universality, and that, indeed, the very existence of the +solar system in a solid form is just as much a question of heat as it is +one of gravitation.</p> + +<p>Take other cases:—All phenomena recognised by the eyes, through +which only are the data of exact science ascertainable, are complicated +with optical phenomena; and cannot be exhaustively known until optical +principles are known. The burning of a candle cannot be explained +without involving chemistry, mechanics, thermology. Every wind that +blows is determined <a name="page_291"></a> by influences partly solar, +partly lunar, partly hygrometric; and implies considerations of fluid +equilibrium and physical geography. The direction, dip, and variations +of the magnetic needle, are facts half terrestrial, half +celestial—are caused by earthly forces which have cycles of change +corresponding with astronomical periods. The flowing of the gulf-stream +and the annual migration of icebergs towards the equator, depending as +they do on the balancing of the centripetal and centrifugal forces +acting on the ocean, involve in their explanation the Earth's rotation +and spheroidal form, the laws of hydrostatics, the relative densities of +cold and warm water, and the doctrines of evaporation. It is no doubt +true, as M. Comte says, that "our position in the solar system, and the +motions, form, size, equilibrium of the mass of our world among the +planets, must be known before we can understand the phenomena going on +at its surface." But, fatally for his hypothesis, it is also true that +we must understand a great part of the phenomena going on at its surface +before we can know its position, etc., in the solar system. It is not +simply that, as we have already shown, those geometrical and mechanical +principles by which celestial appearances are explained, were first +generalised from terrestrial experiences; but it is that the very +obtainment of correct data, on which to base astronomical +generalisations, implies advanced terrestrial physics.</p> + +<p>Until after optics had made considerable advance, the Copernican +system remained but a speculation. A single modern observation on a star +has to undergo a careful analysis by the combined aid of various +sciences—has to <i>be digested by the organism of the sciences</i>; +which have severally to assimilate their respective parts of the +observation, before the essential fact it contains is available for the +further development of astronomy. It has to be corrected not only for +nutation of the earth's axis and for precession of the equinoxes, but +for aberration and for refraction; and the formation of the tables by +which refraction is calculated, presupposes knowledge of the law of +decreasing density in the upper atmospheric strata; of the law of +decreasing temperature, and the influence of this on the density; and of +hygrometric laws as also affecting density. So that, to get materials +for further advance, astronomy requires not only the indirect aid of the +sciences which have presided over the making of its improved +instruments, but the direct aid of an advanced optics, of barology, of +thermology, of hygrometry; and if we remember that these delicate +observations <a name="page_292"></a> are in some cases registered +electrically, and that they are further corrected for the "personal +equation"—the time elapsing between seeing and registering, which +varies with different observers—we may even add electricity and +psychology. If, then, so apparently simple a thing as ascertaining the +position of a star is complicated with so many phenomena, it is clear +that this notion of the independence of the sciences, or certain of +them, will not hold.</p> + +<p>Whether objectively independent or not, they cannot be subjectively +so—they cannot have independence as presented to our +consciousness; and this is the only kind of independence with which we +are concerned. And here, before leaving these illustrations, and +especially this last one, let us not omit to notice how clearly they +exhibit that increasingly active <i>consensus</i> of the sciences which +characterises their advancing development. Besides finding that in these +later times a discovery in one science commonly causes progress in +others; besides finding that a great part of the questions with which +modern science deals are so mixed as to require the co-operation of many +sciences for their solution; we find in this last case that, to make a +single good observation in the purest of the natural sciences, requires +the combined assistance of half a dozen other sciences.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the clearest comprehension of the interconnected growth of +the sciences may be obtained by contemplating that of the arts, to which +it is strictly analogous, and with which it is inseparably bound up. +Most intelligent persons must have been, at one time or other, struck +with the vast array of antecedents pre-supposed by one of our processes +of manufacture. Let him trace the production of a printed cotton, and +consider all that is implied by it. There are the many successive +improvements through which the power-looms reached their present +perfection; there is the steam-engine that drives them, having its long +history from Papin downwards; there are the lathes in which its cylinder +was bored, and the string of ancestral lathes from which those lathes +proceeded; there is the steam-hammer under which its crank shaft was +welded; there are the puddling-furnaces, the blast-furnaces, the +coal-mines and the iron-mines needful for producing the raw material; +there are the slowly improved appliances by which the factory was built, +and lighted, and ventilated; there are the printing engine, and the die +house, and the colour laboratory with its stock of materials from all +parts of the world, implying cochineal-culture, <a name="page_293"></a> +logwood-cutting, indigo-growing; there are the implements used by the +producers of cotton, the gins by which it is cleaned, the elaborate +machines by which it is spun: there are the vessels in which cotton is +imported, with the building-slips, the rope-yards, the sail-cloth +factories, the anchor-forges, needful for making them; and besides all +these directly necessary antecedents, each of them involving many +others, there are the institutions which have developed the requisite +intelligence, the printing and publishing arrangements which have spread +the necessary information, the social organisation which has rendered +possible such a complex co-operation of agencies.</p> + +<p>Further analysis would show that the many arts thus concerned in the +economical production of a child's frock, have each of them been brought +to its present efficiency by slow steps which the other arts have aided; +and that from the beginning this reciprocity has been ever on the +increase. It needs but on the one hand to consider how utterly +impossible it is for the savage, even with ore and coal ready, to +produce so simple a thing as an iron hatchet; and then to consider, on +the other hand, that it would have been impracticable among ourselves, +even a century ago, to raise the tubes of the Britannia bridge from lack +of the hydraulic press; to at once see how mutually dependent are the +arts, and how all must advance that each may advance. Well, the sciences +are involved with each other in just the same manner. They are, in fact, +inextricably woven into the same complex web of the arts; and are only +conventionally independent of it. Originally the two were one. How to +fix the religious festivals; when to sow: how to weigh commodities; and +in what manner to measure ground; were the purely practical questions +out of which arose astronomy, mechanics, geometry. Since then there has +been a perpetual inosculation of the sciences and the arts. Science has +been supplying art with truer generalisations and more completely +quantitative previsions. Art has been supplying science with better +materials and more perfect instruments. And all along the +interdependence has been growing closer, not only between art and +science, but among the arts themselves, and among the sciences +themselves.</p> + +<p>How completely the analogy holds throughout, becomes yet clearer when +we recognise the fact that <i>the sciences are arts to each other</i>. If, as +occurs in almost every case, the fact to be analysed by any science, has +first to be prepared—to be disentangled from disturbing facts by +the afore discovered methods <a name="page_294"></a> of other sciences; +the other sciences so used, stand in the position of arts. If, in +solving a dynamical problem, a parallelogram is drawn, of which the +sides and diagonal represent forces, and by putting magnitudes of +extension for magnitudes of force a measurable relation is established +between quantities not else to be dealt with; it may be fairly said that +geometry plays towards mechanics much the same part that the fire of the +founder plays towards the metal he is going to cast. If, in analysing +the phenomena of the coloured rings surrounding the point of contact +between two lenses, a Newton ascertains by calculation the amount of +certain interposed spaces, far too minute for actual measurement; he +employs the science of number for essentially the same purpose as that +for which the watchmaker employs tools. If, before writing down his +observation on a star, the astronomer has to separate from it all the +errors resulting from atmospheric and optical laws, it is manifest that +the refraction-tables, and logarithm-books, and formulæ, which he +successively uses, serve him much as retorts, and filters, and cupels +serve the assayer who wishes to separate the pure gold from all +accompanying ingredients.</p> + +<p>So close, indeed, is the relationship, that it is impossible to say +where science begins and art ends. All the instruments of the natural +philosopher are the products of art; the adjusting one of them for use +is an art; there is art in making an observation with one of them; it +requires art properly to treat the facts ascertained; nay, even the +employing established generalisations to open the way to new +generalisations, may be considered as art. In each of these cases +previously organised knowledge becomes the implement by which new +knowledge is got at: and whether that previously organised knowledge is +embodied in a tangible apparatus or in a formula, matters not in so far +as its essential relation to the new knowledge is concerned. If, as no +one will deny, art is applied knowledge, then such portion of a +scientific investigation as consists of applied knowledge is art. So +that we may even say that as soon as any prevision in science passes out +of its originally passive state, and is employed for reaching other +previsions, it passes from theory into practice—becomes science in +action—becomes art. And when we thus see how purely conventional +is the ordinary distinction, how impossible it is to make any real +separation—when we see not only that science and art were +originally one; that the arts have perpetually assisted each other; that +there has been a constant reciprocation of aid between the sciences and +arts; <a name="page_295"></a> but that the sciences act as arts to each +other, and that the established part of each science becomes an art to +the growing part—when we recognise the closeness of these +associations, we shall the more clearly perceive that as the connection +of the arts with each other has been ever becoming more intimate; as the +help given by sciences to arts and by arts to sciences, has been age by +age increasing; so the interdependence of the sciences themselves has +been ever growing greater, their mutual relations more involved, their +<i>consensus</i> more active.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>In here ending our sketch of the Genesis of Science, we are conscious +of having done the subject but scant justice. Two difficulties have +stood in our way: one, the having to touch on so many points in such +small space; the other, the necessity of treating in serial arrangement +a process which is not serial—a difficulty which must ever attend +all attempts to delineate processes of development, whatever their +special nature. Add to which, that to present in anything like +completeness and proportion, even the outlines of so vast and complex a +history, demands years of study. Nevertheless, we believe that the +evidence which has been assigned suffices to substantiate the leading +propositions with which we set out. Inquiry into the first stages of +science confirms the conclusion which we drew from the analysis of +science as now existing, that it is not distinct from common knowledge, +but an outgrowth from it—an extension of the perception by means +of the reason.</p> + +<p>That which we further found by analysis to form the more specific +characteristic of scientific previsions, as contrasted with the +previsions of uncultured intelligence—their +quantitativeness—we also see to have been the characteristic alike +in the initial steps in science, and of all the steps succeeding them. +The facts and admissions cited in disproof of the assertion that the +sciences follow one another, both logically and historically, in the +order of their decreasing generality, have been enforced by the sundry +instances we have met with, in which the more general or abstract +sciences have been advanced only at the instigation of the more special +or concrete—instances serving to show that a more general science +as much owes its progress to the presentation of new problems by a more +special science, as the more special science owes its progress to the +solutions which the more general science is thus led to +attempt—instances therefore illustrating the position that +scientific advance is as much from the special to the general as from +the general to the special.</p> + +<p><a name="page_296"></a>Quite in harmony with this position we find to +be the admissions that the sciences are as branches of one trunk, and +that they were at first cultivated simultaneously; and this harmony +becomes the more marked on finding, as we have done, not only that the +sciences have a common root, but that science in general has a common +root with language, classification, reasoning, art; that throughout +civilisation these have advanced together, acting and reacting upon each +other just as the separate sciences have done; and that thus the +development of intelligence in all its divisions and subdivisions has +conformed to this same law which we have shown that the sciences conform +to. From all which we may perceive that the sciences can with no greater +propriety be arranged in a succession, than language, classification, +reasoning, art, and science, can be arranged in a succession; that, +however needful a succession may be for the convenience of books and +catalogues, it must be recognised merely as a convention; and that so +far from its being the function of a philosophy of the sciences to +establish a hierarchy, it is its function to show that the linear +arrangements required for literary purposes, have none of them any basis +either in Nature or History.</p> + +<p>There is one further remark we must not omit—a remark touching +the importance of the question that has been discussed. Unfortunately it +commonly happens that topics of this abstract nature are slighted as of +no practical moment; and, we doubt not, that many will think it of very +little consequence what theory respecting the genesis of science may be +entertained. But the value of truths is often great, in proportion as +their generality is wide. Remote as they seem from practical +application, the highest generalisations are not unfrequently the most +potent in their effects, in virtue of their influence on all those +subordinate generalisations which regulate practice. And it must be so +here. Whenever established, a correct theory of the historical +development of the sciences must have an immense effect upon education; +and, through education, upon civilisation. Greatly as we differ from him +in other respects, we agree with M. Comte in the belief that, rightly +conducted, the education of the individual must have a certain +correspondence with the evolution of the race.</p> + +<p>No one can contemplate the facts we have cited in illustration of the +early stages of science, without recognising the <i>necessity</i> of the +processes through which those stages were reached—a necessity +which, in respect to the leading truths, may likewise <a +name="page_297"></a> be traced in all after stages. This necessity, +originating in the very nature of the phenomena to be analysed and the +faculties to be employed, more or less fully applies to the mind of the +child as to that of the savage. We say more or less fully, because the +correspondence is not special but general only. Were the <i>environment</i> +the same in both cases, the correspondence would be complete. But though +the surrounding material out of which science is to be organised, is, in +many cases, the same to the juvenile mind and the aboriginal mind, it is +not so throughout; as, for instance, in the case of chemistry, the +phenomena of which are accessible to the one, but were inaccessible to +the other. Hence, in proportion as the environment differs, the course +of evolution must differ. After admitting sundry exceptions, however, +there remains a substantial parallelism; and, if so, it becomes of great +moment to ascertain what really has been the process of scientific +evolution. The establishment of an erroneous theory must be disastrous +in its educational results; while the establishments of a true one must +eventually be fertile in school-reforms and consequent social +benefits.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_239_note_1"></a><a href="#page_239">Footnote 1</a>: +<i>British Quarterly Review</i>, July 1854.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_249_note_2"></a><a href="#page_249">Footnote 2</a>: +It is somewhat curious that the author of <i>The Plurality of Worlds</i>, +with quite other aims, should have persuaded himself into similar +conclusions.</small></p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_298"></a>ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAUGHTER<a +href="#page_298_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2></center> + + +<p>Why do we smile when a child puts on a man's hat? or what induces us +to laugh on reading that the corpulent Gibbon was unable to rise from +his knees after making a tender declaration? The usual reply to such +questions is, that laughter results from a perception of incongruity. +Even were there not on this reply the obvious criticism that laughter +often occurs from extreme pleasure or from mere vivacity, there would +still remain the real problem—How comes a sense of the incongruous +to be followed by these peculiar bodily actions? Some have alleged that +laughter is due to the pleasure of a relative self-elevation, which we +feel on seeing the humiliation of others. But this theory, whatever +portion of truth it may contain, is, in the first place, open to the +fatal objection, that there are various humiliations to others which +produce in us anything but laughter; and, in the second place, it does +not apply to the many instances in which no one's dignity is implicated: +as when we laugh at a good pun. Moreover, like the other, it is merely a +generalisation of certain conditions to laughter; and not an explanation +of the odd movements which occur under these conditions. Why, when +greatly delighted, or impressed with certain unexpected contrasts of +ideas, should there be a contraction of particular facial muscles, and +particular muscles of the chest and abdomen? Such answer to this +question as may be possible can be rendered only by physiology.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Every child has made the attempt to hold the foot still while it is +tickled, and has failed; and probably there is scarcely any one who has +not vainly tried to avoid winking, when a hand has been suddenly passed +before the eyes. These examples of muscular movements which occur +independently of the will, or in spite of it, illustrate what +physiologists call reflex-action; as likewise do sneezing and coughing. +To this class of cases, in which involuntary motions are accompanied by +sensations, has to be added another class of cases, in which involuntary +motions are unaccompanied by sensations:—instance the pulsations +of the heart; the contractions of the stomach during digestion. Further, +the great mass of seemingly-voluntary acts in such creatures as insects, +worms, molluscs, are considered by physiologists <a +name="page_299"></a> to be as purely automatic as is the dilatation or +closure of the iris under variations in quantity of light; and similarly +exemplify the law, that an impression on the end of an afferent nerve is +conveyed to some ganglionic centre, and is thence usually reflected +along an efferent nerve to one or more muscles which it causes to +contract.</p> + +<p>In a modified form this principle holds with voluntary acts. Nervous +excitation always <i>tends</i> to beget muscular motion; and when it rises to +a certain intensity, always does beget it. Not only in reflex actions, +whether with or without sensation, do we see that special nerves, when +raised to a state of tension, discharge themselves on special muscles +with which they are indirectly connected; but those external actions +through which we read the feelings of others, show us that under any +considerable tension, the nervous system in general discharges itself on +the muscular system in general: either with or without the guidance of +the will. The shivering produced by cold, implies irregular muscular +contractions, which, though at first only partly involuntary, become, +when the cold is extreme, almost wholly involuntary. When you have +severely burnt your finger, it is very difficult to preserve a dignified +composure: contortion of face, or movement of limb, is pretty sure to +follow. If a man receives good news with neither change of feature nor +bodily motion, it is inferred that he is not much pleased, or that he +has extraordinary self-control—either inference implying that joy +almost universally produces contraction of the muscles; and so, alters +the expression, or attitude, or both. And when we hear of the feats of +strength which men have performed when their lives were at +stake—when we read how, in the energy of despair, even paralytic +patients have regained for a time the use of their limbs, we see still +more clearly the relations between nervous and muscular excitements. It +becomes manifest both that emotions and sensations tend to generate +bodily movements and that the movements are vehement in proportion as +the emotions or sensations are intense.<a +href="#page_299_note_2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + +<p>This, however, is not the sole direction in which nervous excitement +expends itself. Viscera as well as muscles may receive the discharge. +That the heart and blood-vessels (which, indeed, being all contractile, +may in a restricted sense be classed with the muscular system) are +quickly affected by pleasures and pains, we have daily proved to us. +Every sensation of any <a name="page_300"></a> acuteness accelerates +the pulse; and how sensitive the heart is to emotions, is testified by +the familiar expressions which use heart and feeling as convertible +terms. Similarly with the digestive organs. Without detailing the +various ways in which these may be influenced by our mental states, it +suffices to mention the marked benefits derived by dyspeptics, as well +as other invalids, from cheerful society, welcome news, change of scene, +to show how pleasurable feeling stimulates the viscera in general into +greater activity.</p> + +<p>There is still another direction in which any excited portion of the +nervous system may discharge itself; and a direction in which it usually +does discharge itself when the excitement is not strong. It may pass on +the stimulus to some other portion of the nervous system. This is what +occurs in quiet thinking and feeling. The successive states which +constitute consciousness, result from this. Sensations excite ideas and +emotions; these in their turns arouse other ideas and emotions; and so, +continuously. That is to say, the tension existing in particular nerves, +or groups of nerves, when they yield us certain sensations, ideas, or +emotions, generates an equivalent tension in some other nerves, or +groups of nerves, with which there is a connection: the flow of energy +passing on, the one idea or feeling dies in producing the next.</p> + +<p>Thus, then, while we are totally unable to comprehend how the +excitement of certain nerves should generate feeling—while, in the +production of consciousness by physical agents acting on physical +structure, we come to an absolute mystery never to be solved; it is yet +quite possible for us to know by observation what are the successive +forms which this absolute mystery may take. We see that there are three +channels along which nerves in a state of tension may discharge +themselves; or rather, I should say, three classes of channels. They may +pass on the excitement to other nerves that have no direct connections +with the bodily members, and may so cause other feelings and ideas; or +they may pass on the excitement to one or more motor nerves, and so +cause muscular contractions; or they may pass on the excitement to +nerves which supply the viscera, and may so stimulate one or more of +these.</p> + +<p>For simplicity's sake, I have described these as alternative routes, +one or other of which any current of nerve-force must take; thereby, as +it may be thought, implying that such current will be exclusively +confined to some one of them. But this is by no means the case. Rarely, +if ever, does it happen that a <a name="page_301"></a> state of nervous +tension, present to consciousness as a feeling, expends itself in one +direction only. Very generally it may be observed to expend itself in +two; and it is probable that the discharge is never absolutely absent +from any one of the three. There is, however, variety in the +<i>proportions</i> in which the discharge is divided among these different +channels under different circumstances. In a man whose fear impels him +to run, the mental tension generated is only in part transformed into a +muscular stimulus: there is a surplus which causes a rapid current of +ideas. An agreeable state of feeling produced, say by praise, is not +wholly used up in arousing the succeeding phase of the feeling, and the +new ideas appropriate to it; but a certain portion overflows into the +visceral nervous system, increasing the action of the heart, and +probably facilitating digestion. And here we come upon a class of +considerations and facts which open the way to a solution of our special +problem.</p> + +<p>For starting with the unquestionable truth, that at any moment the +existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an inscrutable way +produces in us the state we call feeling, <i>must</i> expend itself in some +direction—<i>must</i> generate an equivalent manifestation of force +somewhere—it clearly follows that, if of the several channels it +may take, one is wholly or partially closed, more must be taken by the +others; or that if two are closed, the discharge along the remaining one +must be more intense; and that, conversely, should anything determine an +unusual efflux in one direction, there will be a diminished efflux in +other directions.</p> + +<p>Daily experience illustrates these conclusions. It is commonly +remarked, that the suppression of external signs of feeling, makes +feeling more intense. The deepest grief is silent grief. Why? Because +the nervous excitement not discharged in muscular action, discharges +itself in other nervous excitements—arouses more numerous and more +remote associations of melancholy ideas, and so increases the mass of +feelings. People who conceal their anger are habitually found to be more +revengeful than those who explode in loud speech and vehement action. +Why? Because, as before, the emotion is reflected back, accumulates, and +intensifies. Similarly, men who, as proved by their powers of +representation, have the keenest appreciation of the comic, are usually +able to do and say the most ludicrous things with perfect gravity.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, all are familiar with the truth that bodily +activity deadens emotion. Under great irritation we get relief <a +name="page_302"></a> by walking about rapidly. Extreme effort in the +bootless attempt to achieve a desired end greatly diminishes the +intensity of the desire. Those who are forced to exert themselves after +misfortunes, do not suffer nearly so much as those who remain quiescent. +If any one wishes to check intellectual excitement, he cannot choose a +more efficient method than running till he is exhausted. Moreover, these +cases, in which the production of feeling and thought is hindered by +determining the nervous energy towards bodily movements, have their +counterparts in the cases in which bodily movements are hindered by +extra absorption of nervous energy in sudden thoughts and feelings. If, +when walking along, there flashes on you an idea that creates great +surprise, hope, or alarm, you stop; or if sitting cross-legged, swinging +your pendent foot, the movement is at once arrested. From the viscera, +too, intense mental action abstracts energy. Joy, disappointment, +anxiety, or any moral perturbation rising to a great height, will +destroy appetite; or if food has been taken, will arrest digestion; and +even a purely intellectual activity, when extreme, will do the like.</p> + +<p>Facts, then, fully bear out these <i>à priori</i> inferences, that the +nervous excitement at any moment present to consciousness as feeling, +must expend itself in some way or other; that of the three classes of +channels open to it, it must take one, two, or more, according to +circumstances; that the closure or obstruction of one, must increase the +discharge through the others; and conversely, that if to answer some +demand, the efflux of nervous energy in one direction is unusually +great, there must be a corresponding decrease of the efflux in other +directions. Setting out from these premises, let us now see what +interpretation is to be put on the phenomena of laughter.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>That laughter is a display of muscular excitement, and so illustrates +the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch habitually vents +itself in bodily action, scarcely needs pointing out. It perhaps needs +pointing out, however, that strong feeling of almost any kind produces +this result. It is not a sense of the ludicrous, only, which does it; +nor are the various forms of joyous emotion the sole additional causes. +We have, besides, the sardonic laughter and the hysterical laughter, +which result from mental distress; to which must be added certain +sensations, as tickling, and, according to Mr. Bain, cold, and some +kinds of acute pain.</p> + +<p>Strong feeling, mental or physical, being, then, the general <a +name="page_303"></a> cause of laughter, we have to note that the +muscular actions constituting it are distinguished from most others by +this, that they are purposeless. In general, bodily motions that are +prompted by feelings are directed to special ends; as when we try to +escape a danger, or struggle to secure a gratification. But the +movements of chest and limbs which we make when laughing have no object. +And now remark that these quasi-convulsive contractions of the muscles, +having no object, but being results of an uncontrolled discharge of +energy, we may see whence arise their special characters—how it +happens that certain classes of muscles are affected first, and then +certain other classes. For an overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any +motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if +these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones. +Well, it is through the organs of speech that feeling passes into +movement with the greatest frequency. The jaws, tongue, and lips are +used not only to express strong irritation or gratification; but that +very moderate flow of mental energy which accompanies ordinary +conversation, finds its chief vent through this channel. Hence it +happens that certain muscles round the mouth, small and easy to move, +are the first to contract under pleasurable emotion. The class of +muscles which, next after those of articulation, are most constantly set +in action (or extra action, we should say) by feelings of all kinds, are +those of respiration. Under pleasurable or painful sensations we breathe +more rapidly: possibly as a consequence of the increased demand for +oxygenated blood. The sensations that accompany exertion also bring on +hard-breathing; which here more evidently responds to the physiological +needs. And emotions, too, agreeable and disagreeable, both, at first, +excite respiration; though the last subsequently depress it. That is to +say, of the bodily muscles, the respiratory are more constantly +implicated than any others in those various acts which our feelings +impel us to; and, hence, when there occurs an undirected discharge of +nervous energy into the muscular system, it happens that, if the +quantity be considerable, it convulses not only certain of the +articulatory and vocal muscles, but also those which expel air from the +lungs.</p> + +<p>Should the feeling to be expended be still greater in +amount—too great to find vent in these classes of +muscles—another class comes into play. The upper limbs are set in +motion. Children frequently clap their hands in glee; by some adults the +hands are rubbed together; and others, under still greater <a +name="page_304"></a> intensity of delight, slap their knees and sway +their bodies backwards and forwards. Last of all, when the other +channels for the escape of the surplus nerve-force have been filled to +overflowing, a yet further and less-used group of muscles is +spasmodically affected: the head is thrown back and the spine bent +inwards—there is a slight degree of what medical men call +opisthotonos. Thus, then, without contending that the phenomena of +laughter in all their details are to be so accounted for, we see that in +their <i>ensemble</i> they conform to these general principles:—that +feeling excites to muscular action; that when the muscular action is +unguided by a purpose, the muscles first affected are those which +feeling most habitually stimulates; and that as the feeling to be +expended increases in quantity, it excites an increasing number of +muscles, in a succession determined by the relative frequency with which +they respond to the regulated dictates of feeling.</p> + +<p>There still, however, remains the question with which we set out. The +explanation here given applies only to the laughter produced by acute +pleasure or pain: it does not apply to the laughter that follows certain +perceptions of incongruity. It is an insufficient explanation that, in +these cases, laughter is a result of the pleasure we take in escaping +from the restraint of grave feelings. That this is a part-cause is true. +Doubtless very often, as Mr. Bain says, "it is the coerced form of +seriousness and solemnity without the reality that gives us that stiff +position from which a contact with triviality or vulgarity relieves us, +to our uproarious delight." And in so far as mirth is caused by the gush +of agreeable feeling that follows the cessation of mental strain, it +further illustrates the general principle above set forth. But no +explanation is thus afforded of the mirth which ensues when the short +silence between the <i>andante</i> and <i>allegro</i> in one of Beethoven's +symphonies, is broken by a loud sneeze. In this, and hosts of like +cases, the mental tension is not coerced but spontaneous—not +disagreeable but agreeable; and the coming impressions to which the +attention is directed, promise a gratification that few, if any, desire +to escape. Hence, when the unlucky sneeze occurs, it cannot be that the +laughter of the audience is due simply to the release from an irksome +attitude of mind: some other cause must be sought.</p> + +<p>This cause we shall arrive at by carrying our analysis a step +further. We have but to consider the quantity of feeling that exists +under such circumstances, and then to ask what are the conditions that +determine the direction of its discharge, to at once <a +name="page_305"></a> reach a solution. Take a case. You are sitting in +a theatre, absorbed in the progress of an interesting drama. Some climax +has been reached which has aroused your sympathies—say, a +reconciliation between the hero and heroine, after long and painful +misunderstanding. The feelings excited by this scene are not of a kind +from which you seek relief; but are, on the contrary, a grateful relief +from the painful feelings with which you have witnessed the previous +estrangement. Moreover, the sentiments these fictitious personages have +for the moment inspired you with, are not such as would lead you to +rejoice in any indignity offered to them; but rather, such as would make +you resent the indignity. And now, while you are contemplating the +reconciliation with a pleasurable sympathy, there appears from behind +the scenes a tame kid, which, having stared round at the audience, walks +up to the lovers and sniffs at them. You cannot help joining in the roar +which greets this <i>contretemps</i>. Inexplicable as is this irresistible +burst on the hypothesis of a pleasure in escaping from mental restraint; +or on the hypothesis of a pleasure from relative increase of +self-importance, when witnessing the humiliation of others; it is +readily explicable if we consider what, in such a case, must become of +the feeling that existed at the moment the incongruity arose. A large +mass of emotion had been produced; or, to speak in physiological +language, a large portion of the nervous system was in a state of +tension. There was also great expectation with respect to the further +evolution of the scene—a quantity of vague, nascent thought and +emotion, into which the existing quantity of thought and emotion was +about to pass.</p> + +<p>Had there been no interruption, the body of new ideas and feelings +next excited would have sufficed to absorb the whole of the liberated +nervous energy. But now, this large amount of nervous energy, instead of +being allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the +new thoughts and emotions which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its +flow. The channels along which the discharge was about to take place are +closed. The new channel opened—that afforded by the appearance and +proceedings of the kid—is a small one; the ideas and feelings +suggested are not numerous and massive enough to carry off the nervous +energy to be expended. The excess must therefore discharge itself in +some other direction; and in the way already explained, there results an +efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of the muscles, +producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter.</p> + +<p><a name="page_306"></a>This explanation is in harmony with the fact, +that when, among several persons who witness the same ludicrous +occurrence, there are some who do not laugh; it is because there has +arisen in them an emotion not participated in by the rest, and which is +sufficiently massive to absorb all the nascent excitement. Among the +spectators of an awkward tumble, those who preserve their gravity are +those in whom there is excited a degree of sympathy with the sufferer, +sufficiently great to serve as an outlet for the feeling which the +occurrence had turned out of its previous course. Sometimes anger +carries off the arrested current; and so prevents laughter. An instance +of this was lately furnished me by a friend who had been witnessing the +feats at Franconi's. A tremendous leap had just been made by an acrobat +over a number of horses. The clown, seemingly envious of this success, +made ostentatious preparations for doing the like; and then, taking the +preliminary run with immense energy, stopped short on reaching the first +horse, and pretended to wipe some dust from its haunches. In the +majority of the spectators, merriment was excited; but in my friend, +wound up by the expectation of the coming leap to a state of great +nervous tension, the effect of the baulk was to produce indignation. +Experience thus proves what the theory implies: namely, that the +discharge of arrested feelings into the muscular system, takes place +only in the absence of other adequate channels—does not take place +if there arise other feelings equal in amount to those arrested.</p> + +<p>Evidence still more conclusive is at hand. If we contrast the +incongruities which produce laughter with those which do not, we at once +see that in the non-ludicrous ones the unexpected state of feeling +aroused, though wholly different in kind, is not less in quantity or +intensity. Among incongruities that may excite anything but a laugh, Mr. +Bain instances—"A decrepit man under a heavy burden, five loaves +and two fishes among a multitude, and all unfitness and gross +disproportion; an instrument out of tune, a fly in ointment, snow in +May, Archimedes studying geometry in a siege, and all discordant things; +a wolf in sheep's clothing, a breach of bargain, and falsehood in +general; the multitude taking the law in their own hands, and everything +of the nature of disorder; a corpse at a feast, parental cruelty, filial +ingratitude, and whatever is unnatural; the entire catalogue of the +vanities given by Solomon, are all incongruous, but they cause feelings +of pain, anger, sadness, loathing, rather than mirth." Now in these +cases, where the totally unlike state of consciousness suddenly produced +is not inferior in mass to the <a name="page_307"></a> preceding one, +the conditions to laughter are not fulfilled. As above shown, laughter +naturally results only when consciousness is unawares transferred from +great things to small—only when there is what we call a +<i>descending</i> incongruity.</p> + +<p>And now observe, finally, the fact, alike inferable <i>à priori</i> and +illustrated in experience, that an <i>ascending</i> incongruity not only +fails to cause laughter, but works on the muscular system an effect of +exactly the reverse kind. When after something very insignificant there +arises without anticipation something very great, the emotion we call +wonder results; and this emotion is accompanied not by an excitement of +the muscles, but by a relaxation of them. In children and country +people, that falling of the jaw which occurs on witnessing something +that is imposing and unexpected exemplifies this effect. Persons who +have been wonder-struck at the production of very striking results by a +seemingly inadequate cause, are frequently described as unconsciously +dropping the things they held in their hands. Such are just the effects +to be anticipated. After an average state of consciousness, absorbing +but a small quantity of nervous energy, is aroused without the slightest +notice, a strong emotion of awe, terror, or admiration, joined with the +astonishment due to an apparent want of adequate causation. This new +state of consciousness demands far more nervous energy than that which +it has suddenly replaced; and this increased absorption of nervous +energy in mental changes involves a temporary diminution of the outflow +in other directions: whence the pendent jaw and the relaxing grasp.</p> + +<p>One further observation is worth making. Among the several sets of +channels into which surplus feeling might be discharged, was named the +nervous system of the viscera. The sudden overflow of an arrested mental +excitement, which, as we have seen, results from a descending +incongruity, must doubtless stimulate not only the muscular system, as +we see it does, but also the internal organs; the heart and stomach must +come in for a share of the discharge. And thus there seems to be a good +physiological basis for the popular notion that mirth-creating +excitement facilitates digestion.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Though in doing so I go beyond the boundaries of the immediate topic, +I may fitly point out that the method of inquiry here followed, is one +which enables us to understand various phenomena besides those of +laughter. To show the importance of <a name="page_308"></a> pursuing +it, I will indicate the explanation it furnishes of another familiar +class of facts.</p> + +<p>All know how generally a large amount of emotion disturbs the action +of the intellect, and interferes with the power of expression. A speech +delivered with great facility to tables and chairs, is by no means so +easily delivered to an audience. Every schoolboy can testify that his +trepidation, when standing before a master, has often disabled him from +repeating a lesson which he had duly learnt. In explanation of this we +commonly say that the attention is distracted—that the proper +train of ideas is broken by the intrusion of ideas that are irrelevant. +But the question is, in what manner does unusual emotion produce this +effect; and we are here supplied with a tolerably obvious answer. The +repetition of a lesson, or set speech previously thought out, implies +the flow of a very moderate amount of nervous excitement through a +comparatively narrow channel. The thing to be done is simply to call up +in succession certain previously-arranged ideas—a process in which +no great amount of mental energy is expended. Hence, when there is a +large quantity of emotion, which must be discharged in some direction or +other; and when, as usually happens, the restricted series of +intellectual actions to be gone through, does not suffice to carry it +off; there result discharges along other channels besides the one +prescribed: there are aroused various ideas foreign to the train of +thought to be pursued; and these tend to exclude from consciousness +those which should occupy it.</p> + +<p>And now observe the meaning of those bodily actions spontaneously set +up under these circumstances. The school-boy saying his lesson commonly +has his fingers actively engaged—perhaps in twisting about a +broken pen, or perhaps squeezing the angle of his jacket; and if told to +keep his hands still, he soon again falls into the same or a similar +trick. Many anecdotes are current of public speakers having incurable +automatic actions of this class: barristers who perpetually wound and +unwound pieces of tape; members of parliament ever putting on and taking +off their spectacles. So long as such movements are unconscious, they +facilitate the mental actions. At least this seems a fair inference from +the fact that confusion frequently results from putting a stop to them: +witness the case narrated by Sir Walter Scott of his school-fellow, who +became unable to say his lesson after the removal of the +waistcoat-button that he habitually fingered while in class. But why do +they facilitate the mental actions? Clearly because they draw off a +portion of <a name="page_309"></a> the surplus nervous excitement. If, +as above explained, the quantity of mental energy generated is greater +than can find vent along the narrow channel of thought that is open to +it; and if, in consequence, it is apt to produce confusion by rushing +into other channels of thought; then by allowing it an exit through the +motor nerves into the muscular system, the pressure is diminished, and +irrelevant ideas are less likely to intrude on consciousness.</p> + +<p>This further illustration will, I think, justify the position that +something may be achieved by pursuing in other cases this method of +psychological inquiry. A complete explanation of the phenomena, requires +us to trace out <i>all</i> the consequences of any given state of +consciousness; and we cannot do this without studying the effects, +bodily and mental, as varying in quantity at each other's expense. We +should probably learn much if we in every case asked—Where is all +the nervous energy gone?</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_298_note_1"></a><a href="#page_298">Footnote 1</a>: +<i>Macmillan's Magazine</i>, March 1860.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_299_note_2"></a><a href="#page_299">Footnote 2</a>: +For numerous illustrations see <a href="#page_310">essay on "The Origin +and Function of Music."</a></small></p> + + + + + +<center><h2><a name="page_310"></a>ON THE ORIGIN AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC<a +href="#page_310_note_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2></center> + + +<p>When Carlo, standing, chained to his kennel, sees his master in the +distance, a slight motion of the tail indicates his but faint hope that +he is about to be let out. A much more decided wagging of the tail, +passing by and by into lateral undulations of the body, follows his +master's nearer approach. When hands are laid on his collar, and he +knows that he is really to have an outing, his jumping and wriggling are +such that it is by no means easy to loose his fastenings. And when he +finds himself actually free, his joy expends itself in bounds, in +pirouettes, and in scourings hither and thither at the top of his speed. +Puss, too, by erecting her tail, and by every time raising her back to +meet the caressing hand of her mistress, similarly expresses her +gratification by certain muscular actions; as likewise do the parrot by +awkward dancing on his perch, and the canary by hopping and fluttering +about his cage with unwonted rapidity. Under emotions of an opposite +kind, animals equally display muscular excitement. The enraged lion +lashes his sides with his tail, knits his brows, protrudes his claws. +The cat sets up her back; the dog retracts his upper lip; the horse +throws back his ears. And in the struggles of creatures in pain, we see +that the like relation holds between excitement of the muscles and +excitement of the nerves of sensation.</p> + +<p>In ourselves, distinguished from lower creatures as we are by +feelings alike more powerful and more varied, parallel facts are at once +more conspicuous and more numerous. We may conveniently look at them in +groups. We shall find that pleasurable sensations and painful +sensations, pleasurable emotions and painful emotions, all tend to +produce active demonstrations in proportion to their intensity.</p> + +<p>In children, and even in adults who are not restrained by regard for +appearances, a highly agreeable taste is followed by a smacking of the +lips. An infant will laugh and bound in its nurse's arms at the sight of +a brilliant colour or the hearing of a new sound. People are apt to beat +time with head or feet to music which particularly pleases them. In a +sensitive person an <a name="page_311"></a> agreeable perfume will +produce a smile; and smiles will be seen on the faces of a crowd gazing +at some splendid burst of fireworks Even the pleasant sensation of +warmth felt on getting to the fireside out of a winter's storm, will +similarly express itself in the face.</p> + +<p>Painful sensations, being mostly far more intense than pleasurable +ones, cause muscular actions of a much more decided kind. A sudden +twinge produces a convulsive start of the whole body. A pain less +violent, but continuous, is accompanied by a knitting of the brows, a +setting of the teeth or biting of the lip, and a contraction of the +features generally. Under a persistent pain of a severer kind, other +muscular actions are added: the body is swayed to and fro; the hands +clench anything they can lay hold of; and should the agony rise still +higher, the sufferer rolls about on the floor almost convulsed.</p> + +<p>Though more varied, the natural language of the pleasurable emotions +comes within the same generalisation. A smile, which is the commonest +expression of gratified feeling, is a contraction of certain facial +muscles; and when the smile broadens into a laugh, we see a more violent +and more general muscular excitement produced by an intenser +gratification. Rubbing together of the hands, and that other motion +which Dickens somewhere describes as "washing with impalpable soap in +invisible water," have like implications. Children may often be seen to +"jump for joy." Even in adults of excitable temperament, an action +approaching to it is sometimes witnessed. And dancing has all the world +through been regarded as natural to an elevated state of mind. Many of +the special emotions show themselves in special muscular actions. The +gratification resulting from success, raises the head and gives firmness +to the gait. A hearty grasp of the hand is currently taken as indicative +of friendship. Under a gush of affection the mother clasps her child to +her breast, feeling as though she could squeeze it to death. And so in +sundry other cases. Even in that brightening of the eye with which good +news is received we may trace the same truth; for this appearance of +greater brilliancy is due to an extra contraction of the muscle which +raises the eyelid, and so allows more light to fall upon, and be +reflected from, the wet surface of the eyeball.</p> + +<p>The bodily indications of painful emotions are equally numerous, and +still more vehement. Discontent is shown by raised eyebrows and wrinkled +forehead; disgust by a curl of the lip; offence by a pout. The impatient +man beats a tattoo with his fingers on the table, swings his pendent leg +with increasing <a name="page_312"></a> rapidity, gives needless +pokings to the fire, and presently paces with hasty strides about the +room. In great grief there is wringing of the hands, and even tearing of +the hair. An angry child stamps, or rolls on its back and kicks its +heels in the air; and in manhood, anger, first showing itself in frowns, +in distended nostrils, in compressed lips, goes on to produce grinding +of the teeth, clenching of the fingers, blows of the fist on the table, +and perhaps ends in a violent attack on the offending person, or in +throwing about and breaking the furniture. From that pursing of the +mouth indicative of slight displeasure, up to the frantic struggles of +the maniac, we shall find that mental irritation tends to vent itself in +bodily activity.</p> + +<p>All feelings, then—sensations or emotions, pleasurable or +painful—have this common characteristic, that they are muscular +stimuli. Not forgetting the few apparently exceptional cases in which +emotions exceeding a certain intensity produce prostration, we may set +it down as a general law that, alike in man and animals, there is a +direct connection between feeling and motion; the last growing more +vehement as the first grows more intense. Were it allowable here to +treat the matter scientifically, we might trace this general law down to +the principle known among physiologists as that of <i>reflex action</i>.<a +href="#page_312_note_2"><sup>2</sup></a> Without doing this, however, +the above numerous instances justify the generalisation, that mental +excitement of all kinds ends in excitement of the muscles; and that the +two preserve a more or less constant ratio to each other.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>"But what has all this to do with <i>The Origin and Function of +Music</i>?" asks the reader. Very much, as we shall presently see. All +music is originally vocal. All vocal sounds are produced by the agency +of certain muscles. These muscles, in common with those of the body at +large, are excited to contraction by pleasurable and painful feelings. +And therefore it is that feelings demonstrate themselves in sounds as +well as in movements. Therefore it is that Carlo barks as well as leaps +when he is let out—that puss purrs as well as erects her +tail—that the canary chirps as well as flutters. Therefore it is +that the angry lion roars while he lashes his sides, and the dog growls +while he retracts his lip. Therefore it is that the maimed animal not +only struggles, but howls. And it is from this cause that in human +beings bodily suffering expresses itself not only in contortions, <a +name="page_313"></a> but in shrieks and groans—that in anger, and +fear, and grief, the gesticulations are accompanied by shouts and +screams—that delightful sensations are followed by +exclamations—and that we hear screams of joy and shouts of +exultation.</p> + +<p>We have here, then, a principle underlying all vocal phenomena; +including those of vocal music, and by consequence those of music in +general. The muscles that move the chest, larynx, and vocal chords, +contracting like other muscles in proportion to the intensity of the +feelings; every different contraction of these muscles involving, as it +does, a different adjustment of the vocal organs; every different +adjustment of the vocal organs causing a change in the sound +emitted;—it follows that variations of voice are the physiological +results of variations of feeling; it follows that each inflection or +modulation is the natural outcome of some passing emotion or sensation; +and it follows that the explanation of all kinds of vocal expression +must be sought in this general relation between mental and muscular +excitements. Let us, then, see whether we cannot thus account for the +chief peculiarities in the utterance of the feelings: grouping these +peculiarities under the heads of <i>loudness</i>, <i>quality</i>, <i>or</i> <i>timbre</i>, +<i>pitch</i>, <i>intervals</i>, and <i>rate of variation</i>.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Between the lungs and the organs of voice there is much the same +relation as between the bellows of an organ and its pipes. And as the +loudness of the sound given out by an organ-pipe increases with the +strength of the blast from the bellows; so, other things equal, the +loudness of a vocal sound increases with the strength of the blast from +the lungs. But the expulsion of air from the lungs is effected by +certain muscles of the chest and abdomen. The force with which these +muscles contract, is proportionate to the intensity of the feeling +experienced. Hence, <i>à priori</i>, loud sounds will be the habitual results +of strong feelings. That they are so we have daily proof. The pain +which, if moderate, can be borne silently, causes outcries if it becomes +extreme. While a slight vexation makes a child whimper, a fit of passion +calls forth a howl that disturbs the neighbourhood. When the voices in +an adjacent room become unusually audible, we infer anger, or surprise, +or joy. Loudness of applause is significant of great approbation; and +with uproarious mirth we associate the idea of high enjoyment. +Commencing with the silence of apathy, we find that the utterances grow +louder as the sensations or emotions, whether pleasurable or painful, +grow stronger.</p> + +<p><a name="page_314"></a>That different <i>qualities</i> of voice accompany +different mental states, and that under states of excitement the tones +are more sonorous than usual, is another general fact admitting of a +parallel explanation. The sounds of common conversation have but little +resonance; those of strong feeling have much more. Under rising ill +temper the voice acquires a metallic ring. In accordance with her +constant mood, the ordinary speech of a virago has a piercing quality +quite opposite to that softness indicative of placidity. A ringing laugh +marks an especially joyous temperament. Grief unburdening itself uses +tones approaching in <i>timbre</i> to those of chanting: and in his most +pathetic passages an eloquent speaker similarly falls into tones more +vibratory than those common to him. Now any one may readily convince +himself that resonant vocal sounds can be produced only by a certain +muscular effort additional to that ordinarily needed. If after uttering +a word in his speaking voice, the reader, without changing the pitch or +the loudness, will <i>sing</i> this word, he will perceive that before he can +sing it, he has to alter the adjustment of the vocal organs; to do which +a certain force must be used; and by putting his fingers on that +external prominence marking the top of the larynx, he will have further +evidence that to produce a sonorous tone the organs must be drawn out of +their usual position. Thus, then, the fact that the tones of excited +feeling are more vibratory than those of common conversation is another +instance of the connection between mental excitement and muscular +excitement. The speaking voice, the recitative voice, and the singing +voice, severally exemplify one general principle.</p> + +<p>That the <i>pitch</i> of the voice varies according to the action of the +vocal muscles scarcely needs saying. All know that the middle notes, in +which they converse, are made without any appreciable effort; and all +know that to make either very high or very low notes requires a +considerable effort. In either ascending or descending from the pitch of +ordinary speech, we are conscious of an increasing muscular strain, +which, at both extremes of the register, becomes positively painful. +Hence it follows from our general principle, that while indifference or +calmness will use the medium tones, the tones used during excitement +will be either above or below them; and will rise higher and higher, or +fall lower and lower, as the feelings grow stronger. This physiological +deduction we also find to be in harmony with familiar facts. The +habitual sufferer utters his complaints in a voice raised considerably +above the natural <a name="page_315"></a> key; and agonising pain vents +itself in either shrieks or groans—in very high or very low notes. +Beginning at his talking pitch, the cry of the disappointed urchin grows +more shrill as it grows louder. The "Oh!" of astonishment or delight, +begins several notes below the middle voice, and descends still lower. +Anger expresses itself in high tones, or else in "curses not loud but +<i>deep</i>." Deep tones, too, are always used in uttering strong reproaches. +Such an exclamation as "Beware!" if made dramatically—that is, if +made with a show of feeling—must be many notes lower than +ordinary. Further, we have groans of disapprobation, groans of horror, +groans of remorse. And extreme joy and fear are alike accompanied by +shrill outcries.</p> + +<p>Nearly allied to the subject of pitch, is that of <i>intervals</i>; and +the explanation of them carries our argument a step further. While calm +speech is comparatively monotonous, emotion makes use of fifths, +octaves, and even wider intervals. Listen to any one narrating or +repeating something in which he has no interest, and his voice will not +wander more than two or three notes above or below his medium note, and +that by small steps; but when he comes to some exciting event he will be +heard not only to use the higher and lower notes of his register, but to +go from one to the other by larger leaps. Being unable in print to +imitate these traits of feeling, we feel some difficulty in fully +realising them to the reader. But we may suggest a few remembrances +which will perhaps call to mind a sufficiency of others. If two men +living in the same place, and frequently seeing one another, meet, say +at a public assembly, any phrase with which one may be heard to accost +the other—as "Hallo, are you here?"—will have an ordinary +intonation. But if one of them, after long absence, has unexpectedly +returned, the expression of surprise with which his friend may greet +him—"Hallo! how came you here?"—will be uttered in much more +strongly contrasted tones. The two syllables of the word "Hallo" will +be, the one much higher and the other much lower than before; and the +rest of the sentence will similarly ascend and descend by longer +steps.</p> + +<p>Again, if, supposing her to be in an adjoining room, the mistress of +the house calls "Mary," the two syllables of the name will be spoken in +an ascending interval of a third. If Mary does not reply, the call will +be repeated probably in a descending fifth; implying the slightest shade +of annoyance at Mary's inattention. Should Mary still make no answer, +the increasing annoyance will show itself by the use of a descending <a +name="page_316"></a> octave on the next repetition of the call. And +supposing the silence to continue, the lady, if not of a very even +temper, will show her irritation at Mary's seemingly intentional +negligence by finally calling her in tones still more widely +contrasted—the first syllable being higher and the last lower than +before.</p> + +<p>Now, these and analogous facts, which the reader will readily +accumulate, clearly conform to the law laid down. For to make large +intervals requires more muscular action than to make small ones. But not +only is the <i>extent</i> of vocal intervals thus explicable as due to the +relation between nervous and muscular excitement, but also in some +degree their <i>direction</i>, as ascending or descending. The middle notes +being those which demand no appreciable effort of muscular adjustment; +and the effort becoming greater as we either ascend or descend; it +follows that a departure from the middle notes in either direction will +mark increasing emotion; while a return towards the middle notes will +mark decreasing emotion. Hence it happens that an enthusiastic person +uttering such a sentence as—"It was the most splendid sight I ever +saw!" will ascend to the first syllable of the word "splendid," and +thence will descend: the word "splendid" marking the climax of the +feeling produced by the recollection. Hence, again, it happens that, +under some extreme vexation produced by another's stupidity, an +irascible man, exclaiming—"What a confounded fool the fellow is!" +will begin somewhat below his middle voice, and descending to the word +"fool," which he will utter in one of his deepest notes, will then +ascend again. And it may be remarked, that the word "fool" will not only +be deeper and louder than the rest, but will also have more emphasis of +articulation—another mode in which muscular excitement is +shown.</p> + +<p>There is some danger, however, in giving instances like this; seeing +that as the mode of rendering will vary according to the intensity of +the feeling which the reader feigns to himself, the right cadence may +not be hit upon. With single words there is less difficulty. Thus the +"Indeed!" with which a surprising fact is received, mostly begins on the +middle note of the voice, and rises with the second syllable; or, if +disapprobation as well as astonishment is felt, the first syllable will +be below the middle note, and the second lower still. Conversely, the +word "Alas!" which marks not the rise of a paroxysm of grief, but its +decline, is uttered in a cadence descending towards the middle note; or, +if the first syllable is in the lower part of the register, the second +ascends towards the middle note. In the "Heigh-ho!" <a +name="page_317"></a> expressive of mental and muscular prostration, we +may see the same truth; and if the cadence appropriate to it be +inverted, the absurdity of the effect clearly shows how the meaning of +intervals is dependent on the principle we have been illustrating.</p> + +<p>The remaining characteristic of emotional speech which we have to +notice is that of <i>variability of pitch</i>. It is scarcely possible here +to convey adequate ideas of this more complex manifestation. We must be +content with simply indicating some occasions on which it may be +observed. On a meeting of friends, for instance—as when there +arrives a party of much-wished-for-visitors—the voices of all will +be heard to undergo changes of pitch not only greater but much more +numerous than usual. If a speaker at a public meeting is interrupted by +some squabble among those he is addressing, his comparatively level +tones will be in marked contrast with the rapidly changing one of the +disputants. And among children, whose feelings are less under control +than those of adults, this peculiarity is still more decided. During a +scene of complaint and recrimination between two excitable little girls, +the voices may be heard to run up and down the gamut several times in +each sentence. In such cases we once more recognise the same law: for +muscular excitement is shown not only in strength of contraction but +also in the rapidity with which different muscular adjustments succeed +each other.</p> + +<p>Thus we find all the leading vocal phenomena to have a physiological +basis. They are so many manifestations of the general law that feeling +is a stimulus to muscular action—a law conformed to throughout the +whole economy, not of man only, but of every sensitive creature—a +law, therefore, which lies deep in the nature of animal organisation. +The expressiveness of these various modifications of voice is therefore +innate. Each of us, from babyhood upwards, has been spontaneously making +them, when under the various sensations and emotions by which they are +produced. Having been conscious of each feeling at the same time that we +heard ourselves make the consequent sound, we have acquired an +established association of ideas between such sound and the feeling +which caused it. When the like sound is made by another, we ascribe the +like feeling to him; and by a further consequence we not only ascribe to +him that feeling, but have a certain degree of it aroused in ourselves: +for to become conscious of the feeling which another is experiencing, is +to have that feeling awakened in our own consciousness, which is the +same thing as experiencing the feeling. Thus these various <a +name="page_318"></a> modifications of voice become not only a language +through which we understand the emotions of others, but also the means +of exciting our sympathy with such emotions.</p> + +<p>Have we not here, then, adequate data for a theory of music? These +vocal peculiarities which indicate excited feeling <i>are those which +especially distinguish song from ordinary speech</i>. Every one of the +alterations of voice which we have found to be a physiological result of +pain or pleasure, <i>is carried to its greatest extreme in vocal music</i>. +For instance, we saw that, in virtue of the general relation between +mental and muscular excitement, one characteristic of passionate +utterance is <i>loudness</i>. Well, its comparative loudness is one of the +distinctive marks of song as contrasted with the speech of daily life; +and further, the <i>forte</i> passages of an air are those intended to +represent the climax of its emotion. We next saw that the tones in which +emotion expresses itself are, in conformity with this same law, of a +more sonorous <i>timbre</i> than those of calm conversation. Here, too, song +displays a still higher degree of the peculiarity; for the singing tone +is the most resonant we can make. Again, it was shown that, from a like +cause, mental excitement vents itself in the higher and lower notes of +the register; using the middle notes but seldom. And it scarcely needs +saying that vocal music is still more distinguished by its comparative +neglect of the notes in which we talk, and its habitual use of those +above or below them and, moreover, that its most passionate effects are +commonly produced at the two extremities of its scale, but especially +the upper one.</p> + +<p>A yet further trait of strong feeling, similarly accounted for, was +the employment of larger intervals than are employed in common converse. +This trait, also, every ballad and <i>aria</i> carries to an extent beyond +that heard in the spontaneous utterances of emotion: add to which, that +the direction of these intervals, which, as diverging from or converging +towards the medium tones, we found to be physiologically expressive of +increasing or decreasing emotion, may be observed to have in music like +meanings. Once more, it was pointed out that not only extreme but also +rapid variations of pitch are characteristic of mental excitement; and +once more we see in the quick changes of every melody, that song carries +the characteristic as far, if not farther. Thus, in respect alike of +<i>loudness</i>, <i>timbre</i>, <i>pitch</i>, <i>intervals</i>, and <i>rate of variation</i>, +song employs and exaggerates the natural language of the +emotions;—it arises from a systematic combination of those vocal +peculiarities <a name="page_319"></a> which are the physiological +effects of acute pleasure and pain.</p> + +<p>Besides these chief characteristics of song as distinguished from +common speech, there are sundry minor ones similarly explicable as due +to the relation between mental and muscular excitement; and before +proceeding further these should be briefly noticed. Thus, certain +passions, and perhaps all passions when pushed to an extreme, produce +(probably through their influence over the action of the heart) an +effect the reverse of that which has been described: they cause a +physical prostration, one symptom of which is a general relaxation of +the muscles, and a consequent trembling. We have the trembling of anger, +of fear, of hope, of joy; and the vocal muscles being implicated with +the rest, the voice too becomes tremulous. Now, in singing, this +tremulousness of voice is very effectively used by some vocalists in +highly pathetic passages; sometimes, indeed, because of its +effectiveness, too much used by them—as by Tamberlik, for +instance.</p> + +<p>Again, there is a mode of musical execution known as the <i>staccato</i>, +appropriate to energetic passages—to passages expressive of +exhilaration, of resolution, of confidence. The action of the vocal +muscles which produces this staccato style is analogous to the muscular +action which produces the sharp decisive, energetic movements of body +indicating these states of mind; and therefore it is that the staccato +style has the meaning we ascribe to it. Conversely, slurred intervals +are expressive of gentler and less active feelings; and are so because +they imply the smaller muscular vivacity due to a lower mental energy. +The difference of effect resulting from difference of <i>time</i> in music is +also attributable to the same law. Already it has been pointed out that +the more frequent changes of pitch which ordinarily result from passion +are imitated and developed in song; and here we have to add, that the +various rates of such changes, appropriate to the different styles of +music, are further traits having the same derivation. The slowest +movements, <i>largo</i> and <i>adagio</i>, are used where such depressing emotions +as grief, or such unexciting emotions as reverence, are to be portrayed; +while the more rapid movements, <i>andante</i>, <i>allegro</i>, <i>presto</i>, +represent successively increasing degrees of mental vivacity; and do +this because they imply that muscular activity which flows from this +mental vivacity. Even the <i>rhythm</i>, which forms a remaining distinction +between song and speech, may not improbably have a kindred cause. Why +the actions excited <a name="page_320"></a> by strong feeling should +tend to become rhythmical is not very obvious; but that they do so there +are divers evidences. There is the swaying of the body to and fro under +pain or grief, of the leg under impatience or agitation. Dancing, too, +is a rhythmical action natural to elevated emotion. That under +excitement speech acquires a certain rhythm, we may occasionally +perceive in the highest efforts of an orator. In poetry, which is a form +of speech used for the better expression of emotional ideas, we have +this rhythmical tendency developed. And when we bear in mind that +dancing, poetry, and music are connate—are originally constituent +parts of the same thing, it becomes clear that the measured movement +common to them all implies a rhythmical action of the whole system, the +vocal apparatus included; and that so the rhythm of music is a more +subtle and complex result of this relation between mental and muscular +excitement.</p> + +<p>But it is time to end this analysis, which possibly we have already +carried too far. It is not to be supposed that the more special +peculiarities of musical expression are to be definitely explained. +Though probably they may all in some way conform to the principle that +has been worked out, it is obviously impracticable to trace that +principle in its more ramified applications. Nor is it needful to our +argument that it should be so traced. The foregoing facts sufficiently +prove that what we regard as the distinctive traits of song, are simply +the traits of emotional speech intensified and systematised. In respect +of its general characteristics, we think it has been made clear that +vocal music, and by consequence all music, is an idealisation of the +natural language of passion.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>As far as it goes, the scanty evidence furnished by history confirms +this conclusion. Note first the fact (not properly an historical one, +but fitly grouped with such) that the dance-chants of savage tribes are +very monotonous; and in virtue of their monotony are much more nearly +allied to ordinary speech than are the songs of civilised races. Joining +with this the fact that there are still extant among boatmen and others +in the East, ancient chants of a like monotonous character, we may infer +that vocal music originally diverged from emotional speech in a gradual, +unobtrusive manner; and this is the inference to which our argument +points. Further evidence to the same effect is supplied by Greek +history. The early poems of the Greeks—which, be it remembered, +were sacred legends embodied <a name="page_321"></a> in that +rhythmical, metaphorical language which strong feeling +excites—were not recited, but chanted: the tones and the cadences +were made musical by the same influences which made the speech +poetical.</p> + +<p>By those who have investigated the matter, this chanting is believed +to have been not what we call singing, but nearly allied to our +recitative (far simpler indeed, if we may judge from the fact that the +early Greek lyre, which had but <i>four</i> strings, was played in <i>unison</i> +with the voice, which was therefore confined to four notes), and as +such, much less remote from common speech than our own singing is. For +recitative, or musical recitation, is in all respects intermediate +between speech and song. Its average effects are not so <i>loud</i> as those +of song. Its tones are less sonorous in <i>timbre</i> than those of song. +Commonly it diverges to a smaller extent from the middle +notes—uses notes neither so high nor so low in <i>pitch</i>. The +<i>intervals</i> habitual to it are neither so wide nor so varied. Its <i>rate +of variation</i> is not so rapid. And at the same time that its primary +<i>rhythm</i> is less decided, it has none of that secondary rhythm produced +by recurrence of the same or parallel musical phrases, which is one of +the marked characteristics of song. Thus, then, we may not only infer, +from the evidence furnished by existing barbarous tribes, that the vocal +music of pre-historic times was emotional speech very slightly exalted; +but we see that the earliest vocal music of which we have any account +differed much less from emotional speech than does the vocal music of +our days.</p> + +<p>That recitative—beyond which, by the way, the Chinese and +Hindoos seem never to have advanced—grew naturally out of the +modulations and cadences of strong feeling, we have indeed still current +evidence. There are even now to be met with occasions on which strong +feeling vents itself in this form. Whoever has been present when a +meeting of Quakers was addressed by one of their preachers (whose +practice it is to speak only under the influence of religious emotion), +must have been struck by the quite unusual tones, like those of a +subdued chant, in which the address was made. It is clear, too, that the +intoning used in some churches is representative of this same mental +state; and has been adopted on account of the instinctively felt +congruity between it and the contrition, supplication, or reverence +verbally expressed.</p> + +<p>And if, as we have good reason to believe, recitative arose by +degrees out of emotional speech, it becomes manifest that by a +continuance of the same process song has arisen out of recitative. <a +name="page_322"></a> Just as, from the orations and legends of savages, +expressed in the metaphorical, allegorical style natural to them, there +sprung epic poetry, out of which lyric poetry was afterwards developed; +so, from the exalted tones and cadences in which such orations and +legends were delivered, came the chant or recitative music, from whence +lyrical music has since grown up. And there has not only thus been a +simultaneous and parallel genesis, but there is also a parallelism of +results. For lyrical poetry differs from epic poetry, just as lyrical +music differs from recitative: each still further intensifies the +natural language of the emotions. Lyrical poetry is more metaphorical, +more hyperbolic, more elliptical, and adds the rhythm of lines to the +rhythm of feet; just as lyrical music is louder, more sonorous, more +extreme in its intervals, and adds the rhythm of phrases to the rhythm +of bars. And the known fact that out of epic poetry the stronger +passions developed lyrical poetry as their appropriate vehicle, +strengthens the inference that they similarly developed lyrical music +out of recitative.</p> + +<p>Nor indeed are we without evidences of the transition. It needs but +to listen to an opera to hear the leading gradations. Between the +comparatively level recitative of ordinary dialogue, the more varied +recitative with wider intervals and higher tones used in exciting +scenes, the still more musical recitative which preludes an air, and the +air itself, the successive steps are but small; and the fact that among +airs themselves gradations of like nature may be traced, further +confirms the conclusion that the highest form of vocal music was arrived +at by degrees.</p> + +<p>Moreover, we have some clue to the influences which have induced this +development; and may roughly conceive the process of it. As the tones, +intervals, and cadences of strong emotion were the elements out of which +song was elaborated, so we may expect to find that still stronger +emotion produced the elaboration: and we have evidence implying this. +Instances in abundance may be cited, showing that musical composers are +men of extremely acute sensibilities. The Life of Mozart depicts him as +one of intensely active affections and highly impressionable +temperament. Various anecdotes represent Beethoven as very susceptible +and very passionate. Mendelssohn is described by those who knew him to +have been full of fine feeling. And the almost incredible sensitiveness +of Chopin has been illustrated in the memoirs of George Sand. An +unusually emotional nature being thus the general characteristic of +musical composers, we have in it just the agency required for the +development of <a name="page_323"></a> recitative and song. Intenser +feeling producing intenser manifestations, any cause of excitement will +call forth from such a nature tones and changes of voice more marked +than those called forth from an ordinary nature—will generate just +those exaggerations which we have found to distinguish the lower vocal +music from emotional speech, and the higher vocal music from the lower. +Thus it becomes credible that the four-toned recitative of the early +Greek poets (like all poets, nearly allied to composers in the +comparative intensity of their feelings), was really nothing more than +the slightly exaggerated emotional speech natural to them, which grew by +frequent use into an organised form. And it is readily conceivable that +the accumulated agency of subsequent poet-musicians, inheriting and +adding to the products of those who went before them, sufficed, in the +course of the ten centuries which we know it took, to develop this +four-toned recitative into a vocal music having a range of two +octaves.</p> + +<p>Not only may we so understand how more sonorous tones, greater +extremes of pitch, and wider intervals, were gradually introduced; but +also how there arose a greater variety and complexity of musical +expression. For this same passionate, enthusiastic temperament, which +naturally leads the musical composer to express the feelings possessed +by others as well as himself, in extremer intervals and more marked +cadences than they would use, also leads him to give musical utterance +to feelings which they either do not experience, or experience in but +slight degrees. In virtue of this general susceptibility which +distinguishes him, he regards with emotion, events, scenes, conduct, +character, which produce upon most men no appreciable effect. The +emotions so generated, compounded as they are of the simpler emotions, +are not expressible by intervals and cadences natural to these, but by +combinations of such intervals and cadences: whence arise more involved +musical phrases, conveying more complex, subtle, and unusual feelings. +And thus we may in some measure understand how it happens that music not +only so strongly excites our more familiar feelings, but also produces +feelings we never had before—arouses dormant sentiments of which +we had not conceived the possibility and do not know the meaning; or, as +Richter says—tells us of things we have not seen and shall not +see.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Indirect evidences of several kinds remain to be briefly pointed out. +One of them is the difficulty, not to say impossibility, <a +name="page_324"></a> of otherwise accounting for the expressiveness of +music. Whence comes it that special combinations of notes should have +special effects upon our emotions?—that one should give us a +feeling of exhilaration, another of melancholy, another of affection, +another of reverence? Is it that these special combinations have +intrinsic meanings apart from the human constitution?—that a +certain number of aerial waves per second, followed by a certain other +number, in the nature of things signify grief, while in the reverse +order they signify joy; and similarly with all other intervals, phrases, +and cadences? Few will be so irrational as to think this. Is it, then, +that the meanings of these special combinations are conventional +only?—that we learn their implications, as we do those of words, +by observing how others understand them? This is an hypothesis not only +devoid of evidence, but directly opposed to the experience of every one. +How, then, are musical effects to be explained? If the theory above set +forth be accepted, the difficulty disappears. If music, taking for its +raw material the various modifications of voice which are the +physiological results of excited feelings, intensifies, combines, and +complicates them—if it exaggerates the loudness, the resonance, +the pitch, the intervals, and the variability, which, in virtue of an +organic law, are the characteristics of passionate speech—if, by +carrying out these further, more consistently, more unitedly, and more +sustainedly, it produces an idealised language of emotion; then its +power over us becomes comprehensible. But in the absence of this theory, +the expressiveness of music appears to be inexplicable.</p> + +<p>Again, the preference we feel for certain qualities of sound presents +a like difficulty, admitting only of a like solution. It is generally +agreed that the tones of the human voice are more pleasing than any +others. Grant that music takes its rise from the modulations of the +human voice under emotion, and it becomes a natural consequence that the +tones of that voice should appeal to our feelings more than any others; +and so should be considered more beautiful than any others. But deny +that music has this origin, and the only alternative is the untenable +position that the vibrations proceeding from a vocalist's throat are, +objectively considered, of a higher order than those from a horn or a +violin. Similarly with harsh and soft sounds. If the conclusiveness of +the foregoing reasonings be not admitted, it must be supposed that the +vibrations causing the last are intrinsically better than those causing +the first; <a name="page_325"></a> and that, in virtue of some +pre-established harmony, the higher feelings and natures produce the +one, and the lower the other. But if the foregoing reasonings be valid, +it follows, as a matter of course, that we shall like the sounds that +habitually accompany agreeable feelings, and dislike those that +habitually accompany disagreeable feelings.</p> + +<p>Once more, the question—How is the expressiveness of music to +be otherwise accounted for? may be supplemented by the +question—How is the genesis of music to be otherwise accounted +for? That music is a product of civilisation is manifest; for though +savages have their dance-chants, these are of a kind scarcely to be +dignified by the title musical: at most, they supply but the vaguest +rudiment of music, properly so called. And if music has been by slow +steps developed in the course of civilisation, it must have been +developed out of something. If, then, its origin is not that above +alleged, what is its origin?</p> + +<p>Thus we find that the negative evidence confirms the positive, and +that, taken together, they furnish strong proof. We have seen that there +is a physiological relation, common to man and all animals, between +feeling and muscular action; that as vocal sounds are produced by +muscular action, there is a consequent physiological relation between +feeling and vocal sounds; that all the modifications of voice expressive +of feeling are the direct results of this physiological relation; that +music, adopting all these modifications, intensifies them more and more +as it ascends to its higher and higher forms, and becomes music simply +in virtue of thus intensifying them; that, from the ancient epic poet +chanting his verses, down to the modern musical composer, men of +unusually strong feelings prone to express them in extreme forms, have +been naturally the agents of these successive intensifications; and that +so there has little by little arisen a wide divergence between this +idealised language of emotion and its natural language: to which direct +evidence we have just added the indirect—that on no other tenable +hypothesis can either the expressiveness or the genesis of music be +explained.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>And now, what is the <i>function</i> of music? Has music any effect beyond +the immediate pleasure it produces? Analogy suggests that it has. The +enjoyments of a good dinner do not end with themselves, but minister to +bodily well-being. Though people do not marry with a view to maintain +the race, yet the passions which impel them to marry secure its +maintenance. <a name="page_326"></a> Parental affection is a feeling +which, while it conduces to parental happiness, ensures the nurture of +offspring. Men love to accumulate property, often without thought of the +benefits it produces; but in pursuing the pleasure of acquisition they +indirectly open the way to other pleasures. The wish for public approval +impels all of us to do many things which we should otherwise not +do,—to undertake great labours, face great dangers, and habitually +rule ourselves in a way that smooths social intercourse: that is, in +gratifying our love of approbation we subserve divers ulterior purposes. +And, generally, our nature is such that in fulfilling each desire, we in +some way facilitate the fulfilment of the rest. But the love of music +seems to exist for its own sake. The delights of melody and harmony do +not obviously minister to the welfare either of the individual or of +society. May we not suspect, however, that this exception is apparent +only? Is it not a rational inquiry—What are the indirect benefits +which accrue from music, in addition to the direct pleasure it +gives?</p> + +<p>But that it would take us too far out of our track, we should prelude +this inquiry by illustrating at some length a certain general law of +progress;—the law that alike in occupations, sciences, arts, the +divisions that had a common root, but by continual divergence have +become distinct, and are now being separately developed, are not truly +independent, but severally act and react on each other to their mutual +advancement. Merely hinting thus much, however, by way of showing that +there are many analogies to justify us, we go on to express the opinion +that there exists a relationship of this kind between music and +speech.</p> + +<p>All speech is compounded of two elements, the words and the tones in +which they are uttered—the signs of ideas and the signs of +feelings. While certain articulations express the thought, certain vocal +sounds express the more or less of pain or pleasure which the thought +gives. Using the word <i>cadence</i> in an unusually extended sense, as +comprehending all modifications of voice, we may say that <i>cadence is +the commentary of the emotions upon the propositions of the intellect</i>. +The duality of spoken language, though not formally recognised, is +recognised in practice by every one; and every one knows that very often +more weight attaches to the tones than to the words. Daily experience +supplies cases in which the same sentence of disapproval will be +understood as meaning little or meaning much, according to the +inflections of voice which accompany it; and <a name="page_327"></a> +daily experience supplies still more striking cases in which words and +tones are in direct contradiction—the first expressing consent, +while the last express reluctance; and the last being believed rather +than the first.</p> + +<p>These two distinct but interwoven elements of speech have been +undergoing a simultaneous development. We know that in the course of +civilisation words have been multiplied, new parts of speech have been +introduced, sentences have grown more varied and complex; and we may +fairly infer that during the same time new modifications of voice have +come into use, fresh intervals have been adopted, and cadences have +become more elaborate. For while, on the one hand, it is absurd to +suppose that, along with the undeveloped verbal forms of barbarism, +there existed a developed system of vocal inflections; it is, on the +other hand, necessary to suppose that, along with the higher and more +numerous verbal forms needed to convey the multiplied and complicated +ideas of civilised life, there have grown up those more involved changes +of voice which express the feelings proper to such ideas. If +intellectual language is a growth, so also, without doubt, is emotional +language a growth.</p> + +<p>Now, the hypothesis which we have hinted above, is, that beyond the +direct pleasure which it gives, music has the indirect effect of +developing this language of the emotions. Having its root, as we have +endeavoured to show, in those tones, intervals, and cadences of speech +which express feeling—arising by the combination and intensifying +of these, and coming finally to have an embodiment of its +own—music has all along been reacting upon speech, and increasing +its power of rendering emotion. The use in recitative and song of +inflections more expressive than ordinary ones, must from the beginning +have tended to develop the ordinary ones. Familiarity with the more +varied combinations of tones that occur in vocal music can scarcely have +failed to give greater variety of combination to the tones in which we +utter our impressions and desires. The complex musical phrases by which +composers have conveyed complex emotions, may rationally be supposed to +have influenced us in making those involved cadences of conversation by +which we convey our subtler thoughts and feelings.</p> + +<p>That the cultivation of music has no effect on the mind, few will be +absurd enough to contend. And if it has an effect, what more natural +effect is there than this of developing our perception of the meanings +of inflections, qualities, and modulations of <a name="page_328"></a> +voice; and giving us a correspondingly increased power of using them? +Just as mathematics, taking its start from the phenomena of physics and +astronomy, and presently coming to be a separate science, has since +reacted on physics and astronomy to their immense advancement—just +as chemistry, first arising out of the processes of metallurgy and the +industrial arts, and gradually growing into an independent study, has +now become an aid to all kinds of production—just as physiology, +originating out of medicine and once subordinate to it, but latterly +pursued for its own sake, is in our day coming to be the science on +which the progress of medicine depends;—so, music, having its root +in emotional language, and gradually evolved from it, has ever been +reacting upon and further advancing it. Whoever will examine the facts +will find this hypothesis to be in harmony with the method of +civilisation everywhere displayed.</p> + +<p>It will scarcely be expected that much direct evidence in support of +this conclusion can be given. The facts are of a kind which it is +difficult to measure, and of which we have no records. Some suggestive +traits, however, may be noted. May we not say, for instance, that the +Italians, among whom modern music was earliest cultivated, and who have +more especially practised and excelled in melody (the division of music +with which our argument is chiefly concerned)—may we not say that +these Italians speak in more varied and expressive inflections and +cadences than any other nation? On the other hand, may we not say that, +confined almost exclusively as they have hitherto been to their national +airs, which have a marked family likeness, and therefore accustomed to +but a limited range of musical expression, the Scotch are unusually +monotonous in the intervals and modulations of their speech? And again, +do we not find among different classes of the same nation, differences +that have like implications? The gentleman and the clown stand in a very +decided contrast with respect to variety of intonation. Listen to the +conversation of a servant-girl, and then to that of a refined, +accomplished lady, and the more delicate and complex changes of voice +used by the latter will be conspicuous. Now, without going so far as to +say that out of all the differences of culture to which the upper and +lower classes are subjected, difference of musical culture is that to +which alone this difference of speech is ascribable, yet we may fairly +say that there seems a much more obvious connection of cause and effect +between these than between any others. Thus, while <a +name="page_329"></a> the inductive evidence to which we can appeal is +but scanty and vague, yet what there is favours our position.</p> + +<hr width="80%"> + +<p>Probably most will think that the function here assigned to music is +one of very little moment. But further reflection may lead them to a +contrary conviction. In its bearings upon human happiness, we believe +that this emotional language which musical culture develops and refines +is only second in importance to the language of the intellect; perhaps +not even second to it. For these modifications of voice produced by +feelings are the means of exciting like feelings in others. Joined with +gestures and expressions of face, they give life to the otherwise dead +words in which the intellect utters its ideas; and so enable the hearer +not only to <i>understand</i> the state of mind they accompany, but to +<i>partake</i> of that state. In short, they are the chief media of +<i>sympathy</i>. And if we consider how much both our general welfare and our +immediate pleasures depend upon sympathy, we shall recognise the +importance of whatever makes this sympathy greater. If we bear in mind +that by their fellow-feeling men are led to behave justly, kindly, and +considerately to each other—that the difference between the +cruelty of the barbarous and the humanity of the civilised, results from +the increase of fellow-feeling; if we bear in mind that this faculty +which makes us sharers in the joys and sorrows of others, is the basis +of all the higher affections—that in friendship, love, and all +domestic pleasures, it is an essential element; if we bear in mind how +much our direct gratifications are intensified by sympathy,—how, +at the theatre, the concert, the picture gallery, we lose half our +enjoyment if we have no one to enjoy with us; if, in short, we bear in +mind that for all happiness beyond what the unfriended recluse can have, +we are indebted to this same sympathy;—we shall see that the +agencies which communicate it can scarcely be overrated in value.</p> + +<p>The tendency of civilisation is more and more to repress the +antagonistic elements of our characters and to develop the social +ones—to curb our purely selfish desires and exercise our unselfish +ones—to replace private gratifications by gratifications resulting +from, or involving, the happiness of others. And while, by this +adaptation to the social state, the sympathetic side of our nature is +being unfolded, there is simultaneously growing up a language of +sympathetic intercourse—a language through which we communicate to +others the happiness we feel, and are made sharers in their +happiness.</p> + +<p><a name="page_330"></a>This double process, of which the effects are +already sufficiently appreciable, must go on to an extent of which we +can as yet have no adequate conception. The habitual concealment of our +feelings diminishing, as it must, in proportion as our feelings become +such as do not demand concealment, we may conclude that the exhibition +of them will become much more vivid than we now dare allow it to be; and +this implies a more expressive emotional language. At the same time, +feelings of a higher and more complex kind, as yet experienced only by +the cultivated few, will become general; and there will be a +corresponding development of the emotional language into more involved +forms. Just as there has silently grown up a language of ideas, which, +rude as it at first was, now enables us to convey with precision the +most subtle and complicated thoughts; so, there is still silently +growing up a language of feelings, which, notwithstanding its present +imperfection, we may expect will ultimately enable men vividly and +completely to impress on each other all the emotions which they +experience from moment to moment.</p> + +<p>Thus if, as we have endeavoured to show, it is the function of music +to facilitate the development of this emotional language, we may regard +music as an aid to the achievement of that higher happiness which it +indistinctly shadows forth. Those vague feelings of unexperienced +felicity which music arouses—those indefinite impressions of an +unknown ideal life which it calls up, may be considered as a prophecy, +to the fulfilment of which music is itself partly instrumental. The +strange capacity which we have for being so affected by melody and +harmony may be taken to imply both that it is within the possibilities +of our nature to realise those intenser delights they dimly suggest, and +that they are in some way concerned in the realisation of them. On this +supposition the power and the meaning of music become comprehensible; +but otherwise they are a mystery.</p> + +<p>We will only add, that if the probability of these corollaries be +admitted, then music must take rank as he highest of the fine +arts—as the one which, more than any other, ministers to human +welfare. And thus, even leaving out of view the immediate gratifications +it is hourly giving, we cannot too much applaud that progress of musical +culture which is becoming one of the characteristics of our age.</p> + +<p><small><a name="page_310_note_1"></a><a href="#page_310">Footnote 1</a>: +<i>Fraser's Magazine</i>, October 1857.</small></p> + +<p><small><a name="page_312_note_2"></a><a href="#page_312">Footnote 2</a>: +Those who seek information on this point may find it in an interesting +tract by Mr. Alexander Bain, on <i>Animal Instinct and +Intelligence</i>.</small></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays on Education and Kindred +Subjects, by Herbert Spencer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS ON EDUCATION *** + +***** This file should be named 16510-h.htm or 16510-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/1/16510/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Joel Schlosberg and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Essays on Education and Kindred Subjects + Everyman's Library + +Author: Herbert Spencer + +Commentator: Charles W. Eliot + +Release Date: August 11, 2005 [EBook #16510] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS ON EDUCATION *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Joel Schlosberg and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +_EVERYMAN, I will go with thee, +and be thy guide, +In thy most need to go by thy side_ + + + + +HERBERT SPENCER + + +Born at Derby in 1820, the son of a teacher, +from whom he received most of his education. +Obtained employment on the London and +Birmingham Railway. After the strike of 1846 +he devoted himself to journalism, and in +1848 was sub-editor of _The Economist_. + +He died in 1903. + + + + +HERBERT SPENCER + +Essays on Education +AND KINDRED SUBJECTS + +INTRODUCTION BY +CHARLES W. ELIOT + +DENT: LONDON +EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY +DUTTON: NEW YORK + + + + +_Made in Great Britain +at the +Aldine Press . Letchworth . Herts +for +J.M. DENT & SONS LTD +Aldine House . Bedford Street . London +First published in Everyman's Library 1911 +Last reprinted 1963_ + +NO. _504_ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The four essays on education which Herbert Spencer published in a single +volume in 1861 were all written and separately published between 1854 +and 1859. Their tone was aggressive and their proposals revolutionary; +although all the doctrines--with one important exception--had already +been vigorously preached by earlier writers on education, as Spencer +himself was at pains to point out. The doctrine which was comparatively +new ran through all four essays; but was most amply stated in the essay +first published in 1859 under the title "What Knowledge is of Most +Worth?" In this essay Spencer divided the leading kinds of human +activity into those which minister to self-preservation, those which +secure the necessaries of life, those whose end is the care of +offspring, those which make good citizens, and those which prepare +adults to enjoy nature, literature, and the fine arts; and he then +maintained that in each of these several classes, knowledge of science +was worth more than any other knowledge. He argued that everywhere +throughout creation faculties are developed through the performance of +the appropriate functions; so that it would be contrary to the whole +harmony of nature "if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of +information, and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic." He +then maintained that the sciences are superior in all respects to +languages as educational material; they train the memory better, and a +superior kind of memory; they cultivate the judgment, and they impart an +admirable moral and religious discipline. He concluded that "for +discipline, as well as for guidance, science is of chiefest value. In +all its effects, learning the meaning of things is better than learning +the meaning of words." He answered the question "what knowledge is of +most worth?" with the one word--science. + +This doctrine was extremely repulsive to the established profession of +education in England, where Latin, Greek, and mathematics had been the +staples of education for many generations, and were believed to afford +the only suitable preparation for the learned professions, public life, +and cultivated society. In proclaiming this doctrine with ample +illustration, ingenious argument, and forcible reiteration, Spencer was +a true educational pioneer, although some of his scientific +contemporaries were really preaching similar doctrines, each in his own +field. + +The profession of teaching has long been characterised by certain +habitual convictions, which Spencer undertook to shake rudely, and even +to deride. The first of these convictions is that all education, +physical, intellectual, and moral, must be authoritative, and need take +no account of the natural wishes, tendencies, and motives of the +ignorant and undeveloped child. The second dominating conviction is that +to teach means to tell, or show, children what they ought to see, +believe, and utter. Expositions by the teacher and books are therefore +the true means of education. The third and supreme conviction is that +the method of education which produced the teacher himself and the +contemporary or earlier scholars, authors, and publicists, must be the +righteous and sufficient method. Its fruits demonstrate its soundness, +and make it sacred. Herbert Spencer, in the essays included in the +present volume, assaulted all three of these firm convictions. +Accordingly, the ideas on education which he put forth more than fifty +years ago have penetrated educational practice very slowly--particularly +in England; but they are now coming to prevail in most civilised +countries, and they will prevail more and more. Through him, the +thoughts on education of Comenius, Montaigne, Locke, Milton, Rousseau, +Pestalozzi, and other noted writers on this neglected subject are at +last winning their way into practice, with the modifications or +adaptations which the immense gains of the human race in knowledge and +power since the nineteenth century opened have shown to be wise. + +For teachers and educational administrators it is interesting to observe +the steps by which Spencer's doctrines--and especially his doctrine of +the supreme value of science--have advanced towards acceptance in +practice. In general, the advance has been brought about through the +indirect effects of the enormous industrial, social, and political +changes of the last fifty years. The first practical step was the +introduction of laboratory teaching of one or more of the sciences into +the secondary schools and colleges. Chemistry and physics were the +commonest subjects selected. These two subjects had been taught from +books even earlier; but memorising science out of books is far less +useful as training than memorising grammars and vocabularies. The +characteristic discipline of science can be imparted only through the +laboratory method. The schoolmasters and college faculties who took this +step by no means admitted Spencer's contention that science should be +the universal staple at all stages of child development. On the +contrary, they believed, as most people do to-day, that the mind of the +young child cannot grasp the processes and generalisations of science, +and that science is no more universally fitted to develop mental power +than the classics or mathematics. Indeed, experience during the past +fifty years seems to have proved that fewer minds are naturally inclined +to scientific study than to linguistic or historical study; so that if +some science is to be learnt by everybody, the amount of such study +should be limited to acquiring in one or two sciences knowledge of the +scientific method in general. So much scientific training is indeed +universally desirable; because good training of the senses to observe +accurately is universally desirable, and the collecting, comparing, and +grouping of many facts teach orderliness in thinking, and lead up to +something which Spencer valued highly in education--"a rational +explanation of phenomena." + +Science having obtained a foothold in secondary schools and colleges, an +adequate development of science-teaching resulted from the introduction +of options or elections for the pupils among numerous different courses, +in place of a curriculum prescribed for all. The elaborate teaching of +many sciences was thus introduced. The pupil or student saw and recorded +for himself; used books only as helps and guides in seeing, recording, +and generalising; proceeded from the known to the unknown; and in short, +made numerous applications of the doctrines which pervade all Spencer's +writings on education. In the United States these methods were +introduced earlier and have been carried farther than in England; but +within the last few years the changes made in education have been more +extensive and rapid in England than in any other country;--witness the +announcements of the new high schools and the re-organised grammar +schools, of such colleges as South Kensington, Armstrong, King's, the +University College (London), and Goldsmiths', and of the new municipal +universities such as Victoria, Bristol, Sheffield, Birmingham, +Liverpool, and Leeds. The new technical schools also illustrate the +advent of instruction in applied science as an important element in +advanced education. Such institutions as the Seafield Park Engineering +College, the City Guilds of London Institute, the City of London +College, and the Battersea Polytechnic are instances of the same +development. Some endowed institutions for girls illustrate the same +tendencies, as, for example, the Bedford College for Women and the Royal +Holloway College. All these institutions teach sciences in considerable +variety, and in the way that Spencer advocated,--not so much because +they have distinctly accepted his views, as because modern industrial +and social conditions compel the preparation in science of young people +destined for various occupations and services indispensable to modern +society. The method of the preparation is essentially that which he +advocated. + +Spencer's propositions to the effect that the study of science was +desirable for artisans, artists, and, in general, for people who were to +get their livings through various skills of hand and eye, were received +with great incredulity, not to say derision--particularly when he +maintained that some knowledge of the theory which underlies an art was +desirable for manual practitioners of the art; but the changes of the +last fifty years in the practice of the arts and trades may be said to +have demonstrated that his views were thoroughly sound. The applications +of science in the arts and trades have been so numerous and productive, +that widespread training in science has become indispensable to any +nation which means to excel in the manufacturing industries, whether of +large scale or small scale. The extraordinary popularity of evening +schools and correspondence schools in the United States rests on the +need which young people employed in the various industries of the +country feel of obtaining more theoretical knowledge about the physical +or chemical processes through which they are earning a livelihood. The +Young Men's Christian Associations in the American cities have become +great centres of evening instruction for just such young persons. The +correspondence schools are teaching hundreds of thousands of young +people at work in machine-shops, mills, mines, and factories, who +believe that they can advance themselves in their several occupations by +supplementing their elementary education with correspondence courses, +taken while they are at work earning a livelihood in industries that +rest ultimately on applications of science. + +Spencer's objection to the constant exercise of authority and compulsion +in schools, families, and the State is felt to-day much more widely than +it was in 1858, when he wrote his essay on moral education. His proposal +that children should be allowed to suffer the natural consequences of +their foolish or wrong acts does not seem to the present generation--any +more than it did to him--to be applicable to very young children, who +need protection from the undue severity of many natural penalties; but +the soundness of his general doctrine that it is the true function of +parents and teachers to see that children habitually experience the +normal consequences of their conduct, without putting artificial +consequences in place of them, now commands the assent of most persons +whose minds have been freed from the theological dogmas of original sin +and total depravity. Spencer did not expect the immediate adoption of +this principle; because society as a whole was not yet humane enough. He +admitted that the uncontrollable child of ill-controlled adults might +sometimes have to be scolded or beaten, and that these barbarous methods +might be "perhaps the best preparation such children can have for the +barbarous society in which they are presently to play a part." He hoped, +however, that the civilised members of society would by and by +spontaneously use milder measures; and this hope has been realised in +good degree, with the result that happiness in childhood is much +commoner and more constant than it used to be. Parents and teachers are +beginning to realise that self-control is a prime object in moral +education, and that this self-control cannot be practised under a regime +of constant supervision, unexplained commands, and painful punishments, +but must be gained in freedom. Some large-scale experience with American +secondary schools which prepare boys for admission to college has been +edifying in this respect. The American colleges, as a rule, do not +undertake to exercise much supervision over their students, but leave +them free to regulate their own lives in regard to both work and play. +Now it is the boys who come from the secondary schools where the +closest supervision is maintained that are in most danger of falling +into evil ways when they first go to college. + +Spencer put very forcibly a valuable doctrine for which many earlier +writers on the theory of education had failed to get a hearing--the +doctrine, namely, that all instruction should be pleasurable and +interesting. Fifty years ago almost all teachers believed that it was +impossible to make school-work interesting, or life-work either; so that +the child must be forced to grind without pleasure, in preparation for +life's grind; and the forcing was to be done by experience of the +teacher's displeasure and the infliction of pain. Through the slow +effects of Spencer's teaching and of the experience of practical +teachers who have demonstrated that instruction can be made pleasurable, +and that the very hardest work is done by interested pupils because they +are interested, it has gradually come to pass that his heresy has become +the prevailing judgment among sensible and humane teachers. The +experience of many adults, hard at work in the modern industrial, +commercial, and financial world, has taught them that human beings can +make their intensest application only to problems in which they are +personally interested for one reason or another, and that freemen work +much harder than slaves, because they feel within themselves strong +motives for exertion which slaves cannot possibly feel. So, many +intelligent adults, including many parents and teachers, have come to +believe it possible that children will learn to do hard work, both in +school and in after life, through the free play of interior motives +which appeal to them, and prompt them to persistent exertion. + +The justice of Spencer's views about training through pleasurable +sensation and achievement in freedom rather than through uninterested +work and pain inflicted by despotic government, is well illustrated by +the recent improvements in the discipline of reformatories for boys and +girls and young men and women. It has been demonstrated that the only +useful reformatories are those which diminish the criminal's liberty of +action as little as possible, require him to perform productive labour, +educate him for a trade or other useful occupation, and offer him the +reward of an abridgment of sentence in return for industry and +self-control. Repression and compulsion under penalties however severe +fail to reform, and often make bad moral conditions worse. Instruction, +as much freedom as is consistent with the safety of society, and an +appeal to the ordinary motives of emulation, satisfaction in +achievement, and the desire to win credit, can, and do, reform. + +Many schools, both public and private, have now adopted--in most cases +unconsciously--many of Spencer's more detailed suggestions. The +laboratory method of instruction, for example, now common for scientific +subjects in good schools, is an application of his doctrines of concrete +illustration, training in the accurate use of the senses, and +subordination of book-work. Many schools realise, too, that learning by +heart and, in general, memorising from books are not the only means of +storing the mind of a child. They should make parts of a sound +education, but should not be used to the exclusion of learning through +eye, ear, and hand. Spencer pointed out with much elaboration that +children acquire in their early years a vast amount of information +exclusively through the incessant use of their senses. To-day teachers +know this fact, and realise much better than the teachers of fifty years +ago did, that all through the school and college period the pupils +should be getting a large part of their new knowledge through the +careful application of their own powers of observation, aided, indeed, +by books and pictures which record the observations, old and new, of +other people. The young human being, unlike the puppy or the kitten, is +not confined to the use of his own senses as sources of information and +discovery; but can enjoy the fruits of a prodigious width and depth of +observation acquired by preceding generations and adult members of his +own generation. A recent illustration of this extension of the method of +observation in teaching to observations made by other people is the new +method of giving moral instruction to school children through +photographs of actual scenes which illustrate both good morals and bad, +the exhibition of the photographs being accompanied by a running oral +comment from the teacher. In this kind of moral instruction it seems to +be possible to interest all kinds of children, both civilised and +barbarous, both ill-bred and well-bred. The teaching comes through the +eye, for the children themselves observe intently the pictures which the +lantern throws on the screen; but the striking scenes thus put before +them probably lie in most instances quite outside the region of their +own experiences. + +The essay on "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" contains a hot +denunciation of that kind of information which in most schools used to +usurp the name of history. It is enough to say of this part of Spencer's +educational doctrine that all the best historical writers since the +middle of the nineteenth century seem to have adopted the principles +which he declared should govern the writing of history. As a result, the +teaching of history in schools and colleges has undergone a profound +change. It now deals with the nature and action of government, central, +local, and ecclesiastical, with social observances, industrial systems, +and the customs which regulate popular life, out-of-doors and indoors. +It depicts also the intellectual condition of the nation and the +progress it has made in applied science, the fine arts, and legislation, +and includes descriptions of the peoples' food, shelters, and +amusements. To this result many authors and teachers have contributed; +but Spencer's violent denunciation of history as it was taught in his +time has greatly promoted this important reform. + +Many twentieth-century teachers are sure to put in practice Spencer's +exhortation to teach children to draw with pen and pencil, and to use +paints and brush. He maintained that the common omission of drawing as +an important element in the training of children was in contempt of some +of the most obvious of nature's suggestions with regard to the natural +development of human faculties; and the better recent practice in some +English and American schools verifies his statement; nevertheless some +of the best secondary schools in both countries still fail to recognise +drawing and painting as important elements in liberal education. + +Modern society as yet hardly approaches the putting into effective +practice of the sound views which Spencer set forth with great detail in +his essay on "Physical Education." The instruction given in schools and +colleges on the care of the body and the laws of health is still very +meagre; and in certain subjects of the utmost importance no instruction +whatever is given, as, for example, in the normal methods of +reproduction in plants and animals, in eugenics, and in the ruinous +consequences of disregarding sexual purity and honour. In one respect +his fundamental doctrine of freedom, carried into the domain of physical +exercise, has been extensively adopted in England, on the Continent, +and in America. He taught that although gymnastics, military drill, and +formal exercises of the limbs are better than nothing, they can never +serve in place of the plays prompted by nature. He maintained that "for +girls as well as boys the sportive activities to which the instincts +impel are essential to bodily welfare." This principle is now being +carried into practice not only for school-children, but for operatives +in factories, clerks, and other young persons whose occupations are +sedentary and monotonous. For all such persons, free plays are vastly +better than formal exercises of any sort. + +The wide adoption of Spencer's educational ideas has had to await the +advent of the new educational administration and the new public interest +therein. It awaited the coming of the state university in the United +States and of the city university in England, the establishment of +numerous technical schools, the profound modifications made in grammar +schools and academies, and the multiplication in both countries of the +secondary schools called high schools. In other words, his ideas +gradually gained admission to a vast number of new institutions of +education, which were created and maintained because both the +governments and the nations felt a new sense of responsibility for the +training of the future generations. These new agencies have been created +in great variety, and the introduction of Spencer's ideas has been much +facilitated by this variety. These institutions were national, state, or +municipal. They were tax-supported or endowed. They charged tuition +fees, or were open to competent children or adults without fee. They +undertook to meet alike the needs of the individual and the needs of the +community; and this undertaking involved the introduction of many new +subjects of instruction and many new methods. Through their variety they +could be sympathetic with both individualism and collectivism. The +variety of instruction offered is best illustrated in the strongest +American universities, some of which are tax-supported and some endowed. +These universities maintain a great variety of courses of instruction in +subjects none of which was taught with the faintest approach to adequacy +in American universities sixty years ago; but in making these extensions +the universities have not found it necessary to reduce the instruction +offered in the classics and mathematics. The traditional cultural +studies are still provided; but they represent only one programme among +many, and no one is compelled to follow it. The domination of the +classics is at an end; but any student who prefers the traditional path +to culture, or whose parents choose that path for him, will find in +several American universities much richer provisions of classical +instruction than any university in the country offered sixty years ago. +The present proposals to widen the influence of Oxford University do not +mean, therefore, that the classics, history, and philosophy are to be +taught less there, but only that other subjects are to be taught more, +and that a greater number and variety of young men will be prepared +there for the service of the nation. + +The new public interest in education as a necessary of modern industrial +and political life has gradually brought about a great increase in the +proportional number of young men and women whose education is prolonged +beyond the period of primary or elementary instruction; and this +multitude of young people is preparing for a great variety of callings, +many of which are new within sixty years, having been brought into being +by the extraordinary advances of applied science. The advent of these +new callings has favoured the spread of Spencer's educational ideas. The +recent agitation in favour of what is called vocational training is a +vivid illustration of the wide acceptance of his arguments. Even the +farmers, their farm-hands, and their children must nowadays be offered +free instruction in agriculture; because the public, and especially the +urban public, believes that by disseminating better methods of tillage, +better seed, and appropriate manures, the yield of the farms can be +improved in quality and multiplied in quantity. In regard to all +material interests, the free peoples are acting on the principle that +science is the knowledge of most worth. Spencer's doctrine of natural +consequences in place of artificial penalties, his view that all young +people should be taught how to be wise parents and good citizens, and +his advocacy of instruction in public and private hygiene, lie at the +roots of many of the philanthropic and reformatory movements of the day. + +On the whole, Herbert Spencer has been fortunate among educational +philosophers. He has not had to wait so long for the acceptance of his +teachings as Comenius, Montaigne, or Rousseau waited. His ideas have +been floated on a prodigious tide of industrial and social change, which +necessarily involved wide-spread and profound educational reform. + +This introduction deals with Spencer's four essays on education; but in +the present volume are included three other famous essays written by him +during the same period (1854-59) which produced the essays on education. +All three are germane to the educational essays, because they deal with +the general law of human progress, with the genesis of that science +which Spencer thought to be the knowledge of most worth, and with the +origin and function of music, a subject which he maintained should play +an important part in any scheme of education. + + CHARLES W. ELIOT. + + + + +SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY + +WORKS. _The Proper Sphere of Government_, 1843; _Social Statics_, 1850; +_Theory of Population_ (_Westminster Review_), April 1852; _The +Development of Hypothesis_ (_The Leader_), 20th March 1852; _The +Ultimate Laws of Physiology_ (_National Review_), April 1857; _Essays, +Scientific, Political and Speculative_, 2 vols., 1858-63; _Education_, +1861; _A System of Synthetic Philosophy_ (12 vols., 1862-96), made up as +follows: _First Principles_, 1862; _Principles of Biology_, 2 vols., +1864-7; _Principles of Psychology_, 2 vols., 1870-2; _Principles of +Sociology_, 3 vols., 1876-96; _Ceremonial Institutions_, 1879; +_Principles of Morality_, 2 vols., 1879-93 (vol. i, part I published as +_Data of Ethics_, 1879; part 4 as _Justice_, 1891); _Political +Institutions_, 1882. Meanwhile the following works were also published: +_The Classification of the Sciences_, 1864; _The Study of Sociology_, +1872; _Descriptive Sociology_, 1873; _The Man versus the State_, 1884; +_The Factors of Organic Evolution_, 1887; _The Inadequacy of Natural +Selection_, 1893. Spencer's _Autobiography_ appeared posthumously, 2 +vols., 1904. + +COLLECTED EDITION. Nineteen volumes, 1861-1902. + +BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM. T. Funk-Brentano, _Les Sophistes grecs et les +Sophistes contemporains_ (Mill and Spencer), 1879; F.H. Collins, _An +Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy_, 1889; H. Sidgwick, _Lectures on +the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau_, 1902; 'The Philosophy of +Herbert Spencer' (in _The Philosophy of Kant and Other Lectures_, 1905); +D. Duncan, _An Introduction to the Philosophy of Spencer_, 1904; _Life +and Letters of Herbert Spencer_, 1908; J. Royce, _Herbert Spencer. An +Estimate and a Review_, 1904; J.A. Thomson, _Herbert Spencer_, 1906; +W.H. Hudson, _Herbert Spencer_, 1916; J. Rumney, _Herbert Spencer's +Sociology_, 1934; R.C.K. Ensor, _Some Reflections on Herbert Spencer's +Doctrine_, 1946. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE +_Introduction_ by Charles W. Eliot vii + +PART I + +EDUCATION: INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND PHYSICAL + +WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH? 1 + +INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 45 + +MORAL EDUCATION 84 + +PHYSICAL EDUCATION 116 + +PART II + +ESSAYS ON KINDRED SUBJECTS + +PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 153 + +ON MANNERS AND FASHION 198 + +ON THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 239 + +ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAUGHTER 298 + +ON THE ORIGIN AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC 310 + + + + +ORIGINAL PREFACE + +TO + +EDUCATION: INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND PHYSICAL + + +The four chapters of which this work consists, originally appeared as +four Review-articles: the first in the _Westminster Review_ for July +1859; the second in the _North British Review_ for May 1854; and the +remaining two in the _British Quarterly Review_ for April 1858 and for +April 1859. Severally treating different divisions of the subject, but +together forming a tolerably complete whole, I originally wrote them +with a view to their republication in a united form; and they would some +time since have thus been issued, had not a legal difficulty stood in +the way. This difficulty being now removed, I hasten to fulfil the +intention with which they were written. + +That in their first shape these chapters were severally independent, is +the reason to be assigned for some slight repetitions which occur in +them: one leading idea, more especially, reappearing twice. As, however, +this idea is on each occasion presented under a new form, and as it can +scarcely be too much enforced, I have not thought well to omit any of +the passages embodying it. + +Some additions of importance will be found in the chapter on +Intellectual Education; and in the one on Physical Education there are a +few minor alterations. But the chief changes which have been made, are +changes of expression: all of the essays having undergone a careful +verbal revision. + + H.S. +LONDON, _May 1861_ + + + + +SPENCER'S ESSAYS + + + + +PART I--ON EDUCATION + +WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH? + + +It has been truly remarked that, in order of time, decoration precedes +dress. Among people who submit to great physical suffering that they may +have themselves handsomely tattooed, extremes of temperature are borne +with but little attempt at mitigation. Humboldt tells us that an Orinoco +Indian, though quite regardless of bodily comfort, will yet labour for a +fortnight to purchase pigment wherewith to make himself admired; and +that the same woman who would not hesitate to leave her hut without a +fragment of clothing on, would not dare to commit such a breach of +decorum as to go out unpainted. Voyagers find that coloured beads and +trinkets are much more prized by wild tribes than are calicoes or +broadcloths. And the anecdotes we have of the ways in which, when shirts +and coats are given, savages turn them to some ludicrous display, show +how completely the idea of ornament predominates over that of use. Nay, +there are still more extreme illustrations: witness the fact narrated by +Capt. Speke of his African attendants, who strutted about in their +goat-skin mantles when the weather was fine, but when it was wet, took +them off, folded them up, and went about naked, shivering in the rain! +Indeed, the facts of aboriginal life seem to indicate that dress is +developed out of decorations. And when we remember that even among +ourselves most think more about the fineness of the fabric than its +warmth, and more about the cut than the convenience--when we see that +the function is still in great measure subordinated to the +appearance--we have further reason for inferring such an origin. + +It is curious that the like relations hold with the mind. Among mental +as among bodily acquisitions, the ornamental comes before the useful. +Not only in times past, but almost as much in our own era, that +knowledge which conduces to personal well-being has been postponed to +that which brings applause. In the Greek schools, music, poetry, +rhetoric, and a philosophy which, until Socrates taught, had but little +bearing upon action, were the dominant subjects; while knowledge aiding +the arts of life had a very subordinate place. And in our own +universities and schools at the present moment, the like antithesis +holds. We are guilty of something like a platitude when we say that +throughout his after-career, a boy, in nine cases out of ten, applies +his Latin and Greek to no practical purposes. The remark is trite that +in his shop, or his office, in managing his estate or his family, in +playing his part as director of a bank or a railway, he is very little +aided by this knowledge he took so many years to acquire--so little, +that generally the greater part of it drops out of his memory; and if he +occasionally vents a Latin quotation, or alludes to some Greek myth, it +is less to throw light on the topic in hand than for the sake of effect. +If we inquire what is the real motive for giving boys a classical +education, we find it to be simply conformity to public opinion. Men +dress their children's minds as they do their bodies, in the prevailing +fashion. As the Orinoco Indian puts on paint before leaving his hut, not +with a view to any direct benefit, but because he would be ashamed to be +seen without it; so, a boy's drilling in Latin and Greek is insisted on, +not because of their intrinsic value, but that he may not be disgraced +by being found ignorant of them--that he may have "the education of a +gentleman"--the badge marking a certain social position, and bringing a +consequent respect. + +This parallel is still more clearly displayed in the case of the other +sex. In the treatment of both mind and body, the decorative element has +continued to predominate in a greater degree among women than among men. +Originally, personal adornment occupied the attention of both sexes +equally. In these latter days of civilisation, however, we see that in +the dress of men the regard for appearance has in a considerable degree +yielded to the regard for comfort; while in their education the useful +has of late been trenching on the ornamental. In neither direction has +this change gone so far with women. The wearing of earrings, +finger-rings, bracelets; the elaborate dressings of the hair; the still +occasional use of paint; the immense labour bestowed in making +habiliments sufficiently attractive; and the great discomfort that will +be submitted to for the sake of conformity; show how greatly, in the +attiring of women, the desire of approbation overrides the desire for +warmth and convenience. And similarly in their education, the immense +preponderance of "accomplishments" proves how here, too, use is +subordinated to display. Dancing, deportment, the piano, singing, +drawing--what a large space do these occupy! If you ask why Italian and +German are learnt, you will find that, under all the sham reasons given, +the real reason is, that a knowledge of those tongues is thought +ladylike. It is not that the books written in them may be utilised, +which they scarcely ever are; but that Italian and German songs may be +sung, and that the extent of attainment may bring whispered admiration. +The births, deaths, and marriages of kings, and other like historic +trivialities, are committed to memory, not because of any direct +benefits that can possibly result from knowing them: but because society +considers them parts of a good education--because the absence of such +knowledge may bring the contempt of others. When we have named reading, +writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, and sewing, we have named about +all the things a girl is taught with a view to their actual uses in +life; and even some of these have more reference to the good opinion of +others than to immediate personal welfare. + +Thoroughly to realise the truth that with the mind as with the body the +ornamental precedes the useful, it is requisite to glance at its +rationale. This lies in the fact that, from the far past down even to +the present, social needs have subordinated individual needs, and that +the chief social need has been the control of individuals. It is not, as +we commonly suppose, that there are no governments but those of +monarchs, and parliaments, and constituted authorities. These +acknowledged governments are supplemented by other unacknowledged ones, +that grow up in all circles, in which every man or woman strives to be +king or queen or lesser dignitary. To get above some and be reverenced +by them, and to propitiate those who are above us, is the universal +struggle in which the chief energies of life are expended. By the +accumulation of wealth, by style of living, by beauty of dress, by +display of knowledge or intellect, each tries to subjugate others; and +so aids in weaving that ramified network of restraints by which society +is kept in order. It is not the savage chief only, who, in formidable +war-paint, with scalps at his belt, aims to strike awe into his +inferiors; it is not only the belle who, by elaborate toilet, polished +manners, and numerous accomplishments, strives to "make conquests;" but +the scholar, the historian, the philosopher, use their acquirements to +the same end. We are none of us content with quietly unfolding our own +individualities to the full in all directions; but have a restless +craving to impress our individualities upon others, and in some way +subordinate them. And this it is which determines the character of our +education. Not what knowledge is of most real worth, is the +consideration; but what will bring most applause, honour, respect--what +will most conduce to social position and influence--what will be most +imposing. As, throughout life, not what we are, but what we shall be +thought, is the question; so in education, the question is, not the +intrinsic value of knowledge, so much as its extrinsic effects on +others. And this being our dominant idea, direct utility is scarcely +more regarded than by the barbarian when filing his teeth and staining +his nails. + + * * * * * + +If there requires further evidence of the rude, undeveloped character of +our education, we have it in the fact that the comparative worths of +different kinds of knowledge have been as yet scarcely even +discussed--much less discussed in a methodic way with definite results. +Not only is it that no standard of relative values has yet been agreed +upon; but the existence of any such standard has not been conceived in a +clear manner. And not only is it that the existence of such a standard +has not been clearly conceived; but the need for it seems to have been +scarcely even felt. Men read books on this topic, and attend lectures on +that; decide that their children shall be instructed in these branches +of knowledge, and shall not be instructed in those; and all under the +guidance of mere custom, or liking, or prejudice; without ever +considering the enormous importance of determining in some rational way +what things are really most worth learning. It is true that in all +circles we hear occasional remarks on the importance of this or the +other order of information. But whether the degree of its importance +justifies the expenditure of the time needed to acquire it; and whether +there are not things of more importance to which such time might be +better devoted; are queries which, if raised at all, are disposed of +quite summarily, according to personal predilections. It is true also, +that now and then, we hear revived the standing controversy respecting +the comparative merits of classics and mathematics. This controversy, +however, is carried on in an empirical manner, with no reference to an +ascertained criterion; and the question at issue is insignificant when +compared with the general question of which it is part. To suppose that +deciding whether a mathematical or a classical education is the best is +deciding what is the proper _curriculum_, is much the same thing as to +suppose that the whole of dietetics lies in ascertaining whether or not +bread is more nutritive than potatoes! + +The question which we contend is of such transcendent moment, is, not +whether such or such knowledge is of worth but what is its _relative_ +worth? When they have named certain advantages which a given course of +study has secured them, persons are apt to assume that they have +justified themselves; quite forgetting that the adequateness of the +advantages is the point to be judged. There is, perhaps, not a subject +to which men devote attention that has not _some_ value. A year +diligently spent in getting up heraldry, would very possibly give a +little further insight into ancient manners and morals. Any one who +should learn the distances between all the towns in England, might, in +the course of his life, find one or two of the thousand facts he had +acquired of some slight service when arranging a journey. Gathering +together all the small gossip of a county, profitless occupation as it +would be, might yet occasionally help to establish some useful +fact--say, a good example of hereditary transmission. But in these +cases, every one would admit that there was no proportion between the +required labour and the probable benefit. No one would tolerate the +proposal to devote some years of a boy's time to getting such +information, at the cost of much more valuable information which he +might else have got. And if here the test of relative value is appealed +to and held conclusive, then should it be appealed to and held +conclusive throughout. Had we time to master all subjects we need not be +particular. To quote the old song:-- + + Could a man be secure + That his day would endure + As of old, for a thousand long years, + What things might he know! + What deeds might he do! + And all without hurry or care. + +"But we that have but span-long lives" must ever bear in mind our +limited time for acquisition. And remembering how narrowly this time is +limited, not only by the shortness of life, but also still more by the +business of life, we ought to be especially solicitous to employ what +time we have to the greatest advantage. Before devoting years to some +subject which fashion or fancy suggests, it is surely wise to weigh +with great care the worth of the results, as compared with the worth of +various alternative results which the same years might bring if +otherwise applied. + +In education, then, this is the question of questions, which it is high +time we discussed in some methodic way. The first in importance, though +the last to be considered, is the problem--how to decide among the +conflicting claims of various subjects on our attention. Before there +can be a rational _curriculum_, we must settle which things it most +concerns us to know; or, to use a word of Bacon's, now unfortunately +obsolete--we must determine the relative values of knowledges. + + * * * * * + +To this end, a measure of value is the first requisite. And happily, +respecting the true measure of value, as expressed in general terms, +there can be no dispute. Every one in contending for the worth of any +particular order of information, does so by showing its bearing upon +some part of life. In reply to the question--"Of what use is it?" the +mathematician, linguist, naturalist, or philosopher, explains the way in +which his learning beneficially influences action--saves from evil or +secures good--conduces to happiness. When the teacher of writing has +pointed out how great an aid writing is to success in business--that is, +to the obtainment of sustenance--that is, to satisfactory living; he is +held to have proved his case. And when the collector of dead facts (say +a numismatist) fails to make clear any appreciable effects which these +facts can produce on human welfare, he is obliged to admit that they are +comparatively valueless. All then, either directly or by implication, +appeal to this as the ultimate test. + +How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in +the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general +problem which comprehends every special problem is--the right ruling of +conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat +the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our +affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a +citizen; in what way to utilise those sources of happiness which nature +supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of +ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great +thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which +education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the +function which education has to discharge; and the only rational mode +of judging of an educational course is, to judge in what degree it +discharges such function. + +This test, never used in its entirety, but rarely even partially used, +and used then in a vague, half conscious way, has to be applied +consciously, methodically, and throughout all cases. It behoves us to +set before ourselves, and ever to keep clearly in view, complete living +as the end to be achieved; so that in bringing up our children we may +choose subjects and methods of instruction, with deliberate reference to +this end. Not only ought we to cease from the mere unthinking adoption +of the current fashion in education, which has no better warrant than +any other fashion; but we must also rise above that rude, empirical +style of judging displayed by those more intelligent people who do +bestow some care in overseeing the cultivation of their children's +minds. It must not suffice simply to _think_ that such or such +information will be useful in after life, or that this kind of knowledge +is of more practical value than that; but we must seek out some process +of estimating their respective values, so that as far as possible we may +positively _know_ which are most deserving of attention. + +Doubtless the task is difficult--perhaps never to be more than +approximately achieved. But, considering the vastness of the interests +at stake, its difficulty is no reason for pusillanimously passing it by; +but rather for devoting every energy to its mastery. And if we only +proceed systematically, we may very soon get at results of no small +moment. + +Our first step must obviously be to classify, in the order of their +importance, the leading kinds of activity which constitute human life. +They may be naturally arranged into:--1. those activities which directly +minister to self-preservation; 2. those activities which, by securing +the necessaries of life, indirectly minister to self-preservation; 3. +those activities which have for their end the rearing and discipline of +offspring; 4. those activities which are involved in the maintenance of +proper social and political relations; 5. those miscellaneous activities +which fill up the leisure part of life, devoted to the gratification of +the tastes and feelings. + +That these stand in something like their true order of subordination, it +needs no long consideration to show. The actions and precautions by +which, from moment to moment, we secure personal safety, must clearly +take precedence of all others. Could there be a man, ignorant as an +infant of surrounding objects and movements, or how to guide himself +among them, he would pretty certainly lose his life the first time he +went into the street; notwithstanding any amount of learning he might +have on other matters. And as entire ignorance in all other directions +would be less promptly fatal than entire ignorance in this direction, it +must be admitted that knowledge immediately conducive to +self-preservation is of primary importance. + +That next after direct self-preservation comes the indirect +self-preservation which consists in acquiring the means of living, none +will question. That a man's industrial functions must be considered +before his parental ones, is manifest from the fact that, speaking +generally, the discharge of the parental functions is made possible only +by the previous discharge of the industrial ones. The power of +self-maintenance necessarily preceding the power of maintaining +offspring, it follows that knowledge needful for self-maintenance has +stronger claims than knowledge needful for family welfare--is second in +value to none save knowledge needful for immediate self-preservation. + +As the family comes before the State in order of time--as the bringing +up of children is possible before the State exists, or when it has +ceased to be, whereas the State is rendered possible only by the +bringing up of children; it follows that the duties of the parent demand +closer attention than those of the citizen. Or, to use a further +argument--since the goodness of a society ultimately depends on the +nature of its citizens; and since the nature of its citizens is more +modifiable by early training than by anything else; we must conclude +that the welfare of the family underlies the welfare of society. And +hence knowledge directly conducing to the first, must take precedence of +knowledge directly conducing to the last. + +Those various forms of pleasurable occupation which fill up the leisure +left by graver occupations--the enjoyments of music, poetry, painting, +etc.--manifestly imply a pre-existing society. Not only is a +considerable development of them impossible without a long-established +social union; but their very subject-matter consists in great part of +social sentiments and sympathies. Not only does society supply the +conditions to their growth; but also the ideas and sentiments they +express. And, consequently, that part of human conduct which constitutes +good citizenship, is of more moment than that which goes out in +accomplishments or exercise of the tastes; and, in education, +preparation for the one must rank before preparation for the other. + +Such then, we repeat, is something like the rational order of +subordination:--That education which prepares for direct +self-preservation; that which prepares for indirect self-preservation; +that which prepares for parenthood; that which prepares for citizenship; +that which prepares for the miscellaneous refinements of life. We do not +mean to say that these divisions are definitely separable. We do not +deny that they are intricately entangled with each other, in such way +that there can be no training for any that is not in some measure a +training for all. Nor do we question that of each division there are +portions more important than certain portions of the preceding +divisions: that, for instance, a man of much skill in business but +little other faculty, may fall further below the standard of complete +living than one of but moderate ability in money-getting but great +judgment as a parent; or that exhaustive information bearing on right +social action, joined with entire want of general culture in literature +and the fine arts, is less desirable than a more moderate share of the +one joined with some of the other. But, after making due qualifications, +there still remain these broadly-marked divisions; and it still +continues substantially true that these divisions subordinate one +another in the foregoing order, because the corresponding divisions of +life make one another _possible_ in that order. + +Of course the ideal of education is--complete preparation in all these +divisions. But failing this ideal, as in our phase of civilisation every +one must do more or less, the aim should be to maintain _a due +proportion_ between the degrees of preparation in each. Not exhaustive +cultivation in any one, supremely important though it may be--not even +an exclusive attention to the two, three, or four divisions of greatest +importance; but an attention to all:--greatest where the value is +greatest; less where the value is less; least where the value is least. +For the average man (not to forget the cases in which peculiar aptitude +for some one department of knowledge, rightly makes pursuit of that one +the bread-winning occupation)--for the average man, we say, the +desideratum is, a training that approaches nearest to perfection in the +things which most subserve complete living, and falls more and more +below perfection in the things that have more and more remote bearings +on complete living. + +In regulating education by this standard, there are some general +considerations that should be ever present to us. The worth of any kind +of culture, as aiding complete living, may be either necessary or more +or less contingent. There is knowledge of intrinsic value; knowledge of +quasi-intrinsic value; and knowledge of conventional value. Such facts +as that sensations of numbness and tingling commonly precede paralysis, +that the resistance of water to a body moving through it varies as the +square of the velocity, that chlorine is a disinfectant,--these, and the +truths of Science in general, are of intrinsic value: they will bear on +human conduct ten thousand years hence as they do now. The extra +knowledge of our own language, which is given by an acquaintance with +Latin and Greek, may be considered to have a value that is +quasi-intrinsic: it must exist for us and for other races whose +languages owe much to these sources; but will last only as long as our +languages last. While that kind of information which, in our schools, +usurps the name History--the mere tissue of names and dates and dead +unmeaning events--has a conventional value only: it has not the remotest +bearing on any of our actions; and is of use only for the avoidance of +those unpleasant criticisms which current opinion passes upon its +absence. Of course, as those facts which concern all mankind throughout +all time must be held of greater moment than those which concern only a +portion of them during a limited era, and of far greater moment than +those which concern only a portion of them during the continuance of a +fashion; it follows that in a rational estimate, knowledge of intrinsic +worth must, other things equal, take precedence of knowledge that is of +quasi-intrinsic or conventional worth. + +One further preliminary. Acquirement of every kind has two values--value +as _knowledge_ and value as _discipline_. Besides its use for guiding +conduct, the acquisition of each order of facts has also its use as +mental exercise; and its effects as a preparative for complete living +have to be considered under both these heads. + +These, then, are the general ideas with which we must set out in +discussing a _curriculum_:--Life as divided into several kinds of +activity of successively decreasing importance; the worth of each order +of facts as regulating these several kinds of activity, intrinsically, +quasi-intrinsically, and conventionally; and their regulative influences +estimated both as knowledge and discipline. + + * * * * * + +Happily, that all-important part of education which goes to secure +direct self-preservation, is in great part already provided for. Too +momentous to be left to our blundering, Nature takes it into her own +hands. While yet in its nurse's arms, the infant, by hiding its face +and crying at the sight of a stranger, shows the dawning instinct to +attain safety by flying from that which is unknown and may be dangerous; +and when it can walk, the terror it manifests if an unfamiliar dog comes +near, or the screams with which it runs to its mother after any +startling sight or sound, shows this instinct further developed. +Moreover, knowledge subserving direct self-preservation is that which it +is chiefly busied in acquiring from hour to hour. How to balance its +body; how to control its movements so as to avoid collisions; what +objects are hard, and will hurt if struck; what objects are heavy, and +injure if they fall on the limbs; which things will bear the weight of +the body, and which not; the pains inflicted by fire, by missiles, by +sharp instruments--these, and various other pieces of information +needful for the avoidance of death or accident, it is ever learning. And +when, a few years later, the energies go out in running, climbing, and +jumping, in games of strength and games of skill, we see in all these +actions by which the muscles are developed, the perceptions sharpened, +and the judgment quickened, a preparation for the safe conduct of the +body among surrounding objects and movements; and for meeting those +greater dangers that occasionally occur in the lives of all. Being thus, +as we say, so well cared for by Nature, this fundamental education needs +comparatively little care from us. What we are chiefly called upon to +see, is, that there shall be free scope for gaining this experience and +receiving this discipline--that there shall be no such thwarting of +Nature as that by which stupid schoolmistresses commonly prevent the +girls in their charge from the spontaneous physical activities they +would indulge in; and so render them comparatively incapable of taking +care of themselves in circumstances of peril. + +This, however, is by no means all that is comprehended in the education +that prepares for direct self-preservation. Besides guarding the body +against mechanical damage or destruction, it has to be guarded against +injury from other causes--against the disease and death that follow +breaches of physiologic law. For complete living it is necessary, not +only that sudden annihilations of life shall be warded off; but also +that there shall be escaped the incapacities and the slow annihilation +which unwise habits entail. As, without health and energy, the +industrial, the parental, the social, and all other activities become +more or less impossible; it is clear that this secondary kind of direct +self-preservation is only less important than the primary kind; and +that knowledge tending to secure it should rank very high. + +It is true that here, too, guidance is in some measure ready supplied. +By our various physical sensations and desires, Nature has insured a +tolerable conformity to the chief requirements. Fortunately for us, want +of food, great heat, extreme cold, produce promptings too peremptory to +be disregarded. And would men habitually obey these and all like +promptings when less strong, comparatively few evils would arise. If +fatigue of body or brain were in every case followed by desistance; if +the oppression produced by a close atmosphere always led to ventilation; +if there were no eating without hunger, or drinking without thirst; then +would the system be but seldom out of working order. But so profound an +ignorance is there of the laws of life, that men do not even know that +their sensations are their natural guides, and (when not rendered morbid +by long--continued disobedience) their trustworthy guides. So that +though, to speak teleologically, Nature has provided efficient +safeguards to health, lack of knowledge makes them in a great measure +useless. + +If any one doubts the importance of an acquaintance with the principles +of physiology, as a means to complete living, let him look around and +see how many men and women he can find in middle or later life who are +thoroughly well. Only occasionally do we meet with an example of +vigorous health continued to old age; hourly do we meet with examples of +acute disorder, chronic ailment, general debility, premature +decrepitude. Scarcely is there one to whom you put the question, who has +not, in the course of his life, brought upon himself illnesses which a +little information would have saved him from. Here is a case of +heart-disease consequent on a rheumatic fever that followed reckless +exposure. There is a case of eyes spoiled for life by over-study. +Yesterday the account was of one whose long-enduring lameness was +brought on by continuing, spite of the pain, to use a knee after it had +been slightly injured. And to-day we are told of another who has had to +lie by for years, because he did not know that the palpitation he +suffered under resulted from overtaxed brain. Now we hear of an +irremediable injury which followed some silly feat of strength; and, +again, of a constitution that has never recovered from the effects of +excessive work needlessly undertaken. While on every side we see the +perpetual minor ailments which accompany feebleness. Not to dwell on the +pain, the weariness, the gloom, the waste of time and money thus +entailed, only consider how greatly ill-health hinders the discharge of +all duties--makes business often impossible, and always more difficult; +produces an irritability fatal to the right management of children; puts +the functions of citizenship out of the question; and makes amusement a +bore. Is it not clear that the physical sins--partly our forefathers' +and partly our own--which produce this ill-health, deduct more from +complete living than anything else? and to a great extent make life a +failure and a burden instead of a benefaction and a pleasure? + +Nor is this all. Life, besides being thus immensely deteriorated, is +also cut short. It is not true, as we commonly suppose, that after a +disorder or disease from which we have recovered, we are as before. No +disturbance of the normal course of the functions can pass away and +leave things exactly as they were. A permanent damage is done--not +immediately appreciable, it may be, but still there; and along with +other such items which Nature in her strict account-keeping never drops, +it will tell against us to the inevitable shortening of our days. +Through the accumulation of small injuries it is that constitutions are +commonly undermined, and break down, long before their time. And if we +call to mind how far the average duration of life falls below the +possible duration, we see how immense is the loss. When, to the numerous +partial deductions which bad health entails, we add this great final +deduction, it results that ordinarily one-half of life is thrown away. + +Hence, knowledge which subserves direct self-preservation by preventing +this loss of health, is of primary importance. We do not contend that +possession of such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. +It is clear that in our present phase of civilisation, men's necessities +often compel them to transgress. And it is further clear that, even in +the absence of such compulsion, their inclinations would frequently lead +them, spite of their convictions, to sacrifice future good to present +gratification. But we _do_ contend that the right knowledge impressed in +the right way would effect much; and we further contend that as the laws +of health must be recognised before they can be fully conformed to, the +imparting of such knowledge must precede a more rational living--come +when that may. We infer that as vigorous health and its accompanying +high spirits are larger elements of happiness than any other things +whatever, the teaching how to maintain them is a teaching that yields in +moment to no other whatever. And therefore we assert that such a course +of physiology as is needful for the comprehension of its general truths, +and their bearings on daily conduct, is an all-essential part of a +rational education. + +Strange that the assertion should need making! Stranger still that it +should need defending! Yet are there not a few by whom such a +proposition will be received with something approaching to derision. Men +who would blush if caught saying Iphigenia instead of Iphigenia, or +would resent as an insult any imputation of ignorance respecting the +fabled labours of a fabled demi-god, show not the slightest shame in +confessing that they do not know where the Eustachian tubes are, what +are the actions of the spinal cord, what is the normal rate of +pulsation, or how the lungs are inflated. While anxious that their sons +should be well up in the superstitions of two thousand years ago, they +care not that they should be taught anything about the structure and +functions of their own bodies--nay, even wish them not to be so taught. +So overwhelming is the influence of established routine! So terribly in +our education does the ornamental over-ride the useful! + + * * * * * + +We need not insist on the value of that knowledge which aids indirect +self-preservation by facilitating the gaining of a livelihood. This is +admitted by all; and, indeed, by the mass is perhaps too exclusively +regarded as the end of education. But while every one is ready to +endorse the abstract proposition that instruction fitting youths for the +business of life is of high importance, or even to consider it of +supreme importance; yet scarcely any inquire what instruction will so +fit them. It is true that reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught +with an intelligent appreciation of their uses. But when we have said +this we have said nearly all. While the great bulk of what else is +acquired has no bearing on the industrial activities, an immensity of +information that has a direct bearing on the industrial activities is +entirely passed over. + +For, leaving out only some very small classes, what are all men employed +in? They are employed in the production, preparation, and distribution +of commodities. And on what does efficiency in the production, +preparation, and distribution of commodities depend? It depends on the +use of methods fitted to the respective natures of these commodities; it +depends on an adequate acquaintance with their physical, chemical, or +vital properties, as the case may be; that is, it depends on Science. +This order of knowledge which is in great part ignored in our +school-courses, is the order of knowledge underlying the right +performance of those processes by which civilised life is made possible. +Undeniable as is this truth, there seems to be no living consciousness +of it: its very familiarity makes it unregarded. To give due weight to +our argument, we must, therefore, realise this truth to the reader by a +rapid review of the facts. + +Passing over the most abstract science, Logic, on the due guidance by +which, however, the large producer or distributor depends, knowingly or +unknowingly, for success in his business-forecasts, we come first to +Mathematics. Of this, the most general division, dealing with number, +guides all industrial activities; be they those by which processes are +adjusted, or estimates framed, or commodities bought and sold, or +accounts kept. No one needs to have the value of this division of +abstract science insisted upon. + +For the higher arts of construction, some acquaintance with the more +special division of Mathematics is indispensable. The village carpenter, +who lays out his work by empirical rules, equally with the builder of a +Britannia Bridge, makes hourly reference to the laws of space-relations. +The surveyor who measures the land purchased; the architect in designing +a mansion to be built on it; the builder when laying out the +foundations; the masons in cutting the stones; and the various artizans +who put up the fittings; are all guided by geometrical truths. +Railway-making is regulated from beginning to end by geometry: alike in +the preparation of plans and sections; in staking out the line; in the +mensuration of cuttings and embankments; in the designing and building +of bridges, culverts, viaducts, tunnels, stations. Similarly with the +harbours, docks, piers, and various engineering and architectural works +that fringe the coasts and overspread the country, as well as the mines +that run underneath it. And now-a-days, even the farmer, for the correct +laying-out of his drains, has recourse to the level--that is, to +geometrical principles. + +Turn next to the Abstract-Concrete sciences. On the application of the +simplest of these, Mechanics, depends the success of modern +manufactures. The properties of the lever, the wheel-and-axle, etc., are +recognised in every machine, and to machinery in these times we owe all +production. Trace the history of the breakfast-roll. The soil out of +which it came was drained with machine-made tiles; the surface was +turned over by a machine; the wheat was reaped, thrashed, and winnowed +by machines; by machinery it was ground and bolted; and had the flour +been sent to Gosport, it might have been made into biscuits by a +machine. Look round the room in which you sit. If modern, probably the +bricks in its walls were machine-made; and by machinery the flooring was +sawn and planed, the mantel-shelf sawn and polished, the paper-hangings +made and printed. The veneer on the table, the turned legs of the +chairs, the carpet, the curtains, are all products of machinery. Your +clothing--plain, figured, or printed--is it not wholly woven, nay, +perhaps even sewed, by machinery? And the volume you are reading--are +not its leaves fabricated by one machine and covered with these words by +another? Add to which that for the means of distribution over both land +and sea, we are similarly indebted. And then observe that according as +knowledge of mechanics is well or ill applied to these ends, comes +success or failure. The engineer who miscalculates the strength of +materials, builds a bridge that breaks down. The manufacturer who uses a +bad machine cannot compete with another whose machine wastes less in +friction and inertia. The ship-builder adhering to the old model is +out-sailed by one who builds on the mechanically-justified wave-line +principle. And as the ability of a nation to hold its own against other +nations, depends on the skilled activity of its units, we see that on +mechanical knowledge may turn the national fate. + +On ascending from the divisions of Abstract-Concrete science dealing +with molar forces, to those divisions of it which deal with molecular +forces, we come to another vast series of applications. To this group of +sciences joined with the preceding groups we owe the steam-engine, which +does the work of millions of labourers. That section of physics which +formulates the laws of heat, has taught us how to economise fuel in +various industries; how to increase the produce of smelting furnaces by +substituting the hot for the cold blast; how to ventilate mines; how to +prevent explosions by using the safety-lamp; and, through the +thermometer, how to regulate innumerable processes. That section which +has the phenomena of light for its subject, gives eyes to the old and +the myopic; aids through the microscope in detecting diseases and +adulterations; and, by improved lighthouses, prevents shipwrecks. +Researches in electricity and magnetism have saved innumerable lives and +incalculable property through the compass; have subserved many arts by +the electrotype; and now, in the telegraph, have supplied us with an +agency by which for the future, mercantile transactions will be +regulated and political intercourse carried on. While in the details of +in-door life, from the improved kitchen-range up to the stereoscope on +the drawing-room table, the applications of advanced physics underlie +our comforts and gratifications. + +Still more numerous are the applications of Chemistry. The bleacher, the +dyer, the calico-printer, are severally occupied in processes that are +well or ill done according as they do or do not conform to chemical +laws. Smelting of copper, tin, zinc, lead, silver, iron, must be guided +by chemistry. Sugar-refining, gas-making, soap-boiling, +gunpowder-manufacture, are operations all partly chemical; as are +likewise those which produce glass and porcelain. Whether the +distiller's wort stops at the alcoholic fermentation or passes into the +acetous, is a chemical question on which hangs his profit or loss; and +the brewer, if his business is extensive, finds it pay to keep a chemist +on his premises. Indeed, there is now scarcely any manufacture over some +part of which chemistry does not preside. Nay, in these times even +agriculture, to be profitably carried on, must have like guidance. The +analysis of manures and soils; the disclosure of their respective +adaptations; the use of gypsum or other substance for fixing ammonia; +the utilisation of coprolites; the production of artificial manures--all +these are boons of chemistry which it behoves the farmer to acquaint +himself with. Be it in the lucifer match, or in disinfected sewage, or +in photographs--in bread made without fermentation, or perfumes +extracted from refuse, we may perceive that chemistry affects all our +industries; and that, therefore, knowledge of it concerns every one who +is directly or indirectly connected with our industries. + +Of the Concrete sciences, we come first to Astronomy. Out of this has +grown that art of navigation which has made possible the enormous +foreign commerce that supports a large part of our population, while +supplying us with many necessaries and most of our luxuries. + +Geology, again, is a science knowledge of which greatly aids industrial +success. Now that iron ores are so large a source of wealth; now that +the duration of our coal-supply has become a question of great interest; +now that we have a College of Mines and a Geological Survey; it is +scarcely needful to enlarge on the truth that the study of the Earth's +crust is important to our material welfare. + +And then the science of life--Biology: does not this, too, bear +fundamentally on these processes of indirect self-preservation? With +what we ordinarily call manufactures, it has, indeed, little connection; +but with the all-essential manufacture--that of food--it is inseparably +connected. As agriculture must conform its methods to the phenomena of +vegetal and animal life, it follows that the science of these phenomena +is the rational basis of agriculture. Various biological truths have +indeed been empirically established and acted upon by farmers, while yet +there has been no conception of them as science; such as that particular +manures are suited to particular plants; that crops of certain kinds +unfit the soil for other crops; that horses cannot do good work on poor +food; that such and such diseases of cattle and sheep are caused by such +and such conditions. These, and the every-day knowledge which the +agriculturist gains by experience respecting the management of plants +and animals, constitute his stock of biological facts; on the largeness +of which greatly depends his success. And as these biological facts, +scanty, indefinite, rudimentary, though they are, aid him so +essentially; judge what must be the value to him of such facts when they +become positive, definite, and exhaustive. Indeed, even now we may see +the benefits that rational biology is conferring on him. The truth that +the production of animal heat implies waste of substance, and that, +therefore, preventing loss of heat prevents the need for extra food--a +purely theoretical conclusion--now guides the fattening of cattle: it is +found that by keeping cattle warm, fodder is saved. Similarly with +respect to variety of food. The experiments of physiologists have shown +that not only is change of diet beneficial, but that digestion is +facilitated by a mixture of ingredients in each meal. The discovery that +a disorder known as "the staggers," of which many thousands of sheep +have died annually, is caused by an entozoon which presses on the brain, +and that if the creature is extracted through the softened place in the +skull which marks its position, the sheep usually recovers, is another +debt which agriculture owes to biology. + +Yet one more science have we to note as bearing directly on industrial +success--the Science of Society. Men who daily look at the state of the +money-market glance over prices current; discuss the probable crops of +corn, cotton, sugar, wool, silk; weigh the chances of war; and from +these data decide on their mercantile operations; are students of social +science: empirical and blundering students it may be; but still, +students who gain the prizes or are plucked of their profits, according +as they do or do not reach the right conclusion. Not only the +manufacturer and the merchant must guide their transactions by +calculations of supply and demand, based on numerous facts, and tacitly +recognising sundry general principles of social action; but even the +retailer must do the like: his prosperity very greatly depending upon +the correctness of his judgments respecting the future wholesale prices +and the future rates of consumption. Manifestly, whoever takes part in +the entangled commercial activities of a community, is vitally +interested in understanding the laws according to which those activities +vary. + +Thus, to all such as are occupied in the production, exchange, or +distribution of commodities, acquaintance with Science in some of its +departments, is of fundamental importance. Each man who is immediately +or remotely implicated in any form of industry (and few are not) has in +some way to deal with the mathematical, physical, and chemical +properties of things; perhaps, also, has a direct interest in biology; +and certainly has in sociology. Whether he does or does not succeed well +in that indirect self-preservation which we call getting a good +livelihood, depends in a great degree on his knowledge of one or more of +these sciences: not, it may be, a rational knowledge; but still a +knowledge, though empirical. For what we call learning a business, +really implies learning the science involved in it; though not perhaps +under the name of science. And hence a grounding in science is of great +importance, both because it prepares for all this, and because rational +knowledge has an immense superiority over empirical knowledge. Moreover, +not only is scientific culture requisite for each, that he may +understand the _how_ and the _why_ of the things and processes with +which he is concerned as maker or distributor; but it is often of much +moment that he should understand the _how_ and the _why_ of various +other things and processes. In this age of joint-stock undertakings, +nearly every man above the labourer is interested as capitalist in some +other occupation than his own; and, as thus interested, his profit or +loss often depends on his knowledge of the sciences bearing on this +other occupation. Here is a mine, in the sinking of which many +shareholders ruined themselves, from not knowing that a certain fossil +belonged to the old red sandstone, below which no coal is found. +Numerous attempts have been made to construct electromagnetic engines, +in the hope of superseding steam; but had those who supplied the money +understood the general law of the correlation and equivalence of +forces, they might have had better balances at their bankers. Daily are +men induced to aid in carrying out inventions which a mere tyro in +science could show to be futile. Scarcely a locality but has its history +of fortunes thrown away over some impossible project. + +And if already the loss from want of science is so frequent and so +great, still greater and more frequent will it be to those who hereafter +lack science. Just as fast as productive processes become more +scientific, which competition will inevitably make them do; and just as +fast as joint-stock undertakings spread, which they certainly will; so +fast must scientific knowledge grow necessary to every one. + +That which our school-courses leave almost entirely out, we thus find to +be that which most nearly concerns the business of life. Our industries +would cease, were it not for the information which men begin to acquire, +as they best may, after their education is said to be finished. And were +it not for this information, from age to age accumulated and spread by +unofficial means, these industries would never have existed. Had there +been no teaching but such as goes on in our public schools, England +would now be what it was in feudal times. That increasing acquaintance +with the laws of phenomena, which has through successive ages enabled us +to subjugate Nature to our needs, and in these days gives the common +labourer comforts which a few centuries ago kings could not purchase, is +scarcely in any degree owed to the appointed means of instructing our +youth. The vital knowledge--that by which we have grown as a nation to +what we are, and which now underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge +that has got itself taught in nooks and corners; while the ordained +agencies for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas. + + * * * * * + +We come now to the third great division of human activities--a division +for which no preparation whatever is made. If by some strange chance not +a vestige of us descended to the remote future save a pile of our +school-books or some college examination papers, we may imagine how +puzzled an antiquary of the period would be on finding in them no sign +that the learners were ever likely to be parents. "This must have been +the _curriculum_ for their celibates," we may fancy him concluding. "I +perceive here an elaborate preparation for many things; especially for +reading the books of extinct nations and of co-existing nations (from +which indeed it seems clear that these people had very little worth +reading in their own tongue); but I find no reference whatever to the +bringing up of children. They could not have been so absurd as to omit +all training for this gravest of responsibilities. Evidently then, this +was the school-course of one of their monastic orders." + +Seriously, is it not an astonishing fact, that though on the treatment +of offspring depend their lives or deaths, and their moral welfare or +ruin; yet not one word of instruction on the treatment of offspring is +ever given to those who will by and by be parents? Is it not monstrous +that the fate of a new generation should be left to the chances of +unreasoning custom, impulse, fancy--joined with the suggestions of +ignorant nurses and the prejudiced counsel of grandmothers? If a +merchant commenced business without any knowledge of arithmetic and +book-keeping, we should exclaim at his folly, and look for disastrous +consequences. Or if, before studying anatomy, a man set up as a surgical +operator, we should wonder at his audacity and pity his patients. But +that parents should begin the difficult task of rearing children, +without ever having given a thought to the principles--physical, moral, +or intellectual--which ought to guide them, excites neither surprise at +the actors nor pity for their victims. + +To tens of thousands that are killed, add hundreds of thousand that +survive with feeble constitutions, and millions that grow up with +constitutions not so strong as they should be; and you will have some +idea of the curse inflicted on their offspring by parents ignorant of +the laws of life. Do but consider for a moment that the regimen to which +children are subject, is hourly telling upon them to their life-long +injury or benefit; and that there are twenty ways of going wrong to one +way of going right; and you will get some idea of the enormous mischief +that is almost everywhere inflicted by the thoughtless, haphazard system +in common use. Is it decided that a boy shall be clothed in some flimsy +short dress, and be allowed to go playing about with limbs reddened by +cold? The decision will tell on his whole future existence--either in +illnesses; or in stunted growth; or in deficient energy; or in a +maturity less vigorous than it ought to have been, and in consequent +hindrances to success and happiness. Are children doomed to a monotonous +dietary, or a dietary that is deficient in nutritiveness? Their ultimate +physical power, and their efficiency as men and women, will inevitably +be more or less diminished by it. Are they forbidden vociferous play, or +(being too ill-clothed to bear exposure) are they kept indoors in cold +weather? They are certain to fall below that measure of health and +strength to which they would else have attained. When sons and daughters +grow up sickly and feeble, parents commonly regard the event as a +misfortune--as a visitation of Providence. Thinking after the prevalent +chaotic fashion, they assume that these evils come without causes; or +that the causes are supernatural. Nothing of the kind. In some cases the +causes are doubtless inherited; but in most cases foolish regulations +are the causes. Very generally, parents themselves are responsible for +all this pain, this debility, this depression, this misery. They have +undertaken to control the lives of their offspring from hour to hour; +with cruel carelessness they have neglected to learn anything about +these vital processes which they are unceasingly affecting by their +commands and prohibitions; in utter ignorance of the simplest +physiologic laws, they have been year by year undermining the +constitutions of their children; and have so inflicted disease and +premature death, not only on them but on their descendants. + +Equally great are the ignorance and the consequent injury, when we turn +from physical training to moral training. Consider the young mother and +her nursery-legislation. But a few years ago she was at school, where +her memory was crammed with words, and names, and dates, and her +reflective faculties scarcely in the slightest degree exercised--where +not one idea was given her respecting the methods of dealing with the +opening mind of childhood; and where her discipline did not in the least +fit her for thinking out methods of her own. The intervening years have +been passed in practising music, in fancy-work, in novel-reading, and in +party-going: no thought having yet been given to the grave +responsibilities of maternity; and scarcely any of that solid +intellectual culture obtained which would be some preparation for such +responsibilities. And now see her with an unfolding human character +committed to her charge--see her profoundly ignorant of the phenomena +with which she has to deal, undertaking to do that which can be done but +imperfectly even with the aid of the profoundest knowledge. She knows +nothing about the nature of the emotions, their order of evolution, +their functions, or where use ends and abuse begins. She is under the +impression that some of the feelings are wholly bad, which is not true +of any one of them; and that others are good however far they may be +carried, which is also not true of any one of them. And then, ignorant +as she is of the structure she has to deal with, she is equally +ignorant of the effects produced on it by this or that treatment. What +can be more inevitable than the disastrous results we see hourly +arising? Lacking knowledge of mental phenomena, with their cause and +consequences, her interference is frequently more mischievous than +absolute passivity would have been. This and that kind of action, which +are quite normal and beneficial, she perpetually thwarts; and so +diminishes the child's happiness and profit, injures its temper and her +own, and produces estrangement. Deeds which she thinks it desirable to +encourage, she gets performed by threats and bribes, or by exciting a +desire for applause: considering little what the inward motive may be, +so long as the outward conduct conforms; and thus cultivating hypocrisy, +and fear, and selfishness, in place of good feeling. While insisting on +truthfulness, she constantly sets an example of untruth by threatening +penalties which she does not inflict. While inculcating self-control, +she hourly visits on her little ones angry scoldings for acts +undeserving of them. She has not the remotest idea that in the nursery, +as in the world, that alone is the truly salutary discipline which +visits on all conduct, good and bad, the natural consequences--the +consequences, pleasurable or painful, which in the nature of things such +conduct tends to bring. Being thus without theoretic guidance, and quite +incapable of guiding herself by tracing the mental processes going on in +her children, her rule is impulsive, inconsistent, mischievous; and +would indeed be generally ruinous were it not that the overwhelming +tendency of the growing mind to assume the moral type of the race +usually subordinates all minor influences. + +And then the culture of the intellect--is not this, too, mismanaged in a +similar manner? Grant that the phenomena of intelligence conform to +laws; grant that the evolution of intelligence in a child also conforms +to laws; and it follows inevitably that education cannot be rightly +guided without a knowledge of these laws. To suppose that you can +properly regulate this process of forming and accumulating ideas, +without understanding the nature of the process, is absurd. How widely, +then, must teaching as it is differ from teaching as it should be; when +hardly any parents, and but few tutors, know anything about psychology. +As might be expected, the established system is grievously at fault, +alike in matter and in manner. While the right class of facts is +withheld, the wrong class is forcibly administered in the wrong way and +in the wrong order. Under that common limited idea of education which +confines it to knowledge gained from books, parents thrust primers into +the hands of their little ones years too soon, to their great injury. +Not recognising the truth that the function of books is +supplementary--that they form an indirect means to knowledge when direct +means fail--a means of seeing through other men what you cannot see for +yourself; teachers are eager to give second-hand facts in place of +first-hand facts. Not perceiving the enormous value of that spontaneous +education which goes on in early years--not perceiving that a child's +restless observation, instead of being ignored or checked, should be +diligently ministered to, and made as accurate and complete as possible; +they insist on occupying its eyes and thoughts with things that are, for +the time being, incomprehensible and repugnant. Possessed by a +superstition which worships the symbols of knowledge instead of the +knowledge itself, they do not see that only when his acquaintance with +the objects and processes of the household, the streets, and the fields, +is becoming tolerably exhaustive--only then should a child be introduced +to the new sources of information which books supply: and this, not only +because immediate cognition is of far greater value than mediate +cognition; but also, because the words contained in books can be rightly +interpreted into ideas, only in proportion to the antecedent experience +of things. Observe next, that this formal instruction, far too soon +commenced, is carried on with but little reference to the laws of mental +development. Intellectual progress is of necessity from the concrete to +the abstract. But regardless of this, highly abstract studies, such as +grammar, which should come quite late, are begun quite early. Political +geography, dead and uninteresting to a child, and which should be an +appendage of sociological studies, is commenced betimes; while physical +geography, comprehensible and comparatively attractive to a child, is in +great part passed over. Nearly every subject dealt with is arranged in +abnormal order: definitions and rules and principles being put first, +instead of being disclosed, as they are in the order of nature, through +the study of cases. And then, pervading the whole, is the vicious system +of rote learning--a system of sacrificing the spirit to the letter. See +the results. What with perceptions unnaturally dulled by early +thwarting, and a coerced attention to books--what with the mental +confusion produced by teaching subjects before they can be understood, +and in each of them giving generalisations before the facts of which +they are the generalisations--what with making the pupil a mere passive +recipient of other's ideas, and not in the least leading him to be an +active inquirer or self-instructor--and what with taxing the faculties +to excess; there are very few minds that become as efficient as they +might be. Examinations being once passed, books are laid aside; the +greater part of what has been acquired, being unorganised, soon drops +out of recollection; what remains is mostly inert--the art of applying +knowledge not having been cultivated; and there is but little power +either of accurate observation or independent thinking. To all which +add, that while much of the information gained is of relatively small +value, an immense mass of information of transcendent value is entirely +passed over. + +Thus we find the facts to be such as might have been inferred _a +priori_. The training of children--physical, moral, and intellectual--is +dreadfully defective. And in great measure it is so because parents are +devoid of that knowledge by which this training can alone be rightly +guided. What is to be expected when one of the most intricate of +problems is undertaken by those who have given scarcely a thought to the +principles on which its solution depends? For shoe-making or +house-building, for the management of a ship or a locomotive engine, a +long apprenticeship is needful. Is it, then, that the unfolding of a +human being in body and mind is so comparatively simple a process that +any one may superintend and regulate it with no preparation whatever? If +not--if the process is, with one exception, more complex than any in +Nature, and the task of ministering to it one of surpassing difficulty; +is it not madness to make no provision for such a task? Better sacrifice +accomplishments than omit this all-essential instruction. When a father, +acting on false dogmas adopted without examination, has alienated his +sons, driven them into rebellion by his harsh treatment, ruined them, +and made himself miserable; he might reflect that the study of Ethology +would have been worth pursuing, even at the cost of knowing nothing +about AEschylus. When a mother is mourning over a first-born that has +sunk under the sequelae of scarlet-fever--when perhaps a candid medical +man has confirmed her suspicion that her child would have recovered had +not its system been enfeebled by over-study--when she is prostrate under +the pangs of combined grief and remorse; it is but a small consolation +that she can read Dante in the original. + +Thus we see that for regulating the third great division of human +activities, a knowledge of the laws of life is the one thing needful. +Some acquaintance with the first principles of physiology and the +elementary truths of psychology, is indispensable for the right bringing +up of children. We doubt not that many will read this assertion with a +smile. That parents in general should be expected to acquire a knowledge +of subjects so abstruse will seem to them an absurdity. And if we +proposed that an exhaustive knowledge of these subjects should be +obtained by all fathers and mothers, the absurdity would indeed be +glaring enough. But we do not. General principles only, accompanied by +such illustrations as may be needed to make them understood, would +suffice. And these might be readily taught--if not rationally, then +dogmatically. Be this as it may, however, here are the indisputable +facts:--that the development of children in mind and body follows +certain laws; that unless these laws are in some degree conformed to by +parents, death is inevitable; that unless they are in a great degree +conformed to, there must result serious physical and mental defects; and +that only when they are completely conformed to, can a perfect maturity +be reached. Judge, then, whether all who may one day be parents, should +not strive with some anxiety to learn what these laws are. + + * * * * * + +From the parental functions let us pass now to the functions of the +citizen. We have here to inquire what knowledge fits a man for the +discharge of these functions. It cannot be alleged that the need for +knowledge fitting him for these functions is wholly overlooked; for our +school-courses contain certain studies, which, nominally at least, bear +upon political and social duties. Of these the only one that occupies a +prominent place is History. + +But, as already hinted, the information commonly given under this head, +is almost valueless for purposes of guidance. Scarcely any of the facts +set down in our school-histories, and very few of those contained in the +more elaborate works written for adults, illustrate the right principles +of political action. The biographies of monarchs (and our children learn +little else) throw scarcely any light upon the science of society. +Familiarity with court intrigues, plots, usurpations, or the like, and +with all the personalities accompanying them, aids very little in +elucidating the causes of national progress. We read of some squabble +for power, that it led to a pitched battle; that such and such were the +names of the generals and their leading subordinates; that they had each +so many thousand infantry and cavalry, and so many cannon; that they +arranged their forces in this and that order; that they manoeuvred, +attacked, and fell back in certain ways; that at this part of the day +such disasters were sustained, and at that such advantages gained; that +in one particular movement some leading officer fell, while in another a +certain regiment was decimated; that after all the changing fortunes of +the fight, the victory was gained by this or that army; and that so many +were killed and wounded on each side, and so many captured by the +conquerors. And now, out of the accumulated details making up the +narrative, say which it is that helps you in deciding on your conduct as +a citizen. Supposing even that you had diligently read, not only _The +Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World_, but accounts of all other +battles that history mentions; how much more judicious would your vote +be at the next election? "But these are facts--interesting facts," you +say. Without doubt they are facts (such, at least, as are not wholly or +partially fictions); and to many they may be interesting facts. But this +by no means implies that they are valuable. Factitious or morbid opinion +often gives seeming value to things that have scarcely any. A +tulipomaniac will not part with a choice bulb for its weight in gold. To +another man an ugly piece of cracked old china seems his most desirable +possession. And there are those who give high prices for the relics of +celebrated murderers. Will it be contended that these tastes are any +measures of value in the things that gratify them? If not, then it must +be admitted that the liking felt for certain classes of historical facts +is no proof of their worth; and that we must test their worth, as we +test the worth of other facts, by asking to what uses they are +applicable. Were some one to tell you that your neighbour's cat kittened +yesterday, you would say the information was valueless. Fact though it +might be, you would call it an utterly useless fact--a fact that could +in no way influence your actions in life--a fact that would not help you +in learning how to live completely. Well, apply the same test to the +great mass of historical facts, and you will get the same result. They +are facts from which no conclusions can be drawn--_unorganisable_ facts; +and therefore facts of no service in establishing principles of conduct, +which is the chief use of facts. Read them, if you like, for amusement; +but do not flatter your self they are instructive. + +That which constitutes History, properly so called, is in great part +omitted from works on the subject. Only of late years have historians +commenced giving us, in any considerable quantity, the truly valuable +information. As in past ages the king was everything and the people +nothing; so, in past histories the doings of the king fill the entire +picture, to which the national life forms but an obscure background. +While only now, when the welfare of nations rather than of rulers is +becoming the dominant idea, are historians beginning to occupy +themselves with the phenomena of social progress. The thing it really +concerns us to know is the natural history of society. We want all facts +which help us to understand how a nation has grown and organised itself. +Among these, let us of course have an account of its government; with as +little as may be of gossip about the men who officered it, and as much +as possible about the structure, principles, methods, prejudices, +corruptions, etc., which it exhibited: and let this account include not +only the nature and actions of the central government, but also those of +local governments, down to their minutest ramifications. Let us of +course also have a parallel description of the ecclesiastical +government--its organisation, its conduct, its power, its relations to +the State; and accompanying this, the ceremonial, creed, and religious +ideas--not only those nominally believed, but those really believed and +acted upon. Let us at the same time be informed of the control exercised +by class over class, as displayed in social observances--in titles, +salutations, and forms of address. Let us know, too, what were all the +other customs which regulated the popular life out of doors and +in-doors: including those concerning the relations of the sexes, and the +relations of parents to children. The superstitions, also, from the more +important myths down to the charms in common use, should be indicated. +Next should come a delineation of the industrial system: showing to what +extent the division of labour was carried; how trades were regulated, +whether by caste, guilds, or otherwise; what was the connection between +employers and employed; what were the agencies for distributing +commodities; what were the means of communication; what was the +circulating medium. Accompanying all which should be given an account of +the industrial arts technically considered: stating the processes in +use, and the quality of the products. Further, the intellectual +condition of the nation in its various grades should be depicted; not +only with respect to the kind and amount of education, but with respect +to the progress made in science, and the prevailing manner of thinking. +The degree of aesthetic culture, as displayed in architecture, sculpture, +painting, dress, music, poetry, and fiction, should be described. Nor +should there be omitted a sketch of the daily lives of the +people--their food, their homes, and their amusements. And lastly, to +connect the whole, should be exhibited the morals, theoretical and +practical, of all classes: as indicated in their laws, habits, proverbs, +deeds. These facts, given with as much brevity as consists with +clearness and accuracy, should be so grouped and arranged that they may +be comprehended in their _ensemble_, and contemplated as +mutually-dependent parts of one great whole. The aim should be so to +present them that men may readily trace the _consensus_ subsisting among +them; with the view of learning what social phenomena co-exist with what +other. And then the corresponding delineations of succeeding ages should +be so managed as to show how each belief, institution, custom, and +arrangement was modified; and how the _consensus_ of preceding +structures and functions was developed into the _consensus_ of +succeeding ones. Such alone is the kind of information respecting past +times which can be of service to the citizen for the regulation of his +conduct. The only history that is of practical value is what may be +called Descriptive Sociology. And the highest office which the historian +can discharge, is that of so narrating the lives of nations, as to +furnish materials for a Comparative Sociology; and for the subsequent +determination of the ultimate laws to which social phenomena conform. + +But now mark, that even supposing an adequate stock of this truly +valuable historical knowledge has been acquired, it is of comparatively +little use without the key. And the key is to be found only in Science. +In the absence of the generalisations of biology and psychology, +rational interpretation of social phenomena is impossible. Only in +proportion as men draw certain rude, empirical inferences respecting +human nature, are they enabled to understand even the simplest facts of +social life: as, for instance, the relation between supply and demand. +And if the most elementary truths of sociology cannot be reached until +some knowledge is obtained of how men generally think, feel, and act +under given circumstances; then it is manifest that there can be nothing +like a wide comprehension of sociology, unless through a competent +acquaintance with man in all his faculties, bodily, and mental. Consider +the matter in the abstract, and this conclusion is self-evident. +Thus:--Society is made up of individuals; all that is done in society is +done by the combined actions of individuals; and therefore, in +individual actions only can be found the solutions of social phenomena. +But the actions of individuals depend on the laws of their natures; and +their actions cannot be understood until these laws are understood. +These laws, however, when reduced to their simplest expressions, prove +to be corollaries from the laws of body and mind in general. Hence it +follows, that biology and psychology are indispensable as interpreters +of sociology. Or, to state the conclusions still more simply:--all +social phenomena are phenomena of life--are the most complex +manifestations of life--must conform to the laws of life--and can be +understood only when the laws of life are understood. Thus, then, for +the regulation of this fourth division of human activities, we are, as +before, dependent on Science. Of the knowledge commonly imparted in +educational courses, very little is of service for guiding a man in his +conduct as a citizen. Only a small part of the history he reads is of +practical value; and of this small part he is not prepared to make +proper use. He lacks not only the materials for, but the very conception +of, descriptive sociology; and he also lacks those generalisations of +the organic sciences, without which even descriptive sociology can give +him but small aid. + + * * * * * + +And now we come to that remaining division of human life which includes +the relaxations and amusements filling leisure hours. After considering +what training best fits for self-preservation, for the obtainment of +sustenance, for the discharge of parental duties, and for the regulation +of social and political conduct; we have now to consider what training +best fits for the miscellaneous ends not included in these--for the +enjoyment of Nature, of Literature, and of the Fine Arts, in all their +forms. Postponing them as we do to things that bear more vitally upon +human welfare; and bringing everything, as we have, to the test of +actual value; it will perhaps be inferred that we are inclined to slight +these less essential things. No greater mistake could be made, however. +We yield to none in the value we attach to aesthetic culture and its +pleasures. Without painting, sculpture, music, poetry, and the emotions +produced by natural beauty of every kind, life would lose half its +charm. So far from regarding the training and gratification of the +tastes as unimportant, we believe that in time to come they will occupy +a much larger share of human life than now. When the forces of Nature +have been fully conquered to man's use--when the means of production +have been brought to perfection--when labour has been economised to the +highest degree--when education has been so systematised that a +preparation for the more essential activities may be made with +comparative rapidity--and when, consequently, there is a great increase +of spare time; then will the beautiful, both in Art and Nature, rightly +fill a large space in the minds of all. + +But it is one thing to approve of aesthetic culture as largely conducive +to human happiness; and another thing to admit that it is a fundamental +requisite to human happiness. However important it may be, it must yield +precedence to those kinds of culture which bear directly upon daily +duties. As before hinted, literature and the fine arts are made possible +by those activities which make individual and social life possible; and +manifestly, that which is made possible, must be postponed to that which +makes it possible. A florist cultivates a plant for the sake of its +flower; and regards the roots and leaves as of value, chiefly because +they are instrumental in producing the flower. But while, as an ultimate +product, the flower is the thing to which everything else is +subordinate, the florist has learnt that the root and leaves are +intrinsically of greater importance; because on them the evolution of +the flower depends. He bestows every care in rearing a healthy plant; +and knows it would be folly if, in his anxiety to obtain the flower, he +were to neglect the plant. Similarly in the case before us. +Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry, may truly be +called the efflorescence of civilised life. But even supposing they are +of such transcendent worth as to subordinate the civilised life out of +which they grow (which can hardly be asserted), it will still be +admitted that the production of a healthy civilised life must be the +first consideration; and that culture subserving this must occupy the +highest place. + +And here we see most distinctly the vice of our educational system. It +neglects the plant for the sake of the flower. In anxiety for elegance, +it forgets substance. While it gives no knowledge conducive to +self-preservation--while of knowledge that facilitates gaining a +livelihood it gives but the rudiments, and leaves the greater part to be +picked up any how in after life--while for the discharge of parental +functions it makes not the slightest provision--and while for the duties +of citizenship it prepares by imparting a mass of facts, most of which +are irrelevant, and the rest without a key; it is diligent in teaching +whatever adds to refinement, polish, eclat. Fully as we may admit that +extensive acquaintance with modern languages is a valuable +accomplishment, which, through reading, conversation, and travel, aids +in giving a certain finish; it by no means follows that this result is +rightly purchased at the cost of the vitally important knowledge +sacrificed to it. Supposing it true that classical education conduces +to elegance and correctness of style; it cannot be said that elegance +and correctness of style are comparable in importance to a familiarity +with the principles that should guide the rearing of children. Grant +that the taste may be improved by reading the poetry written in extinct +languages; yet it is not to be inferred that such improvement of taste +is equivalent in value to an acquaintance with the laws of health. +Accomplishments, the fine arts, _belles-lettres_, and all those things +which, as we say, constitute the efflorescence of civilisation, should +be wholly subordinate to that instruction and discipline in which +civilisation rests. _As they occupy the leisure part of life, so should +they occupy the leisure part of education._ + +Recognising thus the true position of aesthetics, and holding that while +the cultivation of them should form a part of education from its +commencement, such cultivation should be subsidiary; we have now to +inquire what knowledge is of most use to this end--what knowledge best +fits for this remaining sphere of activity? To this question the answer +is still the same as heretofore. Unexpected though the assertion may be, +it is nevertheless true, that the highest Art of every kind is based on +Science--that without Science there can be neither perfect production +nor full appreciation. Science, in that limited acceptation current in +society, may not have been possessed by various artists of high repute; +but acute observers as such artists have been, they have always +possessed a stock of those empirical generalisations which constitute +science in its lowest phase; and they have habitually fallen far below +perfection, partly because their generalisations were comparatively few +and inaccurate. That science necessarily underlies the fine arts, +becomes manifest, _a priori_, when we remember that art-products are all +more or less representative of objective or subjective phenomena; that +they can be good only in proportion as they conform to the laws of these +phenomena; and that before they can thus conform, the artist must know +what these laws are. That this _a priori_ conclusion tallies with +experience, we shall soon see. + +Youths preparing for the practice of sculpture have to acquaint +themselves with the bones and muscles of the human frame in their +distribution, attachments, and movements. This is a portion of science; +and it has been found needful to impart it for the prevention of those +many errors which sculptors who do not possess it commit. A knowledge of +mechanical principles is also requisite; and such knowledge not being +usually possessed, grave mechanical mistakes are frequently made. Take +an instance. For the stability of a figure it is needful that the +perpendicular from the centre of gravity--"the line of direction," as it +is called--should fall within the base of support; and hence it happens, +that when a man assumes the attitude known as "standing at ease," in +which one leg is straightened and the other relaxed, the line of +direction falls within the foot of the straightened leg. But sculptors +unfamiliar with the theory of equilibrium, not uncommonly so represent +this attitude, that the line of direction falls midway between the feet. +Ignorance of the law of momentum leads to analogous blunders: as witness +the admired Discobolus, which, as it is posed, must inevitably fall +forward the moment the quoit is delivered. + +In painting, the necessity for scientific information, empirical if not +rational, is still more conspicuous. What gives the grotesqueness of +Chinese pictures, unless their utter disregard of the laws of +appearances--their absurd linear perspective, and their want of aerial +perspective? In what are the drawings of a child so faulty, if not in a +similar absence of truth--an absence arising, in great part, from +ignorance of the way in which the aspects of things vary with the +conditions? Do but remember the books and lectures by which students are +instructed; or consider the criticisms of Ruskin; or look at the doings +of the Pre-Raffaelites; and you will see that progress in painting +implies increasing knowledge of how effects in Nature are produced. The +most diligent observation, if unaided by science, fails to preserve from +error. Every painter will endorse the assertion that unless it is known +what appearances must exist under given circumstances, they often will +not be perceived; and to know what appearances must exist, is, in so +far, to understand the science of appearances. From want of science Mr. +J. Lewis, careful painter as he is, casts the shadow of a lattice-window +in sharply-defined lines upon an opposite wall; which he would not have +done, had he been familiar with the phenomena of penumbrae. From want of +science, Mr. Rosetti, catching sight of a peculiar iridescence displayed +by certain hairy surfaces under particular lights (an iridescence caused +by the diffraction of light in passing the hairs), commits the error of +showing this iridescence on surfaces and in positions where it could not +occur. + +To say that music, too, has need of scientific aid will cause still more +surprise. Yet it may be shown that music is but an idealisation of the +natural language of emotion; and that consequently, music must be good +or bad according as it conforms to the laws of this natural language. +The various inflections of voice which accompany feelings of different +kinds and intensities, are the germs out of which music is developed. It +is demonstrable that these inflections and cadences are not accidental +or arbitrary; but that they are determined by certain general principles +of vital action; and that their expressiveness depends on this. Whence +it follows that musical phrases and the melodies built of them, can be +effective only when they are in harmony with these general principles. +It is difficult here properly to illustrate this position. But perhaps +it will suffice to instance the swarms of worthless ballads that infest +drawing-rooms, as compositions which science would forbid. They sin +against science by setting to music ideas that are not emotional enough +to prompt musical expression; and they also sin against science by using +musical phrases that have no natural relations to the ideas expressed: +even where these are emotional. They are bad because they are untrue. +And to say they are untrue, is to say they are unscientific. + +Even in poetry the same thing holds. Like music, poetry has its root in +those natural modes of expression which accompany deep feeling. Its +rhythm, its strong and numerous metaphors, its hyperboles, its violent +inversions, are simply exaggerations of the traits of excited speech. To +be good, therefore, poetry must pay attention to those laws of nervous +action which excited speech obeys. In intensifying and combining the +traits of excited speech, it must have due regard to proportion--must +not use its appliances without restriction; but, where the ideas are +least emotional, must use the forms of poetical expression sparingly; +must use them more freely as the emotion rises; and must carry them to +their greatest extent, only where the emotion reaches a climax. The +entire contravention of these principles results in bombast or doggerel. +The insufficient respect for them is seen in didactic poetry. And it is +because they are rarely fully obeyed, that so much poetry is inartistic. + +Not only is it that the artist, of whatever kind, cannot produce a +truthful work without he understands the laws of the phenomena he +represents; but it is that he must also understand how the minds of +spectators or listeners will be affected by the several peculiarities of +his work--a question in psychology. What impression any art-product +generates, manifestly depends upon the mental natures of those to whom +it is presented; and as all mental natures have certain characteristics +in common, there must result certain corresponding general principles on +which alone art-products can be successfully framed. These general +principles cannot be fully understood and applied, unless the artist +sees how they follow from the laws of mind. To ask whether the +composition of a picture is good is really to ask how the perceptions +and feelings of observers will be affected by it. To ask whether a drama +is well constructed, is to ask whether its situations are so arranged as +duly to consult the power of attention of an audience, and duly to avoid +overtaxing any one class of feelings. Equally in arranging the leading +divisions of a poem or fiction, and in combining the words of a single +sentence, the goodness of the effect depends upon the skill with which +the mental energies and susceptibilities of the reader are economised. +Every artist, in the course of his education and after-life, accumulates +a stock of maxims by which his practice is regulated. Trace such maxims +to their roots, and they inevitably lead you down to psychological +principles. And only when the artist understands these psychological +principles and their various corollaries can he work in harmony with +them. + +We do not for a moment believe that science will make an artist. While +we contend that the leading laws both of objective and subjective +phenomena must be understood by him, we by no means contend that +knowledge of such laws will serve in place of natural perception. Not +the poet only, but the artist of every type, is born, not made. What we +assert is, that innate faculty cannot dispense with the aid of organised +knowledge. Intuition will do much, but it will not do all. Only when +Genius is married to Science can the highest results be produced. + +As we have above asserted, Science is necessary not only for the most +successful production, but also for the full appreciation, of the fine +arts. In what consists the greater ability of a man than of a child to +perceive the beauties of a picture; unless it is in his more extended +knowledge of those truths in nature or life which the picture renders? +How happens the cultivated gentleman to enjoy a fine poem so much more +than a boor does; if it is not because his wider acquaintance with +objects and actions enables him to see in the poem much that the boor +cannot see? And if, as is here so obvious, there must be some +familiarity with the things represented, before the representation can +be appreciated, then, the representation can be completely appreciated +only when the things represented are completely understood. The fact is, +that every additional truth which a word of art expresses, gives an +additional pleasure to the percipient mind--a pleasure that is missed by +those ignorant of this truth. The more realities an artist indicates in +any given amount of work, the more faculties does he appeal to; the more +numerous ideas does he suggest; the more gratification does he afford. +But to receive this gratification the spectator, listener, or reader, +must know the realities which the artist has indicated; and to know +these realities is to have that much science. + +And now let us not overlook the further great fact, that not only does +science underlie sculpture, painting, music, poetry, but that science is +itself poetic. The current opinion that science and poetry are opposed, +is a delusion. It is doubtless true that as states of consciousness, +cognition and emotion tend to exclude each other. And it is doubtless +also true that an extreme activity of the reflective powers tends to +deaden the feelings; while an extreme activity of the feelings tends to +deaden the reflective powers: in which sense, indeed, all orders of +activity are antagonistic to each other. But it is not true that the +facts of science are unpoetical; or that the cultivation of science is +necessarily unfriendly to the exercise of imagination and the love of +the beautiful. On the contrary, science opens up realms of poetry where +to the unscientific all is a blank. Those engaged in scientific +researches constantly show us that they realise not less vividly, but +more vividly, than others, the poetry of their subjects. Whoso will dip +into Hugh Miller's works of geology, or read Mr. Lewes's _Sea-side +Studies_, will perceive that science excites poetry rather than +extinguishes it. And he who contemplates the life of Goethe, must see +that the poet and the man of science can co-exist in equal activity. Is +it not, indeed, an absurd and almost a sacrilegious belief, that the +more a man studies Nature the less he reveres it? Think you that a drop +of water, which to the vulgar eye is but a drop of water, loses anything +in the eye of the physicist who knows that its elements are held +together by a force which, if suddenly liberated, would produce a flash +of lightning? Think you that what is carelessly looked upon by the +uninitiated as a mere snow-flake, does not suggest higher associations +to one who had seen through a microscope the wondrously-varied and +elegant forms of snow-crystals? Think you that the rounded rock marked +with parallel scratches, calls up as much poetry in an ignorant mind as +in the mind of a geologist, who knows that over this rock a glacier slid +a million years ago? The truth is, that those who have never entered +upon scientific pursuits are blind to most of the poetry by which they +are surrounded. Whoever has not in youth collected plants and insects, +knows not half the halo of interest which lanes and hedge-rows can +assume. Whoever has not sought for fossils, has little idea of the +poetical associations that surround the places where imbedded treasures +were found. Whoever at the sea-side has not had a microscope and +aquarium, has yet to learn what the highest pleasures of the sea-side +are. Sad, indeed, is it to see how men occupy themselves with +trivialities, and are indifferent to the grandest phenomena--care not to +understand the architecture of the Heavens, but are deeply interested in +some contemptible controversy about the intrigues of Mary Queen of +Scots!--are learnedly critical over a Greek ode, and pass by without a +glance that grand epic written by the finger of God upon the strata of +the Earth! + +We find, then, that even for this remaining division of human +activities, scientific culture is the proper preparation. We find that +aesthetics in general are necessarily based upon scientific principles; +and can be pursued with complete success only through an acquaintance +with these principles. We find that for the criticism and due +appreciation of works of art, a knowledge of the constitution of things, +or in other words, a knowledge of science, is requisite. And we not only +find that science is the handmaid to all forms of art and poetry, but +that, rightly regarded, science is itself poetic. + + * * * * * + +Thus far our question has been, the worth of knowledge of this or that +kind for purposes of guidance. We have now to judge the relative value +of different kinds of knowledge for purposes of discipline. This +division of our subject we are obliged to treat with comparative +brevity; and happily, no very lengthened treatment of it is needed. +Having found what is best for the one end, we have by implication found +what is best for the other. We may be quite sure that the acquirement of +those classes of facts which are most useful for regulating conduct, +involves a mental exercise best fitted for strengthening the faculties. +It would be utterly contrary to the beautiful economy of Nature, if one +kind of culture were needed for the gaining of information and another +kind were needed as a mental gymnastic. Everywhere throughout creation +we find faculties developed through the performance of those functions +which it is their office to perform; not through the performance of +artificial exercises devised to fit them for those functions. The Red +Indian acquires the swiftness and agility which make him a successful +hunter, by the actual pursuit of animals; and through the miscellaneous +activities of his life, he gains a better balance of physical powers +than gymnastics ever give. That skill in tracking enemies and prey which +he had reached after long practice, implies a subtlety of perception far +exceeding anything produced by artificial training. And similarly in all +cases. From the Bushman whose eye, habitually employed in identifying +distant objects that are to be pursued or fled from, has acquired a +telescopic range, to the accountant whose daily practice enables him to +add up several columns of figures simultaneously; we find that the +highest power of a faculty results from the discharge of those duties +which the conditions of life require it to discharge. And we may be +certain, _a priori_, that the same law holds throughout education. The +education of most value for guidance, must at the same time be the +education of most value for discipline. Let us consider the evidence. + +One advantage claimed for that devotion to language-learning which forms +so prominent a feature in the ordinary _curriculum_, is, that the memory +is thereby strengthened. This is assumed to be an advantage peculiar to +the study of words. But the truth is, that the sciences afford far wider +fields for the exercise of memory. It is no slight task to remember +everything about our solar system; much more to remember all that is +known concerning the structure of our galaxy. The number of compound +substances, to which chemistry daily adds, is so great that few, save +professors, can enumerate them; and to recollect the atomic +constitutions and affinities of all these compounds, is scarcely +possible without making chemistry the occupation of life. In the +enormous mass of phenomena presented by the Earth's crust, and in the +still more enormous mass of phenomena presented by the fossils it +contains, there is matter which it takes the geological student years of +application to master. Each leading division of physics--sound, heat, +light, electricity--includes facts numerous enough to alarm any one +proposing to learn them all. And when we pass to the organic sciences, +the effort of memory required becomes still greater. In human anatomy +alone, the quantity of detail is so great, that the young surgeon has +commonly to get it up half-a-dozen times before he can permanently +retain it. The number of species of plants which botanists distinguish, +amounts to some 320,000; while the varied forms of animal life with +which the zoologist deals, are estimated at some 2,000,000. So vast is +the accumulation of facts which men of science have before them, that +only by dividing and subdividing their labours can they deal with it. To +a detailed knowledge of his own division, each adds but a general +knowledge of the allied ones; joined perhaps to a rudimentary +acquaintance with some others. Surely, then, science, cultivated even to +a very moderate extent, affords adequate exercise for memory. To say the +very least, it involves quite as good a discipline for this faculty as +language does. + +But now mark that while, for the training of mere memory, science is as +good as, if not better than, language; it has an immense superiority in +the kind of memory it trains. In the acquirement of a language, the +connections of ideas to be established in the mind correspond to facts +that are in great measure accidental; whereas, in the acquirement of +science, the connections of ideas to be established in the mind +correspond to facts that are mostly necessary. It is true that the +relations of words to their meanings are in one sense natural; that the +genesis of these relations may be traced back a certain distance, though +rarely to the beginning; and that the laws of this genesis form a branch +of mental science--the science of philology. But since it will not be +contended that in the acquisition of languages, as ordinarily carried +on, these natural relations between words and their meanings are +habitually traced, and their laws explained; it must be admitted that +they are commonly learned as fortuitous relations. On the other hand, +the relations which science presents are causal relations; and, when +properly taught, are understood as such. While language familiarises +with non-rational relations, science familiarises with rational +relations. While the one exercises memory only, the other exercises both +memory and understanding. + +Observe next, that a great superiority of science over language as a +means of discipline, is, that it cultivates the judgment. As, in a +lecture on mental education delivered at the Royal Institution, +Professor Faraday well remarks, the most common intellectual fault is +deficiency of judgment. "Society, speaking generally," he says, "is not +only ignorant as respects education of the judgment, but it is also +ignorant of its ignorance." And the cause to which he ascribes this +state, is want of scientific culture. The truth of his conclusion is +obvious. Correct judgment with regard to surrounding objects, events, +and consequences, becomes possible only through knowledge of the way in +which surrounding phenomena depend on each other. No extent of +acquaintance with the meanings of words, will guarantee correct +inferences respecting causes and effects. The habit of drawing +conclusions from data, and then of verifying those conclusions by +observation and experiment, can alone give the power of judging +correctly. And that it necessitates this habit is one of the immense +advantages of science. + +Not only, however, for intellectual discipline is science the best; but +also for _moral_ discipline. The learning of languages tends, if +anything, further to increase the already undue respect for authority. +Such and such are the meanings of these words, says the teacher of the +dictionary. So and so is the rule in this case, says the grammar. By the +pupil these dicta are received as unquestionable. His constant attitude +of mind is that of submission to dogmatic teaching. And a necessary +result is a tendency to accept without inquiry whatever is established. +Quite opposite is the mental tone generated by the cultivation of +science. Science makes constant appeal to individual reason. Its truths +are not accepted on authority alone; but all are at liberty to test +them--nay, in many cases, the pupil is required to think out his own +conclusions. Every step in a scientific investigation is submitted to +his judgment. He is not asked to admit it without seeing it to be true. +And the trust in his own powers thus produced is further increased by +the uniformity with which Nature justifies his inferences when they are +correctly drawn. From all which there flows that independence which is a +most valuable element in character. Nor is this the only moral benefit +bequeathed by scientific culture. When carried on, as it should always +be, as much as possible under the form of original research, it +exercises perseverance and sincerity. As says Professor Tyndall of +inductive inquiry, "It requires patient industry, and an humble and +conscientious acceptance of what Nature reveals. The first condition of +success is an honest receptivity and a willingness to abandon all +preconceived notions, however cherished, if they be found to contradict +the truth. Believe me, a self-renunciation which has something noble in +it, and of which the world never hears, is often enacted in the private +experience of the true votary of science." + +Lastly we have to assert--and the assertion will, we doubt not, cause +extreme surprise--that the discipline of science is superior to that of +our ordinary education, because of the _religious_ culture that it +gives. Of course we do not here use the words scientific and religious +in their ordinary limited acceptations; but in their widest and highest +acceptations. Doubtless, to the superstitions that pass under the name +of religion, science is antagonistic; but not to the essential religion +which these superstitions merely hide. Doubtless, too, in much of the +science that is current, there is a pervading spirit of irreligion; but +not in that true science which had passed beyond the superficial into +the profound. + + "True science and true religion," says Professor Huxley at the + close of a recent course of lectures, "are twin-sisters, and the + separation of either from the other is sure to prove the death of + both. Science prospers exactly in proportion as it is religious; + and religion flourishes in exact proportion to the scientific depth + and firmness of its basis. The great deeds of philosophers have + been less the fruit of their intellect than of the direction of + that intellect by an eminently religious tone of mind. Truth has + yielded herself rather to their patience, their love, their + single-heartedness, and their self-denial, than to their logical + acumen." + +So far from science being irreligious, as many think, it is the neglect +of science that is irreligious--it is the refusal to study the +surrounding creation that is irreligious. Take a humble simile. Suppose +a writer were daily saluted with praises couched in superlative +language. Suppose the wisdom, the grandeur, the beauty of his works, +were the constant topics of the eulogies addressed to him. Suppose those +who unceasingly uttered these eulogies on his works were content with +looking at the outsides of them; and had never opened them, much less +tried to understand them. What value should we put upon their praises? +What should we think of their sincerity? Yet, comparing small things to +great, such is the conduct of mankind in general, in reference to the +Universe and its Cause. Nay, it is worse. Not only do they pass by +without study, these things which they daily proclaim to be so +wonderful; but very frequently they condemn as mere triflers those who +give time to the observation of Nature--they actually scorn those who +show any active interest in these marvels. We repeat, then, that not +science, but the neglect of science, is irreligious. Devotion to +science, is a tacit worship--a tacit recognition of worth in the things +studied; and by implication in their Cause. It is not a mere lip-homage, +but a homage expressed in actions--not a mere professed respect, but a +respect proved by the sacrifice of time, thought, and labour. + +Nor is it thus only that true science is essentially religious. It is +religious, too, inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an +implicit faith in, those uniformities of action which all things +disclose. By accumulated experiences the man of science acquires a +thorough belief in the unchanging relations of phenomena--in the +invariable connection of cause and consequence--in the necessity of good +or evil results. Instead of the rewards and punishments of traditional +belief, which people vaguely hope they may gain, or escape, spite of +their disobedience; he finds that there are rewards and punishments in +the ordained constitution of things; and that the evil results of +disobedience are inevitable. He sees that the laws to which we must +submit are both inexorable and beneficent. He sees that in conforming to +them, the process of things is ever towards a greater perfection and a +higher happiness. Hence he is led constantly to insist on them, and is +indignant when they are disregarded. And thus does he, by asserting the +eternal principles of things and the necessity of obeying them, prove +himself intrinsically religious. + +Add lastly the further religious aspect of science, that it alone can +give us true conceptions of ourselves and our relation to the mysteries +of existence. At the same time that it shows us all which can be known, +it shows us the limits beyond which we can know nothing. Not by dogmatic +assertion, does it teach the impossibility of comprehending the Ultimate +Cause of things; but it leads us clearly to recognise this impossibility +by bringing us in every direction to boundaries we cannot cross. It +realises to us in a way which nothing else can, the littleness of human +intelligence in the face of that which transcends human intelligence. +While towards the traditions and authorities of men its attitude may be +proud, before the impenetrable veil which hides the Absolute its +attitude is humble--a true pride and a true humility. Only the sincere +man of science (and by this title we do not mean the mere calculator of +distances, or analyser of compounds, or labeller of species; but him who +through lower truths seeks higher, and eventually the highest)--only the +genuine man of science, we say, can truly know how utterly beyond, not +only human knowledge but human conception, is the Universal Power of +which Nature, and Life, and Thought are manifestations. + +We conclude, then, that for discipline, as well as for guidance, science +is of chiefest value. In all its effects, learning the meanings of +things, is better than learning the meanings of words. Whether for +intellectual, moral, or religious training, the study of surrounding +phenomena is immensely superior to the study of grammars and lexicons. + + * * * * * + +Thus to the question we set out with--What knowledge is of most +worth?--the uniform reply is--Science. This is the verdict on all the +counts. For direct self-preservation, or the maintenance of life and +health, the all-important knowledge is--Science. For that indirect +self-preservation which we call gaining a livelihood, the knowledge of +greatest value is--Science. For the due discharge of parental functions, +the proper guidance is to be found only in--Science. For that +interpretation of national life, past and present, without which the +citizen cannot rightly regulate his conduct, the indispensable key +is--Science. Alike for the most perfect production and highest enjoyment +of art in all its forms, the needful preparation is still--Science. And +for purposes of discipline--intellectual, moral, religious--the most +efficient study is, once more--Science. The question which at first +seemed so perplexed, has become, in the course of our inquiry, +comparatively simple. We have not to estimate the degrees of importance +of different orders of human activity, and different studies as +severally fitting us for them; since we find that the study of Science, +in its most comprehensive meaning, is the best preparation for all these +orders of activity. We have not to decide between the claims of +knowledge of great though conventional value, and knowledge of less +though intrinsic value; seeing that the knowledge which proves to be of +most value in all other respects, is intrinsically most valuable: its +worth is not dependent upon opinion, but is as fixed as is the relation +of man to the surrounding world. Necessary and eternal as are its +truths, all Science concerns all mankind for all time. Equally at +present and in the remotest future, must it be of incalculable +importance for the regulation of their conduct, that men should +understand the science of life, physical, mental, and social; and that +they should understand all other science as a key to the science of +life. + +And yet this study, immensely transcending all other in importance, is +that which, in an age of boasted education, receives the least +attention. While what we call civilisation could never have arisen had +it not been for science, science forms scarcely an appreciable element +in our so-called civilised training. Though to the progress of science +we owe it, that millions find support where once there was food only for +thousands; yet of these millions but a few thousands pay any respect to +that which has made their existence possible. Though increasing +knowledge of the properties and relations of things has not only enabled +wandering tribes to grow into populous nations, but has given to the +countless members of these populous nations, comforts and pleasures +which their few naked ancestors never even conceived, or could have +believed, yet is this kind of knowledge only now receiving a grudging +recognition in our highest educational institutions. To the slowly +growing acquaintance with the uniform co-existences and sequences of +phenomena--to the establishment of invariable laws, we owe our +emancipation from the grossest superstitions. But for science we should +be still worshipping fetishes; or, with hecatombs of victims, +propitiating diabolical deities. And yet this science, which, in place +of the most degrading conceptions of things, has given us some insight +into the grandeurs of creation, is written against in our theologies and +frowned upon from our pulpits. + +Paraphrasing an Eastern fable, we may say that in the family of +knowledges, Science is the household drudge, who, in obscurity, hides +unrecognised perfections. To her has been committed all the works; by +her skill, intelligence, and devotion, have all conveniences and +gratifications been obtained; and while ceaselessly ministering to the +rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters +might flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel +holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the _denouement_, when the +positions will be changed; and while these haughty sisters sink into +merited neglect, Science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth and +beauty, will reign supreme. + + + + +INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION + + +There cannot fail to be a relationship between the successive systems of +education, and the successive social states with which they have +co-existed. Having a common origin in the national mind, the +institutions of each epoch, whatever be their special functions, must +have a family likeness. When men received their creed and its +interpretations from an infallible authority deigning no explanations, +it was natural that the teaching of children should be purely dogmatic. +While "believe and ask no questions" was the maxim of the Church, it was +fitly the maxim of the school. Conversely, now that Protestantism has +gained for adults a right of private judgment and established the +practice of appealing to reason, there is harmony in the change that has +made juvenile instruction a process of exposition addressed to the +understanding. Along with political despotism, stern in its commands, +ruling by force of terror, visiting trifling crimes with death, and +implacable in its vengeance on the disloyal, there necessarily grew up +an academic discipline similarly harsh--a discipline of multiplied +injunctions and blows for every breach of them--a discipline of +unlimited autocracy upheld by rods, and ferules, and the black-hole. On +the other hand, the increase of political liberty, the abolition of laws +restricting individual action, and the amelioration of the criminal +code, have been accompanied by a kindred progress towards non-coercive +education: the pupil is hampered by fewer restraints, and other means +than punishments are used to govern him. In those ascetic days when men, +acting on the greatest-misery principle, held that the more +gratifications they denied themselves the more virtuous they were, they, +as a matter of course, considered that the best education which most +thwarted the wishes of their children, and cut short all spontaneous +activity with--"You mustn't do so." While, on the contrary, now that +happiness is coming to be regarded as a legitimate aim--now that hours +of labour are being shortened and popular recreations provided--parents +and teachers are beginning to see that most childish desires may rightly +be gratified, that childish sports should be encouraged, and that the +tendencies of the growing mind are not altogether so diabolical as was +supposed. The age in which all believed that trades must be established +by bounties and prohibitions; that manufacturers needed their materials +and qualities and prices to be prescribed; and that the value of money +could be determined by law; was an age which unavoidably cherished the +notions that a child's mind could be made to order; that its powers were +to be imparted by the schoolmaster; that it was a receptacle into which +knowledge was to be put, and there built up after the teacher's ideal. +In this free-trade era, however, when we are learning that there is much +more self-regulation in things than was supposed; that labour, and +commerce, and agriculture, and navigation, can do better without +management than with it; that political governments, to be efficient, +must grow up from within and not be imposed from without; we are also +being taught that there is a natural process of mental evolution which +is not to be disturbed without injury; that we may not force on the +unfolding mind our artificial forms; but that psychology, also, +discloses to us a law of supply and demand to which, if we would not do +harm, we must conform. Thus, alike in its oracular dogmatism, in its +harsh discipline, in its multiplied restrictions, in its professed +asceticism, and in its faith in the devices of men, the old educational +regime was akin to the social systems with which it was contemporaneous; +and similarly, in the reverse of these characteristics, our modern modes +of culture correspond to our more liberal religious and political +institutions. + +But there remain further parallelisms to which we have not yet adverted: +that, namely, between the processes by which these respective changes +have been wrought out; and that between the several states of +heterogeneous opinion to which they have led. Some centuries ago there +was uniformity of belief--religious, political, and educational. All men +were Romanists, all were Monarchists, all were disciples of Aristotle; +and no one thought of calling in question that grammar-school routine +under which all were brought up. The same agency has in each case +replaced this uniformity by a constantly-increasing diversity. That +tendency towards assertion of the individuality, which, after +contributing to produce the great Protestant movement, has since gone on +to produce an ever-increasing number of sects--that tendency which +initiated political parties, and out of the two primary ones has, in +these modern days, evolved a multiplicity to which every year adds--that +tendency which led to the Baconian rebellion against the schools, and +has since originated here and abroad, sundry new systems of thought--is +a tendency which, in education also, has caused divisions and the +accumulation of methods. As external consequences of the same internal +change, these processes have necessarily been more or less simultaneous. +The decline of authority, whether papal, philosophic, kingly, or +tutorial, is essentially one phenomenon; in each of its aspects a +leaning towards free action is seen alike in the working out of the +change itself, and in the new forms of theory and practice to which the +change has given birth. + +While many will regret this multiplication of schemes of juvenile +culture, the catholic observer will discern in it a means of ensuring +the final establishment of a rational system. Whatever may be thought of +theological dissent, it is clear that dissent in education results in +facilitating inquiry by the division in labour. Were we in possession of +the true method, divergence from it would, of course, be prejudicial; +but the true method having to be found, the efforts of numerous +independent seekers carrying out their researches in different +directions, constitute a better agency for finding it than any that +could be devised. Each of them struck by some new thought which probably +contains more or less of basis in facts--each of them zealous on behalf +of his plan, fertile in expedients to test its correctness, and untiring +in his efforts to make known its success--each of them merciless in his +criticism on the rest; there cannot fail, by composition of forces, to +be a gradual approximation of all towards the right course. Whatever +portion of the normal method any one has discovered, must, by the +constant exhibition of its results, force itself into adoption; whatever +wrong practices he has joined with it must, by repeated experiment and +failure, be exploded. And by this aggregation of truths and elimination +of errors, there must eventually be developed a correct and complete +body of doctrine. Of the three phases through which human opinion +passes--the unanimity of the ignorant, the disagreement of the +inquiring, and the unanimity of the wise--it is manifest that the second +is the parent of the third. They are not sequences in time only, they +are sequences in causation. However impatiently, therefore, we may +witness the present conflict of educational systems, and however much we +may regret its accompanying evils, we must recognise it as a transition +stage needful to be passed through, and beneficent in its ultimate +effects. + +Meanwhile, may we not advantageously take stock of our progress? After +fifty years of discussion, experiment, and comparison of results, may +we not expect a few steps towards the goal to be already made good? Some +old methods must by this time have fallen out of use; some new ones must +have become established; and many others must be in process of general +abandonment or adoption. Probably we may see in these various changes, +when put side by side, similar characteristics--may find in them a +common tendency; and so, by inference, may get a clue to the direction +in which experience is leading us, and gather hints how we may achieve +yet further improvements. Let us then, as a preliminary to a deeper +consideration of the matter, glance at the leading contrasts between the +education of the past and that of the present. + + * * * * * + +The suppression of every error is commonly followed by a temporary +ascendency of the contrary one; and so it happened, that after the ages +when physical development alone was aimed at, there came an age when +culture of the mind was the sole solicitude--when children had +lesson-books put before them at between two and three years old, and the +getting of knowledge was thought the one thing needful. As, further, it +usually happens that after one of these reactions the next advance is +achieved by co-ordinating the antagonist errors, and perceiving that +they are opposite sides of one truth; so, we are now coming to the +conviction that body and mind must both be cared for, and the whole +thing being unfolded. The forcing-system has been, by many, given up; +and precocity is discouraged. People are beginning to see that the first +requisite to success in life, is to be a good animal. The best brain is +found of little service, if there be not enough vital energy to work it; +and hence to obtain the one by sacrificing the source of the other, is +now considered a folly--a folly which the eventual failure of juvenile +prodigies constantly illustrates. Thus we are discovering the wisdom of +the saying, that one secret in education is "to know how wisely to lose +time." + +The once universal practice of learning by rote, is daily falling more +into discredit. All modern authorities condemn the old mechanical way of +teaching the alphabet. The multiplication table is now frequently taught +experimentally. In the acquirement of languages, the grammar-school plan +is being superseded by plans based on the spontaneous process followed +by the child in gaining its mother tongue. Describing the methods there +used, the "Reports on the Training School at Battersea" say:--"The +instruction in the whole preparatory course is chiefly oral, and is +illustrated as much as possible by appeals to nature." And so +throughout. The rote-system, like ether systems of its age, made more of +the forms and symbols than of the things symbolised. To repeat the words +correctly was everything; to understand their meaning nothing; and thus +the spirit was sacrificed to the letter. It is at length perceived that, +in this case as in others, such a result is not accidental but +necessary--that in proportion as there is attention to the signs, there +must be inattention to the things signified; or that, as Montaigne long +ago said--_Scavoir par coeur n'est pas scavoir_. + +Along with rote-teaching, is declining also the nearly-allied teaching +by rules. The particulars first, and then the generalisation, is the new +method--a method, as the Battersea School Reports remarks, which, though +"the reverse of the method usually followed, which consists in giving +the pupil the rule first," is yet proved by experience to be the right +one. Rule-teaching is now condemned as imparting a merely empirical +knowledge--as producing an appearance of understanding without the +reality. To give the net product of inquiry, without the inquiry that +leads to it, is found to be both enervating and inefficient. General +truths to be of due and permanent use, must be earned. "Easy come easy +go," is a saying as applicable to knowledge as to wealth. While rules, +lying isolated in the mind--not joined to its other contents as +out-growths from them--are continually forgotten; the principles which +those rules express piecemeal, become, when once reached by the +understanding, enduring possessions. While the rule-taught youth is at +sea when beyond his rules, the youth instructed in principles solves a +new case as readily as an old one. Between a mind of rules and a mind of +principles, there exists a difference such as that between a confused +heap of materials, and the same materials organised into a complete +whole, with all its parts bound together. Of which types this last has +not only the advantage that its constituent parts are better retained, +but the much greater advantage that it forms an efficient agent for +inquiry, for independent thought, for discovery--ends for which the +first is useless. Nor let it be supposed that this is a simile only: it +is the literal truth. The union of facts into generalisations _is_ the +organisation of knowledge, whether considered as an objective phenomenon +or a subjective one; and the mental grasp may be measured by the extent +to which this organisation is carried. + +From the substitution of principles for rules, and the necessarily +co-ordinate practice of leaving abstractions untaught till the mind has +been familiarised with the facts from which they are abstracted, has +resulted the postponement of some once early studies to a late period. +This is exemplified in the abandonment of that intensely stupid custom, +the teaching of grammar to children. As M. Marcel says:--"It may without +hesitation be affirmed that grammar is not the stepping-stone, but the +finishing instrument." As Mr. Wyse argues:--"Grammar and Syntax are a +collection of laws and rules. Rules are gathered from practice; they are +the results of induction to which we come by long observation and +comparison of facts. It is, in fine, the science, the philosophy of +language. In following the process of nature, neither individuals nor +nations ever arrive at the science _first_. A language is spoken, and +poetry written, many years before either a grammar or prosody is even +thought of. Men did not wait till Aristotle had constructed his logic, +to reason." In short, as grammar was made after language, so ought it to +be taught after language: an inference which all who recognise the +relationship between the evolution of the race and that of the +individual, will see to be unavoidable. + +Of new practices that have grown up during the decline of these old +ones, the most important is the systematic culture of the powers of +observation. After long ages of blindness, men are at last seeing that +the spontaneous activity of the observing faculties in children has a +meaning and a use. What was once thought mere purposeless action, or +play, or mischief, as the case might be, is now recognised as the +process of acquiring a knowledge on which all after-knowledge is based. +Hence the well-conceived but ill-conducted system of _object-lessons_. +The saying of Bacon, that physics is the mother of the sciences, has +come to have a meaning in education. Without an accurate acquaintance +with the visible and tangible properties of things, our conceptions must +be erroneous, our inferences fallacious, and our operations +unsuccessful. "The education of the senses neglected, all after +education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, an insufficiency, which +it is impossible to cure." Indeed, if we consider it, we shall find that +exhaustive observation is an element in all great success. It is not to +artists, naturalists, and men of science only, that it is needful; it is +not only that the physician depends on it for the correctness of his +diagnosis, and that to the engineer it is so important that some years +in the workshop are prescribed for him; but we may see that the +philosopher, also, is fundamentally one who _observes_ relationships of +things which others had overlooked, and that the poet, too, is one who +_sees_ the fine facts in nature which all recognise when pointed out, +but did not before remark. Nothing requires more to be insisted on than +that vivid and complete impressions are all-essential. No sound fabric +of wisdom can be woven out of a rotten raw-material. + +While the old method of presenting truths in the abstract has been +falling out of use, there has been a corresponding adoption of the new +method of presenting them in the concrete. The rudimentary facts of +exact science are now being learnt by direct intuition, as textures, and +tastes, and colours are learnt. Employing the ball-frame for first +lessons in arithmetic exemplifies this. It is well illustrated, too, in +Professor De Morgan's mode of explaining the decimal notation. M. +Marcel, rightly repudiating the old system of tables, teaches weights +and measures by referring to the actual yard and foot, pound and ounce, +gallon and quart; and lets the discovery of their relationships be +experimental. The use of geographical models and models of the regular +bodies, etc., as introductory to geography and geometry respectively, +are facts of the same class. Manifestly, a common trait of these methods +is, that they carry each child's mind through a process like that which +the mind of humanity at large has gone through. The truths of number, of +form, of relationship in position, were all originally drawn from +objects; and to present these truths to the child in the concrete is to +let him learn them as the race learnt them. By and by, perhaps, it will +be seen that he cannot possibly learn them in any other way; for that if +he is made to repeat them as abstractions, the abstractions can have no +meaning for him, until he finds that they are simply statements of what +he intuitively discerns. + +But of all the changes taking place, the most significant is the growing +desire to make the acquirement of knowledge pleasurable rather than +painful--a desire based on the more or less distinct perception, that at +each age the intellectual action which a child likes is a healthful one +for it; and conversely. There is a spreading opinion that the rise of an +appetite for any kind of information implies that the unfolding mind has +become fit to assimilate it, and needs it for purposes of growth; and +that, on the other hand, the disgust felt towards such information is a +sign either that it is prematurely presented, or that it is presented in +an indigestible form. Hence the efforts to make early education amusing, +and all education interesting. Hence the lectures on the value of play. +Hence the defence of nursery rhymes and fairy tales. Daily we more and +more conform our plans to juvenile opinion. Does the child like this or +that kind of teaching?--does he take to it? we constantly ask. "His +natural desire of variety should be indulged," says M. Marcel; "and the +gratification of his curiosity should be combined with his improvement." +"Lessons," he again remarks, "should cease before the child evinces +symptoms of weariness." And so with later education. Short breaks during +school-hours, excursions into the country, amusing lectures, choral +songs--in these and many like traits the change may be discerned. +Asceticism is disappearing out of education as out of life; and the +usual test of political legislation--its tendency to promote +happiness--is beginning to be, in a great degree, the test of +legislation for the school and the nursery. + +What now is the common characteristic of these several changes? Is it +not an increasing conformity to the methods of Nature? The +relinquishment of early forcing, against which Nature rebels, and the +leaving of the first years for exercise of the limbs and senses, show +this. The superseding of rote-learnt lessons by lessons orally and +experimentally given, like those of the field and play-ground, shows +this. The disuse of rule-teaching, and the adoption of teaching by +principles--that is, the leaving of generalisations until there are +particulars to base them on--show this. The system of object-lessons +shows this. The teaching of the rudiments of science in the concrete +instead of the abstract, shows this. And above all, this tendency is +shown in the variously-directed efforts to present knowledge in +attractive forms, and so to make the acquirement of it pleasurable. For, +as it is the order of Nature in all creatures that the gratification +accompanying the fulfilment of needful functions serves as a stimulus to +their fulfilment--as, during the self-education of the young child, the +delight taken in the biting of corals and the pulling to pieces of toys, +becomes the prompter to actions which teach it the properties of matter; +it follows that, in choosing the succession of subjects and the modes of +instruction which most interest the pupil, we are fulfilling Nature's +behests, and adjusting our proceedings to the laws of life. + +Thus, then, we are on the highway towards the doctrine long ago +enunciated by Pestalozzi, that alike in its order and its methods, +education must conform to the natural process of mental evolution--that +there is a certain sequence in which the faculties spontaneously +develop, and a certain kind of knowledge which each requires during its +development; and that it is for us to ascertain this sequence, and +supply this knowledge. All the improvements above alluded to are partial +applications of this general principle. A nebulous perception of it now +prevails among teachers; and it is daily more insisted on in educational +works. "The method of nature is the archetype of all methods," says M. +Marcel. "The vital principle in the pursuit is to enable the pupil +rightly to instruct himself," writes Mr. Wyse. The more science +familiarises us with the constitution of things, the more do we see in +them an inherent self-sufficingness. A higher knowledge tends +continually to limit our interference with the processes of life. As in +medicine the old "heroic treatment" has given place to mild treatment, +and often no treatment save a normal regimen--as we have found that it +is not needful to mould the bodies of babes by bandaging them in +papoose-fashion or otherwise--as in gaols it is being discovered that no +cunningly-devised discipline of ours is so efficient in producing +reformation as the natural discipline of self-maintenance by productive +labour; so in education, we are finding that success is to be achieved +only by making our measures subservient to that spontaneous unfolding +which all minds go through in their progress to maturity. + +Of course, this fundamental principle of tuition, that the arrangement +of matter and method must correspond with the order of evolution and +mode of activity of the faculties--a principle so obviously true, that +once stated it seems almost self-evident--has never been wholly +disregarded. Teachers have unavoidably made their school-courses +coincide with it in some degree, for the simple reason that education is +possible only on that condition. Boys were never taught the +rule-of-three until after they had learnt addition. They were not set to +write exercises before they had got into their copybooks. Conic sections +have always been preceded by Euclid. But the error of the old methods +consists in this, that they do not recognise in detail what they are +obliged to recognise in general. Yet the principle applies throughout. +If from the time when a child is able to conceive two things as related +in position, years must elapse before it can form a true concept of the +Earth, as a sphere made up of land and sea, covered with mountains, +forests, rivers, and cities, revolving on its axis, and sweeping round +the Sun--if it gets from the one concept to the other by degrees--if the +intermediate concepts which it forms are consecutively larger and more +complicated; is it not manifest that there is a general succession +through which alone it can pass; that each larger concept is made by the +combination of smaller ones, and presupposes them; and that to present +any of these compound concepts before the child is in possession of its +constituent ones, is only less absurd than to present the final concept +of the series before the initial one? In the mastering of every subject +some course of increasingly complex ideas has to be gone through. The +evolution of the corresponding faculties consists in the assimilation of +these; which, in any true sense, is impossible without they are put into +the mind in the normal order. And when this order is not followed, the +result is, that they are received with apathy or disgust; and that +unless the pupil is intelligent enough eventually to fill up the gaps +himself, they lie in his memory as dead facts, capable of being turned +to little or no use. + +"But why trouble ourselves about any _curriculum_ at all?" it may be +asked. "If it be true that the mind like the body has a predetermined +course of evolution--if it unfolds spontaneously--if its successive +desires for this or that kind of information arise when these are +severally required for its nutrition--if there thus exists in itself a +prompter to the right species of activity at the right time; why +interfere in any way? Why not leave children _wholly_ to the discipline +of nature?--why not remain quite passive and let them get knowledge as +they best can?--why not be consistent throughout?" This is an +awkward-looking question. Plausibly implying as it does, that a system +of complete _laissez-faire_ is the logical outcome of the doctrines set +forth, it seems to furnish a disproof of them by _reductio ad absurdum_. +In truth, however, they do not, when rightly understood, commit us to +any such untenable position. A glance at the physical analogies will +clearly show this. It is a general law of life that the more complex the +organism to be produced, the longer the period during which it is +dependent on a parent organism for food and protection. The difference +between the minute, rapidly-formed, and self-moving spore of a conferva, +and the slowly-developed seed of a tree, with its multiplied envelopes +and large stock of nutriment laid by to nourish the germ during its +first stages of growth, illustrates this law in its application to the +vegetal world. Among animals we may trace it in a series of contrasts +from the monad whose spontaneously-divided halves are as self-sufficing +the moment after their separation as was the original whole; up to man, +whose offspring not only passes through a protracted gestation, and +subsequently long depends on the breast for sustenance; but after that +must have its food artificially administered; must, when it has learned +to feed itself, continue to have bread, clothing, and shelter provided; +and does not acquire the power of complete self-support until a time +varying from fifteen to twenty years after its birth. Now this law +applies to the mind as to the body. For mental pabulum also, every +higher creature, and especially man, is at first dependent on adult aid. +Lacking the ability to move about, the babe is almost as powerless to +get materials on which to exercise its perceptions as it is to get +supplies for its stomach. Unable to prepare its own food, it is in like +manner unable to reduce many kinds of knowledge to a fit form for +assimilation. The language through which all higher truths are to be +gained, it wholly derives from those surrounding it. And we see in such +an example as the Wild Boy of Aveyron, the arrest of development that +results when no help is received from parents and nurses. Thus, in +providing from day to day the right kind of facts, prepared in the right +manner, and giving them in due abundance at appropriate intervals, there +is as much scope for active ministration to a child's mind as to its +body. In either case, it is the chief function of parents to see that +the _conditions_ requisite to growth are maintained. And as, in +supplying aliment, and clothing, and shelter, they may fulfil this +function without at all interfering with the spontaneous development of +the limbs and viscera, either in their order or mode; so, they may +supply sounds for imitation, objects for examination, books for reading, +problems for solution, and, if they use neither direct nor indirect +coercion, may do this without in any way disturbing the normal process +of mental evolution; or rather, may greatly facilitate that process. +Hence the admission of the doctrines enunciated does not, as some might +argue, involve the abandonment of teaching; but leaves ample room for an +active and elaborate course of culture. + + * * * * * + +Passing from generalities to special considerations, it is to be +remarked that in practice the Pestalozzian system seems scarcely to have +fulfilled the promise of its theory. We hear of children not at all +interested in its lessons,--disgusted with them rather; and, so far as +we can gather, the Pestalozzian school have not turned out any unusual +proportion of distinguished men: if even they have reached the average. +We are not surprised at this. The success of every appliance depends +mainly upon the intelligence with which it is used. It is a trite +remark that, having the choicest tools, an unskilful artisan will botch +his work; and bad teachers will fail even with the best methods. Indeed, +the goodness of the method becomes in such case a cause of failure; as, +to continue the simile, the perfection of the tool becomes in +undisciplined hands a source of imperfection in results. A simple, +unchanging, almost mechanical routine of tuition, may be carried out by +the commonest intellects, with such small beneficial effect as it is +capable of producing; but a complete system--a system as heterogeneous +in its appliances as the mind in its faculties--a system proposing a +special means for each special end, demands for its right employment +powers such as few teachers possess. The mistress of a dame-school can +hear spelling-lessons; and any hedge-schoolmaster can drill boys in the +multiplication-table. But to teach spelling rightly by using the powers +of the letters instead of their names, or to instruct in numerical +combinations by experimental synthesis, a modicum of understanding is +needful; and to pursue a like rational course throughout the entire +range of studies, asks an amount of judgment, of invention, of +intellectual sympathy, of analytical faculty, which we shall never see +applied to it while the tutorial official is held in such small esteem. +True education is practicable only by a true philosopher. Judge, then, +what prospect a philosophical method now has of being acted out! Knowing +so little as we yet do of psychology, and ignorant as our teachers are +of that little, what chance has a system which requires psychology for +its basis? + +Further hindrance and discouragement has arisen from confounding the +Pestalozzian principle with the forms in which it has been embodied. +Because particular plans have not answered expectation, discredit has +been cast upon the doctrine associated with them: no inquiry being made +whether these plans truly conform to the doctrine. Judging as usual by +the concrete rather than the abstract, men have blamed the theory for +the bunglings of the practice. It is as though the first futile attempt +to construct a steam-engine had been held to prove that steam could not +be used as a motive power. Let it be constantly borne in mind that while +right in his fundamental ideas, Pestalozzi was not therefore right in +all his applications of them. As described even by his admirers, +Pestalozzi was a man of partial intuitions--a man who had occasional +flashes of insight rather than a man of systematic thought. His first +great success at Stantz was achieved when he had no books or appliances +of ordinary teaching, and when "the only object of his attention was to +find out at each moment what instruction his children stood peculiarly +in need of, and what was the best manner of connecting it with the +knowledge they already possessed." Much of his power was due, not to +calmly reasoned-out plans of culture, but to his profound sympathy, +which gave him a quick perception of childish needs and difficulties. He +lacked the ability logically to co-ordinate and develop the truths which +he thus from time to time laid hold of; and had in great measure to +leave this to his assistants, Kruesi, Tobler, Buss, Niederer, and +Schmid. The result is, that in their details his own plans, and those +vicariously devised, contain numerous crudities and inconsistencies. His +nursery-method, described in _The Mother's Manual_, beginning as it does +with a nomenclature of the different parts of the body, and proceeding +next to specify their relative positions, and next their connections, +may be proved not at all in accordance with the initial stages of mental +evolution. His process of teaching the mother-tongue by formal exercises +in the meanings of words and in the construction of sentences, is quite +needless, and must entail on the pupil loss of time, labour, and +happiness. His proposed lessons in geography are utterly unpestalozzian. +And often where his plans are essentially sound, they are either +incomplete or vitiated by some remnant of the old regime. While, +therefore, we would defend in its entire extent the general doctrine +which Pestalozzi inaugurated, we think great evil likely to result from +an uncritical reception of his specific methods. That tendency, +constantly exhibited by mankind, to canonise the forms and practices +along with which any great truth has been bequeathed to them--their +liability to prostrate their intellects before the prophet, and swear by +his every word--their proneness to mistake the clothing of the idea for +the idea itself; renders it needful to insist strongly upon the +distinction between the fundamental principle of the Pestalozzian +system, and the set of expedients devised for its practice; and to +suggest that while the one may be considered as established, the other +is probably nothing but an adumbration of the normal course. Indeed, on +looking at the state of our knowledge, we may be quite sure that is the +case. Before educational methods can be made to harmonise in character +and arrangement with the faculties in their mode and order of unfolding, +it is first needful that we ascertain with some completeness how the +faculties _do_ unfold. At present we have acquired, on this point, only +a few general notions. These general notions must be developed in +detail--must be transformed into a multitude of specific propositions, +before we can be said to possess that _science_ on which the _art_ of +education must be based. And then, when we have definitely made out in +what succession and in what combinations the mental powers become +active, it remains to choose out of the many possible ways of exercising +each of them, that which best conforms to its natural mode of action. +Evidently, therefore, it is not to be supposed that even our most +advanced modes of teaching are the right ones, or nearly the right ones. + +Bearing in mind then this distinction between the principle and the +practice of Pestalozzi, and inferring from the grounds assigned that the +last must necessarily be very defective, the reader will rate at its +true worth the dissatisfaction with the system which some have +expressed; and will see that the realisation of the Pestalozzian idea +remains to be achieved. Should he argue, however, from what has just +been said, that no such realisation is at present practicable, and that +all effort ought to be devoted to the preliminary inquiry; we reply, +that though it is not possible for a scheme of culture to be perfected +either in matter or form until a rational psychology has been +established, it is possible, with the aid of certain guiding principles, +to make empirical approximations towards a perfect scheme. To prepare +the way for further research we will now specify these principles. Some +of them have been more or less distinctly implied in the foregoing +pages; but it will be well here to state them all in logical order. + +1. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex, +is a truth which has always been to some extent acted upon: not +professedly, indeed, nor by any means consistently. The mind develops. +Like all things that develop it progresses from the homogeneous to the +heterogeneous; and a normal training system, being an objective +counterpart of this subjective process, must exhibit a like progression. +Moreover, thus interpreting it, we may see that this formula has much +wider application than at first appears. For its _rationale_ involves, +not only that we should proceed from the single to the combined in the +teaching of each branch of knowledge; but that we should do the like +with knowledge as a whole. As the mind, consisting at first of but few +active faculties, has its later-completed faculties successively brought +into play, and ultimately comes to have all its faculties in +simultaneous action; it follows that our teaching should begin with but +few subjects at once, and successively adding to these, should finally +carry on all subjects abreast. Not only in its details should education +proceed from the simple to the complex, but in its _ensemble_ also. + +2. The development of the mind, as all other development, is an advance +from the indefinite to the definite. In common with the rest of the +organism, the brain reaches its finished structure only at maturity; and +in proportion as its structure is unfinished, its actions are wanting in +precision. Hence like the first movements and the first attempts at +speech, the first perceptions and thoughts are extremely vague. As from +a rudimentary eye, discerning only the difference between light and +darkness, the progress is to an eye that distinguishes kinds and +gradations of colour, and details of form, with the greatest exactness; +so, the intellect as a whole and in each faculty, beginning with the +rudest discriminations among objects and actions, advances towards +discriminations of increasing nicety and distinctness. To this general +law our educational course and methods must conform. It is not +practicable, nor would it be desirable if practicable, to put precise +ideas into the undeveloped mind. We may indeed at an early age +communicate the verbal forms in which such ideas are wrapped up; and +teachers, who habitually do this, suppose that when the verbal forms +have been correctly learnt, the ideas which should fill them have been +acquired. But a brief cross-examination of the pupil proves the +contrary. It turns out either that the words have been committed to +memory with little or no thought about their meaning, or else that the +perception of their meaning which has been gained is a very cloudy one. +Only as the multiplication of experiences gives materials for definite +conceptions--only as observation year by year discloses the less +conspicuous attributes which distinguish things and processes previously +confounded together--only as each class of co-existences and sequences +becomes familiar through the recurrence of cases coming under it--only +as the various classes of relations get accurately marked off from each +other by mutual limitation, can the exact definitions of advanced +knowledge become truly comprehensible. Thus in education we must be +content to set out with crude notions. These we must aim to make +gradually clearer by facilitating the acquisition of experiences such as +will correct, first their greatest errors, and afterwards their +successively less marked errors. And the scientific formulae must be +given only as fast as the conceptions are perfected. + +3. To say that our lessons ought to start from the concrete and end in +the abstract, may be considered as in part a repetition of the first of +the foregoing principles. Nevertheless it is a maxim that must be +stated: if with no other view, then with the view of showing in certain +cases what are truly the simple and the complex. For unfortunately there +has been much misunderstanding on this point. General formulas which men +have devised to express groups of details, and which have severally +simplified their conceptions by uniting many facts into one fact, they +have supposed must simplify the conceptions of a child also. They have +forgotten that a generalisation is simple only in comparison with the +whole mass of particular truths it comprehends--that it is more complex +than any one of these truths taken singly--that only after many of these +single truths have been acquired does the generalisation ease the memory +and help the reason--and that to a mind not possessing these single +truths it is necessarily a mystery. Thus confounding two kinds of +simplification, teachers have constantly erred by setting out with +"first principles": a proceeding essentially, though not apparently, at +variance with the primary rule; which implies that the mind should be +introduced to principles through the medium of examples, and so should +be led from the particular to the general--from the concrete to the +abstract. + +4. The education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement +with the education of mankind, considered historically. In other words, +the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same course +as the genesis of knowledge in the race. In strictness, this principle +may be considered as already expressed by implication; since both, being +processes of evolution, must conform to those same general laws of +evolution above insisted on, and must therefore agree with each other. +Nevertheless this particular parallelism is of value for the specific +guidance it affords. To M. Comte we believe society owes the enunciation +of it; and we may accept this item of his philosophy without at all +committing ourselves to the rest. This doctrine may be upheld by two +reasons, quite independent of any abstract theory; and either of them +sufficient to establish it. One is deducible from the law of hereditary +transmission as considered in its wider consequences. For if it be true +that men exhibit likeness to ancestry, both in aspect and character--if +it be true that certain mental manifestations, as insanity, occur in +successive members of the same family at the same age--if, passing from +individual cases in which the traits of many dead ancestors mixing with +those of a few living ones greatly obscure the law, we turn to national +types, and remark how the contrasts between them are persistent from age +to age--if we remember that these respective types came from a common +stock, and that hence the present marked differences between them must +have arisen from the action of modifying circumstances upon successive +generations who severally transmitted the accumulated effects to their +descendants--if we find the differences to be now organic, so that a +French child grows into a French man even when brought up among +strangers--and if the general fact thus illustrated is true of the whole +nature, intellect inclusive; then it follows that if there be an order +in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of knowledge, +there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these kinds of +knowledge in the same order. So that even were the order intrinsically +indifferent, it would facilitate education to lead the individual mind +through the steps traversed by the general mind. But the order is _not_ +intrinsically indifferent; and hence the fundamental reason why +education should be a repetition of civilisation in little. It is +provable both that the historical sequence was, in its main outlines, a +necessary one; and that the causes which determined it apply to the +child as to the race. Not to specify these causes in detail, it will +suffice here to point out that as the mind of humanity placed in the +midst of phenomena and striving to comprehend them, has, after endless +comparisons, speculations, experiments, and theories, reached its +present knowledge of each subject by a specific route; it may rationally +be inferred that the relationship between mind and phenomena is such as +to prevent this knowledge from being reached by any other route; and +that as each child's mind stands in this same relationship to phenomena, +they can be accessible to it only through the same route. Hence in +deciding upon the right method of education, an inquiry into the method +of civilisation will help to guide us. + +5. One of the conclusions to which such an inquiry leads, is, that in +each branch of instruction we should proceed from the empirical to the +rational. During human progress, every science is evolved out of its +corresponding art. It results from the necessity we are under, both +individually and as a race, of reaching the abstract by way of the +concrete, that there must be practice and an accruing experience with +its empirical generalisation, before there can be science. Science is +organised knowledge; and before knowledge can be organised, some of it +must be possessed. Every study, therefore, should have a purely +experimental introduction; and only after an ample fund of observations +has been accumulated, should reasoning begin. As illustrative +applications of this rule, we may instance the modern course of placing +grammar, not before language, but after it; or the ordinary custom of +prefacing perspective by practical drawing. By and by further +applications of it will be indicated. + +6. A second corollary from the foregoing general principle, and one +which cannot be too strenuously insisted on, is, that in education the +process of self-development should be encouraged to the uttermost. +Children should be led to make their own investigations, and to draw +their own inferences. They should be _told_ as little as possible, and +induced to _discover_ as much as possible. Humanity has progressed +solely by self-instruction; and that to achieve the best results, each +mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually +proved by the marked success of self-made men. Those who have been +brought up under the ordinary school-drill, and have carried away with +them the idea that education is practicable only in that style, will +think it hopeless to make children their own teachers. If, however, they +will consider that the all-important knowledge of surrounding objects +which a child gets in its early years is got without help--if they will +remember that the child is self-taught in the use of its mother +tongue--if they will estimate the amount of that experience of life, +that out-of-school wisdom, which every boy gathers for himself--if they +will mark the unusual intelligence of the uncared-for London _gamin_, as +shown in whatever directions his faculties have been tasked--if, +further, they will think how many minds have struggled up unaided, not +only through the mysteries of our irrationally-planned _curriculum_, but +through hosts of other obstacles besides; they will find it a not +unreasonable conclusion that if the subjects be put before him in right +order and right form, any pupil of ordinary capacity will surmount his +successive difficulties with but little assistance. Who indeed can watch +the ceaseless observation, and inquiry, and inference going on in a +child's mind, or listen to its acute remarks on matters within the range +of its faculties, without perceiving that these powers it manifests, if +brought to bear systematically upon studies _within the same range_, +would readily master them without help? This need for perpetual telling +results from our stupidity, not from the child's. We drag it away from +the facts in which it is interested, and which it is actively +assimilating of itself. We put before it facts far too complex for it to +understand; and therefore distasteful to it. Finding that it will not +voluntarily acquire these facts, we thrust them into its mind by force +of threats and punishment. By thus denying the knowledge it craves, and +cramming it with knowledge it cannot digest, we produce a morbid state +of its faculties; and a consequent disgust for knowledge in general. And +when, as a result partly of the stolid indolence we have brought on, and +partly of still-continued unfitness in its studies, the child can +understand nothing without explanation, and becomes a mere passive +recipient of our instruction, we infer that education must necessarily +be carried on thus. Having by our method induced helplessness, we make +the helplessness a reason for our method. Clearly then, the experience +of pedagogues cannot rationally be quoted against the system we are +advocating. And whoever sees this, will see that we may safely follow +the discipline of Nature throughout--may, by a skilful ministration, +make the mind as self-developing in its later stages as it is in its +earlier ones; and that only by doing this can we produce the highest +power and activity. + +7. As a final test by which to judge any plan of culture, should come +the question,--Does it create a pleasurable excitement in the pupils? +When in doubt whether a particular mode or arrangement is or is not more +in harmony with the foregoing principles than some other, we may safely +abide by this criterion. Even when, as considered theoretically, the +proposed course seems the best, yet if it produces no interest, or less +interest than some other course, we should relinquish it; for a child's +intellectual instincts are more trustworthy than our reasonings. In +respect to the knowing-faculties, we may confidently trust in the +general law, that under normal conditions, healthful action is +pleasurable, while action which gives pain is not healthful. Though at +present very incompletely conformed to by the emotional nature, yet by +the intellectual nature, or at least by those parts of it which the +child exhibits, this law is almost wholly conformed to. The repugnances +to this and that study which vex the ordinary teacher, are not innate, +but result from his unwise system. Fellenberg says, "Experience has +taught me that _indolence_ in young persons is so directly opposite to +their natural disposition to activity, that unless it is the consequence +of bad education, it is almost invariably connected with some +constitutional defect." And the spontaneous activity to which children +are thus prone, is simply the pursuit of those pleasures which the +healthful exercise of the faculties gives. It is true that some of the +higher mental powers, as yet but little developed in the race, and +congenitally possessed in any considerable degree only by the most +advanced, are indisposed to the amount of exertion required of them. But +these, in virtue of their very complexity, will, in a normal course of +culture, come last into exercise; and will therefore have no demands +made on them until the pupil has arrived at an age when ulterior motives +can be brought into play, and an indirect pleasure made to +counterbalance a direct displeasure. With all faculties lower than +these, however, the immediate gratification consequent on activity, is +the normal stimulus; and under good management the only needful +stimulus. When we have to fall back on some other, we must take the fact +as evidence that we are on the wrong track. Experience is daily showing +with greater clearness, that there is always a method to be found +productive of interest--even of delight; and it ever turns out that this +is the method proved by all other tests to be the right one. + +With most, these guiding principles will weigh but little if left in +this abstract form. Partly, therefore, to exemplify their application, +and partly with a view of making sundry specific suggestions, we propose +now to pass from the theory of education to the practice of it. + + * * * * * + +It was the opinion of Pestalozzi, and one which has ever since his day +been gaining ground, that education of some kind should begin from the +cradle. Whoever has watched, with any discernment, the wide-eyed gaze of +the infant at surrounding objects knows very well that education _does_ +begin thus early, whether we intend it or not; and that these fingerings +and suckings of everything it can lay hold of, these open-mouthed +listenings to every sound, are first steps in the series which ends in +the discovery of unseen planets, the invention of calculating engines, +the production of great paintings, or the composition of symphonies and +operas. This activity of the faculties from the very first, being +spontaneous and inevitable, the question is whether we shall supply in +due variety the materials on which they may exercise themselves; and to +the question so put, none but an affirmative answer can be given. As +before said, however, agreement with Pestalozzi's theory does not +involve agreement with his practice; and here occurs a case in point. +Treating of instruction in spelling he says:-- + + "The spelling-book ought, therefore, to contain all the sounds of + the language, and these ought to be taught in every family from the + earliest infancy. The child who learns his spelling book ought to + repeat them to the infant in the cradle, before it is able to + pronounce even one of them, so that they may be deeply impressed + upon its mind by frequent repetition." + +Joining this with the suggestions for "a nursery method," set down in +his _Mother's Manual_, in which he makes the names, positions, +connections, numbers, properties, and uses of the limbs and body his +first lessons, it becomes clear that Pestalozzi's notions on early +mental development were too crude to enable him to devise judicious +plans. Let us consider the course which Psychology dictates. + +The earliest impressions which the mind can assimilate are the +undecomposable sensations produced by resistance, light, sound, etc. +Manifestly, decomposable states of consciousness cannot exist before the +states of consciousness out of which they are composed. There can be no +idea of form until some familiarity with light in its gradations and +qualities, or resistance in its different intensities, has been +acquired; for, as has been long known, we recognise visible form by +means of varieties of light, and tangible form by means of varieties of +resistance. Similarly, no articulate sound is cognisable until the +inarticulate sounds which go to make it up have been learned. And thus +must it be in every other case. Following, therefore, the necessary law +of progression from the simple to the complex, we should provide for the +infant a sufficiency of objects presenting different degrees and kinds +of resistance, a sufficiency of objects reflecting different amounts and +qualities of light, and a sufficiency of sounds contrasted in their +loudness, their pitch and their _timbre_. How fully this _a priori_ +conclusion is confirmed by infantile instincts, all will see on being +reminded of the delight which every young child has in biting its toys, +in feeling its brother's bright jacket-buttons, and pulling papa's +whiskers--how absorbed it becomes in gazing at any gaudily-painted +object, to which it applies the word "pretty," when it can pronounce it, +wholly because of the bright colours--and how its face broadens into a +laugh at the tattlings of its nurse, the snapping of a visitor's +fingers, or any sound which it has not before heard. Fortunately, the +ordinary practices of the nursery fulfil these early requirements of +education to a considerable degree. Much, however, remains to be done; +and it is of more importance that it should be done than at first +appears. Every faculty during that spontaneous activity which +accompanies its evolution is capable of receiving more vivid impressions +than at any other period. Moreover, as these simplest elements have to +be mastered, and as the mastery of them whenever achieved must take +time, it becomes an economy of time to occupy this first stage of +childhood, during which no other intellectual action is possible, in +gaining a complete familiarity with them in all their modifications. Nor +let us omit the fact, that both temper and health will be improved by +the continual gratification resulting from a due supply of these +impressions which every child so greedily assimilates. Space, could it +be spared, might here be well filled by some suggestions towards a more +systematic ministration to these simplest of the perceptions. But it +must suffice to point out that any such ministration, recognising the +general law of evolution from the indefinite to the definite, should +proceed upon the corollary that in the development of every faculty, +markedly contrasted impressions are the first to be distinguished; that +hence sounds greatly differing in loudness and pitch, colours very +remote from each other, and substances widely unlike in hardness or +texture, should be the first supplied; and that in each case the +progression must be by slow degrees to impressions more nearly allied. + +Passing on to object-lessons, which manifestly form a natural +continuation of this primary culture of the senses, it is to be +remarked, that the system commonly pursued is wholly at variance with +the method of Nature, as exhibited alike in infancy, in adult life, and +in the course of civilisation. "The child," says M. Marcel, "must be +_shown_ how all the parts of an object are connected, etc.;" and the +various manuals of these object-lessons severally contain lists of the +facts which the child is to be _told_ respecting each of the things put +before it. Now it needs but a glance at the daily life of the infant to +see that all the knowledge of things which is gained before the +acquirement of speech, is self-gained--that the qualities of hardness +and weight associated with certain appearances, the possession of +particular forms and colours by particular persons, the production of +special sounds by animals of special aspects, are phenomena which it +observes for itself. In manhood too, when there are no longer teachers +at hand, the observations and inferences hourly required for guidance +must be made unhelped; and success in life depends upon the accuracy and +completeness with which they are made. Is it probable, then, that while +the process displayed in the evolution of humanity at large is repeated +alike by the infant and the man, a reverse process must be followed +during the period between infancy and manhood? and that too, even in so +simple a thing as learning the properties of objects? Is it not obvious, +on the contrary, that one method must be pursued throughout? And is not +Nature perpetually thrusting this method upon us, if we had but the wit +to see it, and the humility to adopt it? What can be more manifest than +the desire of children for intellectual sympathy? Mark how the infant +sitting on your knee thrusts into your face the toy it holds, that you +too may look at it. See when it makes a creak with its wet finger on the +table, how it turns and looks at you; does it again, and again looks at +you; thus saying as clearly as it can--"Hear this new sound." Watch the +elder children coming into the room exclaiming--"Mamma, see what a +curious thing," "Mamma, look at this," "Mamma, look at that:" a habit +which they would continue, did not the silly mamma tell them not to +tease her. Observe that, when out with the nurse-maid, each little one +runs up to her with the new flower it has gathered, to show her how +pretty it is, and to get her also to say it is pretty. Listen to the +eager volubility with which every urchin describes any novelty he has +been to see, if only he can find some one who will attend with any +interest. Does not the induction lie on the surface? Is it not clear +that we must conform our course to these intellectual instincts--that we +must just systematise the natural process--that we must listen to all +the child has to tell us about each object; must induce it to say +everything it can think of about such object; must occasionally draw its +attention to facts it has not yet observed, with the view of leading it +to notice them itself whenever they recur; and must go on by and by to +indicate or supply new series of things for a like exhaustive +examination? Note the way in which, on this method, the intelligent +mother conducts her lessons. Step by step she familiarises her little +boy with the names of the simpler attributes, hardness, softness, +colour, taste, size: in doing which she finds him eagerly help by +bringing this to show her that it is red, and the other to make her feel +that it is hard, as fast as she gives him words for these properties. +Each additional property, as she draws his attention to it in some fresh +thing which he brings her, she takes care to mention in connection with +those he already knows; so that by the natural tendency to imitate, he +may get into the habit of repeating them one after another. Gradually as +there occur cases in which he omits to name one or more of the +properties he has become acquainted with, she introduces the practice +of asking him whether there is not something more that he can tell her +about the thing he has got. Probably he does not understand. After +letting him puzzle awhile she tells him; perhaps laughing at him a +little for his failure. A few recurrences of this and he perceives what +is to be done. When next she says she knows something more about the +object than he has told her, his pride is roused; he looks at it +intently; he thinks over all that he has heard; and the problem being +easy, presently finds it out. He is full of glee at his success, and she +sympathises with him. In common with every child, he delights in the +discovery of his powers. He wishes for more victories, and goes in quest +of more things about which to tell her. As his faculties unfold she adds +quality after quality to his list: progressing from hardness and +softness to roughness and smoothness, from colour to polish, from simple +bodies to composite ones--thus constantly complicating the problem as he +gains competence, constantly taxing his attention and memory to a +greater extent, constantly maintaining his interest by supplying him +with new impressions such as his mind can assimilate, and constantly +gratifying him by conquests over such small difficulties as he can +master. In doing this she is manifestly but following out that +spontaneous process which was going on during a still earlier +period--simply aiding self-evolution; and is aiding it in the mode +suggested by the boy's instinctive behaviour to her. Manifestly, too, +the course she is adopting is the one best calculated to establish a +habit of exhaustive observation; which is the professed aim of these +lessons. To _tell_ a child this and to _show_ it the other, is not to +teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere recipient of another's +observations: a proceeding which weakens rather than strengthens its +powers of self-instruction--which deprives it of the pleasures resulting +from successful activity--which presents this all-attractive knowledge +under the aspect of formal tuition--and which thus generates that +indifference and even disgust not unfrequently felt towards these +object-lessons. On the other hand, to pursue the course above described +is simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food; to join with +the intellectual appetites their natural adjuncts--_amour propre_ and +the desire for sympathy; to induce by the union of all these an +intensity of attention which insures perceptions both vivid and +complete; and to habituate the mind from the beginning to that practice +of self-help which it must ultimately follow. + +Object-lessons should not only be carried on after quite a different +fashion from that commonly pursued, but should be extended to a range of +things far wider, and continued to a period far later, than now. They +should not be limited to the contents of the house; but should include +those of the fields and the hedges, the quarry and the sea-shore. They +should not cease with early childhood; but should be so kept up during +youth, as insensibly to merge into the investigations of the naturalist +and the man of science. Here again we have but to follow Nature's +leadings. Where can be seen an intenser delight than that of children +picking up new flowers and watching new insects; or hoarding pebbles and +shells? And who is there but perceives that by sympathising with them +they may be led on to any extent of inquiry into the qualities and +structures of these things? Every botanist who has had children with him +in the woods and lanes must have noticed how eagerly they joined in his +pursuits, how keenly they searched out plants for him, how intently they +watched while he examined them, how they overwhelmed him with questions. +The consistent follower of Bacon--the "servant and interpreter of +nature," will see that we ought modestly to adopt the course of culture +thus indicated. Having become familiar with the simpler properties of +inorganic objects, the child should by the same process be led on to an +exhaustive examination of the things it picks up in its daily walks--the +less complex facts they present being alone noticed at first: in plants, +the colours, numbers, and forms of the petals, and shapes of the stalks +and leaves; in insects, the numbers of the wings, legs, and antennae, and +their colours. As these become fully appreciated and invariably +observed, further facts may be successively introduced: in the one case, +the numbers of stamens and pistils, the forms of the flowers, whether +radial or bilateral in symmetry, the arrangement and character of the +leaves, whether opposite or alternate, stalked or sessile, smooth or +hairy, serrated, toothed, or crenate; in the other, the divisions of the +body, the segments of the abdomen, the markings of the wings, the number +of joints in the legs, and the forms of the smaller organs--the system +pursued throughout being that of making it the child's ambition to say +respecting everything it finds all that can be said. Then when a fit age +has been reached, the means of preserving these plants, which have +become so interesting in virtue of the knowledge obtained of them, may +as a great favour be supplied; and eventually, as a still greater +favour, may also be supplied the apparatus needful for keeping the larvae +of our common butterflies and moths through their transformations--a +practice which, as we can personally testify, yields the highest +gratification; is continued with ardour for years; when joined with the +formation of an entomological collection, adds immense interest to +Saturday-afternoon rambles; and forms an admirable introduction to the +study of physiology. + +We are quite prepared to hear from many that all this is throwing away +time and energy; and that children would be much better occupied in +writing their copies or learning their pence-tables, and so fitting +themselves for the business of life. We regret that such crude ideas of +what constitutes education, and such a narrow conception of utility, +should still be prevalent. Saying nothing on the need for a systematic +culture of the perceptions and the value of the practices above +inculcated as subserving that need, we are prepared to defend them even +on the score of the knowledge gained. If men are to be mere cits, mere +porers over ledgers, with no ideas beyond their trades--if it is well +that they should be as the cockney whose conception of rural pleasures +extends no further than sitting in a tea-garden smoking pipes and +drinking porter; or as the squire who thinks of woods as places for +shooting in, of uncultivated plants as nothing but weeds, and who +classifies animals into game, vermin, and stock--then indeed it is +needless to learn anything that does not directly help to replenish the +till and fill the larder. But if there is a more worthy aim for us than +to be drudges--if there are other uses in the things around than their +power to bring money--if there are higher faculties to be exercised than +acquisitive and sensual ones--if the pleasures which poetry and art and +science and philosophy can bring are of any moment; then is it desirable +that the instinctive inclination which every child shows to observe +natural beauties and investigate natural phenomena, should be +encouraged. But this gross utilitarianism which is content to come into +the world and quit it again without knowing what kind of a world it is +or what it contains, may be met on its own ground. It will by and by be +found that a knowledge of the laws of life is more important than any +other knowledge whatever--that the laws of life underlie not only all +bodily and mental processes, but by implication all the transactions of +the house and the street, all commerce, all politics, all morals--and +that therefore without a comprehension of them, neither personal nor +social conduct can be rightly regulated. It will eventually be seen too, +that the laws of life are essentially the same throughout the whole +organic creation; and further, that they cannot be properly understood +in their complex manifestations until they have been studied in their +simpler ones. And when this is seen, it will be also seen that in aiding +the child to acquire the out-of-door information for which it shows so +great an avidity, and in encouraging the acquisition of such information +throughout youth, we are simply inducing it to store up the raw material +for future organisation--the facts that will one day bring home to it +with due force, those great generalisations of science by which actions +may be rightly guided. + +The spreading recognition of drawing as an element of education is one +among many signs of the more rational views on mental culture now +beginning to prevail. Once more it may be remarked that teachers are at +length adopting the course which Nature has perpetually been pressing on +their notice. The spontaneous attempts made by children to represent the +men, houses, trees, and animals around them--on a slate if they can get +nothing better, or with lead-pencil on paper if they can beg them--are +familiar to all. To be shown through a picture-book is one of their +highest gratifications; and as usual, their strong imitative tendency +presently generates in them the ambition to make pictures themselves +also. This effort to depict the striking things they see is a further +instinctive exercise of the perceptions--a means whereby still greater +accuracy and completeness of observation are induced. And alike by +trying to interest us in their discoveries of the sensible properties of +things, and by their endeavours to draw, they solicit from us just that +kind of culture which they most need. + +Had teachers been guided by Nature's hints, not only in making drawing a +part of education but in choosing modes of teaching it, they would have +done still better than they have done. What is that the child first +tries to represent? Things that are large, things that are attractive in +colour, things round which its pleasurable associations most +cluster--human beings from whom it has received so many emotions; cows +and dogs which interest by the many phenomena they present; houses that +are hourly visible and strike by their size and contrast of parts. And +which of the processes of representation gives it most delight? +Colouring. Paper and pencil are good in default of something better; but +a box of paints and a brush--these are the treasures. The drawing of +outlines immediately becomes secondary to colouring--is gone through +mainly with a view to the colouring; and if leave can be got to colour a +book of prints, how great is the favour! Now, ridiculous as such a +position will seem to drawing-masters who postpone colouring and who +teach form by a dreary discipline of copying lines, we believe that the +course of culture thus indicated is the right one. The priority of +colour to form, which, as already pointed out, has a psychological +basis, should be recognised from the beginning; and from the beginning +also, the things imitated should be real. That greater delight in colour +which is not only conspicuous in children but persists in most persons +throughout life, should be continuously employed as the natural stimulus +to the mastery of the comparatively difficult and unattractive form: the +pleasure of the subsequent tinting should be the prospective reward for +the labour of delineation. And these efforts to represent interesting +actualities should be encouraged; in the conviction that as, by a +widening experience, simpler and more practicable objects become +interesting, they too will be attempted; and that so a gradual +approximation will be made towards imitations having some resemblance to +the realities. The extreme indefiniteness which, in conformity with the +law of evolution, these first attempts exhibit, is anything but a reason +for ignoring them. No matter how grotesque the shapes produced; no +matter how daubed and glaring the colours. The question is not whether +the child is producing good drawings. The question is, whether it is +developing its faculties. It has first to gain some command over its +fingers, some crude notions of likeness; and this practice is better +than any other for these ends, since it is the spontaneous and +interesting one. During early childhood no formal drawing-lessons are +possible. Shall we therefore repress, or neglect to aid, these efforts +at self-culture? or shall we encourage and guide them as normal +exercises of the perceptions and the powers of manipulation? If by +furnishing cheap woodcuts to be painted, and simple contour-maps to have +their boundary lines tinted, we can not only pleasurably draw out the +faculty of colour, but can incidentally produce some familiarity with +the outlines of things and countries, and some ability to move the brush +steadily; and if by the supply of tempting objects we can keep up the +instinctive practice of making representations, however rough; it must +happen that when the age for lessons in drawing is reached, there will +exist a facility that would else have been absent. Time will have been +gained; and trouble, both to teacher and pupil, saved. + +From what has been said, it may be readily inferred that we condemn the +practice of drawing from copies; and still more so that formal +discipline in making straight lines and curved lines and compound lines, +with which it is the fashion of some teachers to begin. We regret that +the Society of Arts has recently, in its series of manuals on +"Rudimentary Art Instruction," given its countenance to an elementary +drawing-book, which is the most vicious in principle that we have seen. +We refer to the _Outline from Outline, or from the Flat_, by John Bell, +sculptor. As explained in the prefatory note, this publication proposes +"to place before the student a simple, yet logical mode of instruction;" +and to this end sets out with a number of definitions thus:-- + + "A simple line in drawing is a thin mark drawn from one point to + another. + + "Lines may be divided, as to their nature in drawing, into two + classes:-- + + "1. _Straight_, which are marks that go the shortest road between + two points, as A B. + + "2. Or _Curved_, which are marks which do not go the shortest road + between two points, as C D." + +And so the introduction progresses to horizontal lines, perpendicular +lines, oblique lines, angles of the several kinds, and the various +figures which lines and angles make up. The work is, in short, a grammar +of form, with exercises. And thus the system of commencing with a dry +analysis of elements, which, in the teaching of language, has been +exploded, is to be re-instituted in the teaching of drawing. We are to +set out with the definite, instead of with the indefinite. The abstract +is to be preliminary to the concrete. Scientific conceptions are to +precede empirical experiences. That this is an inversion of the normal +order, we need scarcely repeat. It has been well said concerning the +custom of prefacing the art of speaking any tongue by a drilling in the +parts of speech and their functions, that it is about as reasonable as +prefacing the art of walking by a course of lessons on the bones, +muscles, and nerves of the legs; and much the same thing may be said of +the proposal to preface the art of representing objects, by a +nomenclature and definitions of the lines which they yield on analysis. +These technicalities are alike repulsive and needless. They render the +study distasteful at the very outset; and all with the view of teaching +that which, in the course of practice, will be learnt unconsciously. +Just as the child incidentally gathers the meanings of ordinary words +from the conversations going on around it, without the help of +dictionaries; so, from the remarks on objects, pictures, and its own +drawings, will it presently acquire, not only without effort but even +pleasurably, those same scientific terms which, when taught at first, +are a mystery and a weariness. + +If any dependence is to be placed on the general principles of education +that have been laid down, the process of learning to draw should be +throughout continuous with those efforts of early childhood, described +above as so worthy of encouragement. By the time that the voluntary +practice thus initiated has given some steadiness of hand, and some +tolerable ideas of proportion, there will have arisen a vague notion of +body as presenting its three dimensions in perspective. And when, after +sundry abortive, Chinese-like attempts to render this appearance on +paper, there has grown up a pretty clear perception of the thing to be +done, and a desire to do it, a first lesson in empirical perspective may +be given by means of the apparatus occasionally used in explaining +perspective as a science. This sounds alarming; but the experiment is +both comprehensible and interesting to any boy or girl of ordinary +intelligence. A plate of glass so framed as to stand vertically on the +table, being placed before the pupil, and a book or like simple object +laid on the other side of it, he is requested, while keeping the eye in +one position, to make ink-dots on the glass so that they may coincide +with, or hide, the corners of this object. He is next told to join these +dots by lines; on doing which he perceives that the lines he makes hide, +or coincide with, the outlines of the object. And then by putting a +sheet of paper on the other side of the glass, it is made manifest to +him that the lines he has thus drawn represent the object as he saw it. +They not only look like it, but he perceives that they must be like it, +because he made them agree with its outlines; and by removing the paper +he can convince himself that they do agree with its outlines. The fact +is new and striking; and serves him as an experimental demonstration, +that lines of certain lengths, placed in certain directions on a plane, +can represent lines of other lengths, and having other directions, in +space. By gradually changing the position of the object, he may be led +to observe how some lines shorten and disappear, while others come into +sight and lengthen. The convergence of parallel lines, and, indeed, all +the leading facts of perspective, may, from time to time, be similarly +illustrated to him. If he has been duly accustomed to self-help, he will +gladly, when it is suggested, attempt to draw one of these outlines on +paper, by the eye only; and it may soon be made an exciting aim to +produce, unassisted, a representation as like as he can to one +subsequently sketched on the glass. Thus, without the unintelligent, +mechanical practice of copying other drawings, but by a method at once +simple and attractive--rational, yet not abstract--a familiarity with +the linear appearances of things, and a faculty of rendering them, may +be step by step acquired. To which advantages add these:--that even thus +early the pupil learns, almost unconsciously, the true theory of a +picture (namely, that it is a delineation of objects as they appear when +projected on a plane placed between them and the eye); and that when he +reaches a fit age for commencing scientific perspective, he is already +thoroughly acquainted with the facts which form its logical basis. + +As exhibiting a rational mode of conveying primary conceptions in +geometry, we cannot do better than quote the following passage from Mr. +Wyse:-- + + "A child has been in the habit of using cubes for arithmetic; let + him use them also for the elements of geometry. I would begin with + solids, the reverse of the usual plan. It saves all the difficulty + of absurd definitions, and bad explanations on points, lines, and + surfaces, which are nothing but abstractions.... A cube presents + many of the principal elements of geometry; it at once exhibits + points, straight lines, parallel lines, angles, parallelograms, + etc., etc. These cubes are divisible into various parts. The pupil + has already been familiarised with such divisions in numeration, + and he now proceeds to a comparison of their several parts, and of + the relation of these parts to each other.... From thence he + advances to globes, which furnish him with elementary notions of + the circle, of curves generally, etc., etc. + + "Being tolerably familiar with solids, he may now substitute + planes. The transition may be made very easy. Let the cube, for + instance, be cut into thin divisions, and placed on paper; he will + then see as many plane rectangles as he has divisions; so with all + the others. Globes may be treated in the same manner; he will thus + see how surfaces really are generated, and be enabled to abstract + them with facility in every solid. + + "He has thus acquired the alphabet and reading of geometry. He now + proceeds to write it. + + "The simplest operation, and therefore the first, is merely to + place these planes on a piece of paper, and pass the pencil round + them. When this has been frequently done, the plane may be put at a + little distance, and the child required to copy it, and so on." + +A stock of geometrical conceptions having been obtained, in some such +manner as this recommended by Mr. Wyse, a further step may be taken, by +introducing the practice of testing the correctness of figures drawn by +eye: thus both exciting an ambition to make them exact, and continually +illustrating the difficulty of fulfilling that ambition. There can be +little doubt that geometry had its origin (as, indeed, the word implies) +in the methods discovered by artizans and others, of making accurate +measurements for the foundations of buildings, areas of inclosures, and +the like; and that its truths came to be treasured up, merely with a +view to their immediate utility. They would be introduced to the pupil +under analogous relationships. In cutting out pieces for his +card-houses, in drawing ornamental diagrams for colouring, and in those +various instructive occupations which an inventive teacher will lead him +into, he may for a length of time be advantageously left, like the +primitive builder, to tentative processes; and so will learn through +experience the difficulty of achieving his aims by the unaided senses. +When, having meanwhile undergone a valuable discipline of the +perceptions, he has reached a fit age for using a pair of compasses, he +will, while duly appreciating these as enabling him to verify his ocular +guesses, be still hindered by the imperfections of the approximative +method. In this stage he may be left for a further period: partly as +being yet too young for anything higher; partly because it is desirable +that he should be made to feel still more strongly the want of +systematic contrivances. If the acquisition of knowledge is to be made +continuously interesting; and if, in the early civilisation of the +child, as in the early civilisation of the race, science is valued only +as ministering to art; it is manifest that the proper preliminary to +geometry, is a long practice in those constructive processes which +geometry will facilitate. Observe that here, too, Nature points the way. +Children show a strong propensity to cut out things in paper, to make, +to build--a propensity which, if encouraged and directed, will not only +prepare the way for scientific conceptions, but will develop those +powers of manipulation in which most people are so deficient. + +When the observing and inventive faculties have attained the requisite +power, the pupil may be introduced to empirical geometry; that +is--geometry dealing with methodical solutions, but not with the +demonstrations of them. Like all other transitions in education, this +should be made not formally but incidentally; and the relationship to +constructive art should still be maintained. To make, out of cardboard, +a tetrahedron like one given to him, is a problem which will interest +the pupil and serve as a convenient starting-point. In attempting this, +he finds it needful to draw four equilateral triangles arranged in +special positions. Being unable in the absence of an exact method to do +this accurately, he discovers on putting the triangles into their +respective positions, that he cannot make their sides fit; and that +their angles do not meet at the apex. He may now be shown how, by +describing a couple of circles, each of these triangles may be drawn +with perfect correctness and without guessing; and after his failure he +will value the information. Having thus helped him to the solution of +his first problem, with the view of illustrating the nature of +geometrical methods, he is in future to be left to solve the questions +put to him as best he can. To bisect a line, to erect a perpendicular, +to describe a square, to bisect an angle, to draw a line parallel to a +given line, to describe a hexagon, are problems which a little patience +will enable him to find out. And from these he may be led on step by +step to more complex questions: all of which, under judicious +management, he will puzzle through unhelped. Doubtless, many of those +brought up under the old regime, will look upon this assertion +sceptically. We speak from facts, however; and those neither few nor +special. We have seen a class of boys become so interested in making out +solutions to such problems, as to look forward to their geometry-lesson +as a chief event of the week. Within the last month, we have heard of +one girl's school, in which some of the young ladies voluntarily occupy +themselves with geometrical questions out of school-hours; and of +another, where they not only do this, but where one of them is begging +for problems to find out during the holidays: both which facts we state +on the authority of the teacher. Strong proofs, these, of the +practicability and the immense advantage of self-development! A branch +of knowledge which, as commonly taught, is dry and even repulsive, is +thus, by following the method of Nature, made extremely interesting and +profoundly beneficial. We say profoundly beneficial, because the effects +are not confined to the gaining of geometrical facts, but often +revolutionise the whole state of mind. It has repeatedly occurred that +those who have been stupefied by the ordinary school-drill--by its +abstract formulas, its wearisome tasks, its cramming--have suddenly had +their intellects roused by thus ceasing to make them passive recipients, +and inducing them to become active discoverers. The discouragement +caused by bad teaching having been diminished by a little sympathy, and +sufficient perseverance excited to achieve a first success, there arises +a revulsion of feeling affecting the whole nature. They no longer find +themselves incompetent; they, too, can do something. And gradually as +success follows success, the incubus of despair disappears, and they +attack the difficulties of their other studies with a courage insuring +conquest. + +A few weeks after the foregoing remarks were originally published, +Professor Tyndall in a lecture at the Royal Institution "On the +Importance of the Study of Physics as a Branch of Education," gave some +conclusive evidence to the same effect. His testimony, based on personal +observation, is of such great value that we cannot refrain from quoting +it. Here it is. + + "One of the duties which fell to my share, during the period to + which I have referred, was the instruction of a class in + mathematics, and I usually found that Euclid and the ancient + geometry generally, when addressed to the understanding, formed a + very attractive study for youth. But it was my habitual practice to + withdraw the boys from the routine of the book, and to appeal to + their self-power in the treatment of questions not comprehended in + that routine. At first, the change from the beaten track usually + excited a little aversion: the youth felt like a child amid + strangers; but in no single instance have I found this aversion to + continue. When utterly disheartened, I have encouraged the boy by + that anecdote of Newton, where he attributes the difference between + him and other men, mainly to his own patience; or of Mirabeau, when + he ordered his servant, who had stated something to be impossible, + never to use that stupid word again. Thus cheered, he has returned + to his task with a smile, which perhaps had something of doubt in + it, but which, nevertheless, evinced a resolution to try again. I + have seen the boy's eye brighten, and at length, with a pleasure of + which the ecstasy of Archimedes was but a simple expansion, heard + him exclaim, 'I have it, sir.' The consciousness of self-power, + thus awakened, was of immense value; and animated by it, the + progress of the class was truly astonishing. It was often my custom + to give the boys their choice of pursuing their propositions in the + book, or of trying their strength at others not to be found there. + Never in a single instance have I known the book to be chosen. I + was ever ready to assist when I deemed help needful, but my offers + of assistance were habitually declined. The boys had tasted the + sweets of intellectual conquest and demanded victories of their + own. I have seen their diagrams scratched on the walls, cut into + the beams upon the play ground, and numberless other illustrations + of the living interest they took in the subject. For my own part, + as far as experience in teaching goes, I was a mere fledgling: I + knew nothing of the rules of pedagogics, as the Germans name it; + but I adhered to the spirit indicated at the commencement of this + discourse, and endeavoured to make geometry a _means_ and not a + _branch_ of education. The experiment was successful, and some of + the most delightful hours of my existence have been spent in + marking the vigorous and cheerful expansion of mental power, when + appealed to in the manner I have described." + +This empirical geometry which presents an endless series of problems, +should be continued along with other studies for years; and may +throughout be advantageously accompanied by those concrete applications +of its principles which serve as its preliminary. After the cube, the +octahedron, and the various forms of pyramid and prism have been +mastered, may come the more complex regular bodies--the dodecahedron and +icosahedron--to construct which out of single pieces of cardboard, +requires considerable ingenuity. From these, the transition may +naturally be made to such modified forms of the regular bodies as are +met with in crystals--the truncated cube, the cube with its dihedral as +well as its solid angles truncated, the octahedron and the various +prisms as similarly modified: in imitating which numerous forms assumed +by different metals and salts, an acquaintance with the leading facts of +mineralogy will be incidentally gained.[1] + +After long continuance in exercises of this kind, rational geometry, as +may be supposed, presents no obstacles. Habituated to contemplate +relationships of form and quantity, and vaguely perceiving from time to +time the necessity of certain results as reached by certain means, the +pupil comes to regard the demonstrations of Euclid as the missing +supplements to his familiar problems. His well-disciplined faculties +enable him easily to master its successive propositions, and to +appreciate their value; and he has the occasional gratification of +finding some of his own methods proved to be true. Thus he enjoys what +is to the unprepared a dreary task. It only remains to add, that his +mind will presently arrive at a fit condition for that most valuable of +all exercises for the reflective faculties--the making of original +demonstrations. Such theorems as those appended to the successive books +of the Messrs. Chambers's Euclid, will soon become practicable to him; +and in proving them, the process of self-development will be not +intellectual only, but moral. + +To continue these suggestions much further, would be to write a detailed +treatise on education, which we do not purpose. The foregoing outlines +of plans for exercising the perceptions in early childhood, for +conducting object-lessons, for teaching drawing and geometry, must be +considered simply as illustrations of the method dictated by the general +principles previously specified. We believe that on examination they +will be found not only to progress from the simple to the complex, from +the indefinite to the definite, from the concrete to the abstract, from +the empirical to the rational; but to satisfy the further requirements, +that education shall be a repetition of civilisation in little, that it +shall be as much as possible a process of self-evolution, and that it +shall be pleasurable. The fulfilment of all these conditions by one type +of method, tends alike to verify the conditions, and to prove that type +of the method the right one. Mark too, that this method is the logical +outcome of the tendency characterising all modern improvements in +tuition--that it is but an adoption in full of the natural system which +they adopt partially--that it displays this complete adoption of the +natural system, both by conforming to the above principles, and by +following the suggestions which the unfolding mind itself gives: +facilitating its spontaneous activities, and so aiding the developments +which Nature is busy with. Thus there seems abundant reason to conclude, +that the mode of procedure above exemplified, closely approximates to +the true one. + + * * * * * + +A few paragraphs must be added in further inculcation of the two general +principles, that are alike the most important and the least attended to; +namely, the principle that throughout youth, as in early childhood and +in maturity, the process shall be one of self-instruction; and the +obverse principle, that the mental action induced shall be throughout +intrinsically grateful. If progression from simple to complex, from +indefinite to definite, and from concrete to abstract, be considered the +essential requirements as dictated by abstract psychology; then do the +requirements that knowledge shall be self-mastered, and pleasurably +mastered, become tests by which we may judge whether the dictates of +abstract psychology are being obeyed. If the first embody the leading +generalisations of the _science_ of mental growth, the last are the +chief canons of the _art_ of fostering mental growth. For manifestly, if +the steps in our _curriculum_ are so arranged that they can be +successively ascended by the pupil himself with little or no help, they +must correspond with the stages of evolution in his faculties; and +manifestly, if the successive achievements of these steps are +intrinsically gratifying to him, it follows that they require no more +than a normal exercise of his powers. + +But making education a process of self-evolution, has other advantages +than this of keeping our lessons in the right order. In the first place, +it guarantees a vividness and permanency of impression which the usual +methods can never produce. Any piece of knowledge which the pupil has +himself acquired--any problem which he has himself solved, becomes, by +virtue of the conquest, much more thoroughly his than it could else be. +The preliminary activity of mind which his success implies, the +concentration of thought necessary to it, and the excitement consequent +on his triumph, conspire to register the facts in his memory in a way +that no mere information heard from a teacher, or read in a school-book, +can be registered. Even if he fails, the tension to which his faculties +have been wound up, insures his remembrance of the solution when given +to him, better than half-a-dozen repetitions would. Observe, again, that +this discipline necessitates a continuous organisation of the knowledge +he acquires. It is in the very nature of facts and inferences +assimilated in this normal manner, that they successively become the +premises of further conclusions--the means of solving further questions. +The solution of yesterday's problem helps the pupil in mastering +to-day's. Thus the knowledge is turned into faculty as soon as it is +taken in, and forthwith aids in the general function of thinking--does +not lie merely written on the pages of an internal library, as when +rote-learnt. Mark further, the moral culture which this constant +self-help involves. Courage in attacking difficulties, patient +concentration of the attention, perseverance through failures--these are +characteristics which after-life specially requires; and these are +characteristics which this system of making the mind work for its food +specially produces. That it is thoroughly practicable to carry out +instruction after this fashion, we can ourselves testify; having been in +youth thus led to solve the comparatively complex problems of +perspective. And that leading teachers have been tending in this +direction, is indicated alike in the saying of Fellenberg, that "the +individual, independent activity of the pupil is of much greater +importance than the ordinary busy officiousness of many who assume the +office of educators;" in the opinion of Horace Mann, that "unfortunately +education amongst us at present consists too much in _telling_, not in +_training_;" and in the remark of M. Marcel, that "what the learner +discovers by mental exertion is better known than what is told to him." + +Similarly with the correlative requirement, that the method of culture +pursued shall be one productive of an intrinsically happy activity,--an +activity not happy because of extrinsic rewards to be obtained, but +because of its own healthfulness. Conformity to this requirement, +besides preventing us from thwarting the normal process of evolution, +incidentally secures positive benefits of importance. Unless we are to +return to an ascetic morality (or rather _im_-morality) the maintenance +of youthful happiness must be considered as in itself a worthy aim. Not +to dwell upon this, however, we go on to remark that a pleasurable state +of feeling is far more favourable to intellectual action than a state of +indifference or disgust. Every one knows that things read, heard, or +seen with interest, are better remembered than things read, heard, or +seen with apathy. In the one case the faculties appealed to are actively +occupied with the subject presented; in the other they are inactively +occupied with it, and the attention is continually drawn away by more +attractive thoughts. Hence the impressions are respectively strong and +weak. Moreover, to the intellectual listlessness which a pupil's lack of +interest in any study involves, must be added the paralysing fear of +consequences. This, by distracting his attention, increases the +difficulty he finds in bringing his faculties to bear upon facts that +are repugnant to them. Clearly, therefore, the efficiency of tuition +will, other things equal, be proportionate to the gratification with +which tasks are performed. + +It should be considered also, that grave moral consequences depend upon +the habitual pleasure or pain which daily lessons produce. No one can +compare the faces and manners of two boys--the one made happy by +mastering interesting subjects, and the other made miserable by disgust +with his studies, by consequent inability, by cold looks, by threats, by +punishment--without seeing that the disposition of the one is being +benefited and that of the other injured. Whoever has marked the effects +of success and failure upon the mind, and the power of the mind over the +body, will see that in the one case both temper and health are +favourably affected, while in the other there is danger of permanent +moroseness, or permanent timidity, and even of permanent constitutional +depression. There remains yet another indirect result of no small +moment. The relationship between teachers and their pupils is, other +things equal, rendered friendly and influential, or antagonistic and +powerless, according as the system of culture produces happiness or +misery. Human beings are at the mercy of their associated ideas. A daily +minister of pain cannot fail to be regarded with secret dislike; and if +he causes no emotions but painful ones, will inevitably be hated. +Conversely, he who constantly aids children to their ends, hourly +provides them with the satisfactions of conquest, hourly encourages them +through their difficulties and sympathises in their successes, will be +liked; nay, if his behaviour is consistent throughout, must be loved. +And when we remember how efficient and benign is the control of a master +who is felt to be a friend, when compared with the control of one who is +looked upon with aversion, or at best indifference, we may infer that +the indirect advantages of conducting education on the happiness +principle do not fall far short of the direct ones. To all who question +the possibility of acting out the system here advocated, we reply as +before, that not only does theory point to it, but experience commends +it. To the many verdicts of distinguished teachers who since +Pestalozzi's time have testified this, may be here added that of +Professor Pillans, who asserts that "where young people are taught as +they ought to be, they are quite as happy in school as at play, seldom +less delighted, nay, often more, with the well-directed exercise of +their mental energies than with that of their muscular powers." + +As suggesting a final reason for making education a process of +self-instruction, and by consequence a process of pleasurable +instruction, we may advert to the fact that, in proportion as it is made +so, is there a probability that it will not cease when schooldays end. +As long as the acquisition of knowledge is rendered habitually +repugnant, so long will there be a prevailing tendency to discontinue it +when free from the coercion of parents and masters. And when the +acquisition of knowledge has been rendered habitually gratifying, then +will there be as prevailing a tendency to continue, without +superintendence, that self-culture previously carried on under +superintendence. These results are inevitable. While the laws of mental +association remain true--while men dislike the things and places that +suggest painful recollections, and delight in those which call to mind +by-gone pleasures--painful lessons will make knowledge repulsive, and +pleasurable lessons will make it attractive. The men to whom in boyhood +information came in dreary tasks along with threats of punishment, and +who were never led into habits of independent inquiry, are unlikely to +be students in after years; while those to whom it came in the natural +forms, at the proper times, and who remember its facts as not only +interesting in themselves, but as the occasions of a long series of +gratifying successes, are likely to continue through life that +self-instruction commenced in youth. + +[1] Those who seek aid in carrying out the system of culture above +described, will find it in a little work entitled _Inventional +Geometry_; published by J. and C. Mozley, Paternoster Row, London. + + + + + +MORAL EDUCATION + + +The greatest defect in our programmes of education is entirely +overlooked. While much is being done in the detailed improvement of our +systems in respect both of matter and manner, the most pressing +desideratum has not yet been even recognised as a desideratum. To +prepare the young for the duties of life is tacitly admitted to be the +end which parents and schoolmasters should have in view; and happily, +the value of the things taught, and the goodness of the methods followed +in teaching them, are now ostensibly judged by their fitness to this +end. The propriety of substituting for an exclusively classical +training, a training in which the modern languages shall have a share, +is argued on this ground. The necessity of increasing the amount of +science is urged for like reasons. But though some care is taken to fit +youth of both sexes for society and citizenship, no care whatever is +taken to fit them for the position of parents. While it is seen that for +the purpose of gaining a livelihood, an elaborate preparation is needed, +it appears to be thought that for the bringing up of children, no +preparation whatever is needed. While many years are spent by a boy in +gaining knowledge of which the chief value is that it constitutes "the +education of a gentleman;" and while many years are spent by a girl in +those decorative acquirements which fit her for evening parties; not an +hour is spent by either in preparation for that gravest of all +responsibilities--the management of a family. Is it that this +responsibility is but a remote contingency? On the contrary, it is sure +to devolve on nine out of ten. Is it that the discharge of it is easy? +Certainly not: of all functions which the adult has to fulfil, this is +the most difficult. Is it that each may be trusted by self-instruction +to fit himself, or herself, for the office of parent? No: not only is +the need for such self-instruction unrecognised, but the complexity of +the subject renders it the one of all others in which self-instruction +is least likely to succeed. No rational plea can be put forward for +leaving the Art of Education out of our _curriculum_. Whether as bearing +on the happiness of parents themselves, or whether as affecting the +characters and lives of their children and remote descendants, we must +admit that a knowledge of the right methods of juvenile culture, +physical, intellectual, and moral, is a knowledge of extreme importance. +This topic should be the final one in the course of instruction passed +through by each man and woman. As physical maturity is marked by the +ability to produce offspring, so mental maturity is marked by the +ability to train those offspring. _The subject which involves all other +subjects, and therefore the subject in which education should culminate, +is the Theory and Practice of Education._ + +In the absence of this preparation, the management of children, and more +especially the moral management, is lamentably bad. Parents either never +think about the matter at all, or else their conclusions are crude and +inconsistent. In most cases, and especially on the part of mothers, the +treatment adopted on every occasion is that which the impulse of the +moment prompts: it springs not from any reasoned-out conviction as to +what will most benefit the child, but merely expresses the dominant +parental feelings, whether good or ill; and varies from hour to hour as +these feelings vary. Or if the dictates of passion are supplemented by +any definite doctrines and methods, they are those handed down from the +past, or those suggested by the remembrances of childhood, or those +adopted from nurses and servants--methods devised not by the +enlightenment, but by the ignorance, of the time. Commenting on the +chaotic state of opinion and practice relative to family government, +Richter writes:-- + + "If the secret variances of a large class of ordinary fathers were + brought to light, and laid down as a plan of studies and reading, + catalogued for a moral education, they would run somewhat after + this fashion:--In the first hour 'pure morality must be read to the + child, either by myself or the tutor;' in the second, 'mixed + morality, or that which may be applied to one's own advantage;' in + the third, 'do you not see that your father does so and so?' in the + fourth, 'you are little, and this is only fit for grown-up people;' + in the fifth, 'the chief matter is that you should succeed in the + world, and become something in the state;' in the sixth, 'not the + temporary, but the eternal, determines the worth of a man;' in the + seventh, 'therefore rather suffer injustice, and be kind;' in the + eighth, 'but defend yourself bravely if any one attack you;' in the + ninth, 'do not make a noise, dear child;' in the tenth, 'a boy must + not sit so quiet;' in the eleventh, 'you must obey your parents + better;' in the twelfth, 'and educate yourself.' So by the hourly + change of his principles, the father conceals their untenableness + and onesidedness. As for his wife, she is neither like him, nor yet + like that harlequin who came on to the stage with a bundle of + papers under each arm, and answered to the inquiry, what he had + under his right arm, 'orders,' and to what he had under his left + arm, 'counter-orders.' But the mother might be much better compared + to a giant Briareus, who had a hundred arms, and a bundle of papers + under each." + +This state of things is not to be readily changed. Generations must +pass before a great amelioration of it can be expected. Like political +constitutions, educational systems are not made, but grow; and within +brief periods growth is insensible. Slow, however, as must be any +improvement, even that improvement implies the use of means; and among +the means is discussion. + + * * * * * + +We are not among those who believe in Lord Palmerston's dogma, that "all +children are born good." On the whole, the opposite dogma, untenable as +it is, seems to us less wide of the truth. Nor do we agree with those +who think that, by skilful discipline, children may be made altogether +what they should be. Contrariwise, we are satisfied that though +imperfections of nature may be diminished by wise management, they +cannot be removed by it. The notion that an ideal humanity might be +forthwith produced by a perfect system of education, is near akin to +that implied in the poems of Shelley, that would mankind give up their +old institutions and prejudices, all the evils in the world would at +once disappear: neither notion being acceptable to such as have +dispassionately studied human affairs. + +Nevertheless, we may fitly sympathise with those who entertain these too +sanguine hopes. Enthusiasm, pushed even to fanaticism, is a useful +motive-power--perhaps an indispensable one. It is clear that the ardent +politician would never undergo the labours and make the sacrifices he +does, did he not believe that the reform he fights for is the one thing +needful. But for his conviction that drunkenness is the root of all +social evils, the teetotaler would agitate far less energetically. In +philanthropy, as in other things, great advantage results from division +of labour; and that there may be division of labour, each class of +philanthropists must be more or less subordinated to its function--must +have an exaggerated faith in its work. Hence, of those who regard +education, intellectual or moral, as the panacea, we may say that their +undue expectations are not without use; and that perhaps it is part of +the beneficent order of things that their confidence cannot be shaken. + +Even were it true, however, that by some possible system of moral +control, children could be moulded into the desired form; and even could +every parent be indoctrinated with this system, we should still be far +from achieving the object in view. It is forgotten that the carrying out +of any such system presupposes, on the part of adults, a degree of +intelligence, of goodness, of self-control, possessed by no one. The +error made by those who discuss questions of domestic discipline, lies +in ascribing all the faults and difficulties to the children, and none +to the parents. The current assumption respecting family government, as +respecting national government, is, that the virtues are with the rulers +and the vices with the ruled. Judging by educational theories, men and +women are entirely transfigured in their relations to offspring. The +citizens we do business with, the people we meet in the world, we know +to be very imperfect creatures. In the daily scandals, in the quarrels +of friends, in bankruptcy disclosures, in lawsuits, in police reports, +we have constantly thrust before us the pervading selfishness, +dishonesty, brutality. Yet when we criticise nursery-management and +canvass the misbehaviour of juveniles, we habitually take for granted +that these culpable persons are free from moral delinquency in the +treatment of their boys and girls! So far is this from the truth, that +we do not hesitate to blame parental misconduct for a great part of the +domestic disorder commonly ascribed to the perversity of children. We do +not assert this of the more sympathetic and self-restrained, among whom +we hope most of our readers may be classed; but we assert it of the +mass. What kind of moral culture is to be expected from a mother who, +time after time, angrily shakes her infant because it will not suck; +which we once saw a mother do? How much sense of justice is likely to be +instilled by a father who, on having his attention drawn by a scream to +the fact that his child's finger is jammed between the window-sash and +sill, begins to beat the child instead of releasing it? Yet that there +are such fathers is testified to us by an eye-witness. Or, to take a +still stronger case, also vouched for by direct testimony--what are the +educational prospects of the boy who, on being taken home with a +dislocated thigh, is saluted with a castigation? It is true that these +are extreme instances--instances exhibiting in human beings that blind +instinct which impels brutes to destroy the weakly and injured of their +own race. But extreme though they are, they typify feelings and conduct +daily observable in many families. Who has not repeatedly seen a child +slapped by nurse or parent for a fretfulness probably resulting from +bodily derangement? Who, when watching a mother snatch up a fallen +little one, has not often traced, both in the rough manner and in the +sharply-uttered exclamation--"You stupid little thing!"--an irascibility +foretelling endless future squabbles? Is there not in the harsh tones in +which a father bids his children be quiet, evidence of a deficient +fellow-feeling with them? Are not the constant, and often quite +needless, thwartings that the young experience--the injunctions to sit +still, which an active child cannot obey without suffering great nervous +irritation, the commands not to look out of the window when travelling +by railway, which on a child of any intelligence entails serious +deprivation--are not these thwartings, we ask, signs of a terrible lack +of sympathy? The truth is, that the difficulties of moral education are +necessarily of dual origin--necessarily result from the combined faults +of parents and children. If hereditary transmission is a law of nature, +as every naturalist knows it to be, and as our daily remarks and current +proverbs admit it to be; then, on the average of cases, the defects of +children mirror the defects of their parents;--on the average of cases, +we say, because, complicated as the results are by the transmitted +traits of remoter ancestors, the correspondence is not special but only +general. And if, on the average of cases, this inheritance of defects +exists, then the evil passions which parents have to check in their +children, imply like evil passions in themselves: hidden, it may be, +from the public eye, or perhaps obscured by other feelings, but still +there. Evidently, therefore, the general practice of any ideal system of +discipline is hopeless: parents are not good enough. + +Moreover, even were there methods by which the desired end could be at +once effected; and even had fathers and mothers sufficient insight, +sympathy, and self-command to employ these methods consistently; it +might still be contended that it would be of no use to reform +family-government faster than other things are reformed. What is it that +we aim to do? Is it not that education of whatever kind has for its +proximate end to prepare a child for the business of life--to produce a +citizen who, while he is well conducted, is also able to make his way in +the world? And does not making his way in the world (by which we mean, +not the acquirement of wealth, but of the funds requisite for bringing +up a family)--does not this imply a certain fitness for the world as it +now is? And if by any system of culture an ideal human being could be +produced, is it not doubtful whether he would be fit for the world as it +now is? May we not, on the contrary, suspect that his too keen sense of +rectitude, and too elevated standard of conduct, would make life +intolerable or even impossible? And however admirable the result might +be, considered individually, would it not be self-defeating in so far as +society and posterity are concerned? There is much reason for thinking +that as in a nation so in a family, the kind of government is, on the +whole, about as good as the general state of human nature permits it to +be. We may argue that in the one case, as in the other, the average +character of the people determines the quality of the control exercised. +In both cases it may be inferred that amelioration of the average +character leads to an amelioration of system; and further, that were it +possible to ameliorate the system without the average character being +first ameliorated, evil rather than good would follow. Such degree of +harshness as children now experience from their parents and teachers, +may be regarded as but a preparation for that greater harshness which +they will meet on entering the world. And it may be urged that were it +possible for parents and teachers to treat them with perfect equity and +entire sympathy, it would but intensify the sufferings which the +selfishness of men must, in after life, inflict on them.[1] + +"But does not this prove too much?" some one will ask. "If no system of +moral training can forthwith make children what they should be; if, even +were there a system that would do this, existing parents are too +imperfect to carry it out; and if even could such a system be +successfully carried out, its results would be disastrously incongruous +with the present state of society; does it not follow that to reform the +system now in use is neither practicable nor desirable?" No. It merely +follows that reform in domestic government must go on, _pari passu_, +with other reforms. It merely follows that methods of discipline neither +can be nor should be ameliorated, except by instalments. It merely +follows that the dictates of abstract rectitude will, in practice, +inevitably be subordinated by the present state of human nature--by the +imperfections alike of children, of parents, and of society; and can +only be better fulfilled as the general character becomes better. + +"At any rate, then," may rejoin our critic, "it is clearly useless to +set up any ideal standard of family discipline. There can be no +advantage in elaborating and recommending methods that are in advance of +the time." Again we contend for the contrary. Just as in the case of +political government, though pure rectitude may be at present +impracticable, it is requisite to know where the right lies, in order +that the changes we make may be _towards_ the right instead of _away_ +from it; so, in the case of domestic government, an ideal must be +upheld, that there may be gradual approximations to it. We need fear no +evil consequences from the maintenance of such an ideal. On the average +the constitutional conservatism of mankind is strong enough to prevent +too rapid a change. Things are so organised that until men have grown up +to the level of a higher belief, they cannot receive it: nominally, they +may hold it, but not virtually. And even when the truth gets recognised, +the obstacles to conformity with it are so persistent as to outlive the +patience of philanthropists and even of philosophers. We may be sure, +therefore, that the difficulties in the way of a normal government of +children, will always put an adequate check upon the efforts to realise +it. + +With these preliminary explanations, let us go on to consider the true +aims and methods of moral education. After a few pages devoted to the +settlement of general principles, during the perusal of which we bespeak +the reader's patience, we shall aim by illustrations to make clear the +right methods of parental behaviour in the hourly occurring difficulties +of family government. + + * * * * * + +When a child falls, or runs its head against the table, it suffers a +pain, the remembrance of which tends to make it more careful; and by +repetition of such experiences, it is eventually disciplined into proper +guidance of its movements. If it lays hold of the fire-bars, thrusts its +hand into a candle-flame, or spills boiling water on any part of its +skin, the resulting burn or scald is a lesson not easily forgotten. So +deep an impression is produced by one or two events of this kind, that +no persuasion will afterwards induce it thus to disregard the laws of +its constitution. + +Now in these cases, Nature illustrates to us in the simplest way, the +true theory and practice of moral discipline--a theory and practice +which, however much they may seem to the superficial like those commonly +received, we shall find on examination to differ from them very widely. + +Observe, first, that in bodily injuries and their penalties we have +misconduct and its consequences reduced to their simplest forms. Though, +according to their popular acceptations, _right_ and _wrong_ are words +scarcely applicable to actions that have none but direct bodily effects; +yet whoever considers the matter will see that such actions must be as +much classifiable under these heads as any other actions. From whatever +assumption they start, all theories of morality agree that conduct whose +total results, immediate and remote, are beneficial, is good conduct; +while conduct whose total results, immediate and remote, are injurious, +is bad conduct. The _ultimate_ standards by which all men judge of +behaviour, are the resulting happiness or misery. We consider +drunkenness wrong because of the physical degeneracy and accompanying +moral evils entailed on the drunkard and his dependents. Did theft give +pleasure both to taker and loser, we should not find it in our catalogue +of sins. Were it conceivable that kind actions multiplied human +sufferings, we should condemn them--should not consider them kind. It +needs but to read the first newspaper-leader, or listen to any +conversation on social affairs, to see that acts of parliament, +political movements, philanthropic agitations, in common with the doings +of individuals are judged by their anticipated results in augmenting the +pleasures or pains of men. And if on analysing all secondary +superinduced ideas, we find these to be our final tests of right and +wrong, we cannot refuse to class bodily conduct as right or wrong +according to the beneficial or detrimental results produced. + +Note, in the second place, the character of the punishments by which +these physical transgressions are prevented. Punishments, we call them, +in the absence of a better word; for they are not punishments in the +literal sense. They are not artificial and unnecessary inflictions of +pain; but are simply the beneficent checks to actions that are +essentially at variance with bodily welfare--checks in the absence of +which life would be quickly destroyed by bodily injuries. It is the +peculiarity of these penalties, if we must so call them, that they are +simply the _unavoidable consequences_ of the deeds which they follow: +they are nothing more than the _inevitable reactions_ entailed by the +child's actions. + +Let it be further borne in mind that these painful reactions are +proportionate to the transgressions. A slight accident brings a slight +pain; a more serious one, a severer pain. It is not ordained that an +urchin who tumbles over the doorstep, shall suffer in excess of the +amount necessary; with the view of making it still more cautious than +the necessary suffering will make it. But from its daily experience it +is left to learn the greater or less penalties of greater or less +errors; and to behave accordingly. + +And then mark, lastly, that these natural reactions which follow the +child's wrong actions, are constant, direct, unhesitating, and not to be +escaped. No threats; but a silent, rigorous performance. If a child runs +a pin into its finger, pain follows. If it does it again, there is again +the same result: and so on perpetually. In all its dealing with +inorganic Nature it finds this unswerving persistence, which listens to +no excuse, and from which there is no appeal; and very soon recognising +this stern though beneficent discipline, it becomes extremely careful +not to transgress. + +Still more significant will these general truths appear, when we +remember that they hold throughout adult life as well as throughout +infantine life. It is by an experimentally-gained knowledge of the +natural consequences, that men and women are checked when they go wrong. +After home-education has ceased, and when there are no longer parents +and teachers to forbid this or that kind of conduct, there comes into +play a discipline like that by which the young child is trained to +self-guidance. If the youth entering on the business of life idles away +his time and fulfils slowly or unskilfully the duties entrusted to him, +there by and by follows the natural penalty: he is discharged, and left +to suffer for awhile the evils of a relative poverty. On the unpunctual +man, ever missing his appointments of business and pleasure, there +continually fall the consequent inconveniences, losses, and +deprivations. The tradesmen who charges too high a rate of profit, loses +his customers, and so is checked in his greediness. Diminishing practice +teaches the inattentive doctor to bestow more trouble on his patients. +The too credulous creditor and the over-sanguine speculator, alike learn +by the difficulties which rashness entails on them, the necessity of +being more cautious in their engagements. And so throughout the life of +every citizen. In the quotation so often made _apropos_ of such +cases--"The burnt child dreads the fire"--we see not only that the +analogy between this social discipline and Nature's early discipline of +infants is universally recognised; but we also see an implied conviction +that this discipline is of the most efficient kind. Nay indeed, this +conviction is more than implied; it is distinctly stated. Every one has +heard others confess that only by "dearly bought experience" had they +been induced to give up some bad or foolish course of conduct formerly +pursued. Every one has heard, in the criticism passed on the doings of +this spendthrift or the other schemer, the remark that advice was +useless, and that nothing but "bitter experience" would produce any +effect: nothing, that is, but suffering the unavoidable consequences. +And if further proof be needed that the natural reaction is not only the +most efficient penalty, but that no humanly-devised penalty can replace +it, we have such further proof in the notorious ill-success of our +various penal systems. Out of the many methods of criminal discipline +that have been proposed and legally enforced, none have answered the +expectations of their advocates. Artificial punishments have failed to +produce reformation; and have in many cases increased the criminality. +The only successful reformatories are those privately-established ones +which approximate their regime to the method of Nature--which do little +more than administer the natural consequences of criminal conduct: +diminishing the criminal's liberty of action as much as is needful for +the safety of society, and requiring him to maintain himself while +living under this restraint. Thus we see, both that the discipline by +which the young child is taught to regulate its movements is the +discipline by which the great mass of adults are kept in order, and more +or less improved; and that the discipline humanly-devised for the worst +adults, fails when it diverges from this divinely-ordained discipline, +and begins to succeed on approximating to it. + + * * * * * + +Have we not here, then, the guiding principle of moral education? Must +we not infer that the system so beneficent in its effects during infancy +and maturity, will be equally beneficent throughout youth? Can any one +believe that the method which answers so well in the first and the last +divisions of life, will not answer in the intermediate division? Is it +not manifest that as "ministers and interpreters of Nature" it is the +function of parents to see that their children habitually experience the +true consequences of their conduct--the natural reactions: neither +warding them off, nor intensifying them, nor putting artificial +consequences in place of them? No unprejudiced reader will hesitate in +his assent. + +Probably, however, not a few will contend that already most parents do +this--that the punishments they inflict are, in the majority of cases, +the true consequences of ill-conduct--that parental anger, venting +itself in harsh words and deeds, is the result of a child's +transgression--and that, in the suffering, physical or moral, which the +child is subject to, it experiences the natural reaction of its +misbehaviour. Along with much error this assertion contains some truth. +It is unquestionable that the displeasure of fathers and mothers is a +true consequence of juvenile delinquency; and that the manifestation of +it is a normal check upon such delinquency. The scoldings, and threats, +and blows, which a passionate parent visits on offending little ones, +are doubtless effects actually drawn from such a parent by their +offences; and so are, in some sort, to be considered as among the +natural reactions of their wrong actions. Nor are we prepared to say +that these modes of treatment are not relatively right--right, that is, +in relation to the uncontrollable children of ill-controlled adults; and +right in relation to a state of society in which such ill-controlled +adults make up the mass of the people. As already suggested, educational +systems, like political and other institutions, are generally as good as +the state of human nature permits. The barbarous children of barbarous +parents are probably only to be restrained by the barbarous methods +which such parents spontaneously employ; while submission to these +barbarous methods is perhaps the best preparation such children can have +for the barbarous society in which they are presently to play a part. +Conversely, the civilised members of a civilised society will +spontaneously manifest their displeasure in less violent ways--will +spontaneously use milder measures--measures strong enough for their +better-natured children. Thus it is true that, in so far as the +expression of parental feeling is concerned, the principle of the +natural reaction is always more or less followed. The system of domestic +government ever gravitates towards its right form. + +But now observe two important facts. The first fact is that, in states +of rapid transition like ours, which witness a continuous battle between +old and new theories and old and new practices, the educational methods +in use are apt to be considerably out of harmony with the times. In +deference to dogmas fit only for the ages that uttered them, many +parents inflict punishments that do violence to their own feelings, and +so visit on their children _un_natural reactions; while other parents, +enthusiastic in their hopes of immediate perfection, rush to the +opposite extreme. The second fact is, that the discipline of chief value +is not the experience of parental approbation or disapprobation; but it +is the experience of those results which would ultimately flow from the +conduct in the absence of parental opinion or interference. The truly +instructive and salutary consequences are not those inflicted by +parents when they take upon themselves to be Nature's proxies; but they +are those inflicted by Nature herself. We will endeavour to make this +distinction clear by a few illustrations, which, while they show what we +mean by natural reactions as contrasted with artificial ones, will +afford some practical suggestions. + +In every family where there are young children there daily occur cases +of what mothers and servants call "making a litter." A child has had out +its box of toys, and leaves them scattered about the floor. Or a handful +of flowers, brought in from a morning walk, is presently seen dispersed +over tables and chairs. Or a little girl, making doll's-clothes, +disfigures the room with shreds. In most cases the trouble of rectifying +this disorder falls anywhere but where it should. Occurring in the +nursery, the nurse herself, with many grumblings about "tiresome little +things," undertakes the task; if below-stairs, the task usually devolves +either on one of the elder children or on the housemaid: the +transgressor being visited with nothing more than a scolding. In this +very simple case, however, there are many parents wise enough to follow +out, more or less consistently, the normal course--that of making the +child itself collect the toys or shreds. The labour of putting things in +order is the true consequence of having put them in disorder. Every +trader in his office, every wife in her household, has daily experience +of this fact. And if education be a preparation for the business of +life, then every child should also, from the beginning, have daily +experience of this fact. If the natural penalty be met by refractory +behaviour (which it may perhaps be where the system of moral discipline +previously pursued has been bad), then the proper course is to let the +child feel the ulterior reaction caused by its disobedience. Having +refused or neglected to pick up and put away the things it has scattered +about, and having thereby entailed the trouble of doing this on some one +else, the child should, on subsequent occasions, be denied the means of +giving this trouble. When next it petitions for its toy-box, the reply +of its mamma should be--"The last time you had your toys you left them +lying on the floor, and Jane had to pick them up. Jane is too busy to +pick up every day the things you leave about; and I cannot do it myself. +So that, as you will not put away your toys when you have done with +them, I cannot let you have them." This is obviously a natural +consequence, neither increased nor lessened; and must be so recognised +by a child. The penalty comes, too, at the moment when it is most keenly +felt. A new-born desire is balked at the moment of anticipated +gratification; and the strong impression so produced can scarcely fail +to have an effect on the future conduct: an effect which, by consistent +repetition, will do whatever can be done in curing the fault. Add to +which, that, by this method, a child is early taught the lesson which +cannot be learnt too soon, that in this world of ours pleasures are +rightly to be obtained only by labour. + +Take another case. Not long since we had frequently to hear the +reprimands visited on a little girl who was scarcely ever ready in time +for the daily walk. Of eager disposition, and apt to become absorbed in +the occupation of the moment, Constance never thought of putting on her +things till the rest were ready. The governess and the other children +had almost invariably to wait; and from the mamma there almost +invariably came the same scolding. Utterly as this system failed, it +never occurred to the mamma to let Constance experience the natural +penalty. Nor, indeed, would she try it when it was suggested to her. In +the world, unreadiness entails the loss of some advantage that would +else have been gained: the train is gone; or the steam-boat is just +leaving its moorings; or the best things in the market are sold; or all +the good seats in the concert-room are filled. And every one, in cases +perpetually occurring, may see that it is the prospective deprivations +which prevent people from being too late. Is not the inference obvious? +Should not the prospective deprivations control a child's conduct also? +If Constance is not ready at the appointed time, the natural result is +that of being left behind, and losing her walk. And after having once or +twice remained at home while the rest were enjoying themselves in the +fields--after having felt that this loss of a much-prized gratification +was solely due to want of promptitude; amendment would in all +probability take place. At any rate, the measure would be more effective +than that perpetual scolding which ends only in producing callousness. + +Again, when children, with more than usual carelessness, break or lose +the things given to them, the natural penalty--the penalty which makes +grown-up persons more careful--is the consequent inconvenience. The lack +of the lost or damaged article, and the cost of replacing it, are the +experiences by which men and women are disciplined in these matters; and +the experiences of children should be as much as possible assimilated to +theirs. We do not refer to that early period at which toys are pulled to +pieces in the process of learning their physical properties, and at +which the results of carelessness cannot be understood; but to a later +period, when the meaning and advantages of property are perceived. When +a boy, old enough to possess a penknife, uses it so roughly as to snap +the blade, or leaves it in the grass by some hedge-side where he was +cutting a stick, a thoughtless parent, or some indulgent relative, will +commonly forthwith buy him another, not seeing that, by doing this, a +valuable lesson is prevented. In such a case, a father may properly +explain that penknives cost money, and that to get money requires +labour; that he cannot afford to purchase new penknives for one who +loses or breaks them; and that until he sees evidence of greater +carefulness he must decline to make good the loss. A parallel discipline +will serve to check extravagance. + +These few familiar instances, here chosen because of the simplicity with +which they illustrate our point, will make clear to every one the +distinction between those natural penalties which we contend are the +truly efficient ones, and those artificial penalties commonly +substituted for them. Before going on to exhibit the higher and subtler +applications of the principle exemplified, let us note its many and +great superiorities over the principle, or rather the empirical +practice, which prevails in most families. + +One superiority is that the pursuance of it generates right conceptions +of cause and effect; which by frequent and consistent experience are +eventually rendered definite and complete. Proper conduct in life is +much better guaranteed when the good and evil consequences of actions +are understood, than when they are merely believed on authority. A child +who finds that disorderliness entails the trouble of putting things in +order, or who misses a gratification from dilatoriness, or whose +carelessness is followed by the want of some much-prized possession, not +only suffers a keenly-felt consequence, but gains a knowledge of +causation: both the one and the other being just like those which adult +life will bring. Whereas a child who in such cases receives a reprimand, +or some factitious penalty, not only experiences a consequence for which +it often cares very little, but misses that instruction respecting the +essential natures of good and evil conduct, which it would else have +gathered. It is a vice of the common system of artificial rewards and +punishments, long since noticed by the clear-sighted, that by +substituting for the natural results of misbehaviour certain tasks or +castigations, it produces a radically wrong moral standard. Having +throughout infancy and boyhood always regarded parental or tutorial +displeasure as the chief result of a forbidden action, the youth has +gained an established association of ideas between such action and such +displeasure, as cause and effect. Hence when parents and tutors have +abdicated, and their displeasure is not to be feared, the restraints on +forbidden actions are in great measure removed: the true restraints, the +natural reactions, having yet to be learnt by sad experience. As writes +one who has had personal knowledge of this short-sighted system:--"Young +men let loose from school, particularly those whose parents have +neglected to exert their influence, plunge into every description of +extravagance; they know no rule of action--they are ignorant of the +reasons for moral conduct--they have no foundation to rest upon--and +until they have been severely disciplined by the world are extremely +dangerous members of society." + +Another great advantage of this natural discipline is, that it is a +discipline of pure justice; and will be recognised as such by every +child. Whoso suffers nothing more than the evil which in the order of +nature results from his own misbehaviour, is much less likely to think +himself wrongly treated than if he suffers an artificially inflicted +evil; and this will hold of children as of men. Take the case of a boy +who is habitually reckless of his clothes--scrambles through hedges +without caution, or is utterly regardless of mud. If he is beaten, or +sent to bed, he is apt to consider himself ill-used; and is more likely +to brood over his injuries than to repent of his transgressions. But +suppose he is required to rectify as far as possible the harm he has +done--to clean off the mud with which he has covered himself, or to mend +the tear as well as he can. Will he not feel that the evil is one of his +own producing? Will he not while paying this penalty be continuously +conscious of the connection between it and its cause? And will he not, +spite his irritation, recognise more or less clearly the justice of the +arrangement? If several lessons of this kind fail to produce +amendment--if suits of clothes are prematurely spoiled--if the father, +pursuing this same system of discipline, declines to spend money for new +ones until the ordinary time has elapsed--and if meanwhile, there occur +occasions on which, having no decent clothes to go in, the boy is +debarred from joining the rest of the family on holiday excursions and +_fete_ days, it is manifest that while he will keenly feel the +punishment, he can scarcely fail to trace the chain of causation, and to +perceive that his own carelessness is the origin of it. And seeing this, +he will not have any such sense of injustice as if there were no obvious +connection between the transgression and its penalty. + +Again, the tempers both of parents and children are much less liable to +be ruffled under this system than under the ordinary system. When +instead of letting children experience the painful results which +naturally follow from wrong conduct, parents themselves inflict certain +other painful results, they produce double mischief. Making, as they do, +multiplied family laws; and identifying their own supremacy and dignity +with the maintenance of these laws; every transgression is regarded as +an offence against themselves, and a cause of anger on their part. And +then come the further vexations which result from taking upon +themselves, in the shape of extra labour or cost, those evil +consequences which should have been allowed to fall on the wrong-doers. +Similarly with the children. Penalties which the necessary reaction of +things brings round upon them--penalties which are inflicted by +impersonal agency, produce an irritation that is comparatively slight +and transient; whereas, penalties voluntarily inflicted by a parent, and +afterwards thought of as caused by him or her, produce an irritation +both greater and more continued. Just consider how disastrous would be +the result if this empirical method were pursued from the beginning. +Suppose it were possible for parents to take upon themselves the +physical sufferings entailed on their children by ignorance and +awkwardness; and that while bearing these evil consequences they visited +on their children certain other evil consequences, with the view of +teaching them the impropriety of their conduct. Suppose that when a +child, who had been forbidden to meddle with the kettle, spilt boiling +water on its foot, the mother vicariously assumed the scald and gave a +blow in place of it; and similarly in all other cases. Would not the +daily mishaps be sources of far more anger than now? Would there not be +chronic ill-temper on both sides? Yet an exactly parallel policy is +pursued in after-years. A father who beats his boy for carelessly or +wilfully breaking a sister's toy, and then himself pays for a new toy, +does substantially this same thing--inflicts an artificial penalty on +the transgressor, and takes the natural penalty on himself: his own +feelings and those of the transgressor being alike needlessly irritated. +Did he simply require restitution to be made, he would produce far less +heart-burning. If he told the boy that a new toy must be bought at his, +the boy's, cost; and that his supply of pocket-money must be withheld to +the needful extent; there would be much less disturbance of temper on +either side: while in the deprivation afterwards felt, the boy would +experience the equitable and salutary consequence. In brief, the system +of discipline by natural reactions is less injurious to temper, both +because it is perceived to be nothing more than pure justice, and +because it in great part substitutes the impersonal agency of Nature for +the personal agency of parents. + +Whence also follows the manifest corollary, that under this system the +parental and filial relation, being a more friendly, will be a more +influential one. Whether in parent or child, anger, however caused, and +to whomsoever directed, is detrimental. But anger in a parent towards a +child, and in a child towards a parent, is especially detrimental; +because it weakens that bond of sympathy which is essential to +beneficent control. From the law of association of ideas, it inevitably +results, both in young and old, that dislike is contracted towards +things which in experience are habitually connected with disagreeable +feelings. Or where attachment originally existed, it is diminished, or +turned into repugnance, according to the quantity of painful impressions +received. Parental wrath, venting itself in reprimands and castigations, +cannot fail, if often repeated, to produce filial alienation; while the +resentment and sulkiness of children cannot fail to weaken the affection +felt for them, and may even end in destroying it. Hence the numerous +cases in which parents (and especially fathers, who are commonly deputed +to inflict the punishment) are regarded with indifference, if not with +aversion; and hence the equally numerous cases in which children are +looked upon as inflictions. Seeing then, as all must do, that +estrangement of this kind is fatal to a salutary moral culture, it +follows that parents cannot be too solicitous in avoiding occasions of +direct antagonism with their children. And therefore they cannot too +anxiously avail themselves of this discipline of natural consequences; +which, by relieving them from penal functions, prevents mutual +exasperations and estrangements. + +The method of moral culture by experience of the normal reactions, which +is the divinely-ordained method alike for infancy and for adult life, we +thus find to be equally applicable during the intermediate childhood and +youth. Among the advantages of this method we see:--First: that it gives +that rational knowledge of right and wrong conduct which results from +personal experience of their good and bad consequences. Second: that the +child, suffering nothing more than the painful effects of its own wrong +actions, must recognise more or less clearly the justice of the +penalties. Third: that recognising the justice of the penalties, and +receiving them through the working of things rather than at the hands +of an individual, its temper is less disturbed; while the parent +fulfilling the comparatively passive duty of letting the natural +penalties be felt, preserves a comparative equanimity. Fourth: that +mutual exasperations being thus prevented, a much happier, and a more +influential relation, will exist between parent and child. + + * * * * * + +"But what is to be done in cases of more serious misconduct?" some will +ask. "How is this plan to be carried out when a petty theft has been +committed? or when a lie has been told? or when some younger brother or +sister has been ill-used?" + +Before replying to these questions, let us consider the bearings of a +few illustrative facts. + +Living in the family of his brother-in-law, a friend of ours had +undertaken the education of his little nephew and niece. This he had +conducted, more perhaps from natural sympathy than from reasoned-out +conclusions, in the spirit of the method above set forth. The two +children were in doors his pupils and out of doors his companions. They +daily joined him in walks and botanising excursions, eagerly sought +plants for him, looked on while he examined and identified them, and in +this and other ways were ever gaining pleasure and instruction in his +society. In short, morally considered, he stood to them much more in the +position of parent than either their father or mother did. Describing to +us the results of this policy, he gave, among other instances, the +following. One evening, having need for some article lying in another +part of the house, he asked his nephew to fetch it. Interested as the +boy was in some amusement of the moment, he, contrary to his wont, +either exhibited great reluctance or refused, we forget which. His +uncle, disapproving of a coercive course, went himself for that which he +wanted: merely exhibiting by his manner the annoyance this ill-behaviour +gave him. And when, later in the evening, the boy made overtures for the +usual play, they were gravely repelled--the uncle manifested just that +coldness naturally produced in him; and so let the boy feel the +necessary consequences of his conduct. Next morning at the usual time +for rising, our friend heard a new voice outside the door, and in walked +his little nephew with the hot water. Peering about the room to see what +else could be done, the boy then exclaimed, "Oh! you want your boots;" +and forthwith rushed downstairs to fetch them. In this and other ways he +showed a true penitence for his misconduct. He endeavoured by unusual +services to make up for the service he had refused. His better feelings +had made a real conquest over his lower ones; and acquired strength by +the victory. And having felt what it was to be without it, he valued +more than before the friendship he thus regained. + +This gentleman is now himself a father; acts on the same system; and +finds it answer completely. He makes himself thoroughly his children's +friend. The evening is longed for by them because he will be at home; +and they especially enjoy Sunday because he is with them all day. Thus +possessing their perfect confidence and affection, he finds that the +simple display of his approbation or disapprobation gives him abundant +power of control. If, on his return home, he hears that one of his boys +has been naughty, he behaves towards him with that coolness which the +consciousness of the boy's misconduct naturally produces; and he finds +this a most efficient punishment. The mere withholding of the usual +caresses, is a source of much distress--produces a more prolonged fit of +crying than a beating would do. And the dread of this purely moral +penalty is, he says, ever present during his absence: so much so, that +frequently during the day his children ask their mamma how they have +behaved, and whether the report will be good. Recently, the eldest, an +active urchin of five, in one of those bursts of animal spirits common +in healthy children, committed sundry extravagances during his mamma's +absence--cut off part of his brother's hair and wounded himself with a +razor taken from his father's dressing-case. Hearing of these +occurrences on his return, the father did not speak to the boy either +that night or next morning. Besides the immediate tribulation the effect +was, that when, a few days after, the mamma was about to go out, she was +entreated by the boy not to do so; and on inquiry, it appeared his fear +was that he might again transgress in her absence. + +We have introduced these facts before replying to the question--"What is +to be done with the graver offences?" for the purpose of first +exhibiting the relation that may and ought to be established between +parents and children; for on the existence of this relation depends the +successful treatment of these graver offences. And as a further +preliminary, we must now point out that the establishment of this +relation will result from adopting the system here advocated. Already we +have shown that by simply letting a child experience the painful +reactions of its own wrong actions, a parent avoids antagonism and +escapes being regarded as an enemy; but it remains to be shown that +where this course has been consistently pursued from the beginning, a +feeling of active friendship will be generated. + +At present, mothers and fathers are mostly considered by their offspring +as friend enemies. Determined as the impressions of children inevitably +are by the treatment they receive; and oscillating as that treatment +does between bribery and thwarting, between petting and scolding, +between gentleness and castigation; they necessarily acquire conflicting +beliefs respecting the parental character. A mother commonly thinks it +sufficient to tell her little boy that she is his best friend; and +assuming that he ought to believe her, concludes that he will do so. "It +is all for your good;" "I know what is proper for you better than you do +yourself;" "You are not old enough to understand it now, but when you +grow up you will thank me for doing what I do;"--these, and like +assertions, are daily reiterated. Meanwhile the boy is daily suffering +positive penalties; and is hourly forbidden to do this, that, and the +other, which he wishes to do. By words he hears that his happiness is +the end in view; but from the accompanying deeds he habitually receives +more or less pain. Incompetent as he is to understand that future which +his mother has in view, or how this treatment conduces to the happiness +of that future, he judges by the results he feels; and finding such +results anything but pleasurable, he becomes sceptical respecting her +professions of friendship. And is it not folly to expect any other +issue? Must not the child reason from the evidence he has got? and does +not this evidence seem to warrant his conclusion? The mother would +reason in just the same way if similarly placed. If, among her +acquaintance, she found some one who was constantly thwarting her +wishes, uttering sharp reprimands, and occasionally inflicting actual +penalties on her, she would pay small attention to any professions of +anxiety for her welfare which accompanied these acts. Why, then, does +she suppose that her boy will do otherwise? + +But now observe how different will be the results if the system we +contend for be consistently pursued--if the mother not only avoids +becoming the instrument of punishment, but plays the part of a friend, +by warning her boy of the punishments which Nature will inflict. Take a +case; and that it may illustrate the mode in which this policy is to be +early initiated, let it be one of the simplest cases. Suppose that, +prompted by the experimental spirit so conspicuous in children, whose +proceedings instinctively conform to the inductive method of +inquiry--suppose that so prompted, the boy is amusing himself by +lighting pieces of paper in the candle and watching them burn. A mother +of the ordinary unreflective stamp, will either, on the plea of keeping +him "out of mischief," or from fear that he will burn himself, command +him to desist; and in case of non-compliance will snatch the paper from +him. But, should he be fortunate enough to have a mother of some +rationality, who knows that this interest with which he is watching the +paper burn, results from a healthy inquisitiveness, and who has also the +wisdom to consider the results of interference, she will reason +thus:--"If I put a stop to this I shall prevent the acquirement of a +certain amount of knowledge. It is true that I may save the child from a +burn; but what then? He is sure to burn himself sometime; and it is +quite essential to his safety in life that he should learn by experience +the properties of flame. If I forbid him from running this present risk, +he will certainly hereafter run the same or a greater risk when no one +is present to prevent him; whereas, should he have an accident now that +I am by, I can save him from any great injury. Moreover, were I to make +him desist, I should thwart him in the pursuit of what is in itself a +purely harmless, and indeed, instructive gratification; and he would +regard me with more or less ill-feeling. Ignorant as he is of the pain +from which I would save him, and feeling only the pain of a balked +desire, he could not fail to look on me as the cause of that pain. To +save him from a hurt which he cannot conceive, and which has therefore +no existence for him, I hurt him in a way which he feels keenly enough; +and so become, from his point of view, a minister of evil. My best +course then, is simply to warn him of the danger, and to be ready to +prevent any serious damage." And following out this conclusion, she says +to the child--"I fear you will hurt yourself if you do that." Suppose, +now, that the boy, persevering as he will probably do, ends by burning +his hand. What are the results? In the first place he has gained an +experience which he must gain eventually, and which, for his own safety, +he cannot gain too soon. And in the second place, he has found that his +mother's disapproval or warning was meant for his welfare: he has a +further positive experience of her benevolence--a further reason for +placing confidence in her judgment and kindness--a further reason for +loving her. + +Of course, in those occasional hazards where there is a risk of broken +limbs or other serious injury, forcible prevention is called for. But +leaving out extreme cases, the system pursued should be, not that of +guarding a child from the small risks which it daily runs, but that of +advising and warning it against them. And by pursuing this course, a +much stronger filial affection will be generated than commonly exists. +If here, as elsewhere, the discipline of the natural reactions is +allowed to come into play--if in those out-door scramblings and in-door +experiments, by which children are liable to injure themselves, they are +allowed to persist, subject only to dissuasion more or less earnest +according to the danger, there cannot fail to arise an ever-increasing +faith in the parental friendship and guidance. Not only, as before +shown, does the adoption of this course enable fathers and mothers to +avoid the odium which attaches to the infliction of positive punishment; +but, as we here see, it enables them to avoid the odium which attaches +to constant thwartings; and even to turn those incidents that commonly +cause squabbles, into a means of strengthening the mutual good feeling. +Instead of being told in words, which deeds seem to contradict, that +their parents are their best friends, children will learn this truth by +a consistent daily experience; and so learning it, will acquire a degree +of trust and attachment which nothing else can give. + +And now, having indicated the more sympathetic relation which must +result from the habitual use of this method, let us return to the +question above put--How is this method to be applied to the graver +offences? + +Note, in the first place, that these graver offences are likely to be +both less frequent and less grave under the regime we have described +than under the ordinary regime. The ill-behaviour of many children is +itself a consequence of that chronic irritation in which they are kept +by bad management. The state of isolation and antagonism produced by +frequent punishment, necessarily deadens the sympathies; necessarily, +therefore, opens the way to those transgressions which the sympathies +check. That harsh treatment which children of the same family inflict on +each other, is often, in great measure, a reflex of the harsh treatment +they receive from adults--partly suggested by direct example, and partly +generated by the ill-temper and the tendency to vicarious retaliation, +which follow chastisements and scoldings. It cannot be questioned that +the greater activity of the affections and happier state of feeling, +maintained in children by the discipline we have described, must prevent +them from sinning against each other so gravely and so frequently. The +still more reprehensible offences, as lies and petty thefts, will, by +the same causes, be diminished. Domestic estrangement is a fruitful +source of such transgressions. It is a law of human nature, visible +enough to all who observe, that those who are debarred the higher +gratifications fall back upon the lower; those who have no sympathetic +pleasures seek selfish ones; and hence, conversely, the maintenance of +happier relations between parents and children is calculated to diminish +the number of those offences of which selfishness is the origin. + +When, however, such offences are committed, as they will occasionally be +even under the best system, the discipline of consequences may still be +resorted to; and if there exists that bond of confidence and affection +above described, this discipline will be efficient. For what are the +natural consequences, say, of a theft? They are of two kinds--direct and +indirect. The direct consequence, as dictated by pure equity, is that of +making restitution. A just ruler (and every parent should aim to be one) +will demand that, when possible, a wrong act shall be undone by a right +one; and in the case of theft this implies either the restoration of the +thing stolen, or, if it is consumed, the giving of an equivalent: which, +in the case of a child, may be effected out of its pocket-money. The +indirect and more serious consequence is the grave displeasure of +parents--a consequence which inevitably follows among all peoples +civilised enough to regard theft as a crime. "But," it will be said, +"the manifestation of parental displeasure, either in words or blows, is +the ordinary course in these cases: the method leads here to nothing +new." Very true. Already we have admitted that, in some directions, this +method is spontaneously pursued. Already we have shown that there is a +tendency for educational systems to gravitate towards the true system. +And here we may remark, as before, that the intensity of this natural +reaction will, in the beneficent order of things, adjust itself to the +requirements--that this parental displeasure will vent itself in violent +measures during comparatively barbarous times, when children are also +comparatively barbarous; and will express itself less cruelly in those +more advanced social states in which, by implication, the children are +amenable to milder treatment. But what it chiefly concerns us here to +observe is, that the manifestation of strong parental displeasure, +produced by one of these graver offences, will be potent for good, just +in proportion to the warmth of the attachment existing between parent +and child. Just in proportion as the discipline of natural consequences +has been consistently pursued in other cases, will it be efficient in +this case. Proof is within the experience of all, if they will look for +it. + +For does not every one know that when he has offended another, the +amount of regret he feels (of course, leaving worldly considerations out +of the question) varies with the degree of sympathy he has for that +other? Is he not conscious that when the person offended is an enemy, +the having given him annoyance is apt to be a source rather of secret +satisfaction than of sorrow? Does he not remember that where umbrage has +been taken by some total stranger, he has felt much less concern than he +would have done had such umbrage been taken by one with whom he was +intimate? While, conversely, has not the anger of an admired and +cherished friend been regarded by him as a serious misfortune, long and +keenly regretted? Well, the effects of parental displeasure on children +must similarly vary with the pre-existing relationship. Where there is +an established alienation, the feeling of a child who has transgressed +is a purely selfish fear of the impending physical penalties or +deprivations; and after these have been inflicted, the injurious +antagonism and dislike which result, add to the alienation. On the +contrary, where there exists a warm filial affection produced by a +consistent parental friendship, the state of mind caused by parental +displeasure is not only a salutary check to future misconduct of like +kind, but is intrinsically salutary. The moral pain consequent on +having, for the time being, lost so loved a friend, stands in place of +the physical pain usually inflicted; and proves equally, if not more, +efficient. While instead of the fear and vindictiveness excited by the +one course, there are excited by the other a sympathy with parental +sorrow, a genuine regret for having caused it, and a desire, by some +atonement, to reestablish the friendly relationship. Instead of bringing +into play those egotistic feelings whose predominance is the cause of +criminal acts, there are brought into play those altruistic feelings +which check criminal acts. Thus the discipline of natural consequences +is applicable to grave as well as trivial faults; and the practice of it +conduces not simply to the repression, but to the eradication of such +faults. + +In brief, the truth is that savageness begets savageness, and gentleness +begets gentleness. Children who are unsympathetically treated become +unsympathetic; whereas treating them with due fellow-feeling is a means +of cultivating their fellow-feeling. With family governments as with +political ones, a harsh despotism itself generates a great part of the +crimes it has to repress; while on the other hand a mild and liberal +rule both avoids many causes of dissension, and so ameliorates the tone +of feeling as to diminish the tendency to transgression. As John Locke +long since remarked, "Great severity of punishment does but very little +good, nay, great harm, in education; and I believe it will be found +that, _caeteris paribus_, those children who have been most chastised +seldom make the best men." In confirmation of which opinion we may cite +the fact not long since made public by Mr. Rogers, Chaplain of the +Pentonville Prison, that those juvenile criminals who have been whipped +are those who most frequently return to prison. Conversely, the +beneficial effects of a kinder treatment are well illustrated in a fact +stated to us by a French lady, in whose house we recently stayed in +Paris. Apologising for the disturbance daily caused by a little boy who +was unmanageable both at home and at school, she expressed her fear that +there was no remedy save that which had succeeded in the case of an +elder brother; namely, sending him to an English school. She explained +that at various schools in Paris this elder brother had proved utterly +untractable; that in despair they had followed the advice to send him to +England; and that on his return home he was as good as he had before +been bad. This remarkable change she ascribed entirely to the +comparative mildness of the English discipline. + + * * * * * + +After the foregoing exposition of principles, our remaining space may +best be occupied by a few of the chief maxims and rules deducible from +them; and with a view to brevity we will put these in a hortatory form. + +Do not expect from a child any great amount of moral goodness. During +early years every civilised man passes through that phase of character +exhibited by the barbarous race from which he is descended. As the +child's features--flat nose, forward-opening nostrils, large lips, +wide-apart eyes, absent frontal sinus, etc.--resemble for a time those +of the savage, so, too, do his instincts. Hence the tendencies to +cruelty, to thieving, to lying, so general among children--tendencies +which, even without the aid of discipline, will become more or less +modified just as the features do. The popular idea that children are +"innocent," while it is true with respect to evil _knowledge_, is +totally false with respect to evil _impulses_; as half an hour's +observation in the nursery will prove to any one. Boys when left to +themselves, as at public schools, treat each other more brutally than +men do; and were they left to themselves at an earlier age their +brutality would be still more conspicuous. + +Not only is it unwise to set up a high standard of good conduct for +children, but it is even unwise to use very urgent incitements to good +conduct. Already most people recognise the detrimental results of +intellectual precocity; but there remains to be recognised the fact that +_moral precocity_ also has detrimental results. Our higher moral +faculties, like our higher intellectual ones, are comparatively complex. +By consequence, both are comparatively late in their evolution. And with +the one as with the other, an early activity produced by stimulation +will be at the expense of the future character. Hence the not uncommon +anomaly that those who during childhood were models of juvenile +goodness, by and by undergo a seemingly inexplicable change for the +worse, and end by being not above but below par; while relatively +exemplary men are often the issue of a childhood by no means promising. + +Be content, therefore, with moderate measures and moderate results. Bear +in mind that a higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must be +reached by slow growth; and you will then have patience with those +imperfections which your child hourly displays. You will be less prone +to that constant scolding, and threatening, and forbidding, by which +many parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in the foolish hope +that they will thus make their children what they should be. + +This liberal form of domestic government, which does not seek +despotically to regulate all the details of a child's conduct, +necessarily results from the system we advocate. Satisfy yourself with +seeing that your child always suffers the natural consequences of his +actions, and you will avoid that excess of control in which so many +parents err. Leave him wherever you can to the discipline of experience, +and you will save him from that hot-house virtue which over-regulation +produces in yielding natures, or that demoralising antagonism which it +produces in independent ones. + +By aiming in all cases to insure the natural reactions to your child's +actions, you will put an advantageous check on your own temper. The +method of moral education pursued by many, we fear by most, parents, is +little else than that of venting their anger in the way that first +suggests itself. The slaps, and rough shakings and sharp words, with +which a mother commonly visits her offspring's small offences (many of +them not offences considered intrinsically), are generally but the +manifestations of her ill-controlled feelings--result much more from the +promptings of those feelings than from a wish to benefit the offenders. +But by pausing in each case of transgression to consider what is the +normal consequence, and how it may best be brought home to the +transgressor, some little time is obtained for the mastery of yourself; +the mere blind anger first aroused settles down into a less vehement +feeling, and one not so likely to mislead you. + +Do not, however, seek to behave as a passionless instrument. Remember +that besides the natural reactions to your child's actions which the +working of things tends to bring round on him, your own approbation or +disapprobation is also a natural reaction, and one of the ordained +agencies for guiding him. The error we have been combating is that of +_substituting_ parental displeasure and its artificial penalties, for +the penalties which Nature has established. But while it should not be +_substituted_ for these natural penalties, we by no means argue that it +should not, in some form, _accompany_ them. Though the _secondary_ kind +of punishment should not usurp the place of the _primary_ kind; it may, +in moderation, rightly supplement the primary kind. Such amount of +sorrow or indignation as you feel, should be expressed in words or +manner; subject, of course, to the approval of your judgment. The kind +and degree of feeling produced in you will necessarily depend on your +own character; and it is therefore useless to say it should be this or +that. Nevertheless, you may endeavour to modify the feeling into that +which you believe ought to be entertained. Beware, however, of the two +extremes; not only in respect of the intensity, but in respect of the +duration, of your displeasure. On the one hand, avoid that weak +impulsiveness, so general among mothers, which scolds and forgives +almost in the same breath. On the other hand, do not unduly continue to +show estrangement of feeling, lest you accustom your child to do without +your friendship, and so lose your influence over him. The moral +reactions called forth from you by your child's actions, you should as +much as possible assimilate to those which you conceive would be called +forth from a parent of perfect nature. + +Be sparing of commands. Command only when other means are inapplicable, +or have failed. "In frequent orders the parents' advantage is more +considered than the child's," says Richter. As in primitive societies a +breach of law is punished, not so much because it is intrinsically wrong +as because it is a disregard of the king's authority--a rebellion +against him; so in many families, the penalty visited on a transgressor +is prompted less by reprobation of the offence than by anger at the +disobedience. Listen to the ordinary speeches--"How _dare_ you disobey +me?" "I tell you I'll _make_ you do it, sir." "I'll soon teach you who +is _master_"--and then consider what the words, the tone, and the manner +imply. A determination to subjugate is far more conspicuous in them, +than anxiety for the child's welfare. For the time being the attitude of +mind differs but little from that of a despot bent on punishing a +recalcitrant subject. The right-feeling parent, however, like the +philanthropic legislator, will rejoice not in coercion, but in +dispensing with coercion. He will do without law wherever other modes of +regulating conduct can be successfully employed; and he will regret the +having recourse to law when law is necessary. As Richter remarks--"The +best rule in politics is said to be '_pas trop gouverner_:' it is also +true in education." And in spontaneous conformity with this maxim, +parents whose lust of dominion is restrained by a true sense of duty, +will aim to make their children control themselves as much as possible, +and will fall back upon absolutism only as a last resort. + +But whenever you _do_ command, command with decision and consistency. If +the case is one which really cannot be otherwise dealt with, then issue +your fiat, and having issued it, never afterwards swerve from it. +Consider well what you are going to do; weigh all the consequences; +think whether you have adequate firmness of purpose; and then, if you +finally make the law, enforce obedience at whatever cost. Let your +penalties be like the penalties inflicted by inanimate +Nature--inevitable. The hot cinder burns a child the first time he +seizes it; it burns him the second time; it burns him the third time; it +burns him every time; and he very soon learns not to touch the hot +cinder. If you are equally consistent--if the consequences which you +tell your child will follow specified acts, follow with like uniformity, +he will soon come to respect your laws as he does those of Nature. And +this respect once established, will prevent endless domestic evils. Of +errors in education one of the worst is inconsistency. As in a +community, crimes multiply when there is no certain administration of +justice; so in a family, an immense increase of transgressions results +from a hesitating or irregular infliction of punishments. A weak mother, +who perpetually threatens and rarely performs--who makes rules in haste +and repents of them at leisure--who treats the same offence now with +severity and now with leniency, as the passing humour dictates, is +laying up miseries for herself and her children. She is making herself +contemptible in their eyes; she is setting them an example of +uncontrolled feelings; she is encouraging them to transgress by the +prospect of probable impunity: she is entailing endless squabbles and +accompanying damage to her own temper and the tempers of her little +ones; she is reducing their minds to a moral chaos, which after years of +bitter experience will with difficulty bring into order. Better even a +barbarous form of domestic government carried out consistently, than a +humane one inconsistently carried out. Again we say, avoid coercive +measures whenever it is possible to do so; but when you find despotism +really necessary, be despotic in good earnest. + +Remember that the aim of your discipline should be to produce a +_self-governing_ being; not to produce a being to be _governed by +others_. Were your children fated to pass their lives as slaves, you +could not too much accustom them to slavery during their childhood; but +as they are by and by to be free men, with no one to control their daily +conduct, you cannot too much accustom them to self-control while they +are still under your eye. This it is which makes the system of +discipline by natural consequences so especially appropriate to the +social state which we in England have now reached. In feudal times, when +one of the chief evils the citizen had to fear was the anger of his +superiors, it was well that during childhood, parental vengeance should +be a chief means of government. But now that the citizen has little to +fear from any one--now that the good or evil which he experiences is +mainly that which in the order of things results from his own conduct, +he should from his first years begin to learn, experimentally, the good +or evil consequences which naturally follow this or that conduct. Aim, +therefore, to diminish the parental government, as fast as you can +substitute for it in your child's mind that self-government arising from +a foresight of results. During infancy a considerable amount of +absolutism is necessary. A three-year old urchin playing with an open +razor, cannot be allowed to learn by this discipline of consequences; +for the consequences may be too serious. But as intelligence increases, +the number of peremptory interferences may be, and should be, +diminished, with the view of gradually ending them as maturity is +approached. All transitions are dangerous; and the most dangerous is the +transition from the restraint of the family circle to the non-restraint +of the world. Hence the importance of pursuing the policy we advocate; +which, by cultivating a boy's faculty of self-restraint, by continually +increasing the degree in which he is left to his self-restraint, and by +so bringing him, step by step, to a state of unaided self-restraint, +obliterates the ordinary sudden and hazardous change from +externally-governed youth to internally-governed maturity. Let the +history of your domestic rule typify, in little, the history of our +political rule: at the outset, autocratic control, where control is +really needful; by and by an incipient constitutionalism, in which the +liberty of the subject gains some express recognition; successive +extensions of this liberty of the subject; gradually ending in parental +abdication. + +Do not regret the display of considerable self-will on the part of your +children. It is the correlative of that diminished coerciveness so +conspicuous in modern education. The greater tendency to assert freedom +of action on the one side, corresponds to the smaller tendency to +tyrannise on the other. They both indicate an approach to the system of +discipline we contend for, under which children will be more and more +led to rule themselves by the experience of natural consequences; and +they are both accompaniments of our more advanced social state. The +independent English boy is the father of the independent English man; +and you cannot have the last without the first. German teachers say that +they had rather manage a dozen German boys than one English one. Shall +we, therefore, wish that our boys had the manageableness of German ones, +and with it the submissiveness and political serfdom of adult Germans? +Or shall we not rather tolerate in our boys those feelings which make +them free men, and modify our methods accordingly? + +Lastly, always recollect that to educate rightly is not a simple and +easy thing, but a complex and extremely difficult thing, the hardest +task which devolves on adult life. The rough-and-ready style of domestic +government is indeed practicable by the meanest and most uncultivated +intellects. Slaps and sharp words are penalties that suggest themselves +alike to the least reclaimed barbarian and the stolidest peasant. Even +brutes can use this method of discipline; as you may see in the growl +and half-bite with which a bitch will check a too-exigeant puppy. But if +you would carry out with success a rational and civilised system, you +must be prepared for considerable mental exertion--for some study, some +ingenuity, some patience, some self-control. You will have habitually to +consider what are the results which in adult life follow certain kinds +of acts; and you must then devise methods by which parallel results +shall be entailed on the parallel acts of your children. It will daily +be needful to analyse the motives of juvenile conduct--to distinguish +between acts that are really good and those which, though simulating +them, proceed from inferior impulses; while you will have to be ever on +your guard against the cruel mistake not unfrequently made, of +translating neutral acts into transgressions, or ascribing worse +feelings than were entertained. You must more or less modify your method +to suit the disposition of each child; and must be prepared to make +further modifications as each child's disposition enters on a new phase. +Your faith will often be taxed to maintain the requisite perseverance in +a course which seems to produce little or no effect. Especially if you +are dealing with children who have been wrongly treated, you must be +prepared for a lengthened trial of patience before succeeding with +better methods; since that which is not easy even where a right state of +feeling has been established from the beginning, becomes doubly +difficult when a wrong state of feeling has to be set right. Not only +will you have constantly to analyse the motives of your children, but +you will have to analyse your own motives--to discriminate between those +internal suggestions springing from a true parental solicitude and those +which spring from your own selfishness, your love of ease, your lust of +dominion. And then, more trying still, you will have not only to detect, +but to curb these baser impulses. In brief, you will have to carry on +your own higher education at the same time that you are educating your +children. Intellectually you must cultivate to good purpose that most +complex of subjects--human nature and its laws, as exhibited in your +children, in yourself, and in the world. Morally, you must keep in +constant exercise your higher feelings, and restrain your lower. It is a +truth yet remaining to be recognised, that the last stage in the mental +development of each man and woman is to be reached only through a proper +discharge of the parental duties. And when this truth is recognised, it +will be seen how admirable is the arrangement through which human beings +are led by their strongest affections to subject themselves to a +discipline that they would else elude. + +While some will regard this conception of education as it should be with +doubt and discouragement, others will, we think, perceive in the exalted +ideal which it involves, evidence of its truth. That it cannot be +realised by the impulsive, the unsympathetic, and the short-sighted, +but demands the higher attributes of human nature, they will see to be +evidence of its fitness for the more advanced states of humanity. Though +it calls for much labour and self-sacrifice, they will see that it +promises an abundant return of happiness, immediate and remote. They +will see that while in its injurious effects on both parent and child a +bad system is twice cursed, a good system is twice blessed--it blesses +him that trains and him that's trained. + +[1] Of this nature is the plea put in by some for the rough treatment +experienced by boys at our public schools; where, as it is said, they +are introduced to a miniature world whose hardships prepare them for +those of the real world. It must be admitted that the plea has some +force; but it is a very insufficient plea. For whereas domestic and +school discipline, though they should not be much better than the +discipline of adult life, should be somewhat better; the discipline +which boys meet with at Eton, Winchester, Harrow, etc., is worse than +that of adult life--more unjust and cruel. Instead of being an aid to +human progress, which all culture should be, the culture of our public +schools, by accustoming boys to a despotic form of government and an +intercourse regulated by brute force, tends to fit them for a lower +state of society than that which exists. And chiefly recruited as our +legislature is from among those who are brought up at such schools, this +barbarising influence becomes a hindrance to national progress. + + + + +PHYSICAL EDUCATION + + +Equally at the squire's table after the withdrawal of the ladies, at the +farmers' market-ordinary, and at the village ale-house, the topic which, +after the political question of the day, excites the most general +interest, is the management of animals. Riding home from hunting, the +conversation usually gravitates towards horse-breeding, and pedigrees, +and comments on this or that "good point;" while a day on the moors is +very unlikely to end without something being said on the treatment of +dogs. When crossing the fields together from church, the tenants of +adjacent farms are apt to pass from criticisms on the sermon to +criticisms on the weather, the crops, and the stock; and thence to slide +into discussions on the various kinds of fodder and their feeding +qualities. Hodge and Giles, after comparing notes over their respective +pig-styes, show by their remarks that they have been observant of their +masters' beasts and sheep; and of the effects produced on them by this +or that kind of treatment. Nor is it only among the rural population +that the regulations of the kennel, the stable, the cow-shed, and the +sheep-pen, are favourite subjects. In towns, too, the numerous artisans +who keep dogs, the young men who are rich enough to now and then indulge +their sporting tendencies, and their more staid seniors who talk over +agricultural progress or read Mr. Mechi's annual reports and Mr. Caird's +letters to the _Times_, form, when added together, a large portion of +the inhabitants. Take the adult males throughout the kingdom, and a +great majority will be found to show some interest in the breeding, +rearing, or training of animals, of one kind or other. + +But, during after-dinner conversations, or at other times of like +intercourse, who hears anything said about the rearing of children? When +the country gentleman has paid his daily visit to the stable, and +personally inspected the condition and treatment of his horses; when he +has glanced at his minor live stock, and given directions about them; +how often does he go up to the nursery and examine into its dietary, its +hours, its ventilation? On his library-shelves may be found White's +_Farriery_, Stephens's _Book of the Farm_, Nimrod _on the Condition of +Hunters_; and with the contents of these he is more or less familiar; +but how many books has he read on the management of infancy and +childhood? The fattening properties of oil-cake, the relative values of +hay and chopped straw, the dangers of unlimited clover, are points on +which every landlord, farmer, and peasant has some knowledge; but what +percentage of them inquire whether the food they give their children is +adapted to the constitutional needs of growing boys and girls? Perhaps +the business-interests of these classes will be assigned as accounting +for this anomaly. The explanation is inadequate, however; seeing that +the same contrast holds among other classes. Of a score of townspeople, +few, if any, would prove ignorant of the fact that it is undesirable to +work a horse soon after it has eaten; and yet, of this same score, +supposing them all to be fathers, probably not one would be found who +had considered whether the time elapsing between his children's dinner +and their resumption of lessons was sufficient. Indeed, on +cross-examination, nearly every man would disclose the latent opinion +that the regimen of the nursery was no concern of his. "Oh, I leave all +those things to the women," would probably be the reply. And in most +cases the tone of this reply would convey the implication, that such +cares are not consistent with masculine dignity. + +Regarded from any but a conventional point of view, the fact seems +strange that while the raising of first-rate bullocks is an occupation +on which educated men willingly bestow much time and thought, the +bringing up of fine human beings is an occupation tacitly voted unworthy +of their attention. Mammas who have been taught little but languages, +music, and accomplishments, aided by nurses full of antiquated +prejudices, are held competent regulators of the food, clothing, and +exercise of children. Meanwhile the fathers read books and periodicals, +attend agricultural meetings, try experiments, and engage in +discussions, all with the view of discovering how to fatten prize pigs! +We see infinite pains taken to produce a racer that shall win the Derby: +none to produce a modern athlete. Had Gulliver narrated of the Laputans +that the men vied with each other in learning how best to rear the +offspring of other creatures, and were careless of learning how best to +rear their own offspring, he would have paralleled any of the other +absurdities he ascribes to them. + +The matter is a serious one, however. Ludicrous as is the antithesis, +the fact it expresses is not less disastrous. As remarks a suggestive +writer, the first requisite to success in life is "to be a good animal;" +and to be a nation of good animals is the first condition to national +prosperity. Not only is it that the event of a war often turns on the +strength and hardiness of soldiers; but it is that the contests of +commerce are in part determined by the bodily endurance of producers. +Thus far we have found no reason to fear trials of strength with other +races in either of these fields. But there are not wanting signs that +our powers will presently be taxed to the uttermost. The competition of +modern life is so keen, that few can bear the required application +without injury. Already thousands break down under the high pressure +they are subject to. If this pressure continues to increase, as it seems +likely to do, it will try severely even the soundest constitutions. +Hence it is becoming of especial importance that the training of +children should be so carried on, as not only to fit them mentally for +the struggle before them, but also to make them physically fit to bear +its excessive wear and tear. + +Happily the matter is beginning to attract attention. The writings of +Mr. Kingsley indicate a reaction against over-culture; carried perhaps, +as reactions usually are, somewhat too far. Occasional letters and +leaders in the newspapers have shown an awakening interest in physical +training. And the formation of a school, significantly nicknamed that of +"muscular Christianity," implies a growing opinion that our present +methods of bringing up children do not sufficiently regard the welfare +of the body. The topic is evidently ripe for discussion. + +To conform the regimen of the nursery and the school to the established +truths of modern science--this is the desideratum. It is time that the +benefits which our sheep and oxen are deriving from the investigations +of the laboratory, should be participated in by our children. Without +calling in question the great importance of horse-training and +pig-feeding, we would suggest that, as the rearing of well-grown men and +women is also of some moment, these conclusions which theory indicates +and practice indorses, ought to be acted on in the last case as in the +first. Probably not a few will be startled--perhaps offended--by this +collocation of ideas. But it is a fact not to be disputed, and to which +we must reconcile ourselves, that man is subject to the same organic +laws as inferior creatures. No anatomist, no physiologist, no chemist, +will for a moment hesitate to assert, that the general principles which +are true of the vital processes in animals are equally true of the vital +processes in man. And a candid admission of this fact is not without its +reward: namely, that the generalisations established by observation and +experiment on brutes, become available for human guidance. Rudimentary +as is the Science of Life, it has already attained to certain +fundamental principles underlying the development of all organisms, the +human included. That which has now to be done, and that which we shall +endeavour in some measure to do, is to trace the bearings of these +fundamental principles on the physical training of childhood and youth. + + * * * * * + +The rhythmical tendency which is traceable in all departments of social +life--which is illustrated in the access of despotism after revolution, +or, among ourselves, in the alternation of reforming epochs and +conservative epochs--which, after a dissolute age, brings an age of +asceticism, and conversely,--which, in commerce, produces the recurring +inflations and panics--which carries the devotees of fashion from one +absurd extreme to the opposite one;--this rhythmical tendency affects +also our table-habits, and by implication, the dietary of the young. +After a period distinguished by hard drinking and hard eating, has come +a period of comparative sobriety, which, in teetotalism and +vegetarianism, exhibits extreme forms of protest against the riotous +living of the past. And along with this change in the regimen of adults, +has come a parallel change in the regimen for boys and girls. In past +generations the belief was, that the more a child could be induced to +eat, the better; and even now, among farmers and in remote districts, +where traditional ideas most linger, parents may be found who tempt +their children into repletion. But among the educated classes, who +chiefly display this reaction towards abstemiousness, there may be seen +a decided leaning to the under-feeding, rather than the over-feeding, of +children. Indeed their disgust for by-gone animalism, is more clearly +shown in the treatment of their offspring than in the treatment of +themselves; for while their disguised asceticism is, in so far as their +personal conduct is concerned, kept in check by their appetites, it has +full play in legislating for juveniles. + +That over-feeding and under-feeding are both bad, is a truism. Of the +two, however, the last is the worst. As writes a high authority, "the +effects of casual repletion are less prejudicial, and more easily +corrected, than those of inanition."[1] Besides, where there has been no +injudicious interference, repletion seldom occurs. "Excess is the vice +rather of adults than of the young, who are rarely either gourmands or +epicures, unless through the fault of those who rear them."[2] This +system of restriction which many parents think so necessary, is based +upon inadequate observation, and erroneous reasoning. There is an +over-legislation in the nursery, as well as an over-legislation in the +State; and one of the most injurious forms of it is this limitation in +the quantity of food. + +"But are children to be allowed to surfeit themselves? Shall they be +suffered to take their fill of dainties and make themselves ill, as they +certainly will do?" As thus put, the question admits of but one reply. +But as thus put, it assumes the point at issue. We contend that, as +appetite is a good guide to all the lower creation--as it is a good +guide to the infant--as it is a good guide to the invalid--as it is a +good guide to the differently-placed races of men--and as it is a good +guide for every adult who leads a healthful life; it may safely be +inferred that it is a good guide for childhood. It would be strange +indeed were it here alone untrustworthy. + +Perhaps some will read this reply with impatience; being able, as they +think, to cite facts totally at variance with it. It may appear absurd +if we deny the relevancy of these facts. And yet the paradox is quite +defensible. The truth is, that the instances of excess which such +persons have in mind, are usually the _consequences_ of the restrictive +system they seem to justify. They are the sensual reactions caused by an +ascetic regimen. They illustrate on a small scale that commonly-remarked +truth, that those who during youth have been subject to the most +rigorous discipline, are apt afterwards to rush into the wildest +extravagances. They are analogous to those frightful phenomena, once not +uncommon in convents, where nuns suddenly lapsed from the extremest +austerities into an almost demoniac wickedness. They simply exhibit the +uncontrollable vehemence of long-denied desires. Consider the ordinary +tastes and the ordinary treatment of children. The love of sweets is +conspicuous and almost universal among them. Probably ninety-nine people +in a hundred presume that there is nothing more in this than +gratification of the palate; and that, in common with other sensual +desires, it should be discouraged. The physiologist, however, whose +discoveries lead him to an ever-increasing reverence for the +arrangements of things, suspects something more in this love of sweets +than is currently supposed; and inquiry confirms the suspicion. He finds +that sugar plays an important part in the vital processes. Both +saccharine and fatty matters are eventually oxidised in the body; and +there is an accompanying evolution of heat. Sugar is the form to which +sundry other compounds have to be reduced before they are available as +heat-making food; and this _formation_ of sugar is carried on in the +body. Not only is starch changed into sugar in the course of digestion, +but it has been proved by M. Claude Bernard that the liver is a factory +in which other constituents of food are transformed into sugar: the need +for sugar being so imperative that it is even thus produced from +nitrogenous substances when no others are given. Now, when to the fact +that children have a marked desire for this valuable heat-food, we join +the fact that they have usually a marked dislike to that food which +gives out the greatest amount of heat during oxidation (namely, fat), we +have reason for thinking that excess of the one compensates for defect +of the other--that the organism demands more sugar because it cannot +deal with much fat. Again, children are fond of vegetable acids. Fruits +of all kinds are their delight; and, in the absence of anything better, +they will devour unripe gooseberries and the sourest of crabs. Now not +only are vegetable acids, in common with mineral ones, very good tonics, +and beneficial as such when taken in moderation; but they have, when +administered in their natural forms, other advantages. "Ripe fruit," +says Dr. Andrew Combe, "is more freely given on the Continent than in +this country; and, particularly when the bowels act imperfectly, it is +often very useful." See, then, the discord between the instinctive wants +of children and their habitual treatment. Here are two dominant desires, +which in all probability express certain needs of the child's +constitution; and not only are they ignored in the nursery-regimen, but +there is a general tendency to forbid the gratification of them. +Bread-and-milk in the morning, tea and bread-and-butter at night, or +some dietary equally insipid, is rigidly adhered to; and any +ministration to the palate is thought needless, or rather, wrong. What +is the consequence? When, on fete-days, there is unlimited access to +good things--when a gift of pocket-money brings the contents of the +confectioner's window within reach, or when by some accident the free +run of a fruit-garden is obtained; then the long-denied, and therefore +intense, desires lead to great excesses. There is an impromptu carnival, +due partly to release from past restraints, and partly to the +consciousness that a long Lent will begin on the morrow. And then, when +the evils of repletion display themselves, it is argued that children +must not be left to the guidance of their appetites! These disastrous +results of artificial restrictions, are themselves cited as proving the +need for further restrictions! We contend, therefore, that the reasoning +used to justify this system of interference is vicious. We contend that, +were children allowed daily to partake of these more sapid edibles, for +which there is a physiological requirement, they would rarely exceed, as +they now mostly do when they have the opportunity: were fruit, as Dr. +Combe recommends, "to constitute a part of the regular food" (given, as +he advises, not between meals, but along with them), there would be none +of that craving which prompts the devouring of crabs and sloes. And +similarly in other cases. + +Not only is it that the _a priori_ reasons for trusting the appetites of +children are strong; and that the reasons assigned for distrusting them +are invalid; but it is that no other guidance is worthy of confidence. +What is the value of this parental judgment, set up as an alternative +regulator? When to "Oliver asking for more," the mamma or governess says +"No," on what data does she proceed? She _thinks_ he has had enough. But +where are her grounds for so thinking? Has she some secret understanding +with the boy's stomach--some _clairvoyant_ power enabling her to discern +the needs of his body? If not, how can she safely decide? Does she not +know that the demand of the system for food is determined by numerous +and involved causes--varies with the temperature, with the hygrometric +state of the air, with the electric state of the air--varies also +according to the exercise taken, according to the kind and quantity of +food eaten at the last meal, and according to the rapidity with which +the last meal was digested? How can she calculate the result of such a +combination of causes? As we heard said by the father of a +five-years-old boy, who stands a head taller than most of his age, and +is proportionately robust, rosy, and active:--"I can see no artificial +standard by which to mete out his food. If I say, 'this much is enough,' +it is a mere guess; and the guess is as likely to be wrong as right. +Consequently, having no faith in guesses, I let him eat his fill." And +certainly, any one judging of his policy by its effects, would be +constrained to admit its wisdom. In truth, this confidence, with which +most parents legislate for the stomachs of their children, proves their +unacquaintance with physiology: if they knew more, they would be more +modest. "The pride of science is humble when compared with the pride of +ignorance." If any one would learn how little faith is to be placed in +human judgments, and how much in the pre-established arrangements of +things, let him compare the rashness of the inexperienced physician with +the caution of the most advanced; or let him dip into Sir John Forbes's +work, _On Nature and Art in the Cure of Disease_; and he will see that, +in proportion as men gain knowledge of the laws of life, they come to +have less confidence in themselves, and more in Nature. + +Turning from the question of _quantity_ of food to that of _quality_, we +may discern the same ascetic tendency. Not simply a restricted diet, but +a comparatively low diet, is thought proper for children. The current +opinion is, that they should have but little animal food. Among the less +wealthy classes, economy seems to have dictated this opinion--the wish +has been father to the thought. Parents not affording to buy much meat, +answer the petitions of juveniles with--"Meat is not good for little +boys and girls;" and this, at first probably nothing but a convenient +excuse, has by repetition grown into an article of faith. While the +classes with whom cost is no consideration, have been swayed partly by +the example of the majority, partly by the influence of nurses drawn +from the lower classes, and in some measure by the reaction against past +animalism. + +If, however, we inquire for the basis of this opinion, we find little or +none. It is a dogma repeated and received without proof, like that +which, for thousands of years, insisted on swaddling-clothes. Very +probably for the infant's stomach, not yet endowed with much muscular +power, meat, which requires considerable trituration before it can be +made into chyme, is an unfit aliment. But this objection does not tell +against animal food from which the fibrous part has been extracted; nor +does it apply when, after the lapse of two or three years, considerable +muscular vigour has been acquired. And while the evidence in support of +this dogma, partially valid in the case of very young children, is not +valid in the case of older children, who are, nevertheless, ordinarily +treated in conformity with it, the adverse evidence is abundant and +conclusive. The verdict of science is exactly opposite to the popular +opinion. We have put the question to two of our leading physicians, and +to several of the most distinguished physiologists, and they uniformly +agree in the conclusion, that children should have a diet not _less_ +nutritive, but, if anything, _more_ nutritive than that of adults. + +The grounds for this conclusion are obvious, and the reasoning simple. +It needs but to compare the vital processes of a man with those of a +boy, to see that the demand for sustenance is relatively greater in the +boy than in the man. What are the ends for which a man requires food? +Each day his body undergoes more or less wear--wear through muscular +exertion, wear of the nervous system through mental actions, wear of the +viscera in carrying on the functions of life; and the tissue thus wasted +has to be renewed. Each day, too, by radiation, his body loses a large +amount of heat; and as, for the continuance of the vital actions, the +temperature of the body must be maintained, this loss has to be +compensated by a constant production of heat: to which end certain +constituents of the body are ever undergoing oxidation. To make up for +the day's waste, and to supply fuel for the day's expenditure of heat, +are, then, the sole purposes for which the adult requires food. Consider +now the case of the boy. He, too, wastes the substance of his body by +action; and it needs but to note his restless activity to see that, in +proportion to his bulk, he probably wastes as much as a man. He, too, +loses heat by radiation; and, as his body exposes a greater surface in +proportion to its mass than does that of a man, and therefore loses heat +more rapidly, the quantity of heat-food he requires is, bulk for bulk, +greater than that required by a man. So that even had the boy no other +vital processes to carry on than the man has, he would need, relatively +to his size, a somewhat larger supply of nutriment. But, besides +repairing his body and maintaining its heat, the boy has to make new +tissue--to grow. After waste and thermal loss have been provided for, +such surplus of nutriment as remains goes to the further building up of +the frame; and only in virtue of this surplus is normal growth possible; +the growth that sometimes takes place in the absence of it, causing a +manifest prostration consequent upon defective repair. It is true that +because of a certain mechanical law which cannot be here explained, a +small organism has an advantage over a large one in the ratio between +the sustaining and destroying forces--an advantage, indeed, to which the +very possibility of growth is owing. But this admission only makes it +the more obvious that though much adverse treatment may be borne without +this excess of vitality being quite out-balanced; yet any adverse +treatment, by diminishing it, must diminish the size or structural +perfection reached. How peremptory is the demand of the unfolding +organism for materials, is seen alike in that "schoolboy hunger," which +after-life rarely parallels in intensity, and in the comparatively quick +return of appetite. And if there needs further evidence of this extra +necessity for nutriment, we have it in the fact that, during the famines +following shipwrecks and other disasters, the children are the first to +die. + +This relatively greater need for nutriment being admitted, as it must +be, the question that remains is--shall we meet it by giving an +excessive quantity of what may be called dilute food, or a more moderate +quantity of concentrated food? The nutriment obtainable from a given +weight of meat is obtainable only from a larger weight of bread, or from +a still larger weight of potatoes, and so on. To fulfil the requirement, +the quantity must be increased as the nutritiveness is diminished. +Shall, we, then, respond to the extra wants of the growing child by +giving an adequate quantity of food as good as that of adults? Or, +regardless of the fact that its stomach has to dispose of a relatively +larger quantity even of this good food, shall we further tax it by +giving an inferior food in still greater quantity? + +The answer is tolerably obvious. The more the labour of digestion is +economised, the more energy is left for the purposes of growth and +action. The functions of the stomach and intestines cannot be performed +without a large supply of blood and nervous power; and in the +comparative lassitude that follows a hearty meal, every adult has proof +that this supply of blood and nervous power is at the expense of the +system at large. If the requisite nutriment is obtained from a great +quantity of innutritious food, more work is entailed on the viscera than +when it is obtained from a moderate quantity of nutritious food. This +extra work is so much loss--a loss which in children shows itself either +in diminished energy, or in smaller growth, or in both. The inference +is, then, that they should have a diet which combines, as much as +possible, nutritiveness and digestibility. + +It is doubtless true that boys and girls may be reared upon an +exclusively, or almost exclusively, vegetable diet. Among the upper +classes are to be found children to whom comparatively little meat is +given; and who, nevertheless, grow and appear in good health. Animal +food is scarcely tasted by the offspring of labouring people; and yet +they reach a healthy maturity. But these seemingly adverse facts have by +no means the weight commonly supposed. In the first place, it does not +follow that those who in early years flourish on bread and potatoes, +will eventually reach a fine development; and a comparison between the +agricultural labourers and the gentry, in England, or between the middle +and lower classes in France is by no means in favour of vegetable +feeders. In the second place, the question is not simply a question of +_bulk_, but also a question of _quality_. A soft, flabby flesh makes as +good a show as a firm one; but though to the careless eye, a child of +full, flaccid tissue may appear the equal of one whose fibres are well +toned, a trial of strength will prove the difference. Obesity in adults +is often a sign of feebleness. Men lose weight in training. Hence the +appearance of these low-fed children is far from conclusive. In the +third place, besides _size_, we have to consider _energy_. Between +children of the meat-eating classes and those of the +bread-and-potato-eating classes, there is a marked contrast in this +respect. Both in mental and physical vivacity the peasant-boy is greatly +inferior to the son of a gentleman. + +If we compare different kinds of animals, or different races of men, or +the same animals or men when differently fed, we find still more +distinct proof that _the degree of energy essentially depends on the +nutritiveness of the food_. + +In a cow, subsisting on so innutritive a food as grass, we see that the +immense quantity required necessitates an enormous digestive system; +that the limbs, small in comparison with the body, are burdened by its +weight; that in carrying about this heavy body and digesting this +excessive quantity of food, much force is expended; and that, having but +little remaining, the creature is sluggish. Compare with the cow a +horse--an animal of nearly allied structure, but habituated to a more +concentrated diet. Here the body, and more especially its abdominal +region, bears a smaller ratio to the limbs; the powers are not taxed by +the support of such massive viscera, nor the digestion of so bulky a +food; and, as a consequence, there is greater locomotive energy and +considerable vivacity. If, again, we contrast the stolid inactivity of +the graminivorous sheep with the liveliness of the dog, subsisting on +flesh or farinaceous matters, or a mixture of the two, we see a +difference similar in kind, but still greater in degree. And after +walking through the Zoological Gardens, and noting the restlessness with +which the carnivorous animals pace up and down their cages, it needs but +to remember that none of the herbivorous animals habitually display this +superfluous energy, to see how clear is the relation between +concentration of food and degree of activity. + +That these differences are not directly consequent on differences of +constitution, as some may argue; but are directly consequent on +differences in the food which the creatures are constituted to subsist +on; is proved by the fact, that they are observable between different +divisions of the same species. The varieties of the horse furnish an +illustration. Compare the big-bellied, inactive, spiritless cart-horse +with a racer or hunter, small in the flanks and full of energy; and then +call to mind how much less nutritive is the diet of the one than that of +the other. Or take the case of mankind. Australians, Bushmen, and others +of the lowest savages who live on roots and berries, varied by larvae of +insects and the like meagre fare, are comparatively puny in stature, +have large abdomens, soft and undeveloped muscles, and are quite unable +to cope with Europeans, either in a struggle or in prolonged exertion. +Count up the wild races who are well grown, strong and active, as the +Kaffirs, North-American Indians, and Patagonians, and you find them +large consumers of flesh. The ill-fed Hindoo goes down before the +Englishman fed on more nutritive food; to whom he is as inferior in +mental as in physical energy. And generally, we think, the history of +the world shows that the well-fed races have been the energetic and +dominant races. + +Still stronger, however, becomes the argument, when we find that the +same individual animal is capable of more or less exertion according as +its food is more or less nutritious. This has been demonstrated in the +case of the horse. Though flesh may be gained by a grazing horse, +strength is lost; as putting him to hard work proves. "The consequence +of turning horses out to grass is relaxation of the muscular system." +"Grass is a very good preparation for a bullock for Smithfield market, +but a very bad one for a hunter." It was well known of old that, after +passing the summer in the fields, hunters required some months of +stable-feeding before becoming able to follow the hounds; and that they +did not get into good condition till the beginning of the next spring. +And the modern practice is that insisted on by Mr. Apperley--"Never to +give a hunter what is called 'a summer's run at grass,' and, except +under particular and very favourable circumstances, never to turn him +out at all." That is to say, never give him poor food: great energy and +endurance are to be obtained only by the continued use of nutritive +food. So true is this that, as proved by Mr. Apperley, prolonged +high-feeding enables a middling horse to equal, in his performances, a +first-rate horse fed in the ordinary way. To which various evidences add +the familiar fact that, when a horse is required to do double duty, it +is the practice to give him beans--a food containing a larger proportion +of nitrogenous, or flesh-making material, than his habitual oats. + +Once more, in the case of individual men the truth has been illustrated +with equal, or still greater, clearness. We do not refer to men in +training for feats of strength, whose regimen, however, thoroughly +conforms to the doctrine. We refer to the experience of +railway-contractors and their labourers. It has been for years a +well-established fact that an English navvy, eating largely of flesh, is +far more efficient than a Continental navvy living on farinaceous food: +so much more efficient, that English contractors for Continental +railways found it pay to take their labourers with them. That difference +of diet and not difference of race caused this superiority, has been of +late distinctly shown. For it has turned out, that when the Continental +navvies live in the same style as their English competitors, they +presently rise, more or less nearly, to a par with them in efficiency. +And to this fact let us here add the converse one, to which we can give +personal testimony based upon six months' experience of vegetarianism, +that abstinence from meat entails diminished energy of both body and +mind. + +Do not these various evidences endorse our argument respecting the +feeding of children? Do they not imply that, even supposing the same +stature and bulk to be attained on an innutritive as on a nutritive +diet, the quality of tissue is greatly inferior? Do they not establish +the position that, where energy as well as growth has to be maintained, +it can only be done by high feeding? Do they not confirm the _a priori_ +conclusion that, though a child of whom little is expected in the way of +bodily or mental activity, may thrive tolerably well on farinaceous +substances, a child who is daily required, not only to form the due +amount of new tissue, but to supply the waste consequent on great +muscular action, and the further waste consequent on hard exercise of +brain, must live on substances containing a larger ratio of nutritive +matter? And is it not an obvious corollary, that denial of this better +food will be at the expense either of growth, or of bodily activity, or +of mental activity; as constitution and circumstances determine? We +believe no logical intellect will question it. To think otherwise is to +entertain in a disguised form the old fallacy of the perpetual-motion +schemers--that it is possible to get power out of nothing. + +Before leaving the question of food, a few words must be said on another +requisite--_variety_. In this respect the dietary of the young is very +faulty. If not, like our soldiers, condemned to "twenty years of boiled +beef," our children have mostly to bear a monotony which, though less +extreme and less lasting, is quite as clearly at variance with the laws +of health. At dinner, it is true, they usually have food that is more or +less mixed, and that is changed day by day. But week after week, month +after month, year after year, comes the same breakfast of +bread-and-milk, or, it may be, oatmeal-porridge. And with like +persistence the day is closed, perhaps with a second edition of the +bread-and-milk, perhaps with tea and bread-and-butter. + +This practice is opposed to the dictates of physiology. The satiety +produced by an often-repeated dish, and the gratification caused by one +long a stranger to the palate, are _not_ meaningless, as people +carelessly assume; but they are the incentives to a wholesome diversity +of diet. It is a fact, established by numerous experiments, that there +is scarcely any one food, however good, which supplies in due +proportions or right forms all the elements required for carrying on the +vital processes in a normal manner: whence it follows that frequent +change of food is desirable to balance the supplies of all the elements. +It is a further fact, known to physiologists, that the enjoyment given +by a much-liked food is a nervous stimulus, which, by increasing the +action of the heart and so propelling the blood with increased vigour, +aids in the subsequent digestion. And these truths are in harmony with +the maxims of modern cattle-feeding, which dictate a rotation of diet. + +Not only, however, is periodic change of food very desirable; but, for +the same reasons, it is very desirable that a mixture of food should be +taken at each meal. The better balance of ingredients, and the greater +nervous stimulation, are advantages which hold here as before. If facts +are asked for, we may name as one, the comparative ease with which the +stomach disposes of a French dinner, enormous in quantity but extremely +varied in materials. Few will contend that an equal weight of one kind +of food, however well cooked, could be digested with as much facility. +If any desire further facts, they may find them in every modern book on +the management of animals. Animals thrive best when each meal is made up +of several things. The experiments of Goss and Stark "afford the most +decisive proof of the advantage, or rather the necessity, of a mixture +of substances, in order to produce the compound which is the best +adapted for the action of the stomach."[3] + +Should any object, as probably many will, that a rotating dietary for +children, and one which also requires a mixture of food at each meal, +would entail too much trouble; we reply, that no trouble is thought too +great which conduces to the mental development of children, and that for +their future welfare, good bodily development is of still higher +importance. Moreover, it seems alike sad and strange that a trouble +which is cheerfully taken in the fattening of pigs, should be thought +too great in the rearing of children. + +One more paragraph, with the view of warning those who may propose to +adopt the regimen indicated. The change must not be made suddenly; for +continued low-feeding so enfeebles the system, as to disable it from at +once dealing with a high diet. Deficient nutrition is itself a cause of +dyspepsia. This is true even of animals. "When calves are fed with +skimmed milk, or whey, or other poor food, they are liable to +indigestion."[4] Hence, therefore, where the energies are low, the +transition to a generous diet must be gradual: each increment of +strength gained, justifying a fresh addition of nutriment. Further, it +should be borne in mind that the concentration of nutriment may be +carried too far. A bulk sufficient to fill the stomach is one requisite +of a proper meal; and this requisite negatives a diet deficient in those +matters which give adequate mass. Though the size of the digestive +organs is less in the well-fed civilised races than in the ill-fed +savage ones, and though their size may eventually diminish still +further, yet, for the time being, the bulk of the ingesta must be +determined by the existing capacity. But, paying due regard to these two +qualifications, our conclusions are--that the food of children should be +highly nutritive; that it should be varied at each meal and at +successive meals; and that it should be abundant. + + * * * * * + +With clothing as with food, the usual tendency is towards an improper +scantiness. Here, too, asceticism peeps out. There is a current theory, +vaguely entertained if not put into a definite formula, that the +sensations are to be disregarded. They do not exist for our guidance, +but to mislead us, seems to be the prevalent belief reduced to its naked +form. It is a grave error: we are much more beneficently constituted. It +is not obedience to the sensations, but disobedience to them, which is +the habitual cause of bodily evils. It is not the eating when hungry, +but the eating in the absence of hunger, which is bad. It is not +drinking when thirsty, but continuing to drink when thirst has ceased, +that is the vice. Harm does not result from breathing that fresh air +which every healthy person enjoys; but from breathing foul air, spite of +the protest of the lungs. Harm does not result from taking that active +exercise which, as every child shows us, Nature strongly prompts; but +from a persistent disregard of Nature's promptings. Not that mental +activity which is spontaneous and enjoyable does the mischief; but that +which is persevered in after a hot or aching head commands desistance. +Not that bodily exertion which is pleasant or indifferent, does injury; +but that which is continued when exhaustion forbids. It is true that, in +those who have long led unhealthy lives, the sensations are not +trustworthy guides. People who have for years been almost constantly +in-doors, who have exercised their brains very much and their bodies +scarcely at all, who in eating have obeyed their clocks without +consulting their stomachs, may very likely be misled by their vitiated +feelings. But their abnormal state is itself the result of transgressing +their feelings. Had they from childhood never disobeyed what we may term +the physical conscience, it would not have been seared, but would have +remained a faithful monitor. + +Among the sensations serving for our guidance are those of heat and +cold; and a clothing for children which does not carefully consult these +sensations, is to be condemned. The common notion about "hardening" is a +grievous delusion. Not a few children are "hardened" out of the world; +and those who survive, permanently suffer either in growth or +constitution. "Their delicate appearance furnishes ample indication of +the mischief thus produced, and their frequent attacks of illness might +prove a warning even to unreflecting parents," says Dr. Combe. The +reasoning on which this hardening-theory rests is extremely superficial. +Wealthy parents, seeing little peasant boys and girls playing about in +the open air only half-clothed, and joining with this fact the general +healthiness of labouring people, draw the unwarrantable conclusion that +the healthiness is the result of the exposure, and resolve to keep their +own offspring scantily covered! It is forgotten that these urchins who +gambol upon village-greens are in many respects favourably +circumstanced--that their lives are spent in almost perpetual play; that +they are all day breathing fresh air; and that their systems are not +disturbed by over-taxed brains. For aught that appears to the contrary, +their good health may be maintained, not in consequence of, but in spite +of, their deficient clothing. This alternative conclusion we believe to +be the true one; and that an inevitable detriment results from the loss +of animal heat to which they are subject. + +For when, the constitution being sound enough to bear it, exposure does +produce hardness, it does so at the expense of growth. This truth is +displayed alike in animals and in man. Shetland ponies bear greater +inclemencies than the horses of the south, but are dwarfed. Highland +sheep and cattle, living in a colder climate, are stunted in comparison +with English breeds. In both the arctic and antarctic regions the human +race falls much below its ordinary height: the Laplander and Esquimaux +are very short; and the Terra del Fuegians, who go naked in a wintry +land, are described by Darwin as so stunted and hideous, that "one can +hardly make one's-self believe they are fellow-creatures." + +Science explains this dwarfishness produced by great abstraction of +heat; showing that, food and other things being equal, it unavoidably +results. For, as before pointed out, to make up for that cooling by +radiation which the body is ever undergoing, there must be a constant +oxidation of certain matters forming part of the food. And in proportion +as the thermal loss is great, must the quantity of these matters +required for oxidation be great. But the power of the digestive organs +is limited. Consequently, when they have to prepare a large quantity of +this material needful for maintaining the temperature, they can prepare +but a small quantity of the material which goes to build up the frame. +Excessive expenditure for fuel entails diminished means for other +purposes. Wherefore there necessarily results a body small in size, or +inferior in texture, or both. + +Hence the great importance of clothing. As Liebig says:--"Our clothing +is, in reference to the temperature of the body, merely an equivalent +for a certain amount of food." By diminishing the loss of heat, it +diminishes the amount of fuel needful for maintaining the heat; and when +the stomach has less to do in preparing fuel, it can do more in +preparing other materials. This deduction is confirmed by the experience +of those who manage animals. Cold can be borne by animals only at an +expense of fat, or muscle, or growth, as the case may be. "If fattening +cattle are exposed to a low temperature, either their progress must be +retarded, or a great additional expenditure of food incurred."[5] Mr. +Apperley insists strongly that, to bring hunters into good condition, it +is necessary that the stable should be kept warm. And among those who +rear racers, it is an established doctrine that exposure is to be +avoided. + +The scientific truth thus illustrated by ethnology, and recognised by +agriculturists and sportsmen, applies with double force to children. In +proportion to their smallness and the rapidity of their growth is the +injury from cold great. In France, new-born infants often die in winter +from being carried to the office of the _maire_ for registration. "M. +Quetelet has pointed out, that in Belgium two infants die in January for +one that dies in July." And in Russia the infant mortality is something +enormous. Even when near maturity, the undeveloped frame is +comparatively unable to bear exposure: as witness the quickness with +which young soldiers succumb in a trying campaign. The _rationale_ is +obvious. We have already adverted to the fact that, in consequence of +the varying relation between surface and bulk, a child loses a +relatively larger amount of heat than an adult; and here we must point +out that the disadvantage under which the child thus labours is very +great. Lehmann says:--"If the carbonic acid excreted by children or +young animals is calculated for an equal bodily weight, it results that +children produce nearly twice as much acid as adults." Now the quantity +of carbonic acid given off varies with tolerable accuracy as the +quantity of heat produced. And thus we see that in children the system, +even when not placed at a disadvantage, is called upon to provide nearly +double the proportion of material for generating heat. + +See, then, the extreme folly of clothing the young scantily. What +father, full-grown though he is, losing heat less rapidly as he does, +and having no physiological necessity but to supply the waste of each +day--what father, we ask, would think it salutary to go about with bare +legs, bare arms, and bare neck? Yet this tax on the system, from which +he would shrink, he inflicts on his little ones, who are so much less +able to bear it! or, if he does not inflict it, sees it inflicted +without protest. Let him remember that every ounce of nutriment +needlessly expended for the maintenance of temperature, is so much +deducted from the nutriment going to build up the frame; and that even +when colds, congestions, or other consequent disorders are escaped, +diminished growth or less perfect structure is inevitable. + +"The rule is, therefore, not to dress in an invariable way in all cases, +but to put on clothing in kind and quantity _sufficient in the +individual case to protect the body effectually from an abiding +sensation of cold, however slight_." This rule, the importance of which +Dr. Combe indicates by the italics, is one in which men of science and +practitioners agree. We have met with none competent to form a judgment +on the matter, who do not strongly condemn the exposure of children's +limbs. If there is one point above others in which "pestilent custom" +should be ignored, it is this. + +Lamentable, indeed, is it to see mothers seriously damaging the +constitutions of their children out of compliance with an irrational +fashion. It is bad enough that they should themselves conform to every +folly which our Gallic neighbours please to initiate; but that they +should clothe their children in any mountebank dress which _Le petit +Courrier des Dames_ indicates, regardless of its insufficiency and +unfitness, is monstrous. Discomfort, more or less great, is inflicted; +frequent disorders are entailed; growth is checked or stamina +undermined; premature death not uncommonly caused; and all because it is +thought needful to make frocks of a size and material dictated by French +caprice. Not only is it that for the sake of conformity, mothers thus +punish and injure their little ones by scantiness of covering; but it is +that from an allied motive they impose a style of dress which forbids +healthful activity. To please the eye, colours and fabrics are chosen +totally unfit to bear that rough usage which unrestrained play involves; +and then to prevent damage the unrestrained play is interdicted. "Get up +this moment: you will soil your clean frock," is the mandate issued to +some urchin creeping about on the floor. "Come back: you will dirty your +stockings," calls out the governess to one of her charges, who has left +the footpath to scramble up a bank. Thus is the evil doubled. That they +may come up to their mamma's standard of prettiness, and be admired by +her visitors, children must have habiliments deficient in quantity and +unfit in texture; and that these easily-damaged habiliments may be kept +clean and uninjured, the restless activity so natural and needful for +the young is restrained. The exercise which becomes doubly requisite +when the clothing is insufficient, is cut short, lest it should deface +the clothing. Would that the terrible cruelty of this system could be +seen by those who maintain it! We do not hesitate to say that, through +enfeebled health, defective energies, and consequent non-success in +life, thousands are annually doomed to unhappiness by this unscrupulous +regard for appearances: even when they are not, by early death, +literally sacrificed to the Moloch of maternal vanity. We are reluctant +to counsel strong measures, but really the evils are so great as to +justify, or even to demand, a peremptory interference on the part of +fathers. + +Our conclusions are, then--that, while the clothing of children should +never be in such excess as to create oppressive warmth, it should always +be sufficient to prevent any general feeling of cold;[6] that, instead +of the flimsy cotton, linen, or mixed fabrics commonly used, it should +be made of some good non-conductor, such as coarse woollen cloth; that +it should be so strong as to receive little damage from the hard wear +and tear which childish sports will give it; and that its colours should +be such as will not soon suffer from use and exposure. + + * * * * * + +To the importance of bodily exercise most people are in some degree +awake. Perhaps less needs saying on this requisite of physical education +than on most others: at any rate, in so far as boys are concerned. +Public schools and private schools alike furnish tolerably adequate +play-grounds; and there is usually a fair share of time for out-door +games, and a recognition of them as needful. In this, if in no other +direction, it seems admitted that the promptings of boyish instinct may +advantageously be followed; and, indeed, in the modern practice of +breaking the prolonged morning's and afternoon's lessons by a few +minutes' open-air recreation, we see an increasing tendency to conform +school-regulations to the bodily sensations of the pupils. Here, then, +little needs be said in the way of expostulation or suggestion. + +But we have been obliged to qualify this admission by inserting the +clause "in so far as boys are concerned." Unfortunately the fact is +quite otherwise with girls. It chances, somewhat strangely, that we have +daily opportunity of drawing a comparison. We have both a boys' school +and a girls' school within view; and the contrast between them is +remarkable. In the one case, nearly the whole of a large garden is +turned into an open, gravelled space, affording ample scope for games, +and supplied with poles and horizontal bars for gymnastic exercises. +Every day before breakfast, again towards eleven o'clock, again at +mid-day, again in the afternoon, and once more after school is over, the +neighbourhood is awakened by a chorus of shouts and laughter as the boys +rush out to play; and for as long as they remain, both eyes and ears +give proof that they are absorbed in that enjoyable activity which makes +the pulse bound and ensures the healthful activity of every organ. How +unlike is the picture offered by the "Establishment for Young Ladies!" +Until the fact was pointed out, we actually did not know that we had a +girl's school as close to us as the school for boys. The garden, equally +large with the other, affords no sign whatever of any provision for +juvenile recreation; but is entirely laid out with prim grass-plots, +gravel-walks, shrubs, and flowers, after the usual suburban style. +During five months we have not once had our attention drawn to the +premises by a shout or a laugh. Occasionally girls may be observed +sauntering along the paths with lesson-books in their hands, or else +walking arm-in-arm. Once indeed, we saw one chase another round the +garden; but, with this exception, nothing like vigorous exertion has +been visible. + +Why this astounding difference? Is it that the constitution of a girl +differs so entirely from that of a boy as not to need these active +exercises? Is it that a girl has none of the promptings to vociferous +play by which boys are impelled? Or is it that, while in boys these +promptings are to be regarded as stimuli to a bodily activity without +which there cannot be adequate development, to their sisters, Nature has +given them for no purpose whatever--unless it be for the vexation of +school-mistresses? Perhaps, however, we mistake the aim of those who +train the gentler sex. We have a vague suspicion that to produce a +robust _physique_ is thought undesirable; that rude health and abundant +vigour are considered somewhat plebeian; that a certain delicacy, a +strength not competent to more than a mile or two's walk, an appetite +fastidious and easily satisfied, joined with that timidity which +commonly accompanies feebleness, are held more lady-like. We do not +expect that any would distinctly avow this; but we fancy the +governess-mind is haunted by an ideal young lady bearing not a little +resemblance to this type. If so, it must be admitted that the +established system is admirably calculated to realise this ideal. But to +suppose that such is the ideal of the opposite sex is a profound +mistake. That men are not commonly drawn towards masculine women, is +doubtless true. That such relative weakness as asks the protection of +superior strength, is an element of attraction, we quite admit. But the +difference thus responded to by the feelings of men, is the natural, +pre-established difference, which will assert itself without artificial +appliances. And when, by artificial appliances, the degree of this +difference is increased, it becomes an element of repulsion rather than +of attraction. + +"Then girls should be allowed to run wild--to become as rude as boys, +and grow up into romps and hoydens!" exclaims some defender of the +proprieties. This, we presume, is the ever-present dread of +school-mistresses. It appears, on inquiry, that at "Establishments for +Young Ladies" noisy play like that daily indulged in by boys, is a +punishable offence; and we infer that it is forbidden, lest unlady-like +habits should be formed. The fear is quite groundless, however. For if +the sportive activity allowed to boys does not prevent them from growing +up into gentlemen; why should a like sportive activity prevent girls +from growing up into ladies? Rough as may have been their play-ground +frolics, youths who have left school do not indulge in leap-frog in the +street, or marbles in the drawing-room. Abandoning their jackets, they +abandon at the same time boyish games; and display an anxiety--often a +ludicrous anxiety--to avoid whatever is not manly. If now, on arriving +at the due age, this feeling of masculine dignity puts so efficient a +restraint on the sports of boyhood, will not the feeling of feminine +modesty, gradually strengthening as maturity is approached, put an +efficient restraint on the like sports of girlhood? Have not women even +a greater regard for appearances than men? and will there not +consequently arise in them even a stronger check to whatever is rough or +boisterous? How absurd is the supposition that the womanly instincts +would not assert themselves but for the rigorous discipline of +school-mistresses! + +In this, as in other cases, to remedy the evils of one artificiality, +another artificiality has been introduced. The natural, spontaneous +exercise having been forbidden, and the bad consequences of no exercise +having become conspicuous, there has been adopted a system of factitious +exercise--gymnastics. That this is better than nothing we admit; but +that it is an adequate substitute for play we deny. The defects are both +positive and negative. In the first place, these formal, muscular +motions, necessarily less varied than those accompanying juvenile +sports, do not secure so equable a distribution of action to all parts +of the body; whence it results that the exertion, falling on special +parts, produces fatigue sooner than it would else have done: to which, +in passing, let us add, that, if constantly repeated, this exertion of +special parts leads to a disproportionate development. Again, the +quantity of exercise thus taken will be deficient, not only in +consequence of uneven distribution; but there will be a further +deficiency in consequence of lack of interest. Even when not made +repulsive, as they sometimes are by assuming the shape of appointed +lessons, these monotonous movements are sure to become wearisome from +the absence of amusement. Competition, it is true, serves as a stimulus; +but it is not a lasting stimulus, like that enjoyment which accompanies +varied play. The weightiest objection, however, still remains. Besides +being inferior in respect of the _quantity_ of muscular exertion which +they secure, gymnastics are still more inferior in respect of the +_quality_. This comparative want of enjoyment which we have named as a +cause of early desistance from artificial exercises, is also a cause of +inferiority in the effects they produce on the system. The common +assumption that, so long as the amount of bodily action is the same, it +matters not whether it be pleasurable or otherwise, is a grave mistake. +An agreeable mental excitement has a highly invigorating influence. See +the effect produced upon an invalid by good news, or by the visit of an +old friend. Mark how careful medical men are to recommend lively society +to debilitated patients. Remember how beneficial to health is the +gratification produced by change of scene. The truth is that happiness +is the most powerful of tonics. By accelerating the circulation of the +blood, it facilitates the performance of every function; and so tends +alike to increase health when it exists, and to restore it when it has +been lost. Hence the intrinsic superiority of play to gymnastics. The +extreme interest felt by children in their games, and the riotous glee +with which they carry on their rougher frolics, are of as much +importance as the accompanying exertion. And as not supplying these +mental stimuli, gymnastics must be radically defective. + +Granting then, as we do, that formal exercises of the limbs are better +than nothing--granting, further, that they may be used with advantage as +supplementary aids; we yet contend that they can never serve in place of +the exercises prompted by Nature. For girls, as well as boys, the +sportive activities to which the instincts impel, are essential to +bodily welfare. Whoever forbids them, forbids the divinely-appointed +means to physical development. + + * * * * * + +A topic still remains--one perhaps more urgently demanding consideration +than any of the foregoing. It is asserted by not a few, that among the +educated classes the younger adults and those who are verging on +maturity, are neither so well grown nor so strong as their seniors. On +first hearing this assertion, we were inclined to class it as one of +the many manifestations of the old tendency to exalt the past at the +expense of the present. Calling to mind the facts that, as measured by +ancient armour, modern men are proved to be larger than ancient men; and +that the tables of mortality show no diminution, but rather an increase, +in the duration of life, we paid little attention to what seemed a +groundless belief. Detailed observation, however, has shaken our +opinion. Omitting from the comparison the labouring classes, we have +noticed a majority of cases in which the children do not reach the +stature of their parents; and, in massiveness, making due allowance for +difference of age, there seems a like inferiority. Medical men say that +now-a-days people cannot bear nearly so much depletion as in times gone +by. Premature baldness is far more common than it used to be. And an +early decay of teeth occurs in the rising generation with startling +frequency. In general vigour the contrast appears equally striking. Men +of past generations, living riotously as they did, could bear more than +men of the present generation, who live soberly, can bear. Though they +drank hard, kept irregular hours, were regardless of fresh air, and +thought little of cleanliness, our recent ancestors were capable of +prolonged application without injury, even to a ripe old age: witness +the annals of the bench and the bar. Yet we who think much about our +bodily welfare; who eat with moderation, and do not drink to excess; who +attend to ventilation, and use frequent ablutions; who make annual +excursions, and have the benefit of greater medical knowledge;--we are +continually breaking down under our work. Paying considerable attention +to the laws of health, we seem to be weaker than our grandfathers who, +in many respects, defied the laws of health. And, judging from the +appearance and frequent ailments of the rising generation, they are +likely to be even less robust than ourselves. + +What is the meaning of this? Is it that past over-feeding, alike of +adults and children, was less injurious than the under-feeding to which +we have adverted as now so general? Is it that the deficient clothing +which this delusive hardening-theory has encouraged, is to blame? Is it +that the greater or less discouragement of juvenile sports, in deference +to a false refinement is the cause? From our reasonings it may be +inferred that each of these has probably had a share in producing the +evil.[7] But there has been yet another detrimental influence at work, +perhaps more potent than any of the others: we mean--excess of mental +application. + +On old and young, the pressure of modern life puts a still-increasing +strain. In all businesses and professions, intenser competition taxes +the energies and abilities of every adult; and, to fit the young to hold +their places under this intenser competition, they are subject to +severer discipline than heretofore. The damage is thus doubled. Fathers, +who find themselves run hard by their multiplying competitors, and, +while labouring under this disadvantage, have to maintain a more +expensive style of living, are all the year round obliged to work early +and late, taking little exercise and getting but short holidays. The +constitutions shaken by this continued over-application, they bequeath +to their children. And then these comparatively feeble children, +predisposed to break down even under ordinary strains on their energies, +are required to go through a _curriculum_ much more extended than that +prescribed for the unenfeebled children of past generations. + +The disastrous consequences that might be anticipated, are everywhere +visible. Go where you will, and before long there come under your notice +cases of children or youths, of either sex, more or less injured by +undue study. Here, to recover from a state of debility thus produced, a +year's rustication has been found necessary. There you find a chronic +congestion of the brain, that has already lasted many months, and +threatens to last much longer. Now you hear of a fever that resulted +from the over-excitement in some way brought on at school. And again, +the instance is that of a youth who has already had once to desist from +his studies, and who, since his return to them, is frequently taken out +of his class in a fainting fit. We state facts--facts not sought for, +but which have been thrust on our observation during the last two years; +and that, too, within a very limited range. Nor have we by any means +exhausted the list. Quite recently we had the opportunity of marking how +the evil becomes hereditary: the case being that of a lady of robust +parentage, whose system was so injured by the _regime_ of a Scotch +boarding-school, where she was under-fed and over-worked, that she +invariably suffers from vertigo on rising in the morning; and whose +children, inheriting this enfeebled brain, are several of them unable to +bear even a moderate amount of study without headache or giddiness. At +the present time we have daily under our eyes, a young lady whose system +has been damaged for life by the college-course through which she has +passed. Taxed as she was to such an extent that she had no energy left +for exercise, she is, now that she has finished her education, a +constant complainant. Appetite small and very capricious, mostly +refusing meat; extremities perpetually cold, even when the weather is +warm; a feebleness which forbids anything but the slowest walking, and +that only for a short time; palpitation on going upstairs; greatly +impaired vision--these, joined with checked growth and lax tissue, are +among the results entailed. And to her case we may add that of her +friend and fellow-student; who is similarly weak; who is liable to faint +even under the excitement of a quiet party of friends; and who has at +length been obliged by her medical attendant to desist from study +entirely. + +If injuries so conspicuous are thus frequent, how very general must be +the smaller, and inconspicuous injuries! To one case where positive +illness is traceable to over-application, there are probably at least +half-a-dozen cases where the evil is unobtrusive and slowly +accumulating--cases where there is frequent derangement of the +functions, attributed to this or that special cause, or to +constitutional delicacy; cases where there is retardation and premature +arrest of bodily growth; cases where a latent tendency to consumption is +brought out and established; cases where a predisposition is given to +that now common cerebral disorder brought on by the labour of adult +life. How commonly health is thus undermined, will be clear to all who, +after noting the frequent ailments of hard-worked professional and +mercantile men, will reflect on the much worse effects which undue +application must produce on the undeveloped systems of children. The +young can bear neither so much hardship, nor so much physical exertion, +nor so much mental exertion, as the full grown. Judge, then, if the full +grown manifestly suffer from the excessive mental exertion required of +them, how great must be the damage which a mental exertion, often +equally excessive, inflicts on the young! + +Indeed, when we examine the merciless school drill frequently enforced, +the wonder is, not that it does extreme injury, but that it can be +borne at all. Take the instance given by Sir John Forbes, from personal +knowledge; and which he asserts, after much inquiry, to be an average +sample of the middle-class girls'-school system throughout England. +Omitting detailed divisions of time, we quote the summary of the +twenty-four hours. + +In bed 9 hours (the younger 10) +In school, at their studies and tasks 9 " +In school, or in the house, the elder at + optional studies or work, the younger at + play 31/2 " (the younger 21/2) +At meals 11/2 " +Exercise in the open air, in the shape of a + formal walk, often with lesson-books in + hand, and even this only when the weather + is fine at the appointed time. 1 " + ---- + 24 + +And what are the results of this "astounding regimen," as Sir John +Forbes terms it? Of course feebleness, pallor, want of spirits, general +ill-health. But he describes something more. This utter disregard of +physical welfare, out of extreme anxiety to cultivate the mind--this +prolonged exercise of brain and deficient exercise of limbs,--he found +to be habitually followed, not only by disordered functions but by +malformation. He says:--"We lately visited, in a large town, a +boarding-school containing forty girls; and we learnt, on close and +accurate inquiry, that there was _not one_ of the girl who had been at +the school two years (and the majority had been as long) that was not +more or less _crooked_!"[8] + +It may be that since 1833, when this was written, some improvement has +taken place. We hope it has. But that the system is still common--nay, +that it is in some cases carried to a greater extreme than ever; we can +personally testify. We recently went over a training-college for young +men: one of those instituted of late years for the purpose of supplying +schools with well-disciplined teachers. Here, under official +supervision, where something better than the judgment of private +school-mistresses might have been looked for, we found the daily routine +to be as follows:-- + +At 6 o'clock the students are called, + " 7 to 8 studies, + " 8 to 9 scripture-reading, prayers, and breakfast, + " 9 to 12 studies, + " 12 to 11/4 leisure, nominally devoted to walking or other exercise, but + often spent in study, + " 11/4 to 2 dinner, the meal commonly occupying twenty minutes, + " 2 to 5 studies, + " 5 to 6 tea and relaxation, + " 6 to 81/2 studies, + " 81/2 to 91/2 private studies in preparing lessons for the next day, + " 10 to bed. + +Thus, out of the twenty-four hours, eight are devoted to sleep; four and +a quarter are occupied in dressing, prayers, meals, and the brief +periods of rest accompanying them; ten and a half are given to study; +and one and a quarter to exercise, which is optional and often avoided. +Not only, however, are the ten-and-a-half hours of recognised study +frequently increased to eleven-and-a-half by devoting to books the time +set apart for exercise; but some of the students get up at four o'clock +in the morning to prepare their lessons; and are actually encouraged by +their teachers to do this! The course to be passed through in a given +time is so extensive, and the teachers, whose credit is at stake in +getting their pupils well through the examinations, are so urgent, that +pupils are not uncommonly induced to spend twelve and thirteen hours a +day in mental labour! + +It needs no prophet to see that the bodily injury inflicted must be +great. As we were told by one of the inmates, those who arrive with +fresh complexions quickly become blanched. Illness is frequent: there +are always some on the sick-list. Failure of appetite and indigestion +are very common. Diarrhoea is a prevalent disorder: not uncommonly a +third of the whole number of students suffering under it at the same +time. Headache is generally complained of; and by some is borne almost +daily for months. While a certain percentage break down entirely and go +away. + +That this should be the regimen of what is in some sort a model +institution, established and superintended by the embodied enlightenment +of the age, is a startling fact. That the severe examinations, joined +with the short period assigned for preparation, should compel recourse +to a system which inevitably undermines the health of all who pass +through it, is proof, if not of cruelty, then of woeful ignorance. + +The case is no doubt in a great degree exceptional--perhaps to be +paralleled only in other institutions of the same class. But that cases +so extreme should exist at all, goes far to show that the minds of the +rising generation are greatly over-tasked. Expressing as they do the +ideas of the educated community, the requirements of these training +colleges, even in the absence of other evidence, would imply a +prevailing tendency to an unduly urgent system of culture. + +It seems strange that there should be so little consciousness of the +dangers of over-education during youth, when there is so general a +consciousness of the dangers of over-education during childhood. Most +parents are partially aware of the evil consequences that follow +infant-precocity. In every society may be heard reprobation of those who +too early stimulate the minds of their little ones. And the dread of +this early stimulation is great in proportion as there is adequate +knowledge of the effects: witness the implied opinion of one of our most +distinguished professors of physiology, who told us that he did not +intend his little boy to learn any lessons until he was eight years old. +But while to all it is a familiar truth that a forced development of +intelligence in childhood, entails either physical feebleness, or +ultimate stupidity, or early death; it appears not to be perceived that +throughout youth the same truth holds. Yet it unquestionably does so. +There is a given order in which, and a given rate at which, the +faculties unfold. If the course of education conforms itself to that +order and rate, well. If not--if the higher faculties are early taxed by +presenting an order of knowledge more complex and abstract than can be +readily assimilated; or if, by excess of culture, the intellect in +general is developed to a degree beyond that which is natural to its +age; the abnormal advantage gained will inevitably be accompanied by +some equivalent, or more than equivalent, evil. + +For Nature is a strict accountant; and if you demand of her in one +direction more than she is prepared to lay out, she balances the account +by making a deduction elsewhere. If you will let her follow her own +course, taking care to supply, in right quantities and kinds, the raw +materials of bodily and mental growth required at each age, she will +eventually produce an individual more or less evenly developed. If, +however, you insist on premature or undue growth of any one part, she +will, with more or less protest, concede the point; but that she may do +your extra work, she must leave some of her more important work undone. +Let it never be forgotten that the amount of vital energy which the body +at any moment possesses, is limited; and that, being limited, it is +impossible to get from it more than a fixed quantity of results. In a +child or youth the demands upon this vital energy are various and +urgent. As before pointed out, the waste consequent on the day's bodily +exercise has to be met; the wear of brain entailed by the day's study +has to be made good; a certain additional growth of body has to be +provided for; and also a certain additional growth of brain: to which +must be added the amount of energy absorbed in digesting the large +quantity of food required for meeting these many demands. Now, that to +divert an excess of energy into any one of these channels is to abstract +it from the others, is both manifest _a priori_, and proved _a +posteriori_, by the experience of every one. Every one knows, for +instance, that the digestion of a heavy meal makes such a demand on the +system as to produce lassitude of mind and body, frequently ending in +sleep. Every one knows, too, that excess of bodily exercise diminishes +the power of thought--that the temporary prostration following any +sudden exertion, or the fatigue produced by a thirty miles' walk, is +accompanied by a disinclination to mental effort; that, after a month's +pedestrian tour, the mental inertia is such that some days are required +to overcome it; and that in peasants who spend their lives in muscular +labour the activity of mind is very small. Again, it is a familiar truth +that during those fits of rapid growth which sometimes occur in +childhood, the great abstraction of energy is shown in an attendant +prostration, bodily and mental. Once more, the facts that violent +muscular exertion after eating, will stop digestion; and that children +who are early put to hard labour become stunted; similarly exhibit the +antagonism--similarly imply that excess of activity in one direction +involves deficiency of it in other directions. Now, the law which is +thus manifest in extreme cases, holds in all cases. These injurious +abstractions of energy as certainly take place when the undue demands +are slight and constant, as when they are great and sudden. Hence, if +during youth the expenditure in mental labour exceeds that which Nature +has provided for; the expenditure for other purposes falls below what it +should have been; and evils of one kind or other are inevitably +entailed. Let us briefly consider these evils. + +Supposing the over-activity of brain to exceed the normal activity only +in a moderate degree, there will be nothing more than some slight +reaction on the development of the body: the stature falling a little +below that which it would else have reached; or the bulk being less than +it would have been; or the quality of tissue not being so good. One or +more of these effects must necessarily occur. The extra quantity of +blood supplied to the brain during mental exertion, and during the +subsequent period in which the waste of cerebral substance is being made +good, is blood that would else have been circulating through the limbs +and viscera; and the growth or repair for which that blood would have +supplied materials, is lost. The physical reaction being certain, the +question is, whether the gain resulting from the extra culture is +equivalent to the loss?--whether defect of bodily growth, or the want of +that structural perfection which gives vigour and endurance, is +compensated by the additional knowledge acquired? + +When the excess of mental exertion is greater, there follow results far +more serious; telling not only against bodily perfection, but against +the perfection of the brain itself. It is a physiological law, first +pointed out by M. Isidore St. Hilaire, and to which attention has been +drawn by Mr. Lewes in his essay on "Dwarfs and Giants," that there is an +antagonism between _growth_ and _development_. By growth, as used in +this antithetical sense, is to be understood _increase of size_; by +development, _increase of structure_. And the law is, that great +activity in either of these processes involves retardation or arrest of +the other. A familiar example is furnished by the cases of the +caterpillar and the chrysalis. In the caterpillar there is extremely +rapid augmentation of bulk; but the structure is scarcely at all more +complex when the caterpillar is full-grown than when it is small. In the +chrysalis the bulk does not increase; on the contrary, weight is lost +during this stage of the creature's life; but the elaboration of a more +complex structure goes on with great activity. The antagonism, here so +clear, is less traceable in higher creatures, because the two processes +are carried on together. But we see it pretty well illustrated among +ourselves when we contrast the sexes. A girl develops in body and mind +rapidly, and ceases to grow comparatively early. A boy's bodily and +mental development is slower, and his growth greater. At the age when +the one is mature, finished, and having all faculties in full play, the +other, whose vital energies have been more directed towards increase of +size, is relatively incomplete in structure; and shows it in a +comparative awkwardness, bodily and mental. Now this law is true of each +separate part of the organism, as well as of the whole. The abnormally +rapid advance of any organ in respect of structure, involves premature +arrest of its growth; and this happens with the organ of the mind as +certainly as with any other organ. The brain, which during early years +is relatively large in mass but imperfect in structure, will, if +required to perform its functions with undue activity, undergo a +structural advance greater than is appropriate to its age; but the +ultimate effect will be a falling short of the size and power that would +else have been attained. And this is a part-cause--probably the chief +cause--why precocious children, and youths who up to a certain time were +carrying all before them, so often stop short and disappoint the high +hopes of their parents. + +But these results of over-education, disastrous as they are, are perhaps +less disastrous than the effects produced on the health--the undermined +constitution, the enfeebled energies, the morbid feelings. Recent +discoveries in physiology have shown how immense is the influence of the +brain over the functions of the body. Digestion, circulation, and +through these all other organic processes, are profoundly affected by +cerebral excitement. Whoever has seen repeated, as we have, the +experiment first performed by Weber, showing the consequence of +irritating the _vagus_ nerve, which connects the brain with the +viscera--whoever has seen the action of the heart suddenly arrested by +irritating this nerve; slowly recommencing when the irritation is +suspended; and again arrested the moment it is renewed; will have a +vivid conception of the depressing influence which an over-wrought brain +exercises on the body. The effects thus physiologically explained, are +indeed exemplified in ordinary experience. There is no one but has felt +the palpitation accompanying hope, fear, anger, joy--no one but has +observed how laboured becomes the action of the heart when these +feelings are violent. And though there are many who have never suffered +that extreme emotional excitement which is followed by arrest of the +heart's action and fainting; yet every one knows these to be cause and +effect. It is a familiar fact, too, that disturbance of the stomach +results from mental excitement exceeding a certain intensity. Loss of +appetite is a common consequence alike of very pleasurable and very +painful states of mind. When the event producing a pleasurable or +painful state of mind occurs shortly after a meal, it not unfrequently +happens either that the stomach rejects what has been eaten, or digests +it with great difficulty and under protest. And as every one who taxes +his brain much can testify, even purely intellectual action will, when +excessive, produce analogous effects. Now the relation between brain and +body which is so manifest in these extreme cases, holds equally in +ordinary, less-marked cases. Just as these violent but temporary +cerebral excitements produce violent but temporary disturbances of the +viscera; so do the less violent but chronic cerebral excitements produce +less violent but chronic visceral disturbances. This is not simply an +inference:--it is a truth to which every medical man can bear witness; +and it is one to which a long and sad experience enables us to give +personal testimony. Various degrees and forms of bodily derangement, +often taking years of enforced idleness to set partially right, result +from this prolonged over-exertion of mind. Sometimes the heart is +chiefly affected: habitual palpitations; a pulse much enfeebled; and +very generally a diminution in the number of beats from seventy-two to +sixty, or even fewer. Sometimes the conspicuous disorder is of the +stomach: a dyspepsia which makes life a burden, and is amenable to no +remedy but time. In many cases both heart and stomach are implicated. +Mostly the sleep is short and broken. And very generally there is more +or less mental depression. + +Consider, then, how great must be the damage inflicted by undue mental +excitement on children and youths. More or less of this constitutional +disturbance will inevitably follow an exertion of brain beyond the +normal amount; and when not so excessive as to produce absolute illness, +is sure to entail a slowly accumulating degeneracy of _physique_. With a +small and fastidious appetite, an imperfect digestion, and an enfeebled +circulation, how can the developing body flourish? The due performance +of every vital process depends on an adequate supply of good blood. +Without enough good blood, no gland can secrete properly, no viscus can +fully discharge its office. Without enough good blood, no nerve, muscle, +membrane, or other tissue can be efficiently repaired. Without enough +good blood, growth will neither be sound nor sufficient. Judge, then, +how bad must be the consequences when to a growing body the weakened +stomach supplies blood that is deficient in quantity and poor in +quality; while the debilitated heart propels this poor and scanty blood +with unnatural slowness. + +And if, as all who investigate the matter must admit, physical +degeneracy is a consequence of excessive study, how grave is the +condemnation to be passed on this cramming-system above exemplified. It +is a terrible mistake, from whatever point of view regarded. It is a +mistake in so far as the mere acquirement of knowledge is concerned. For +the mind, like the body, cannot assimilate beyond a certain rate; and if +you ply it with facts faster than it can assimilate them, they are soon +rejected again: instead of being built into the intellectual fabric, +they fall out of recollection after the passing of the examination for +which they were got up. It is a mistake, too, because it tends to make +study distasteful. Either through the painful associations produced by +ceaseless mental toil, or through the abnormal state of brain it leaves +behind, it often generates an aversion to books; and, instead of that +subsequent self-culture induced by rational education, there comes +continued retrogression. It is a mistake, also, inasmuch as it assumes +that the acquisition of knowledge is everything; and forgets that a much +more important thing is the organisation of knowledge, for which time +and spontaneous thinking are requisite. As Humboldt remarks respecting +the progress of intelligence in general, that "the interpretation of +Nature is obscured when the description languishes under too great an +accumulation of insulated facts;" so, it may be remarked respecting the +progress of individual intelligence, that the mind is over-burdened and +hampered by an excess of ill-digested information. It is not the +knowledge stored up as intellectual fat which is of value; but that +which is turned into intellectual muscle. The mistake goes still deeper +however. Even were the system good as producing intellectual efficiency, +which it is not, it would still be bad, because, as we have shown, it is +fatal to that vigour of _physique_ needful to make intellectual training +available in the struggle of life. Those who, in eagerness to cultivate +their pupils' minds, are reckless of their bodies, do not remember that +success in the world depends more on energy than on information; and +that a policy which in cramming with information undermines energy, is +self-defeating. The strong will and untiring activity due to abundant +animal vigour, go far to compensate even great defects of education; and +when joined with that quite adequate education which may be obtained +without sacrificing health, they ensure an easy victory over competitors +enfeebled by excessive study: prodigies of learning though they may be. +A comparatively small and ill-made engine, worked at high pressure, will +do more than a large and well-finished one worked at low-pressure. What +folly is it, then, while finishing the engine, so to damage the boiler +that it will not generate steam! Once more, the system is a mistake, as +involving a false estimate of welfare in life. Even supposing it were a +means to worldly success, instead of a means to worldly failure, yet, in +the entailed ill-health, it would inflict a more than equivalent curse. +What boots it to have attained wealth, if the wealth is accompanied by +ceaseless ailments? What is the worth of distinction, if it has brought +hypochondria with it? Surely no one needs telling that a good digestion, +a bounding pulse, and high spirits, are elements of happiness which no +external advantages can out-balance. Chronic bodily disorder casts a +gloom over the brightest prospects; while the vivacity of strong health +gilds even misfortune. We contend, then, that this over-education is +vicious in every way--vicious, as giving knowledge that will soon be +forgotten; vicious, as producing a disgust for knowledge; vicious, as +neglecting that organisation of knowledge which is more important than +its acquisition; vicious, as weakening or destroying that energy without +which a trained intellect is useless; vicious, as entailing that +ill-health for which even success would not compensate, and which makes +failure doubly bitter. On women the effects of this forcing system are, +if possible, even more injurious than on men. Being in great measure +debarred from those vigorous and enjoyable exercises of body by which +boys mitigate the evils of excessive study, girls feel these evils in +their full intensity. Hence, the much smaller proportion of them who +grow up well-made and healthy. In the pale, angular, flat-chested young +ladies, so abundant in London drawing-rooms, we see the effect of +merciless application, unrelieved by youthful sports; and this physical +degeneracy hinders their welfare far more than their many +accomplishments aid it. Mammas anxious to make their daughters +attractive, could scarcely choose a course more fatal than this, which +sacrifices the body to the mind. Either they disregard the tastes of the +opposite sex, or else their conception of those tastes is erroneous. Men +care little for erudition in women; but very much for physical beauty, +good nature, and sound sense. How many conquests does the blue-stocking +make through her extensive knowledge of history? What man ever fell in +love with a woman because she understood Italian? Where is the Edwin who +was brought to Angelina's feet by her German? But rosy cheeks and +laughing eyes are great attractions. A finely rounded figure draws +admiring glances. The liveliness and good humour that overflowing health +produces, go a great way towards establishing attachments. Every one +knows cases where bodily perfections, in the absence of all other +recommendations, have incited a passion that carried all before it; but +scarcely any one can point to a case where intellectual acquirements, +apart from moral or physical attributes, have aroused such a feeling. +The truth is that, out of the many elements uniting in various +proportions to produce in a man's breast the complex emotion we call +love, the strongest are those produced by physical attractions; the next +in order of strength are those produced by moral attractions; the +weakest are those produced by intellectual attractions; and even these +are dependent less on acquired knowledge than on natural +faculty--quickness, wit, insight. If any think the assertion a +derogatory one, and inveigh against the masculine character for being +thus swayed; we reply that they little know what they say when they thus +call in question the Divine ordinations. Even were there no obvious +meaning in the arrangement, we might be sure that some important end was +subserved. But the meaning is quite obvious to those who examine. When +we remember that one of Nature's ends, or rather her supreme end, is the +welfare of posterity; further that, in so far as posterity are +concerned, a cultivated intelligence based on a bad _physique_ is of +little worth, since its descendants will die out in a generation or two; +and conversely that a good _physique_, however poor the accompanying +mental endowments, is worth preserving, because, throughout future +generations, the mental endowments may be indefinitely developed; we +perceive how important is the balance of instincts above described. But, +advantage apart, the instincts being thus balanced, it is folly to +persist in a system which undermines a girl's constitution that it may +overload her memory. Educate as highly as possible--the higher the +better--providing no bodily injury is entailed (and we may remark, in +passing, that a sufficiently high standard might be reached were the +parrot-faculty cultivated less, and the human faculty more, and were the +discipline extended over that now wasted period between leaving school +and being married). But to educate in such manner, or to such extent, as +to produce physical degeneracy, is to defeat the chief end for which the +toil and cost and anxiety are submitted to. By subjecting their +daughters to this high-pressure system, parents frequently ruin their +prospects in life. Besides inflicting on them enfeebled health, with all +its pains and disabilities and gloom; they not unfrequently doom them to +celibacy. + + * * * * * + +The physical education of children is thus, in various ways, seriously +faulty. It errs in deficient feeding; in deficient clothing; in +deficient exercise (among girls at least); and in excessive mental +application. Considering the regime as a whole, its tendency is too +exacting: it asks too much and gives too little. In the extent to which +it taxes the vital energies, it makes the juvenile life far more like +the adult life than it should be. It overlooks the truth that, as in the +foetus the entire vitality is expended in growth--as in the infant, +the expenditure of vitality in growth is so great as to leave extremely +little for either physical or mental action; so throughout childhood and +youth, growth is the dominant requirement to which all others must be +subordinated: a requirement which dictates the giving of much and the +taking away of little--a requirement which, therefore, restricts the +exertion of body and mind in proportion to the rapidity of growth--a +requirement which permits the mental and physical activities to increase +only as fast as the rate of growth diminishes. + +The _rationale_ of this high-pressure education is that it results from +our passing phase of civilisation. In primitive times, when aggression +and defence were the leading social activities, bodily vigour with its +accompanying courage were the desiderata; and then education was almost +wholly physical: mental cultivation was little cared for, and indeed, as +in feudal ages, was often treated with contempt. But now that our state +is relatively peaceful--now that muscular power is of use for little +else than manual labour, while social success of nearly every kind +depends very much on mental power; our education has become almost +exclusively mental. Instead of respecting the body and ignoring the +mind, we now respect the mind and ignore the body. Both these attitudes +are wrong. We do not yet realise the truth that as, in this life of +ours, the physical underlies the mental, the mental must not be +developed at the expense of the physical. The ancient and modern +conceptions must be combined. + +Perhaps nothing will so much hasten the time when body and mind will +both be adequately cared for, as a diffusion of the belief that the +preservation of health is a _duty_. Few seem conscious that there is +such a thing as physical morality. Men's habitual words and acts imply +the idea that they are at liberty to treat their bodies as they please. +Disorders entailed by disobedience to Nature's dictates, they regard +simply as grievances: not as the effects of a conduct more or less +flagitious. Though the evil consequences inflicted on their dependents, +and on future generations, are often as great as those caused by crime; +yet they do not think themselves in any degree criminal. It is true +that, in the case of drunkenness, the viciousness of a bodily +transgression is recognised; but none appear to infer that, if this +bodily transgression is vicious, so too is every bodily transgression. +The fact is, that all breaches of the laws of health are _physical +sins_. When this is generally seen, then, and perhaps not till then, +will the physical training of the young receive the attention it +deserves. + +[1] _Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine._ + +[2] _Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine._ + +[3] _Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology._ + +[4] Morton's _Cyclopaedia of Agriculture_. + +[5] Morton's _Cyclopaedia of Agriculture_. + +[6] It is needful to remark that children whose legs and arms have been +from the beginning habitually without covering, cease to be conscious +that the exposed surfaces are cold; just as by use we have all ceased to +be conscious that our faces are cold, even when out of doors. But though +in such children the sensations no longer protest, it does not follow +that the system escapes injury, any more than it follows that the +Fuegian is undamaged by exposure, because he bears with indifference the +melting of the falling snow on his naked body. + +[7] We are not certain that the propagation of subdued forms of +constitutional disease through the agency of vaccination is not a part +cause. Sundry facts in pathology suggest the inference, that when the +system of a vaccinated child is excreting the vaccine virus by means of +pustules, it will tend also to excrete through such pustules other +morbific matters; especially if these morbific matters are of a kind +ordinarily got rid of by the skin, as are some of the worst of them. +Hence it is very possible--probable even--that a child with a +constitutional taint, too slight to show itself in visible disease, may, +through the medium of vitiated vaccine lymph taken from it, convey a +like constitutional taint to other children, and these to others. + +[8] _Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine_, vol. i. pp. 697, 698. + + + + +PART II + + + + +PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE[1] + + +The current conception of Progress is somewhat shifting and indefinite. +Sometimes it comprehends little more than simple growth--as of a nation +in the number of its members and the extent of territory over which it +has spread. Sometimes it has reference to quantity of material +products--as when the advance of agriculture and manufactures is the +topic. Sometimes the superior quality of these products is contemplated: +and sometimes the new or improved appliances by which they are produced. +When, again, we speak of moral or intellectual progress, we refer to the +state of the individual or people exhibiting it; while, when the +progress of Knowledge, of Science, of Art, is commented upon, we have in +view certain abstract results of human thought and action. Not only, +however, is the current conception of Progress more or less vague, but +it is in great measure erroneous. It takes in not so much the reality of +Progress as its accompaniments--not so much the substance as the shadow. +That progress in intelligence seen during the growth of the child into +the man, or the savage into the philosopher, is commonly regarded as +consisting in the greater number of facts known and laws understood: +whereas the actual progress consists in those internal modifications of +which this increased knowledge is the expression. Social progress is +supposed to consist in the produce of a greater quantity and variety of +the articles required for satisfying men's wants; in the increasing +security of person and property; in widening freedom of action: whereas, +rightly understood, social progress consists in those changes of +structure in the social organism which have entailed these consequences. +The current conception is a teleological one. The phenomena are +contemplated solely as bearing on human happiness. Only those changes +are held to constitute progress which directly or indirectly tend to +heighten human happiness. And they are thought to constitute progress +simply _because_ they tend to heighten human happiness. But rightly to +understand progress, we must inquire what is the nature of these +changes, considered apart from our interests. Ceasing, for example, to +regard the successive geological modifications that have taken place in +the Earth, as modifications that have gradually fitted it for the +habitation of Man, and as _therefore_ a geological progress, we must +seek to determine the character common to the modifications--the law to +which they all conform. And similarly in every other case. Leaving out +of sight concomitants and beneficial consequences, let us ask what +Progress is in itself. + +In respect to that progress which individual organisms display in the +course of their evolution, this question has been answered by the +Germans. The investigations of Wolff, Goethe, and Von Baer, have +established the truth that the series of changes gone through during the +development of a seed into a tree, or an ovum into an animal, constitute +an advance from homogeneity of structure to heterogeneity of structure. +In its primary stage, every germ consists of a substance that is uniform +throughout, both in texture and chemical composition. The first step is +the appearance of a difference between two parts of this substance; or, +as the phenomenon is called in physiological language, a +differentiation. Each of these differentiated divisions presently begins +itself to exhibit some contrast of parts; and by and by these secondary +differentiations become as definite as the original one. This process is +continuously repeated--is simultaneously going on in all parts of the +growing embryo; and by endless such differentiations there is finally +produced that complex combination of tissues and organs constituting the +adult animal or plant. This is the history of all organisms whatever. It +is settled beyond dispute that organic progress consists in a change +from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. + +Now, we propose in the first place to show, that this law of organic +progress is the law of all progress. Whether it be in the development of +the Earth, in the development of Life upon its surface, in the +development of Society, of Government, of Manufactures, of Commerce, of +Language, Literature, Science, Art, this same evolution of the simple +into the complex, through successive differentiations, holds throughout. +From the earliest traceable cosmical changes down to the latest results +of civilisation, we shall find that the transformation of the +homogeneous into the heterogeneous, is that in which Progress +essentially consists. + +With the view of showing that _if_ the Nebular Hypothesis be true, the +genesis of the solar system supplies one illustration of this law, let +us assume that the matter of which the sun and planets consist was once +in a diffused form; and that from the gravitation of its atoms there +resulted a gradual concentration. By the hypothesis, the solar system in +its nascent state existed as an indefinitely extended and nearly +homogeneous medium--a medium almost homogeneous in density, in +temperature, and in other physical attributes. The first advance towards +consolidation resulted in a differentiation between the occupied space +which the nebulous mass still filled, and the unoccupied space which it +previously filled. There simultaneously resulted a contrast in density +and a contrast in temperature, between the interior and the exterior of +this mass. And at the same time there arose throughout it rotatory +movements, whose velocities varied according to their distances from its +centre. These differentiations increased in number and degree until +there was the organised group of sun, planets, and satellites, which we +now know--a group which represents numerous contrasts of structure and +action among its members. There are the immense contrasts between the +sun and planets, in bulk and in weight; as well as the subordinate +contrasts between one planet and another, and between the planets and +their satellites. There is the similarly marked contrast between the sun +as almost stationary, and the planets as moving round him with great +velocity; while there are the secondary contrasts between the velocities +and periods of the several planets, and between their simple revolutions +and the double ones of their satellites, which have to move round their +primaries while moving round the sun. There is the yet further strong +contrast between the sun and the planets in respect of temperature; and +there is reason to suppose that the planets and satellites differ from +each other in their proper heat, as well as in the heat they receive +from the sun. + +When we bear in mind that, in addition to these various contrasts, the +planets and satellites also differ in respect to their distances from +each other and their primary; in respect to the inclinations of their +orbits, the inclinations of their axes, their times of rotation on their +axes, their specific gravities, and their physical constitutions; we see +what a high degree of heterogeneity the solar system exhibits, when +compared with the almost complete homogeneity of the nebulous mass out +of which it is supposed to have originated. + +Passing from this hypothetical illustration, which must be taken for +what it is worth, without prejudice to the general argument, let us +descend to a more certain order of evidence. It is now generally agreed +among geologists that the Earth was at first a mass of molten matter; +and that it is still fluid and incandescent at the distance of a few +miles beneath its surface. Originally, then, it was homogeneous in +consistence, and, in virtue of the circulation that takes place in +heated fluids, must have been comparatively homogeneous in temperature; +and it must have been surrounded by an atmosphere consisting partly of +the elements of air and water, and partly of those various other +elements which assume a gaseous form at high temperatures. That slow +cooling by radiation which is still going on at an inappreciable rate, +and which, though originally far more rapid than now, necessarily +required an immense time to produce any decided change, must ultimately +have resulted in the solidification of the portion most able to part +with its heat--namely, the surface. In the thin crust thus formed we +have the first marked differentiation. A still further cooling, a +consequent thickening of this crust, and an accompanying deposition of +all solidifiable elements contained in the atmosphere, must finally have +been followed by the condensation of the water previously existing as +vapour. A second marked differentiation must thus have arisen: and as +the condensation must have taken place on the coolest parts of the +surface--namely, about the poles--there must thus have resulted the +first geographical distinction of parts. To these illustrations of +growing heterogeneity, which, though deduced from the known laws of +matter, may be regarded as more or less hypothetical, Geology adds an +extensive series that have been inductively established. Its +investigations show that the Earth has been continually becoming more +heterogeneous in virtue of the multiplication of the strata which form +its crust; further, that it has been becoming more heterogeneous in +respect of the composition of these strata, the latter of which, being +made from the detritus of the older ones, are many of them rendered +highly complex by the mixture of materials they contain; and that this +heterogeneity has been vastly increased by the action of the Earth's +still molten nucleus upon its envelope, whence have resulted not only a +great variety of igneous rocks, but the tilting up of sedimentary strata +at all angles, the formation of faults and metallic veins, the +production of endless dislocations and irregularities. Yet again, +geologists teach us that the Earth's surface has been growing more +varied in elevation--that the most ancient mountain systems are the +smallest, and the Andes and Himalayas the most modern; while in all +probability there have been corresponding changes in the bed of the +ocean. As a consequence of these ceaseless differentiations, we now find +that no considerable portion of the Earth's exposed surface is like any +other portion, either in contour, in geologic structure, or in chemical +composition; and that in most parts it changes from mile to mile in all +these characteristics. + +Moreover, it must not be forgotten that there has been simultaneously +going on a gradual differentiation of climates. As fast as the Earth +cooled and its crust solidified, there arose appreciable differences in +temperature between those parts of its surface most exposed to the sun +and those less exposed. Gradually, as the cooling progressed, these +differences became more pronounced; until there finally resulted those +marked contrasts between regions of perpetual ice and snow, regions +where winter and summer alternately reign for periods varying according +to the latitude, and regions where summer follows summer with scarcely +an appreciable variation. At the same time the successive elevations and +subsidences of different portions of the Earth's crust, tending as they +have done to the present irregular distribution of land and sea, have +entailed various modifications of climate beyond those dependent on +latitude; while a yet further series of such modifications have been +produced by increasing differences of elevation in the land, which have +in sundry places brought arctic, temperate, and tropical climates to +within a few miles of each other. And the general result of these +changes is, that not only has every extensive region its own +meteorologic conditions, but that every locality in each region differs +more or less from others in those conditions, as in its structure, its +contour, its soil. Thus, between our existing Earth, the phenomena of +whose varied crust neither geographers, geologists, mineralogists, nor +meteorologists have yet enumerated, and the molten globe out of which it +was evolved, the contrast in heterogeneity is sufficiently striking. + +When from the Earth itself we turn to the plants and animals that have +lived, or still live, upon its surface, we find ourselves in some +difficulty from lack of facts. That every existing organism has been +developed out of the simple into the complex, is indeed the first +established truth of all; and that every organism that has existed was +similarly developed, is an inference which no physiologist will hesitate +to draw. But when we pass from individual forms of life to Life in +general, and inquire whether the same law is seen in the _ensemble_ of +its manifestations,--whether modern plants and animals are of more +heterogeneous structure than ancient ones, and whether the earth's +present Flora and Fauna are more heterogeneous than the Flora and Fauna +of the past,--we find the evidence so fragmentary, that every conclusion +is open to dispute. Two-thirds of the Earth's surface being covered by +water; a great part of the exposed land being inaccessible to, or +untravelled by, the geologist; the greater part of the remainder having +been scarcely more than glanced at; and even the most familiar portions, +as England, having been so imperfectly explored that a new series of +strata has been added within these four years,--it is manifestly +impossible for us to say with any certainty what creatures have, and +what have not, existed at any particular period. Considering the +perishable nature of many of the lower organic forms, the metamorphosis +of many sedimentary strata, and the gaps that occur among the rest, we +shall see further reason for distrusting our deductions. On the one +hand, the repeated discovery of vertebrate remains in strata previously +supposed to contain none,--of reptiles where only fish were thought to +exist,--of mammals where it was believed there were no creatures higher +than reptiles,--renders it daily more manifest how small is the value of +negative evidence. + +On the other hand, the worthlessness of the assumption that we have +discovered the earliest, or anything like the earliest, organic remains, +is becoming equally clear. That the oldest known sedimentary rocks have +been greatly changed by igneous action, and that still older ones have +been totally transformed by it, is becoming undeniable. And the fact +that sedimentary strata earlier than any we know, have been melted up, +being admitted, it must also be admitted that we cannot say how far back +in time this destruction of sedimentary strata has been going on. Thus +it is manifest that the title, _Palaeozoic_, as applied to the earliest +known fossiliferous strata, involves a _petitio principii_; and that, +for aught we know to the contrary, only the last few chapters of the +Earth's biological history may have come down to us. On neither side, +therefore, is the evidence conclusive. Nevertheless we cannot but think +that, scanty as they are, the facts, taken altogether, tend to show both +that the more heterogeneous organisms have been evolved in the later +geologic periods, and that Life in general has been more heterogeneously +manifested as time has advanced. Let us cite, in illustration, the one +case of the _vertebrata_. The earliest known vertebrate remains are +those of Fishes; and Fishes are the most homogeneous of the vertebrata. +Later and more heterogeneous are Reptiles. Later still, and more +heterogeneous still, are Mammals and Birds. If it be said, as it may +fairly be said, that the Palaeozoic deposits, not being estuary deposits, +are not likely to contain the remains of terrestrial vertebrata, which +may nevertheless have existed at that era, we reply that we are merely +pointing to the leading facts, _such as they are_. + +But to avoid any such criticism, let us take the mammalian subdivision +only. The earliest known remains of mammals are those of small +marsupials, which are the lowest of the mammalian type; while, +conversely, the highest of the mammalian type--Man--is the most recent. +The evidence that the vertebrate fauna, as a whole, has become more +heterogeneous, is considerably stronger. To the argument that the +vertebrate fauna of the Palaeozoic period, consisting, so far as we know, +entirely of Fishes, was less heterogeneous than the modern vertebrate +fauna, which includes Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, of multitudinous +genera, it may be replied, as before, that estuary deposits of the +Palaeozoic period, could we find them, might contain other orders of +vertebrata. But no such reply can be made to the argument that whereas +the marine vertebrata of the Palaeozoic period consisted entirely of +cartilaginous fishes, the marine vertebrata of later periods include +numerous genera of osseous fishes; and that, therefore, the later marine +vertebrate faunas are more heterogeneous than the oldest known one. Nor, +again, can any such reply be made to the fact that there are far more +numerous orders and genera of mammalian remains in the tertiary +formations than in the secondary formations. Did we wish merely to make +out the best case, we might dwell upon the opinion of Dr. Carpenter, who +says that "the general facts of Palaeontology appear to sanction the +belief, that _the same plan_ may be traced out in what may be called +_the general life of the globe_, as in _the individual life_ of every +one of the forms of organised being which now people it." Or we might +quote, as decisive, the judgment of Professor Owen, who holds that the +earlier examples of each group of creatures severally departed less +widely from archetypal generality than the later ones--were severally +less unlike the fundamental form common to the group as a whole; that is +to say--constituted a less heterogeneous group of creatures; and who +further upholds the doctrine of a biological progression. But in +deference to an authority for whom we have the highest respect, who +considers that the evidence at present obtained does not justify a +verdict either way, we are content to leave the question open. + +Whether an advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is or is +not displayed in the biological history of the globe, it is clearly +enough displayed in the progress of the latest and most heterogeneous +creature--Man. It is alike true that, during the period in which the +Earth has been peopled, the human organism has grown more heterogeneous +among the civilised divisions of the species; and that the species, as a +whole, has been growing more heterogeneous in virtue of the +multiplication of races and the differentiation of these races from each +other. + +In proof of the first of these positions, we may cite the fact that, in +the relative development of the limbs, the civilised man departs more +widely from the general type of the placental mammalia than do the lower +human races. While often possessing well-developed body and arms, the +Papuan has extremely small legs: thus reminding us of the quadrumana, in +which there is no great contrast in size between the hind and fore +limbs. But in the European, the greater length and massiveness of the +legs has become very marked--the fore and hind limbs are relatively more +heterogeneous. Again, the greater ratio which the cranial bones bear to +the facial bones illustrates the same truth. Among the vertebrata in +general, progress is marked by an increasing heterogeneity in the +vertebral column, and more especially in the vertebrae constituting the +skull: the higher forms being distinguished by the relatively larger +size of the bones which cover the brain, and the relatively smaller size +of those which form the jaw, etc. Now, this characteristic, which is +stronger in Man than in any other creature, is stronger in the European +than in the savage. Moreover, judging from the greater extent and +variety of faculty he exhibits, we may infer that the civilised man has +also a more complex or heterogeneous nervous system than the uncivilised +man: and indeed the fact is in part visible in the increased ratio which +his cerebrum bears to the subjacent ganglia. + +If further elucidation be needed, we may find it in every nursery. The +infant European has sundry marked points of resemblance to the lower +human races; as in the flatness of the alae of the nose, the depression +of its bridge, the divergence and forward opening of the nostrils, the +form of the lips, the absence of a frontal sinus, the width between the +eyes, the smallness of the legs. Now, as the development process by +which these traits are turned into those of the adult European, is a +continuation of that change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous +displayed during the previous evolution of the embryo, which every +physiologist will admit; it follows that the parallel developmental +process by which the like traits of the barbarous races have been turned +into those of the civilised races, has also been a continuation of the +change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. The truth of the +second position--that Mankind, as a whole, have become more +heterogeneous--is so obvious as scarcely to need illustration. Every +work on Ethnology, by its divisions and subdivisions of races, bears +testimony to it. Even were we to admit the hypothesis that Mankind +originated from several separate stocks, it would still remain true, +that as, from each of these stocks, there have sprung many now widely +different tribes, which are proved by philological evidence to have had +a common origin, the race as a whole is far less homogeneous than it +once was. Add to which, that we have, in the Anglo-Americans, an example +of a new variety arising within these few generations; and that, if we +may trust to the description of observers, we are likely soon to have +another such example in Australia. + +On passing from Humanity under its individual form, to Humanity as +socially embodied, we find the general law still more variously +exemplified. The change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is +displayed equally in the progress of civilisation as a whole, and in the +progress of every tribe or nation; and is still going on with increasing +rapidity. As we see in existing barbarous tribes, society in its first +and lowest form is a homogeneous aggregation of individuals having like +powers and like functions: the only marked difference of function being +that which accompanies difference of sex. Every man is warrior, hunter, +fisherman, tool-maker, builder; every woman performs the same +drudgeries; every family is self-sufficing, and save for purposes of +aggression and defence, might as well live apart from the rest. Very +early, however, in the process of social evolution, we find an incipient +differentiation between the governing and the governed. Some kind of +chieftainship seems coeval with the first advance from the state of +separate wandering families to that of a nomadic tribe. The authority of +the strongest makes itself felt among a body of savages as in a herd of +animals, or a posse of schoolboys. At first, however, it is indefinite, +uncertain; is shared by others of scarcely inferior power; and is +unaccompanied by any difference in occupation or style of living: the +first ruler kills his own game, makes his own weapons, builds his own +hut, and economically considered, does not differ from others of his +tribe. Gradually, as the tribe progresses, the contrast between the +governing and the governed grows more decided. Supreme power becomes +hereditary in one family; the head of that family, ceasing to provide +for his own wants, is served by others; and he begins to assume the sole +office of ruling. + +At the same time there has been arising a co-ordinate species of +government--that of Religion. As all ancient records and traditions +prove, the earliest rulers are regarded as divine personages. The maxims +and commands they uttered during their lives are held sacred after their +deaths, and are enforced by their divinely-descended successors; who in +their turns are promoted to the pantheon of the race, there to be +worshipped and propitiated along with their predecessors: the most +ancient of whom is the supreme god, and the rest subordinate gods. For a +long time these connate forms of government--civil and +religious--continue closely associated. For many generations the king +continues to be the chief priest, and the priesthood to be members of +the royal race. For many ages religious law continues to contain more or +less of civil regulation, and civil law to possess more or less of +religious sanction; and even among the most advanced nations these two +controlling agencies are by no means completely differentiated from each +other. + +Having a common root with these, and gradually diverging from them, we +find yet another controlling agency--that of Manners or ceremonial +usages. All titles of honour are originally the names of the god-king; +afterwards of God and the king; still later of persons of high rank; and +finally come, some of them, to be used between man and man. All forms of +complimentary address were at first the expressions of submission from +prisoners to their conqueror, or from subjects to their ruler, either +human or divine--expressions that were afterwards used to propitiate +subordinate authorities, and slowly descended into ordinary intercourse. +All modes of salutation were once obeisances made before the monarch and +used in worship of him after his death. Presently others of the +god-descended race were similarly saluted; and by degrees some of the +salutations have become the due of all.[2] Thus, no sooner does the +originally homogeneous social mass differentiate into the governed and +the governing parts, than this last exhibits an incipient +differentiation into religious and secular--Church and State; while at +the same time there begins to be differentiated from both, that less +definite species of government which rules our daily intercourse--a +species of government which, as we may see in heralds' colleges, in +books of the peerage, in masters of ceremonies, is not without a certain +embodiment of its own. Each of these is itself subject to successive +differentiations. In the course of ages, there arises, as among +ourselves, a highly complex political organisation of monarch, +ministers, lords and commons, with their subordinate administrative +departments, courts of justice, revenue offices, etc., supplemented in +the provinces by municipal governments, county governments, parish or +union governments--all of them more or less elaborated. By its side +there grows up a highly complex religious organisation, with its various +grades of officials, from archbishops down to sextons, its colleges, +convocations, ecclesiastical courts, etc.; to all which must be added +the ever multiplying independent sects, each with its general and local +authorities. And at the same time there is developed a highly complex +aggregation of customs, manners, and temporary fashions, enforced by +society at large, and serving to control those minor transactions +between man and man which are not regulated by civil and religious law. +Moreover it is to be observed that this ever increasing heterogeneity in +the governmental appliances of each nation, has been accompanied by an +increasing heterogeneity in the governmental appliances of different +nations; all of which are more or less unlike in their political systems +and legislation, in their creeds and religious institutions, in their +customs and ceremonial usages. + +Simultaneously there has been going on a second differentiation of a +more familiar kind; that, namely, by which the mass of the community has +been segregated into distinct classes and orders of workers. While the +governing part has undergone the complex development above detailed, the +governed part has undergone an equally complex development, which has +resulted in that minute division of labour characterising advanced +nations. It is needless to trace out this progress from its first +stages, up through the caste divisions of the East and the incorporated +guilds of Europe, to the elaborate producing and distributing +organisation existing among ourselves. Political economists have long +since described the evolution which, beginning with a tribe whose +members severally perform the same actions each for himself, ends with a +civilised community whose members severally perform different actions +for each other; and they have further pointed out the changes through +which the solitary producer of any one commodity is transformed into a +combination of producers who, united under a master, take separate parts +in the manufacture of such commodity. But there are yet other and higher +phases of this advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous in the +industrial organisation of society. + +Long after considerable progress has been made in the division of labour +among different classes of workers, there is still little or no division +of labour among the widely separated parts of the community; the nation +continues comparatively homogeneous in the respect that in each district +the same occupations are pursued. But when roads and other means of +transit become numerous and good, the different districts begin to +assume different functions, and to become mutually dependent. The calico +manufacture locates itself in this county, the woollen-cloth manufacture +in that; silks are produced here, lace there; stockings in one place, +shoes in another; pottery, hardware, cutlery, come to have their special +towns; and ultimately every locality becomes more or less distinguished +from the rest by the leading occupation carried on in it. Nay, more, +this subdivision of functions shows itself not only among the different +parts of the same nation, but among different nations. That exchange of +commodities which free-trade promises so greatly to increase, will +ultimately have the effect of specialising, in a greater or less degree, +the industry of each people. So that beginning with a barbarous tribe, +almost if not quite homogeneous in the functions of its members, the +progress has been, and still is, towards an economic aggregation of the +whole human race; growing ever more heterogeneous in respect of the +separate functions assumed by separate nations, the separate functions +assumed by the local sections of each nation, the separate functions +assumed by the many kinds of makers and traders in each town, and the +separate functions assumed by the workers united in producing each +commodity. + +Not only is the law thus clearly exemplified in the evolution of the +social organism, but it is exemplified with equal clearness in the +evolution of all products of human thought and action, whether concrete +or abstract, real or ideal. Let us take Language as our first +illustration. + +The lowest form of language is the exclamation, by which an entire idea +is vaguely conveyed through a single sound; as among the lower animals. +That human language ever consisted solely of exclamations, and so was +strictly homogeneous in respect of its parts of speech, we have no +evidence. But that language can be traced down to a form in which nouns +and verbs are its only elements, is an established fact. In the gradual +multiplication of parts of speech out of these primary ones--in the +differentiation of verbs into active and passive, of nouns into abstract +and concrete--in the rise of distinctions of mood, tense, person, of +number and case--in the formation of auxiliary verbs, of adjectives, +adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, articles--in the divergence of those +orders, genera, species, and varieties of parts of speech by which +civilised races express minute modifications of meaning--we see a change +from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. And it may be remarked, in +passing, that it is more especially in virtue of having carried this +subdivision of function to a greater extent and completeness, that the +English language is superior to all others. + +Another aspect under which we may trace the development of language is +the differentiation of words of allied meanings. Philology early +disclosed the truth that in all languages words may be grouped into +families having a common ancestry. An aboriginal name applied +indiscriminately to each of an extensive and ill-defined class of things +or actions, presently undergoes modifications by which the chief +divisions of the class are expressed. These several names springing from +the primitive root, themselves become the parents of other names still +further modified. And by the aid of those systematic modes which +presently arise, of making derivations and forming compound terms +expressing still smaller distinctions, there is finally developed a +tribe of words so heterogeneous in sound and meaning, that to the +uninitiated it seems incredible that they should have had a common +origin. Meanwhile from other roots there are being evolved other such +tribes, until there results a language of some sixty thousand or more +unlike words, signifying as many unlike objects, qualities, acts. + +Yet another way in which language in general advances from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous, is in the multiplication of languages. +Whether as Max Mueller and Bunsen think, all languages have grown from +one stock, or whether, as some philologists say, they have grown from +two or more stocks, it is clear that since large families of languages, +as the Indo-European, are of one parentage, they have become distinct +through a process of continuous divergence. The same diffusion over the +Earth's surface which has led to the differentiation of the race, has +simultaneously led to a differentiation of their speech: a truth which +we see further illustrated in each nation by the peculiarities of +dialect found in several districts. Thus the progress of Language +conforms to the general law, alike in the evolution of languages, in the +evolution of families of words, and in the evolution of parts of speech. + +On passing from spoken to written language, we come upon several classes +of facts, all having similar implications. Written language is connate +with Painting and Sculpture; and at first all three are appendages of +Architecture, and have a direct connection with the primary form of all +Government--the theocratic. Merely noting by the way the fact that +sundry wild races, as for example the Australians and the tribes of +South Africa, are given to depicting personages and events upon the +walls of caves, which are probably regarded as sacred places, let us +pass to the case of the Egyptians. Among them, as also among the +Assyrians, we find mural paintings used to decorate the temple of the +god and the palace of the king (which were, indeed, originally +identical); and as such they were governmental appliances in the same +sense that state-pageants and religious feasts were. Further, they were +governmental appliances in virtue of representing the worship of the +god, the triumphs of the god-king, the submission of his subjects, and +the punishment of the rebellious. And yet again they were governmental, +as being the products of an art reverenced by the people as a sacred +mystery. From the habitual use of this pictorial representations there +naturally grew up the but slightly-modified practice of +picture-writing--a practice which was found still extant among the +Mexicans at the time they were discovered. By abbreviations analogous to +those still going on in our own written and spoken language, the most +familiar of these pictured figures were successively simplified; and +ultimately there grew up a system of symbols, most of which had but a +distant resemblance to the things for which they stood. The inference +that the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians were thus produced, is confirmed +by the fact that the picture-writing of the Mexicans was found to have +given birth to a like family of ideographic forms; and among them, as +among the Egyptians, these had been partially differentiated into the +_kuriological_ or imitative, and the _tropical_ or symbolic: which were, +however, used together in the same record. In Egypt, written language +underwent a further differentiation: whence resulted the _hieratic_ and +the _epistolographic_ or _enchorial_: both of which are derived from the +original hieroglyphic. At the same time we find that for the expression +of proper names which could not be otherwise conveyed, phonetic symbols +were employed; and though it is alleged that the Egyptians never +actually achieved complete alphabetic writing, yet it can scarcely be +doubted that these phonetic symbols occasionally used in aid of their +ideographic ones, were the germs out of which alphabetic writing grew. +Once having become separate from hieroglyphics, alphabetic writing +itself underwent numerous differentiations--multiplied alphabets were +produced; between most of which, however, more or less connection can +still be traced. And in each civilised nation there has now grown up, +for the representation of one set of sounds, several sets of written +signs used for distinct purposes. Finally, through a yet more important +differentiation came printing; which, uniform in kind as it was at +first, has since become multiform. + +While written language was passing through its earlier stages of +development, the mural decoration which formed its root was being +differentiated into Painting and Sculpture. The gods, kings, men, and +animals represented, were originally marked by indented outlines and +coloured. In most cases these outlines were of such depth, and the +object they circumscribed so far rounded and marked out in its leading +parts, as to form a species of work intermediate between intaglio and +bas-relief. In other cases we see an advance upon this: the raised +spaces between the figures being chiselled off, and the figures +themselves appropriately tinted, a painted bas-relief was produced. The +restored Assyrian architecture at Sydenham exhibits this style of art +carried to greater perfection--the persons and things represented, +though still barbarously coloured, are carved out with more truth and in +greater detail: and in the winged lions and bulls used for the angles of +gateways, we may see a considerable advance towards a completely +sculptured figure; which, nevertheless, is still coloured, and still +forms part of the building. But while in Assyria the production of a +statue proper seems to have been little, if at all, attempted, we may +trace in Egyptian art the gradual separation of the sculptured figure +from the wall. A walk through the collection in the British Museum will +clearly show this; while it will at the same time afford an opportunity +of observing the evident traces which the independent statues bear of +their derivation from bas-relief: seeing that nearly all of them not +only display that union of the limbs with the body which is the +characteristic of bas-relief, but have the back of the statue united +from head to foot with a block which stands in place of the original +wall. Greece repeated the leading stages of this progress. As in Egypt +and Assyria, these twin arts were at first united with each other and +with their parent, Architecture, and were the aids of Religion and +Government. On the friezes of Greek temples, we see coloured bas-reliefs +representing sacrifices, battles, processions, games--all in some sort +religious. On the pediments we see painted sculptures more or less +united with the tympanum, and having for subjects the triumphs of gods +or heroes. Even when we come to statues that are definitely separated +from the buildings to which they pertain, we still find them coloured; +and only in the later periods of Greek civilisation does the +differentiation of sculpture from painting appear to have become +complete. + +In Christian art we may clearly trace a parallel re-genesis. All early +paintings and sculptures throughout Europe were religious in +subject--represented Christs, crucifixions, virgins, holy families, +apostles, saints. They formed integral parts of church architecture, and +were among the means of exciting worship; as in Roman Catholic countries +they still are. Moreover, the early sculptures of Christ on the cross, +of virgins, of saints, were coloured: and it needs but to call to mind +the painted madonnas and crucifixes still abundant in continental +churches and highways, to perceive the significant fact that painting +and sculpture continue in closest connection with each other where they +continue in closest connection with their parent. Even when Christian +sculpture was pretty clearly differentiated from painting, it was still +religious and governmental in its subjects--was used for tombs in +churches and statues of kings: while, at the same time, painting, where +not purely ecclesiastical, was applied to the decoration of palaces, and +besides representing royal personages, was almost wholly devoted to +sacred legends. Only in quite recent times have painting and sculpture +become entirely secular arts. Only within these few centuries has +painting been divided into historical, landscape, marine, architectural, +genre, animal, still-life, etc., and sculpture grown heterogeneous in +respect of the variety of real and ideal subjects with which it occupies +itself. + +Strange as it seems then, we find it no less true, that all forms of +written language, of painting, and of sculpture, have a common root in +the politico-religious decorations of ancient temples and palaces. +Little resemblance as they now have, the bust that stands on the +console, the landscape that hangs against the wall, and the copy of the +_Times_ lying upon the table, are remotely akin; not only in nature, but +by extraction. The brazen face of the knocker which the postman has just +lifted, is related not only to the woodcuts of the _Illustrated London +News_ which he is delivering, but to the characters of the _billet-doux_ +which accompanies it. Between the painted window, the prayer-book on +which its light falls, and the adjacent monument, there is +consanguinity. The effigies on our coins, the signs over shops, the +figures that fill every ledger, the coats of arms outside the carriage +panel, and the placards inside the omnibus, are, in common with dolls, +blue-books, paper-hangings, lineally descended from the rude +sculpture-paintings in which the Egyptians represented the triumphs and +worship of their god-kings. Perhaps no example can be given which more +vividly illustrates the multiplicity and heterogeneity of the products +that in course of time may arise by successive differentiations from a +common stock. + +Before passing to other classes of facts, it should be observed that the +evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous is displayed not +only in the separation of Painting and Sculpture from Architecture and +from each other, and in the greater variety of subjects they embody, but +it is further shown in the structure of each work. A modern picture or +statue is of far more heterogeneous nature than an ancient one. An +Egyptian sculpture-fresco represents all its figures as on one +plane--that is, at the same distance from the eye; and so is less +heterogeneous than a painting that represents them as at various +distances from the eye. It exhibits all objects as exposed to the same +degree of light; and so is less heterogeneous than a painting which +exhibits different objects and different parts of each object as in +different degrees of light. It uses scarcely any but the primary +colours, and these in their full intensity; and so is less heterogeneous +than a painting which, introducing the primary colours but sparingly, +employs an endless variety of intermediate tints, each of heterogeneous +composition, and differing from the rest not only in quality but in +intensity. Moreover, we see in these earliest works a great uniformity +of conception. The same arrangement of figures is perpetually +reproduced--the same actions, attitudes, faces, dresses. In Egypt the +modes of representation were so fixed that it was sacrilege to introduce +a novelty; and indeed it could have been only in consequence of a fixed +mode of representation that a system of hieroglyphics became possible. +The Assyrian bas-reliefs display parallel characters. Deities, kings, +attendants, winged figures and animals, are severally depicted in like +positions, holding like implements, doing like things, and with like +expression or non-expression of face. If a palm-grove is introduced, all +the trees are of the same height, have the same number of leaves, and +are equidistant. When water is imitated, each wave is a counterpart of +the rest; and the fish, almost always of one kind, are evenly +distributed over the surface. The beards of the kings, the gods, and the +winged figures, are every where similar: as are the names of the lions, +and equally so those of the horses. Hair is represented throughout by +one form of curl. The king's beard is quite architecturally built up of +compound tiers of uniform curls, alternating with twisted tiers placed +in a transverse direction, and arranged with perfect regularity; and the +terminal tufts of the bulls' tails are represented in exactly the same +manner. Without tracing out analogous facts in early Christian art, in +which, though less striking, they are still visible, the advance in +heterogeneity will be sufficiently manifest on remembering that in the +pictures of our own day the composition is endlessly varied; the +attitudes, faces, expressions, unlike; the subordinate objects different +in size, form, position, texture; and more or less of contrast even in +the smallest details. Or, if we compare an Egyptian statue, seated bolt +upright on a block with hands on knees, fingers outspread and parallel, +eyes looking straight forward, and the two sides perfectly symmetrical +in every particular, with a statue of the advanced Greek or the modern +school, which is asymmetrical in respect of the position of the head, +the body, the limbs, the arrangement of the hair, dress, appendages, and +in its relations to neighbouring objects, we shall see the change from +the homogeneous to the heterogeneous clearly manifested. + +In the co-ordinate origin and gradual differentiation of Poetry, Music +and Dancing, we have another series of illustrations. Rhythm in speech, +rhythm in sound, and rhythm in motion, were in the beginning parts of +the same thing, and have only in process of time become separate things. +Among various existing barbarous tribes we find them still united. The +dances of savages are accompanied by some kind of monotonous chant, the +clapping of hands, the striking of rude instruments: there are measured +movements, measured words, and measured tones; and the whole ceremony, +usually having reference to war or sacrifice, is of governmental +character. In the early records of the historic races we similarly find +these three forms of metrical action united in religious festivals. In +the Hebrew writings we read that the triumphal ode composed by Moses on +the defeat of the Egyptians, was sung to an accompaniment of dancing and +timbrels. The Israelites danced and sung "at the inauguration of the +golden calf. And as it is generally agreed that this representation of +the Deity was borrowed from the mysteries of Apis, it is probable that +the dancing was copied from that of the Egyptians on those occasions." +There was an annual dance in Shiloh on the sacred festival; and David +danced before the ark. Again, in Greece the like relation is everywhere +seen; the original type being there, as probably in other cases, a +simultaneous chanting and mimetic representation of the life and +adventures of the god. The Spartan dances were accompanied by hymns and +songs; and in general the Greeks had "no festivals or religious +assemblies but what were accompanied with songs and dances"--both of +them being forms of worship used before altars. Among the Romans, too, +there were sacred dances: the Salian and Lupercalian being named as of +that kind. And even in Christian countries, as at Limoges, in +comparatively recent times, the people have danced in the choir in +honour of a saint. The incipient separation of these once united arts +from each other and from religion, was early visible in Greece. Probably +diverging from dances partly religious, partly warlike, as the +Corybantian, came the war dances proper, of which there were various +kinds; and from these resulted secular dances. Meanwhile Music and +Poetry, though still united, came to have an existence separate from +dancing. The aboriginal Greek poems, religious in subject, were not +recited, but chanted; and though at first the chant of the poet was +accompanied by the dance of the chorus, it ultimately grew into +independence. Later still, when the poem had been differentiated into +epic and lyric--when it became the custom to sing the lyric and recite +the epic--poetry proper was born. As during the same period musical +instruments were being multiplied, we may presume that music came to +have an existence apart from words. And both of them were beginning to +assume other forms besides the religious. Facts having like implications +might be cited from the histories of later times and people: as the +practices of our own early minstrels, who sang to the harp heroic +narratives versified by themselves to music of their own composition: +thus uniting the now separate offices of poet, composer, vocalist, and +instrumentalist. But, without further illustration, the common origin +and gradual differentiation of Dancing, Poetry, and Music will be +sufficiently manifest. + +The advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is displayed not +only in the separation of these arts from each other and from religion, +but also in the multiplied differentiations which each of them +afterwards undergoes. Not to dwell upon the numberless kinds of dancing +that have, in course of time, come into use; and not to occupy space in +detaining the progress of poetry, as seen in the development of the +various forms of metre, of rhyme, and of general organisation; let us +confine our attention to music as a type of the group. As argued by Dr. +Burney, and as implied by the customs of still extant barbarous races, +the first musical instruments were, without doubt, percussive--sticks, +calabashes, tom-toms--and were used simply to mark the time of the +dance; and in this constant repetition of the same sound, we see music +in its most homogeneous form. + +The Egyptians had a lyre with three strings. The early lyre of the +Greeks had four, constituting their tetrachord. In course of some +centuries lyres of seven and eight strings were employed. And, by the +expiration of a thousand years, they had advanced to their "great +system" of the double octave. Through all which changes there of course +arose a greater heterogeneity of melody. Simultaneously there came into +use the different modes--Dorian, Ionian, Phrygian, AEolian, and +Lydian--answering to our keys; and of these there were ultimately +fifteen. As yet, however, there was but little heterogeneity in the time +of their music. + +Instrumental music during this period being merely the accompaniment of +vocal music, and vocal music being completely subordinated to words, the +singer being also the poet, chanting his own compositions and making the +lengths of his notes agree with the feet of his verses,--there +unavoidably arose a tiresome uniformity of measure, which, as Dr. Burney +says, "no resources of melody could disguise." Lacking the complex +rhythm obtained by our equal bars and unequal notes the only rhythm was +that produced by the quantity of the syllables and was of necessity +comparatively monotonous. And further, it may be observed that the chant +thus resulting, being like recitative, was much less clearly +differentiated from ordinary speech than is our modern song. + +Nevertheless, in virtue of the extended range of notes in use, the +variety of modes, the occasional variations of time consequent on +changes of metre, and the multiplication of instruments, music had, +towards the close of Greek civilisation, attained to considerable +heterogeneity--not indeed as compared with our music, but as compared +with that which preceded it. As yet, however, there existed nothing but +melody: harmony was unknown. It was not until Christian church-music had +reached some development, that music in parts was evolved; and then it +came into existence through a very unobtrusive differentiation. +Difficult as it may be to conceive _a priori_ how the advance from +melody to harmony could take place without a sudden leap, it is none the +less true that it did so. The circumstance which prepared the way for it +was the employment of two choirs singing alternately the same air. +Afterwards it became the practice--very possibly first suggested by a +mistake--for the second choir to commence before the first had ceased; +thus producing a fugue. + +With the simple airs then in use, a partially harmonious fugue might not +improbably thus result: and a very partially harmonious fugue satisfied +the ears of that age, as we know from still preserved examples. The idea +having once been given, the composing of airs productive of fugal +harmony would naturally grow up; as in some way it _did_ grow up out of +this alternate choir-singing. And from the fugue to concerted music of +two, three, four, and more parts, the transition was easy. Without +pointing out in detail the increasing complexity that resulted from +introducing notes of various lengths, from the multiplication of keys, +from the use of accidentals, from varieties of time, and so forth, it +needs but to contrast music as it is, with music as it was, to see how +immense is the increase of heterogeneity. We see this if, looking at +music in its _ensemble_, we enumerate its many different genera and +species--if we consider the divisions into vocal, instrumental, and +mixed; and their subdivisions into music for different voices and +different instruments--if we observe the many forms of sacred music, +from the simple hymn, the chant, the canon, motet, anthem, etc., up to +the oratorio; and the still more numerous forms of secular music, from +the ballad up to the serenata, from the instrumental solo up to the +symphony. + +Again, the same truth is seen on comparing any one sample of aboriginal +music with a sample of modern music--even an ordinary song for the +piano; which we find to be relatively highly heterogeneous, not only in +respect of the varieties in the pitch and in the length of the notes, +the number of different notes sounding at the same instant in company +with the voice, and the variations of strength with which they are +sounded and sung, but in respect of the changes of key, the changes of +time, the changes of _timbre_ of the voice, and the many other +modifications of expression. While between the old monotonous +dance-chant and a grand opera of our own day, with its endless +orchestral complexities and vocal combinations, the contrast in +heterogeneity is so extreme that it seems scarcely credible that the one +should have been the ancestor of the other. + +Were they needed, many further illustrations might be cited. Going back +to the early time when the deeds of the god-king, chanted and +mimetically represented in dances round his altar, were further narrated +in picture-writings on the walls of temples and palaces, and so +constituted a rude literature, we might trace the development of +Literature through phases in which, as in the Hebrew Scriptures, it +presents in one work theology, cosmogony, history, biography, civil law, +ethics, poetry; through other phases in which, as in the Iliad, the +religious, martial, historical, the epic, dramatic, and lyric elements +are similarly commingled; down to its present heterogeneous development, +in which its divisions and subdivisions are so numerous and varied as to +defy complete classification. Or we might trace out the evolution of +Science; beginning with the era in which it was not yet differentiated +from Art, and was, in union with Art, the handmaid of Religion; passing +through the era in which the sciences were so few and rudimentary, as to +be simultaneously cultivated by the same philosophers; and ending with +the era in which the genera and species are so numerous that few can +enumerate them, and no one can adequately grasp even one genus. Or we +might do the like with Architecture, with the Drama, with Dress. + +But doubtless the reader is already weary of illustrations; and our +promise has been amply fulfilled. We believe we have shown beyond +question, that that which the German physiologists have found to be the +law of organic development, is the law of all development. The advance +from the simple to the complex, through a process of successive +differentiations, is seen alike in the earliest changes of the Universe +to which we can reason our way back; and in the earliest changes which +we can inductively establish; it is seen in the geologic and climatic +evolution of the Earth, and of every single organism on its surface; it +is seen in the evolution of Humanity, whether contemplated in the +civilised individual, or in the aggregation of races; it is seen in the +evolution of Society in respect alike of its political, its religious, +and its economical organisation; and it is seen in the evolution of all +those endless concrete and abstract products of human activity which +constitute the environment of our daily life. From the remotest past +which Science can fathom, up to the novelties of yesterday, that in +which Progress essentially consists, is the transformation of the +homogeneous into the heterogeneous. + + * * * * * + +And now, from this uniformity of procedure, may we not infer some +fundamental necessity whence it results? May we not rationally seek for +some all-pervading principle which determines this all-pervading process +of things? Does not the universality of the _law_ imply a universal +_cause_? + +That we can fathom such cause, noumenally considered, is not to be +supposed. To do this would be to solve that ultimate mystery which must +ever transcend human intelligence. But it still may be possible for us +to reduce the law of all Progress, above established, from the condition +of an empirical generalisation, to the condition of a rational +generalisation. Just as it was possible to interpret Kepler's laws as +necessary consequences of the law of gravitation; so it may be possible +to interpret this law of Progress, in its multiform manifestations, as +the necessary consequence of some similarly universal principle. As +gravitation was assignable as the _cause_ of each of the groups of +phenomena which Kepler formulated; so may some equally simple attribute +of things be assignable as the cause of each of the groups of phenomena +formulated in the foregoing pages. We may be able to affiliate all these +varied and complex evolutions of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, +upon certain simple facts of immediate experience, which, in virtue of +endless repetition, we regard as necessary. + +The probability of a common cause, and the possibility of formulating +it, being granted, it will be well, before going further, to consider +what must be the general characteristics of such cause, and in what +direction we ought to look for it. We can with certainty predict that it +has a high degree of generality; seeing that it is common to such +infinitely varied phenomena: just in proportion to the universality of +its application must be the abstractness of its character. We need not +expect to see in it an obvious solution of this or that form of +Progress; because it equally refers to forms of Progress bearing little +apparent resemblance to them: its association with multiform orders of +facts, involves its dissociation from any particular order of facts. +Being that which determines Progress of every kind--astronomic, +geologic, organic, ethnologic, social, economic, artistic, etc.--it must +be concerned with some fundamental attribute possessed in common by +these; and must be expressible in terms of this fundamental attribute. +The only obvious respect in which all kinds of Progress are alike, is, +that they are modes of _change_; and hence, in some characteristic of +changes in general, the desired solution will probably be found. We may +suspect _a priori_ that in some law of change lies the explanation of +this universal transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous. + +Thus much premised, we pass at once to the statement of the law, which +is this:--_Every active force produces more than one change_--_every +cause produces more than one effect_. + +Before this law can be duly comprehended, a few examples must be looked +at. When one body is struck against another, that which we usually +regard as the effect, is a change of position or motion in one or both +bodies. But a moment's thought shows us that this is a careless and very +incomplete view of the matter. Besides the visible mechanical result, +sound is produced; or, to speak accurately, a vibration in one or both +bodies, and in the surrounding air: and under some circumstances we call +this the effect. Moreover, the air has not only been made to vibrate, +but has had sundry currents caused in it by the transit of the bodies. +Further, there is a disarrangement of the particles of the two bodies in +the neighbourhood of their point of collision; amounting in some cases +to a visible condensation. Yet more, this condensation is accompanied by +the disengagement of heat. In some cases a spark--that is, +light--results, from the incandescence of a portion struck off; and +sometimes this incandescence is associated with chemical combination. + +Thus, by the original mechanical force expended in the collision, at +least five, and often more, different kinds of changes have been +produced. Take, again, the lighting of a candle. Primarily this is a +chemical change consequent on a rise of temperature. The process of +combination having once been set going by extraneous heat, there is a +continued formation of carbonic acid, water, etc.--in itself a result +more complex than the extraneous heat that first caused it. But +accompanying this process of combination there is a production of heat; +there is a production of light; there is an ascending column of hot +gases generated; there are currents established in the surrounding air. +Moreover the decomposition of one force into many forces does not end +here: each of the several changes produced becomes the parent of further +changes. The carbonic acid given off will by and by combine with some +base; or under the influence of sunshine give up its carbon to the leaf +of a plant. The water will modify the hygrometric state of the air +around; or, if the current of hot gases containing it come against a +cold body, will be condensed: altering the temperature, and perhaps the +chemical state, of the surface it covers. The heat given out melts the +subjacent tallow, and expands whatever it warms. The light, falling on +various substances, calls forth from them reactions by which it is +modified; and so divers colours are produced. Similarly even with these +secondary actions, which may be traced out into ever-multiplying +ramifications, until they become too minute to be appreciated. And thus +it is with all changes whatever. No case can be named in which an active +force does not evolve forces of several kinds, and each of these, other +groups of forces. Universally the effect is more complex than the cause. + +Doubtless the reader already foresees the course of our argument. This +multiplication of results, which is displayed in every event of to-day, +has been going on from the beginning; and is true of the grandest +phenomena of the universe as of the most insignificant. From the law +that every active force produces more than one change, it is an +inevitable corollary that through all time there has been an +ever-growing complication of things. Starting with the ultimate fact +that every cause produces more than one effect, we may readily see that +throughout creation there must have gone on, and must still go on, a +never-ceasing transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous. +But let us trace out this truth in detail. + +Without committing ourselves to it as more than a speculation, though a +highly probable one, let us again commence with the evolution of the +solar system out of a nebulous medium.[3] From the mutual attraction of +the atoms of a diffused mass whose form is unsymmetrical, there results +not only condensation but rotation: gravitation simultaneously generates +both the centripetal and the centrifugal forces. While the condensation +and the rate of rotation are progressively increasing, the approach of +the atoms necessarily generates a progressively increasing temperature. +As this temperature rises, light begins to be evolved; and ultimately +there results a revolving sphere of fluid matter radiating intense heat +and light--a sun. + +There are good reasons for believing that, in consequence of the high +tangential velocity, and consequent centrifugal force, acquired by the +outer parts of the condensing nebulous mass, there must be a periodical +detachment of rotating rings; and that, from the breaking up of these +nebulous rings, there must arise masses which in the course of their +condensation repeat the actions of the parent mass, and so produce +planets and their satellites--an inference strongly supported by the +still extant rings of Saturn. + +Should it hereafter be satisfactorily shown that planets and satellites +were thus generated, a striking illustration will be afforded of the +highly heterogeneous effects produced by the primary homogeneous cause; +but it will serve our present purpose to point to the fact that from the +mutual attraction of the particles of an irregular nebulous mass there +result condensation, rotation, heat, and light. + +It follows as a corollary from the Nebular Hypothesis, that the Earth +must at first have been incandescent; and whether the Nebular Hypothesis +be true or not, this original incandescence of the Earth is now +inductively established--or, if not established, at least rendered so +highly probable that it is a generally admitted geological doctrine. Let +us look first at the astronomical attributes of this once molten globe. +From its rotation there result the oblateness of its form, the +alternations of day and night, and (under the influence of the moon) the +tides, aqueous and atmospheric. From the inclination of its axis, there +result the precession of the equinoxes and the many differences of the +seasons, both simultaneous and successive, that pervade its surface. +Thus the multiplication of effects is obvious. Several of the +differentiations due to the gradual cooling of the Earth have been +already noticed--as the formation of a crust, the solidification of +sublimed elements, the precipitation of water, etc.,--and we here again +refer to them merely to point out that they are simultaneous effects of +the one cause, diminishing heat. + +Let us now, however, observe the multiplied changes afterwards arising +from the continuance of this one cause. The cooling of the Earth +involves its contraction. Hence the solid crust first formed is +presently too large for the shrinking nucleus; and as it cannot support +itself, inevitably follows the nucleus. But a spheroidal envelope cannot +sink down into contact with a smaller internal spheroid, without +disruption; it must run into wrinkles as the rind of an apple does when +the bulk of its interior decreases from evaporation. As the cooling +progresses and the envelope thickens, the ridges consequent on these +contractions must become greater, rising ultimately into hills and +mountains; and the later systems of mountains thus produced must not +only be higher, as we find them to be, but they must be longer, as we +also find them to be. Thus, leaving out of view other modifying forces, +we see what immense heterogeneity of surface has arisen from the one +cause, loss of heat--a heterogeneity which the telescope shows us to be +paralleled on the face of the moon, where aqueous and atmospheric +agencies have been absent. + +But we have yet to notice another kind of heterogeneity of surface +similarly and simultaneously caused. While the Earth's crust was still +thin, the ridges produced by its contraction must not only have been +small, but the spaces between these ridges must have rested with great +evenness upon the subjacent liquid spheroid; and the water in those +arctic and antarctic regions in which it first condensed, must have been +evenly distributed. But as fast as the crust grew thicker and gained +corresponding strength, the lines of fracture from time to time caused +in it, must have occurred at greater distances apart; the intermediate +surfaces must have followed the contracting nucleus with less +uniformity; and there must have resulted larger areas of land and water. +If any one, after wrapping up an orange in wet tissue paper, and +observing not only how small are the wrinkles, but how evenly the +intervening spaces lie upon the surface of the orange, will then wrap it +up in thick cartridge-paper, and note both the greater height of the +ridges and the much larger spaces throughout which the paper does not +touch the orange, he will realise the fact, that as the Earth's solid +envelope grew thicker, the areas of elevation and depression must have +become greater. In place of islands more or less homogeneously scattered +over an all-embracing sea, there must have gradually arisen +heterogeneous arrangements of continent and ocean, such as we now know. + +Once more, this double change in the extent and in the elevation of the +lands, involved yet another species of heterogeneity, that of +coast-line. A tolerably even surface raised out of the ocean, must have +a simple, regular sea-margin; but a surface varied by table-lands and +intersected by mountain-chains must, when raised out of the ocean, have +an outline extremely irregular both in its leading features and in its +details. Thus endless is the accumulation of geological and geographical +results slowly brought about by this one cause--the contraction of the +Earth. + +When we pass from the agency which geologists term igneous, to aqueous +and atmospheric agencies, we see the like ever growing complications of +effects. The denuding actions of air and water have, from the beginning, +been modifying every exposed surface; everywhere causing many different +changes. Oxidation, heat, wind, frost, rain, glaciers, rivers, tides, +waves, have been unceasingly producing disintegration; varying in kind +and amount according to local circumstances. Acting upon a tract of +granite, they here work scarcely an appreciable effect; there cause +exfoliations of the surface, and a resulting heap of _debris_ and +boulders; and elsewhere, after decomposing the feldspar into a white +clay, carry away this and the accompanying quartz and mica, and deposit +them in separate beds, fluviatile and marine. When the exposed land +consists of several unlike formations, sedimentary and igneous, the +denudation produces changes proportionably more heterogeneous. The +formations being disintegrable in different degrees, there follows an +increased irregularity of surface. The areas drained by different rivers +being differently constituted, these rivers carry down to the sea +different combinations of ingredients; and so sundry new strata of +distinct composition are formed. + +And here indeed we may see very simply illustrated, the truth, which we +shall presently have to trace out in more involved cases, that in +proportion to the heterogeneity of the object or objects on which any +force expends itself, is the heterogeneity of the results. A continent +of complex structure, exposing many strata irregularly distributed, +raised to various levels, tilted up at all angles, must, under the same +denuding agencies, give origin to immensely multiplied results; each +district must be differently modified; each river must carry down a +different kind of detritus; each deposit must be differently distributed +by the entangled currents, tidal and other, which wash the contorted +shores; and this multiplication of results must manifestly be greatest +where the complexity of the surface is greatest. + +It is out of the question here to trace in detail the genesis of those +endless complications described by Geology and Physical Geography: else +we might show how the general truth, that every active force produces +more than one change, is exemplified in the highly involved flow of the +tides, in the ocean currents, in the winds, in the distribution of rain, +in the distribution of heat, and so forth. But not to dwell upon these, +let us, for the fuller elucidation of this truth in relation to the +inorganic world, consider what would be the consequences of some +extensive cosmical revolution--say the subsidence of Central America. + +The immediate results of the disturbance would themselves be +sufficiently complex. Besides the numberless dislocations of strata, the +ejections of igneous matter, the propagation of earthquake vibrations +thousands of miles around, the loud explosions, and the escape of gases; +there would be the rush of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to supply the +vacant space, the subsequent recoil of enormous waves, which would +traverse both these oceans and produce myriads of changes along their +shores, the corresponding atmospheric waves complicated by the currents +surrounding each volcanic vent, and the electrical discharges with which +such disturbances are accompanied. But these temporary effects would be +insignificant compared with the permanent ones. The complex currents of +the Atlantic and Pacific would be altered in direction and amount. The +distribution of heat achieved by these ocean currents would be different +from what it is. The arrangement of the isothermal lines, not even on +the neighbouring continents, but even throughout Europe, would be +changed. The tides would flow differently from what they do now. There +would be more or less modification of the winds in their periods, +strengths, directions, qualities. Rain would fall scarcely anywhere at +the same times and in the same quantities as at present. In short, the +meteorological conditions thousands of miles off, on all sides, would be +more or less revolutionised. + +Thus, without taking into account the infinitude of modifications which +these changes of climate would produce upon the flora and fauna, both of +land and sea, the reader will see the immense heterogeneity of the +results wrought out by one force, when that force expends itself upon a +previously complicated area; and he will readily draw the corollary that +from the beginning the complication has advanced at an increasing rate. + +Before going on to show how organic progress also depends upon the +universal law that every force produces more than one change, we have +to notice the manifestation of this law in yet another species of +inorganic progress--namely, chemical. The same general causes that have +wrought out the heterogeneity of the Earth, physically considered, have +simultaneously wrought out its chemical heterogeneity. Without dwelling +upon the general fact that the forces which have been increasing the +variety and complexity of geological formations, have, at the same time, +been bringing into contact elements not previously exposed to each other +under conditions favourable to union, and so have been adding to the +number of chemical compounds, let us pass to the more important +complications that have resulted from the cooling of the Earth. + +There is every reason to believe that at an extreme heat the elements +cannot combine. Even under such heat as can be artificially produced, +some very strong affinities yield, as for instance, that of oxygen for +hydrogen; and the great majority of chemical compounds are decomposed at +much lower temperatures. But without insisting upon the highly probable +inference, that when the Earth was in its first state of incandescence +there were no chemical combinations at all, it will suffice our purpose +to point to the unquestionable fact that the compounds that can exist at +the highest temperatures, and which must, therefore, have been the first +that were formed as the Earth cooled, are those of the simplest +constitutions. The protoxides--including under that head the alkalies, +earths, etc.--are, as a class, the most stable compounds we know: most +of them resisting decomposition by any heat we can generate. These, +consisting severally of one atom of each component element, are +combinations of the simplest order--are but one degree less homogeneous +than the elements themselves. More heterogeneous than these, less +stable, and therefore later in the Earth's history, are the deutoxides, +tritoxides, peroxides, etc.; in which two, three, four, or more atoms of +oxygen are united with one atom of metal or other element. Higher than +these in heterogeneity are the hydrates; in which an oxide of hydrogen, +united with an oxide of some other element, forms a substance whose +atoms severally contain at least four ultimate atoms of three different +kinds. Yet more heterogeneous and less stable still are the salts; which +present us with compound atoms each made up of five, six, seven, eight, +ten, twelve, or more atoms, of three, if not more, kinds. Then there are +the hydrated salts, of a yet greater heterogeneity, which undergo +partial decomposition at much lower temperatures. After them come the +further-complicated supersalts and double salts, having a stability +again decreased; and so throughout. Without entering into qualifications +for which we lack space, we believe no chemist will deny it to be a +general law of these inorganic combinations that, _other things equal_, +the stability decreases as the complexity increases. + +And then when we pass to the compounds of organic chemistry, we find +this general law still further exemplified: we find much greater +complexity and much less stability. An atom of albumen, for instance, +consists of 482 ultimate atoms of five different kinds. Fibrine, still +more intricate in constitution, contains in each atom, 298 atoms of +carbon, 40 of nitrogen, 2 of sulphur, 228 of hydrogen, and 92 of +oxygen--in all, 660 atoms; or, more strictly speaking--equivalents. And +these two substances are so unstable as to decompose at quite ordinary +temperatures; as that to which the outside of a joint of roast meat is +exposed. Thus it is manifest that the present chemical heterogeneity of +the Earth's surface has arisen by degrees, as the decrease of heat has +permitted; and that it has shown itself in three forms--first, in the +multiplication of chemical compounds; second, in the greater number of +different elements contained in the more modern of these compounds: and +third, in the higher and more varied multiples in which these more +numerous elements combine. + +To say that this advance in chemical heterogeneity is due to the one +cause, diminution of the Earth's temperature, would be to say too much; +for it is clear that aqueous and atmospheric agencies have been +concerned; and, further, that the affinities of the elements themselves +are implied. The cause has all along been a composite one: the cooling +of the Earth having been simply the most general of the concurrent +causes, or assemblage of conditions. And here, indeed, it may be +remarked that in the several classes of facts already dealt with +(excepting, perhaps, the first), and still more in those with which we +shall presently deal, the causes are more or less compound; as indeed +are nearly all causes with which we are acquainted. Scarcely any change +can with logical accuracy be wholly ascribed to one agency, to the +neglect of the permanent or temporary conditions under which only this +agency produces the change. But as it does not materially affect our +argument, we prefer, for simplicity's sake, to use throughout the +popular mode of expression. + +Perhaps it will be further objected, that to assign loss of heat as the +cause of any changes, is to attribute these changes not to a force, but +to the absence of a force. And this is true. Strictly speaking, the +changes should be attributed to those forces which come into action when +the antagonist force is withdrawn. But though there is an inaccuracy in +saying that the freezing of water is due to the loss of its heat, no +practical error arises from it; nor will a parallel laxity of expression +vitiate our statements respecting the multiplication of effects. Indeed, +the objection serves but to draw attention to the fact, that not only +does the exertion of a force produce more than one change, but the +withdrawal of a force produces more than one change. And this suggests +that perhaps the most correct statement of our general principle would +be its most abstract statement--every change is followed by more than +one other change. + +Returning to the thread of our exposition, we have next to trace out, in +organic progress, this same all-pervading principle. And here, where the +evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous was first observed, +the production of many changes by one cause is least easy to +demonstrate. The development of a seed into a plant, or an ovum into an +animal, is so gradual, while the forces which determine it are so +involved, and at the same time so unobtrusive, that it is difficult to +detect the multiplication of effects which is elsewhere so obvious. +Nevertheless, guided by indirect evidence, we may pretty safely reach +the conclusion that here too the law holds. + +Observe, first, how numerous are the effects which any marked change +works upon an adult organism--a human being, for instance. An alarming +sound or sigh, besides the impressions on the organs of sense and the +nerves, may produce a start, a scream, a distortion of the face, a +trembling consequent upon a general muscular relaxation, a burst of +perspiration, an excited action of the heart, a rush of blood to the +brain, followed possibly by arrest of the heart's action and by syncope: +and if the system be feeble, an indisposition with its long train of +complicated symptoms may set in. Similarly in cases of disease. A minute +portion of the small-pox virus introduced into the system, will, in a +severe case, cause, during the first stage, rigors, heat of skin, +accelerated pulse, furred tongue, loss of appetite, thirst, epigastric +uneasiness, vomiting, headache, pains in the back and limbs, muscular +weakness, convulsions, delirium, etc.; in the second stage, cutaneous +eruption, itching, tingling, sore throat, swelled fauces, salivation, +cough, hoarseness, dyspnoea, etc.; and in the third stage, +oedematous inflammations, pneumonia, pleurisy, diarrhoea, +inflammation of the brain, ophthalmia, erysipelas, etc.; each of which +enumerated symptoms is itself more or less complex. Medicines, special +foods, better air, might in like manner be instanced as producing +multiplied results. + +Now it needs only to consider that the many changes thus wrought by one +force upon an adult organism, will be in part paralleled in an embryo +organism, to understand how here also, the evolution of the homogeneous +into the heterogeneous may be due to the production of many effects by +one cause. The external heat and other agencies which determine the +first complications of the germ, may, by acting upon these, superinduce +further complications; upon these still higher and more numerous ones; +and so on continually: each organ as it is developed serving, by its +actions and reactions upon the rest, to initiate new complexities. The +first pulsations of the foetal heart must simultaneously aid the +unfolding of every part. The growth of each tissue, by taking from the +blood special proportions of elements, must modify the constitution of +the blood; and so must modify the nutrition of all the other tissues. +The heart's action, implying as it does a certain waste, necessitates an +addition to the blood of effete matters, which must influence the rest +of the system, and perhaps, as some think, cause the formation of +excretory organs. The nervous connections established among the viscera +must further multiply their mutual influences: and so continually. + +Still stronger becomes the probability of this view when we call to mind +the fact, that the same germ may be evolved into different forms +according to circumstances. Thus, during its earlier stages, every +embryo is sexless--becomes either male or female as the balance of +forces acting upon it determines. Again, it is a well-established fact +that the larva of a working-bee will develop into a queen-bee, if, +before it is too late, its food be changed to that on which the larvae of +queen-bees are fed. Even more remarkable is the case of certain entozoa. +The ovum of a tape-worm, getting into its natural habitat, the +intestine, unfolds into the well-known form of its parent; but if +carried, as it frequently is, into other parts of the system, it becomes +a sac-like creature, called by naturalists the _Echinococcus_--a +creature so extremely different from the tape-worm in aspect and +structure, that only after careful investigations has it been proved to +have the same origin. All which instances imply that each advance in +embryonic complication results from the action of incident forces upon +the complication previously existing. + +Indeed, we may find _a priori_ reason to think that the evolution +proceeds after this manner. For since it is now known that no germ, +animal or vegetable, contains the slightest rudiment, trace, or +indication of the future organism--now that the microscope has shown us +that the first process set up in every fertilised germ, is a process of +repeated spontaneous fissions ending in the production of a mass of +cells, not one of which exhibits any special character: there seems no +alternative but to suppose that the partial organisation at any moment +subsisting in a growing embryo, is transformed by the agencies acting +upon it into the succeeding phase of organisation, and this into the +next, until, through ever-increasing complexities, the ultimate form is +reached. Thus, though the subtilty of the forces and the slowness of the +results, prevent us from _directly_ showing that the stages of +increasing heterogeneity through which every embryo passes, severally +arise from the production of many changes by one force, yet, +_indirectly_, we have strong evidence that they do so. + +We have marked how multitudinous are the effects which one cause may +generate in an adult organism; that a like multiplication of effects +must happen in the unfolding organism, we have observed in sundry +illustrative cases; further, it has been pointed out that the ability +which like germs have to originate unlike forms, implies that the +successive transformations result from the new changes superinduced on +previous changes; and we have seen that structureless as every germ +originally is, the development of an organism out of it is otherwise +incomprehensible. Not indeed that we can thus really explain the +production of any plant or animal. We are still in the dark respecting +those mysterious properties in virtue of which the germ, when subject to +fit influences, undergoes the special changes that begin the series of +transformations. All we aim to show, is, that given a germ possessing +these mysterious properties, the evolution of an organism from it, +probably depends upon that multiplication of effects which we have seen +to be the cause of progress in general, so far as we have yet traced it. + +When, leaving the development of single plants and animals, we pass to +that of the Earth's flora and fauna, the course of our argument again +becomes clear and simple. Though, as was admitted in the first part of +this article, the fragmentary facts Palaeontology has accumulated, do not +clearly warrant us in saying that, in the lapse of geologic time, there +have been evolved more heterogeneous organisms, and more heterogeneous +assemblages of organisms, yet we shall now see that there _must_ ever +have been a tendency towards these results. We shall find that the +production of many effects by one cause, which, as already shown, has +been all along increasing the physical heterogeneity of the Earth, has +further involved an increasing heterogeneity in its flora and fauna, +individually and collectively. An illustration will make this clear. + +Suppose that by a series of upheavals, occurring, as they are now known +to do, at long intervals, the East Indian Archipelago were to be, step +by step, raised into a continent, and a chain of mountains formed along +the axis of elevation. By the first of these upheavals, the plants and +animals inhabiting Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, and the rest, would be +subjected to slightly modified sets of conditions. The climate in +general would be altered in temperature, in humidity, and in its +periodical variations; while the local differences would be multiplied. +These modifications would affect, perhaps inappreciably, the entire +flora and fauna of the region. The change of level would produce +additional modifications: varying in different species, and also in +different members of the same species, according to their distance from +the axis of elevation. Plants, growing only on the sea-shore in special +localities, might become extinct. Others, living only in swamps of a +certain humidity, would, if they survived at all, probably undergo +visible changes of appearance. While still greater alterations would +occur in the plants gradually spreading over the lands newly raised +above the sea. The animals and insects living on these modified plants, +would themselves be in some degree modified by change of food, as well +as by change of climate; and the modification would be more marked +where, from the dwindling or disappearance of one kind of plant, an +allied kind was eaten. In the lapse of the many generations arising +before the next upheaval, the sensible or insensible alterations thus +produced in each species would become organised--there would be a more +or less complete adaptation to the new conditions. The next upheaval +would superinduce further organic changes, implying wider divergences +from the primary forms; and so repeatedly. + +But now let it be observed that the revolution thus resulting would not +be a substitution of a thousand more or less modified species for the +thousand original species; but in place of the thousand original species +there would arise several thousand species, or varieties, or changed +forms. Each species being distributed over an area of some extent, and +tending continually to colonise the new area exposed, its different +members would be subject to different sets of changes. Plants and +animals spreading towards the equator would not be affected in the same +way with others spreading from it. Those spreading towards the new +shores would undergo changes unlike the changes undergone by those +spreading into the mountains. Thus, each original race of organisms, +would become the root from which diverged several races differing more +or less from it and from each other; and while some of these might +subsequently disappear, probably more than one would survive in the next +geologic period: the very dispersion itself increasing the chances of +survival. Not only would there be certain modifications thus caused by +change of physical conditions and food, but also in some cases other +modifications caused by change of habit. The fauna of each island, +peopling, step by step, the newly-raised tracts, would eventually come +in contact with the faunas of other islands; and some members of these +other faunas would be unlike any creatures before seen. Herbivores +meeting with new beasts of prey, would, in some cases, be led into modes +of defence or escape differing from those previously used; and +simultaneously the beasts of prey would modify their modes of pursuit +and attack. We know that when circumstances demand it, such changes of +habit _do_ take place in animals; and we know that if the new habits +become the dominant ones, they must eventually in some degree alter the +organisation. + +Observe, now, however, a further consequence. There must arise not +simply a tendency towards the differentiation of each race of organisms +into several races; but also a tendency to the occasional production of +a somewhat higher organism. Taken in the mass, these divergent varieties +which have been caused by fresh physical conditions and habits of life, +will exhibit changes quite indefinite in kind and degree; and changes +that do not necessarily constitute an advance. Probably in most cases +the modified type will be neither more nor less heterogeneous than the +original one. In some cases the habits of life adopted being simpler +than before, a less heterogeneous structure will result: there will be a +retrogradation. But it _must_ now and then occur, that some division of +a species, falling into circumstances which give it rather more complex +experiences, and demand actions somewhat more involved, will have +certain of its organs further differentiated in proportionately small +degrees,--will become slightly more heterogeneous. + +Thus, in the natural course of things, there will from time to time +arise an increased heterogeneity both of the Earth's flora and fauna, +and of individual races included in them. Omitting detailed +explanations, and allowing for the qualifications which cannot here be +specified, we think it is clear that geological mutations have all along +tended to complicate the forms of life, whether regarded separately or +collectively. The same causes which have led to the evolution of the +Earth's crust from the simple into the complex, have simultaneously led +to a parallel evolution of the Life upon its surface. In this case, as +in previous ones, we see that the transformation of the homogeneous into +the heterogeneous is consequent upon the universal principle, that every +active force produces more than one change. + +The deduction here drawn from the established truths of geology and the +general laws of life, gains immensely in weight on finding it to be in +harmony with an induction drawn from direct experience. Just that +divergence of many races from one race, which we inferred must have been +continually occurring during geologic time, we know to have occurred +during the pre-historic and historic periods, in man and domestic +animals. And just that multiplication of effects which we concluded must +have produced the first, we see has produced the last. Single causes, as +famine, pressure of population, war, have periodically led to further +dispersions of mankind and of dependent creatures: each such dispersion +initiating new modifications, new varieties of type. Whether all the +human races be or be not derived from one stock, philology makes it +clear that whole groups of races now easily distinguishable from each +other, were originally one race,--that the diffusion of one race into +different climates and conditions of existence, has produced many +modified forms of it. + +Similarly with domestic animals. Though in some cases--as that of +dogs--community of origin will perhaps be disputed, yet in other +cases--as that of the sheep or the cattle of our own country--it will +not be questioned that local differences of climate, food, and +treatment, have transformed one original breed into numerous breeds now +become so far distinct as to produce unstable hybrids. Moreover, through +the complications of effects flowing from single causes, we here find, +what we before inferred, not only an increase of general heterogeneity, +but also of special heterogeneity. While of the divergent divisions and +subdivisions of the human race, many have undergone changes not +constituting an advance; while in some the type may have degraded; in +others it has become decidedly more heterogeneous. The civilised +European departs more widely from the vertebrate archetype than does the +savage. Thus, both the law and the cause of progress, which, from lack +of evidence, can be but hypothetically substantiated in respect of the +earlier forms of life on our globe, can be actually substantiated in +respect of the latest forms. + +If the advance of Man towards greater heterogeneity is traceable to the +production of many effects by one cause, still more clearly may the +advance of Society towards greater heterogeneity be so explained. +Consider the growth of an industrial organisation. When, as must +occasionally happen, some individual of a tribe displays unusual +aptitude for making an article of general use--a weapon, for +instance--which was before made by each man for himself, there arises a +tendency towards the differentiation of that individual into a maker of +such weapon. His companions--warriors and hunters all of +them,--severally feel the importance of having the best weapons that can +be made; and are therefore certain to offer strong inducements to this +skilled individual to make weapons for them. He, on the other hand, +having not only an unusual faculty, but an unusual liking, for making +such weapons (the talent and the desire for any occupation being +commonly associated), is predisposed to fulfil these commissions on the +offer of an adequate reward: especially as his love of distinction is +also gratified. This first specialisation of function, once commenced, +tends ever to become more decided. On the side of the weapon-maker +continued practice gives increased skill--increased superiority to his +products: on the side of his clients, cessation of practice entails +decreased skill. Thus the influences that determine this division of +labour grow stronger in both ways; and the incipient heterogeneity is, +on the average of cases, likely to become permanent for that generation, +if no longer. + +Observe now, however, that this process not only differentiates the +social mass into two parts, the one monopolising, or almost +monopolising, the performance of a certain function, and the other +having lost the habit, and in some measure the power, of performing that +function; but it tends to imitate other differentiations. The advance we +have described implies the introduction of barter,--the maker of weapons +has, on each occasion, to be paid in such other articles as he agrees to +take in exchange. But he will not habitually take in exchange one kind +of article, but many kinds. He does not want mats only, or skins, or +fishing gear, but he wants all these; and on each occasion will bargain +for the particular things he most needs. What follows? If among the +members of the tribe there exist any slight differences of skill in the +manufacture of these various things, as there are almost sure to do, the +weapon-maker will take from each one the thing which that one excels in +making: he will exchange for mats with him whose mats are superior, and +will bargain for the fishing gear of whoever has the best. But he who +has bartered away his mats or his fishing gear, must make other mats or +fishing gear for himself; and in so doing must, in some degree, further +develop his aptitude. Thus it results that the small specialities of +faculty possessed by various members of the tribe, will tend to grow +more decided. If such transactions are from time to time repeated, these +specialisations may become appreciable. And whether or not there ensue +distinct differentiations of other individuals into makers of particular +articles, it is clear that incipient differentiations take place +throughout the tribe: the one original cause produces not only the first +dual effect, but a number of secondary dual effects, like in kind, but +minor in degree. This process, of which traces may be seen among groups +of schoolboys, cannot well produce any lasting effects in an unsettled +tribe; but where there grows up a fixed and multiplying community, these +differentiations become permanent, and increase with each generation. A +larger population, involving a greater demand for every commodity, +intensifies the functional activity of each specialised person or class; +and this renders the specialisation more definite where it already +exists, and establishes it where it is nascent. By increasing the +pressure on the means of subsistence, a larger population again augments +these results; seeing that each person is forced more and more to +confine himself to that which he can do best, and by which he can gain +most. This industrial progress, by aiding future production, opens the +way for a further growth of population, which reacts as before: in all +which the multiplication of effects is manifest. Presently, under these +same stimuli, new occupations arise. Competing workers, ever aiming to +produce improved articles, occasionally discover better processes or raw +materials. In weapons and cutting tools, the substitution of bronze for +stone entails upon him who first makes it a great increase of demand--so +great an increase that he presently finds all his time occupied in +making the bronze for the articles he sells, and is obliged to depute +the fashioning of these to others: and, eventually, the making of +bronze, thus gradually differentiated from a pre-existing occupation, +becomes an occupation by itself. + +But now mark the ramified changes which follow this change. Bronze soon +replaces stone, not only in the articles it was first used for, but in +many others--in arms, tools, and utensils of various kinds; and so +affects the manufacture of these things. Further, it affects the +processes which these utensils subserve, and the resulting +products--modifies buildings, carvings, dress, personal decorations. Yet +again, it sets going sundry manufactures which were before impossible, +from lack of a material fit for the requisite tools. And all these +changes react on the people--increase their manipulative skill, their +intelligence, their comfort,--refine their habits and tastes. Thus the +evolution of a homogeneous society into a heterogeneous one, is clearly +consequent on the general principle, that many effects are produced by +one cause. + +Our limits will not allow us to follow out this process in its higher +complications: else might we show how the localisation of special +industries in special parts of a kingdom, as well as the minute +subdivision of labour in the making of each commodity, are similarly +determined. Or, turning to a somewhat different order of illustrations, +we might dwell on the multitudinous changes--material, intellectual, +moral--caused by printing; or the further extensive series of changes +wrought by gunpowder. But leaving the intermediate phases of social +development, let us take a few illustrations from its most recent and +its passing phases. To trace the effects of steam-power, in its manifold +applications to mining, navigation, and manufactures of all kinds, would +carry us into unmanageable detail. Let us confine ourselves to the +latest embodiment of steam-power--the locomotive engine. + +This, as the proximate cause of our railway system, has changed the face +of the country, the course of trade, and the habits of the people. +Consider, first, the complicated sets of changes that precede the making +of every railway--the provisional arrangements, the meetings, the +registration, the trial section, the parliamentary survey, the +lithographed plans, the books of reference, the local deposits and +notices, the application to Parliament, the passing Standing-Orders +Committee, the first, second, and third readings: each of which brief +heads indicates a multiplicity of transactions, and the development of +sundry occupations--as those of engineers, surveyors, lithographers, +parliamentary agents, share-brokers; and the creation of sundry +others--as those of traffic-takers, reference-takers. Consider, next, +the yet more marked changes implied in railway construction--the +cuttings, embankings, tunnellings, diversions of roads; the building of +bridges, and stations; the laying down of ballast, sleepers, and rails; +the making of engines, tenders, carriages, and waggons: which processes, +acting upon numerous trades, increase the importation of timber, the +quarrying of stone, the manufacture of iron, the mining of coal, the +burning of bricks: institute a variety of special manufactures weekly +advertised in the _Railway Times_; and, finally, open the way to sundry +new occupations, as those of drivers, stokers, cleaners, plate-layers, +etc., etc. And then consider the changes, more numerous and involved +still, which railways in action produce on the community at large. The +organisation of every business is more or less modified: ease of +communication makes it better to do directly what was before done by +proxy; agencies are established where previously they would not have +paid; goods are obtained from remote wholesale houses instead of near +retail ones; and commodities are used which distance once rendered +inaccessible. Again, the rapidity and small cost of carriage tend to +specialise more than ever the industries of different districts--to +confine each manufacture to the parts in which, from local advantages, +it can be best carried on. Further, the diminished cost of carriage, +facilitating distribution, equalises prices, and also, on the average, +lowers prices: thus bringing divers articles within the means of those +before unable to buy them, and so increasing their comforts and +improving their habits. At the same time the practice of travelling is +immensely extended. Classes who never before thought of it, take annual +trips to the sea; visit their distant relations; make tours; and so we +are benefited in body, feelings, and intellect. Moreover, the more +prompt transmission of letters and of news produces further +changes--makes the pulse of the nation faster. Yet more, there arises a +wide dissemination of cheap literature through railway book-stalls, and +of advertisements in railway carriages: both of them aiding ulterior +progress. + +And all the innumerable changes here briefly indicated are consequent on +the invention of the locomotive engine. The social organism has been +rendered more heterogeneous in virtue of the many new occupations +introduced, and the many old ones further specialised; prices in every +place have been altered; each trader has, more or less, modified his way +of doing business; and almost every person has been affected in his +actions, thoughts, emotions. + +Illustrations to the same effect might be indefinitely accumulated. That +every influence brought to bear upon society works multiplied effects; +and that increase of heterogeneity is due to this multiplication of +effects; may be seen in the history of every trade, every custom, every +belief. But it is needless to give additional evidence of this. The only +further fact demanding notice, is, that we here see still more clearly +than ever, the truth before pointed out, that in proportion as the area +on which any force expends itself becomes heterogeneous, the results are +in a yet higher degree multiplied in number and kind. While among the +primitive tribes to whom it was first known, caoutchouc caused but a few +changes, among ourselves the changes have been so many and varied that +the history of them occupies a volume.[4] Upon the small, homogeneous +community inhabiting one of the Hebrides, the electric telegraph would +produce, were it used, scarcely any results; but in England the results +it produces are multitudinous. The comparatively simple organisation +under which our ancestors lived five centuries ago, could have undergone +but few modifications from an event like the recent one at Canton; but +now the legislative decision respecting it sets up many hundreds of +complex modifications, each of which will be the parent of numerous +future ones. + +Space permitting, we could willingly have pursued the argument in +relation to all the subtler results of civilisation. As before, we +showed that the law of Progress to which the organic and inorganic +worlds conform, is also conformed to by Language, Sculpture, Music, +etc.; so might we here show that the cause which we have hitherto found +to determine Progress holds in these cases also. We might demonstrate in +detail how, in Science, an advance of one division presently advances +other divisions--how Astronomy has been immensely forwarded by +discoveries in Optics, while other optical discoveries have initiated +Microscopic Anatomy, and greatly aided the growth of Physiology--how +Chemistry has indirectly increased our knowledge of Electricity, +Magnetism, Biology, Geology--how Electricity has reacted on Chemistry +and Magnetism, developed our views of Light and Heat, and disclosed +sundry laws of nervous action. + +In Literature the same truth might be exhibited in the manifold effects +of the primitive mystery-play, not only as originating the modern drama, +but as affecting through it other kinds of poetry and fiction; or in the +still multiplying forms of periodical literature that have descended +from the first newspaper, and which have severally acted and reacted on +other forms of literature and on each other. The influence which a new +school of Painting--as that of the pre-Raffaelites--exercises upon other +schools; the hints which all kinds of pictorial art are deriving from +Photography; the complex results of new critical doctrines, as those of +Mr. Ruskin, might severally be dwelt upon as displaying the like +multiplication of effects. But it would needlessly tax the reader's +patience to pursue, in their many ramifications, these various changes: +here become so involved and subtle as to be followed with some +difficulty. + +Without further evidence, we venture to think our case is made out. The +imperfections of statement which brevity has necessitated, do not, we +believe, militate against the propositions laid down. The qualifications +here and there demanded would not, if made, affect the inferences. +Though in one instance, where sufficient evidence is not attainable, we +have been unable to show that the law of Progress applies; yet there is +high probability that the same generalisation holds which holds +throughout the rest of creation. Though, in tracing the genesis of +Progress, we have frequently spoken of complex causes as if they were +simple ones; it still remains true that such causes are far less complex +than their results. Detailed criticisms cannot affect our main position. +Endless facts go to show that every kind of progress is from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous; and that it is so because each change +is followed by many changes. And it is significant that where the facts +are most accessible and abundant, there are these truths most manifest. + +However, to avoid committing ourselves to more than is yet proved, we +must be content with saying that such are the law and the cause of all +progress that is known to us. Should the Nebular Hypothesis ever be +established, then it will become manifest that the Universe at large, +like every organism, was once homogeneous; that as a whole, and in every +detail, it has unceasingly advanced towards greater heterogeneity; and +that its heterogeneity is still increasing. It will be seen that as in +each event of to-day, so from the beginning, the decomposition of every +expended force into several forces has been perpetually producing a +higher complication; that the increase of heterogeneity so brought about +is still going on, and must continue to go on; and that thus Progress is +not an accident, not a thing within human control, but a beneficent +necessity. + +A few words must be added on the ontological bearings of our argument. +Probably not a few will conclude that here is an attempted solution of +the great questions with which Philosophy in all ages has perplexed +itself. Let none thus deceive themselves. Only such as know not the +scope and the limits of Science can fall into so grave an error. The +foregoing generalisations apply, not to the genesis of things in +themselves, but to their genesis as manifested to the human +consciousness. After all that has been said, the ultimate mystery +remains just as it was. The explanation of that which is explicable, +does but bring out into greater clearness the inexplicableness of that +which remains behind. However we may succeed in reducing the equation to +its lowest terms, we are not thereby enabled to determine the unknown +quantity: on the contrary, it only becomes more manifest that the +unknown quantity can never be found. + +Little as it seems to do so, fearless inquiry tends continually to give +a firmer basis to all true Religion. The timid sectarian, alarmed at the +progress of knowledge, obliged to abandon one by one the superstitions +of his ancestors, and daily finding his cherished beliefs more and more +shaken, secretly fears that all things may some day be explained; and +has a corresponding dread of Science: thus evincing the profoundest of +all infidelity--the fear lest the truth be bad. On the other hand, the +sincere man of science, content to follow wherever the evidence leads +him, becomes by each new inquiry more profoundly convinced that the +Universe is an insoluble problem. Alike in the external and the internal +worlds, he sees himself in the midst of perpetual changes, of which he +can discover neither the beginning nor the end. If, tracing back the +evolution of things, he allows himself to entertain the hypothesis that +all matter once existed in a diffused form, he finds it utterly +impossible to conceive how this came to be so; and equally, if he +speculates on the future, he can assign no limit to the grand succession +of phenomena ever unfolding themselves before him. On the other hand, if +he looks inward, he perceives that both terminations of the thread of +consciousness are beyond his grasp: he cannot remember when or how +consciousness commenced, and he cannot examine the consciousness that at +any moment exists; for only a state of consciousness that is already +past can become the object of thought, and never one which is passing. + +When, again, he turns from the succession of phenomena, external or +internal, to their essential nature, he is equally at fault. Though he +may succeed in resolving all properties of objects into manifestations +of force, he is not thereby enabled to realise what force is; but finds, +on the contrary, that the more he thinks about it, the more he is +baffled. Similarly, though analysis of mental actions may finally bring +him down to sensations as the original materials out of which all +thought is woven, he is none the forwarder; for he cannot in the least +comprehend sensation--cannot even conceive how sensation is possible. +Inward and outward things he thus discovers to be alike inscrutable in +their ultimate genesis and nature. He sees that the Materialist and +Spiritualist controversy is a mere war of words; the disputants being +equally absurd--each believing he understands that which it is +impossible for any man to understand. In all directions his +investigations eventually bring him face to face with the unknowable; +and he ever more clearly perceives it to be the unknowable. He learns at +once the greatness and the littleness of human intellect--its power in +dealing with all that comes within the range of experience; its +impotence in dealing with all that transcends experience. He feels, with +a vividness which no others can, the utter incomprehensibleness of the +simplest fact, considered in itself. He alone truly _sees_ that absolute +knowledge is impossible. He alone _knows_ that under all things there +lies an impenetrable mystery. + +[1] _Westminster Review_, April 1857. + +[2] For detailed proof of these assertions see essay on "Manners and +Fashion." + +[3] The idea that the Nebular Hypothesis has been disproved because what +were thought to be existing nebulae have been resolved into clusters of +stars is almost beneath notice. _A priori_ it was highly improbable, if +not impossible, that nebulous masses should still remain uncondensed, +while others have been condensed millions of years ago. + +[4] _Personal Narrative of the Origin of the Caoutchouc, or India-Rubber +Manufacture in England._ By Thomas Hancock. + + + + +ON MANNERS AND FASHION[1] + + +Whoever has studied the physiognomy of political meetings, cannot fail +to have remarked a connection between democratic opinions and +peculiarities of costume. At a Chartist demonstration, a lecture on +Socialism, or a _soiree_ of the Friends of Italy, there will be seen +many among the audience, and a still larger ratio among the speakers, +who get themselves up in a style more or less unusual. One gentleman on +the platform divides his hair down the centre, instead of on one side; +another brushes it back off the forehead, in the fashion known as +"bringing out the intellect;" a third has so long forsworn the scissors, +that his locks sweep his shoulders. A considerable sprinkling of +moustaches may be observed; here and there an imperial; and occasionally +some courageous breaker of conventions exhibits a full-grown beard.[2] +This nonconformity in hair is countenanced by various nonconformities in +dress, shown by others of the assemblage. Bare necks, shirt-collars _a +la_ Byron, waistcoats cut Quaker fashion, wonderfully shaggy great +coats, numerous oddities in form and colour, destroy the monotony usual +in crowds. Even those exhibiting no conspicuous peculiarity, frequently +indicate by something in the pattern or make-up of their clothes, that +they pay small regard to what their tailors tell them about the +prevailing taste. And when the gathering breaks up, the varieties of +head-gear displayed--the number of caps, and the abundance of felt +hats--suffice to prove that were the world at large like-minded, the +black cylinders which tyrannise over us would soon be deposed. + +The foreign correspondence of our daily press shows that this +relationship between political discontent and the disregard of customs +exists on the Continent also. Red republicanism has always been +distinguished by its hirsuteness. The authorities of Prussia, Austria, +and Italy, alike recognise certain forms of hat as indicative of +disaffection, and fulminate against them accordingly. In some places the +wearer of a blouse runs a risk of being classed among the _suspects_; +and in others, he who would avoid the bureau of police, must beware how +he goes out in any but the ordinary colours. Thus, democracy abroad, as +at home, tends towards personal singularity. + +Nor is this association of characteristics peculiar to modern times, or +to reformers of the State. It has always existed; and it has been +manifested as much in religious agitations as in political ones. Along +with dissent from the chief established opinions and arrangements, there +has ever been some dissent from the customary social practices. The +Puritans, disapproving of the long curls of the Cavaliers, as of their +principles, cut their own hair short, and so gained the name of +"Roundheads." The marked religious nonconformity of the Quakers was +accompanied by an equally-marked nonconformity of manners--in attire, in +speech, in salutation. The early Moravians not only believed +differently, but at the same time dressed differently, and lived +differently, from their fellow Christians. + +That the association between political independence and independence of +personal conduct, is not a phenomenon of to-day only, we may see alike +in the appearance of Franklin at the French court in plain clothes, and +in the white hats worn by the last generation of radicals. Originality +of nature is sure to show itself in more ways than one. The mention of +George Fox's suit of leather, or Pestalozzi's school name, "Harry +Oddity," will at once suggest the remembrance that men who have in great +things diverged from the beaten track, have frequently done so in small +things likewise. Minor illustrations of this truth may be gathered in +almost every circle. We believe that whoever will number up his +reforming and rationalist acquaintances, will find among them more than +the usual proportion of those who in dress or behaviour exhibit some +degree of what the world calls eccentricity. + +If it be a fact that men of revolutionary aims in politics or religion, +are commonly revolutionists in custom also, it is not less a fact that +those whose office it is to uphold established arrangements in State and +Church, are also those who most adhere to the social forms and +observances bequeathed to us by past generations. Practices elsewhere +extinct still linger about the headquarters of government. The monarch +still gives assent to Acts of Parliament in the old French of the +Normans; and Norman French terms are still used in law. Wigs, such as +those we see depicted in old portraits, may yet be found on the heads of +judges and barristers. The Beefeaters at the Tower wear the costume of +Henry VIIth's bodyguard. The University dress of the present year varies +but little from that worn soon after the Reformation. The +claret-coloured coat, knee-breeches, lace shirt frills, ruffles, white +silk stockings, and buckled shoes, which once formed the usual attire of +a gentleman, still survive as the court-dress. And it need scarcely be +said that at _levees_ and drawing-rooms, the ceremonies are prescribed +with an exactness, and enforced with a rigour, not elsewhere to be +found. + +Can we consider these two series of coincidences as accidental and +unmeaning? Must we not rather conclude that some necessary relationship +obtains between them? Are there not such things as a constitutional +conservatism, and a constitutional tendency to change? Is there not a +class which clings to the old in all things; and another class so in +love with progress as often to mistake novelty for improvement? Do we +not find some men ready to bow to established authority of whatever +kind; while others demand of every such authority its reason, and reject +it if it fails to justify itself? And must not the minds thus contrasted +tend to become respectively conformist and nonconformist, not only in +politics and religion, but in other things? Submission, whether to a +government, to the dogmas of ecclesiastics, or to that code of behaviour +which society at large has set up, is essentially of the same nature; +and the sentiment which induces resistance to the despotism of rulers, +civil or spiritual, likewise induces resistance to the despotism of the +world's opinion. Look at them fundamentally, and all enactments, alike +of the legislature, the consistory, and the saloon--all regulations, +formal or virtual, have a common character: they are all limitations of +men's freedom. "Do this--Refrain from that," are the blank formulas into +which they may all be written: and in each case the understanding is +that obedience will bring approbation here and paradise hereafter; while +disobedience will entail imprisonment, or sending to Coventry, or +eternal torments, as the case may be. And if restraints, however named, +and through whatever apparatus of means exercised, are one in their +action upon men, it must happen that those who are patient under one +kind of restraint, are likely to be patient under another; and +conversely, that those impatient of restraint in general, will, on the +average, tend to show their impatience in all directions. + +That Law, Religion, and Manners are thus related--that their respective +kinds of operation come under one generalisation--that they have in +certain contrasted characteristics of men a common support and a common +danger--will, however, be most clearly seen on discovering that they +have a common origin. Little as from present appearances we should +suppose it, we shall yet find that at first, the control of religion, +the control of laws and the control of manners, were all one control. +However incredible it may now seem, we believe it to be demonstrable +that the rules of etiquette, the provisions of the statute-book, and the +commands of the decalogue, have grown from the same root. If we go far +enough back into the ages of primeval Fetishism, it becomes manifest +that originally Deity, Chief, and Master of the ceremonies were +identical. To make good these positions, and to show their bearing on +what is to follow, it will be necessary here to traverse ground that is +in part somewhat beaten, and at first sight irrelevant to our topic. We +will pass over it as quickly as consists with the exigencies of the +argument. + + * * * * * + +That the earliest social aggregations were ruled solely by the will of +the strong man, few dispute. That from the strong man proceeded not only +Monarchy, but the conception of a God, few admit: much as Carlyle and +others have said in evidence of it. If, however, those who are unable to +believe this, will lay aside the ideas of God and man in which they have +been educated, and study the aboriginal ideas of them, they will at +least see some probability in the hypothesis. Let them remember that +before experience had yet taught men to distinguish between the possible +and the impossible; and while they were ready on the slightest +suggestion to ascribe unknown powers to any object and make a fetish of +it; their conceptions of humanity and its capacities were necessarily +vague, and without specific limits. The man who by unusual strength, or +cunning, achieved something that others had failed to achieve, or +something which they did not understand, was considered by them as +differing from themselves; and, as we see in the belief of some +Polynesians that only their chiefs have souls, or in that of the ancient +Peruvians that their nobles were divine by birth, the ascribed +difference was apt to be not one of degree only, but one of kind. + +Let them remember next, how gross were the notions of God, or rather of +gods, prevalent during the same era and afterwards--how concretely gods +were conceived as men of specific aspects dressed in specific ways--how +their names were literally "the strong," "the destroyer," "the powerful +one,"--how, according to the Scandinavian mythology, the "sacred duty of +blood-revenge" was acted on by the gods themselves,--and how they were +not only human in their vindictiveness, their cruelty, and their +quarrels with each other, but were supposed to have amours on earth, and +to consume the viands placed on their altars. Add to which, that in +various mythologies, Greek, Scandinavian, and others, the oldest beings +are giants; that according to a traditional genealogy the gods, +demi-gods, and in some cases men, are descended from these after the +human fashion; and that while in the East we hear of sons of God who saw +the daughters of men that they were fair, the Teutonic myths tell of +unions between the sons of men and the daughters of the gods. + +Let them remember, too, that at first the idea of death differed widely +from that which we have; that there are still tribes who, on the decease +of one of their number, attempt to make the corpse stand, and put food +into his mouth; that the Peruvians had feasts at which the mummies of +their dead Incas presided, when, as Prescott says, they paid attention +"to these insensible remains as if they were instinct with life;" that +among the Fejees it is believed that every enemy has to be killed twice; +that the Eastern Pagans give extension and figure to the soul, and +attribute to it all the same substances, both solid and liquid, of which +our bodies are composed; and that it is the custom among most barbarous +races to bury food, weapons, and trinkets along with the dead body, +under the manifest belief that it will presently need them. + +Lastly, let them remember that the other world, as originally conceived, +is simply some distant part of this world--some Elysian fields, some +happy hunting-ground, accessible even to the living, and to which, after +death, men travel in anticipation of a life analogous in general +character to that which they led before. Then, co-ordinating these +general facts--the ascription of unknown powers to chiefs and medicine +men; the belief in deities having human forms, passions, and behaviour; +the imperfect comprehension of death as distinguished from life; and the +proximity of the future abode to the present, both in position and +character--let them reflect whether they do not almost unavoidably +suggest the conclusion that the aboriginal god is the dead chief; the +chief not dead in our sense, but gone away carrying with him food and +weapons to some rumoured region of plenty, some promised land, whither +he had long intended to lead his followers, and whence he will presently +return to fetch them. + +This hypothesis once entertained, is seen to harmonise with all +primitive ideas and practices. The sons of the deified chief reigning +after him, it necessarily happens that all early kings are held +descendants of the gods; and the fact that alike in Assyria, Egypt, +among the Jews, Phoenicians, and ancient Britons, kings' names were +formed out of the names of the gods, is fully explained. The genesis of +Polytheism out of Fetishism, by the successive migrations of the race of +god-kings to the other world--a genesis illustrated in the Greek +mythology, alike by the precise genealogy of the deities, and by the +specifically asserted apotheosis of the later ones--tends further to +bear it out. It explains the fact that in the old creeds, as in the +still extant creed of the Otaheitans, every family has its guardian +spirit, who is supposed to be one of their departed relatives; and that +they sacrifice to these as minor gods--a practice still pursued by the +Chinese and even by the Russians. It is perfectly congruous with the +Grecian myths concerning the wars of the Gods with the Titans and their +final usurpation; and it similarly agrees with the fact that among the +Teutonic gods proper was one Freir who came among them by adoption, "but +was born among the _Vanes_, a somewhat mysterious _other_ dynasty of +gods, who had been conquered and superseded by the stronger and more +warlike Odin dynasty." It harmonises, too, with the belief that there +are different gods to different territories and nations, as there were +different chiefs; that these gods contend for supremacy as chiefs do; +and it gives meaning to the boast of neighbouring tribes--"Our god is +greater than your god." It is confirmed by the notion universally +current in early times, that the gods come from this other abode, in +which they commonly live, and appear among men--speak to them, help +them, punish them. And remembering this, it becomes manifest that the +prayers put up by primitive peoples to their gods for aid in battle, are +meant literally--that their gods are expected to come back from the +other kingdom they are reigning over, and once more fight the old +enemies they had before warred against so implacably; and it needs but +to name the Iliad, to remind every one how thoroughly they believed the +expectation fulfilled. + +All government, then, being originally that of the strong man who has +become a fetish by some manifestation of superiority, there arises, at +his death--his supposed departure on a long projected expedition, in +which he is accompanied by his slaves and concubines sacrificed at his +tomb--their arises, then, the incipient division of religious from +political control, of civil rule from spiritual. His son becomes deputed +chief during his absence; his authority is cited as that by which his +son acts; his vengeance is invoked on all who disobey his son; and his +commands, as previously known or as asserted by his son, become the germ +of a moral code; a fact we shall the more clearly perceive if we +remember, that early moral codes inculcate mainly the virtues of the +warrior, and the duty of exterminating some neighbouring tribe whose +existence is an offence to the deity. + +From this point onwards, these two kinds of authority, at first +complicated together as those of principal and agent, become slowly more +and more distinct. As experience accumulates, and ideas of causation +grow more precise, kings lose their supernatural attributes; and, +instead of God-king, become God-descended king, God-appointed king, the +Lord's anointed, the vicegerent of heaven, ruler reigning by Divine +right. The old theory, however, long clings to men in feeling, after it +has disappeared in name; and "such divinity doth hedge a king," that +even now, many, on first seeing one, feel a secret surprise at finding +him an ordinary sample of humanity. The sacredness attaching to royalty +attaches afterwards to its appended institutions--to legislatures, to +laws. Legal and illegal are synonymous with right and wrong; the +authority of Parliament is held unlimited; and a lingering faith in +governmental power continually generates unfounded hopes from its +enactments. Political scepticism, however, having destroyed the divine +_prestige_ of royalty, goes on ever increasing, and promises ultimately +to reduce the State to a purely secular institution, whose regulations +are limited in their sphere, and have no other authority than the +general will. Meanwhile, the religious control has been little by little +separating itself from the civil, both in its essence and in its forms. +While from the God-king of the savage have arisen in one direction, +secular rulers who, age by age, have been losing the sacred attributes +men ascribed to them; there has arisen in another direction, the +conception of a deity, who, at first human in all things, has been +gradually losing human materiality, human form, human passions, human +modes of action: until now, anthropomorphism has become a reproach. + +Along with this wide divergence in men's ideas of the divine and civil +ruler has been taking place a corresponding divergence in the codes of +conduct respectively proceeding from them. While the king was a +deputy-god--a governor such as the Jews looked for in the Messiah--a +governor considered, as the Czar still is, "our God upon Earth,"--it, of +course, followed that his commands were the supreme rules. But as men +ceased to believe in his supernatural origin and nature, his commands +ceased to be the highest; and there arose a distinction between the +regulations made by him, and the regulations handed down from the old +god-kings, who were rendered ever more sacred by time and the +accumulation of myths. Hence came respectively, Law and Morality: the +one growing ever more concrete, the other more abstract; the authority +of the one ever on the decrease, that of the other ever on the increase; +originally the same, but now placed daily in more marked antagonism. + +Simultaneously there has been going on a separation of the institutions +administering these two codes of conduct. While they were yet one, of +course Church and State were one: the king was arch-priest, not +nominally, but really--alike the giver of new commands and the chief +interpreter of the old commands; and the deputy-priests coming out of +his family were thus simply expounders of the dictates of their +ancestry: at first as recollected, and afterwards as ascertained by +professed interviews with them. This union--which still existed +practically during the middle ages, when the authority of kings was +mixed up with the authority of the pope, when there were bishop-rulers +having all the powers of feudal lords, and when priests punished by +penances--has been, step by step, becoming less close. Though monarchs +are still "defenders of the faith," and ecclesiastical chiefs, they are +but nominally such. Though bishops still have civil power, it is not +what they once had. Protestantism shook loose the bonds of union; +Dissent has long been busy in organising a mechanism for the exercise of +religious control, wholly independent of law; in America, a separate +organisation for that purpose already exists; and if anything is to be +hoped from the Anti-State-Church Association--or, as it has been newly +named, "The Society for the Liberation of Religion from State Patronage +and Control"--we shall presently have a separate organisation here also. + +Thus alike in authority, in essence, and in form, political and +spiritual rule have been ever more widely diverging from the same root. +That increasing division of labour which marks the progress of society +in other things, marks it also in this separation of government into +civil and religious; and if we observe how the morality which forms the +substance of religions in general, is beginning to be purified from the +associated creeds, we may anticipate that this division will be +ultimately carried much further. + +Passing now to the third species of control--that of Manners--we shall +find that this, too, while it had a common genesis with the others, has +gradually come to have a distinct sphere and a special embodiment. Among +early aggregations of men before yet social observances existed, the +sole forms of courtesy known were the signs of submission to the strong +man; as the sole law was his will, and the sole religion the awe of his +supposed supernaturalness. Originally, ceremonies were modes of +behaviour to the god-king. Our commonest titles have been derived from +his names. And all salutations were primarily worship paid to him. Let +us trace out these truths in detail, beginning with titles. + +The fact already noticed, that the names of early kings among divers +races are formed by the addition of certain syllables to the names of +their gods--which certain syllables, like our _Mac_ and _Fitz_, probably +mean "son of," or "descended from"--at once gives meaning to the term +_Father_ as a divine title. And when we read, in Selden, that "the +composition out of these names of Deities was not only proper to Kings: +their Grandes and more honourable Subjects" (no doubt members of the +royal race) "had sometimes the like;" we see how the term _Father_, +properly used by these also, and by their multiplying descendants, came +to be a title used by the people in general. And it is significant as +bearing on this point, that among the most barbarous nation in Europe, +where belief in the divine nature of the ruler still lingers, _Father_ +in this higher sense is still a regal distinction. When, again, we +remember how the divinity at first ascribed to kings was not a +complimentary fiction but a supposed fact; and how, further, under the +Fetish philosophy the celestial bodies are believed to be personages who +once lived among men; we see that the appellations of oriental rulers, +"Brother to the Sun," etc., were probably once expressive of a genuine +belief; and have simply, like many other things, continued in use after +all meaning has gone out of them. We way infer, too, that the titles, +God, Lord, Divinity, were given to primitive rulers literally--that the +_nostra divinitas_ applied to the Roman emperors, and the various sacred +designations that have been borne by monarchs, down to the still extant +phrase, "Our Lord the King," are the dead and dying forms of what were +once living facts. From these names, God, Father, Lord, Divinity, +originally belonging to the God-king, and afterwards to God and the +king, the derivation of our commonest titles of respect is clearly +traceable. + +There is reason to think that these titles were originally proper names. +Not only do we see among the Egyptians, where Pharaoh was synonymous +with king, and among the Romans, where to be Caesar meant to be Emperor, +that the proper names of the greatest men were transferred to their +successors, and so became class names; but in the Scandinavian mythology +we may trace a human title of honour up to the proper name of a divine +personage. In Anglo-Saxon _bealdor_, or _baldor_, means _Lord_; and +Balder is the name of the favourite of Odin's sons--the gods who with +him constitute the Teutonic Pantheon. How these names of honour became +general is easily understood. The relatives of the primitive kings--the +grandees described by Selden as having names formed on those of the +gods, and shown by this to be members of the divine race--necessarily +shared in the epithets, such as _Lord_, descriptive of superhuman +relationships and nature. Their ever-multiplying offspring inheriting +these, gradually rendered them comparatively common. And then they came +to be applied to every man of power: partly from the fact that, in these +early days when men conceived divinity simply as a stronger kind of +humanity, great persons could be called by divine epithets with but +little exaggeration; partly from the fact that the unusually potent were +apt to be considered as unrecognised or illegitimate descendants of "the +strong, the destroyer, the powerful one;" and partly, also, from +compliment and the desire to propitiate. + +Progressively as superstition diminished, this last became the sole +cause. And if we remember that it is the nature of compliment, as we +daily hear it, to attribute more than is due--that in the constantly +widening application of "esquire," in the perpetual repetition of "your +honour" by the fawning Irishman, and in the use of the name "gentleman" +to any coalheaver or dustman by the lower classes of London, we have +current examples of the depreciation of titles consequent on +compliment--and that in barbarous times, when the wish to propitiate was +stronger than now, this effect must have been greater; we shall see that +there naturally arose an extensive misuse of all early distinctions. +Hence the facts, that the Jews called Herod a god; that _Father_, in its +higher sense, was a term used among them by servants to masters; that +_Lord_ was applicable to any person of worth and power. Hence, too, the +fact that, in the later periods of the Roman Empire, every man saluted +his neighbour as _Dominus_ and _Rex_. + +But it is in the titles of the middle ages, and in the growth of our +modern ones out of them, that the process is most clearly seen. _Herr_, +_Don_, _Signior_, _Seigneur_, _Sennor_, were all originally names of +rulers--of feudal lords. By the complimentary use of these names to all +who could, on any pretence, be supposed to merit them, and by successive +degradations of them from each step in the descent to a still lower one, +they have come to be common forms of address. At first the phrase in +which a serf accosted his despotic chief, _mein herr_ is now familiarly +applied in Germany to ordinary people. The Spanish title _Don_, once +proper to noblemen and gentlemen only, is now accorded to all classes. +So, too, is it with _Signior_ in Italy. _Seigneur_ and _Monseigneur_, by +contraction in _Sieur_ and _Monsieur_, have produced the term of respect +claimed by every Frenchman. And whether _Sire_ be or be not a like +contraction of _Signior_, it is clear that, as it was borne by sundry of +the ancient feudal lords of France, who, as Selden says, "affected +rather to bee stiled by the name of _Sire_ than Baron, as _Le Sire de +Montmorencie_, _Le Sire de Beauieu_, and the like," and as it has been +commonly used to monarchs, our word _Sir_, which is derived from it, +originally meant lord or king. Thus, too, is it with feminine titles. +_Lady_, which, according to Horne Tooke, means _exalted_, and was at +first given only to the few, is now given to all women of education. +_Dame_, once an honourable name to which, in old books, we find the +epithets of "high-born" and "stately" affixed, has now, by repeated +widenings of its application, become relatively a term of contempt. And +if we trace the compound of this, _ma Dame_, through its +contractions--_Madam_, _ma'am_, _mam_, _mum_, we find that the "Yes'm" +of Sally to her mistress is originally equivalent to "Yes, my exalted," +or "Yes, your highness." Throughout, therefore, the genesis of words of +honour has been the same. Just as with the Jews and with the Romans, has +it been with the modern Europeans. Tracing these everyday names to their +primitive significations of _lord_ and _king_, and remembering that in +aboriginal societies these were applied only to the gods and their +descendants, we arrive at the conclusion that our familiar _Sir_ and +_Monsieur_ are, in their primary and expanded meanings, terms of +adoration. + +Further to illustrate this gradual depreciation of titles and to confirm +the inference drawn, it may be well to notice in passing, that the +oldest of them have, as might be expected, been depreciated to the +greatest extent. Thus, _Master_--a word proved by its derivation and by +the similarity of the connate words in other languages (Fr., _maitre_ +for _master_; Russ., _master_: Dan., _meester_; Ger., _meister_) to have +been one of the earliest in use for expressing lordship--has now become +applicable to children only, and under the modification of "Mister," to +persons next above the labourer. Again, knighthood, the oldest kind of +dignity, is also the lowest; and Knight Bachelor, which is the lowest +order of knighthood, is more ancient than any other of the orders. +Similarly, too, with the peerage, Baron is alike the earliest and least +elevated of its divisions. This continual degradation of all names of +honour has, from time to time, made it requisite to introduce new ones +having that distinguishing effect which the originals had lost by +generality of use; just as our habit of misapplying superlatives has, by +gradually destroying their force, entailed the need for fresh ones. And +if, within the last thousand years, this process has produced effects +thus marked, we may readily conceive how, during previous thousands, the +titles of gods and demi-gods came to be used to all persons exercising +power; as they have since come to be used to persons of respectability. + +If from names of honour we turn to phrases of honour, we find similar +facts. The Oriental styles of address, applied to ordinary people--"I am +your slave," "All I have is yours," "I am your sacrifice"--attribute to +the individual spoken to the same greatness that _Monsieur_ and _My +Lord_ do: they ascribe to him the character of an all-powerful ruler, so +immeasurably superior to the speaker as to be his owner. So, likewise, +with the Polish expressions of respect--"I throw myself under your +feet," "I kiss your feet." In our now meaningless subscription to a +formal letter--"Your most obedient servant,"--the same thing is visible. +Nay, even in the familiar signature "Yours faithfully," the "yours," if +interpreted as originally meant, is the expression of a slave to his +master. + +All these dead forms were once living embodiments of fact--were +primarily the genuine indications of that submission to authority which +they verbally assert; were afterwards naturally used by the weak and +cowardly to propitiate those above them; gradually grew to be considered +the due of such; and, by a continually wider misuse, have lost their +meanings, as _Sir_ and _Master_ have done. That, like titles, they were +in the beginning used only to the God-king, is indicated by the fact +that, like titles, they were subsequently used in common to God and the +king. Religious worship has ever largely consisted of professions of +obedience, of being God's servants, of belonging to him to do what he +will with. Like titles, therefore, these common phrases of honour had a +devotional origin. + +Perhaps, however, it is in the use of the word _you_ as a singular +pronoun that the popularising of what were once supreme distinctions is +most markedly illustrated. This speaking of a single individual in the +plural was originally an honour given only to the highest--was the +reciprocal of the imperial "we" assumed by such. Yet now, by being +applied to successively lower and lower classes, it has become all but +universal. Only by one sect of Christians, and in a few secluded +districts, is the primitive _thou_ still used. And the _you_, in +becoming common to all ranks, has simultaneously lost every vestige of +the honour once attaching to it. + +But the genesis of Manners out of forms of allegiance and worship is +above all shown in men's modes of salutation. Note first the +significance of the word. Among the Romans, the _salutatio_ was a daily +homage paid by clients and inferiors to superiors. This was alike the +case with civilians and in the army. The very derivation of our word, +therefore, is suggestive of submission. Passing to particular forms of +obeisance (mark the word again), let us begin with the Eastern one of +baring the feet. This was, primarily, a mark of reverence, alike to a +god and a king. The act of Moses before the burning bush, and the +practice of Mahometans, who are sworn on the Koran with their shoes off, +exemplify the one employment of it; the custom of the Persians, who +remove their shoes on entering the presence of their monarch, +exemplifies the other. As usual, however, this homage, paid next to +inferior rulers, has descended from grade to grade. In India, it is a +common mark of respect; a polite man in Turkey always leaves his shoes +at the door, while the lower orders of Turks never enter the presence of +their superiors but in their stockings; and in Japan, this baring of the +feet is an ordinary salutation of man to man. + +Take another case. Selden, describing the ceremonies of the Romans, +says:--"For whereas it was usual either to kiss the Images of their +Gods, or adoring them, to stand somewhat off before them, solemnly +moving the right hand to the lips, and then, casting it as if they had +cast kisses, to turne the body on the same hand (which was the right +forme of Adoration), it grew also by custom, first that the emperors, +being next to Deities, and by some accounted as Deities, had the like +done to them in acknowledgment of their Greatness." If, now, we call to +mind the awkward salute of a village school-boy, made by putting his +open hand up to his face and describing a semicircle with his forearm; +and if we remember that the salute thus used as a form of reverence in +country districts, is most likely a remnant of the feudal times; we +shall see reason for thinking that our common wave of the hand to a +friend across the street, represents what was primarily a devotional +act. + +Similarly have originated all forms of respect depending upon +inclinations of the body. Entire prostration is the aboriginal sign of +submission. The passage of Scripture, "Thou hast put all under his +feet," and that other one, so suggestive in its anthropomorphism, "The +Lord said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine +enemies thy footstool," imply, what the Assyrian sculptures fully bear +out, that it was the practice of the ancient god-kings of the East to +trample upon the conquered. And when we bear in mind that there are +existing savages who signify submission by placing the neck under the +foot of the person submitted to, it becomes obvious that all +prostration, especially when accompanied by kissing the foot, expressed +a willingness to be trodden upon--was an attempt to mitigate wrath by +saying, in signs, "Tread on me if you will." Remembering, further, that +kissing the foot, as of the Pope and of a saint's statue, still +continues in Europe to be a mark of extreme reverence; that prostration +to feudal lords was once general; and that its disappearance must have +taken place, not abruptly, but by gradual modification into something +else; we have ground for deriving from these deepest of humiliations all +inclinations of respect; especially as the transition is traceable. The +reverence of a Russian serf, who bends his head to the ground, and the +salaam of the Hindoo, are abridged prostrations; a bow is a short +salaam; a nod is a short bow. + +Should any hesitate to admit this conclusion, then perhaps, on being +reminded that the lowest of these obeisances are common where the +submission is most abject; that among ourselves the profundity of the +bow marks the amount of respect; and lastly, that the bow is even now +used devotionally in our churches--by Catholics to their altars, and by +Protestants at the name of Christ--they will see sufficient evidence for +thinking that this salutation also was originally worship. + +The same may be said, too, of the curtsy, or courtesy, as it is +otherwise written. Its derivation from _courtoisie_, courteousness, that +is, behaviour like that at court, at once shows that it was primarily +the reverence paid to a monarch. And if we call to mind that falling +upon the knees, or upon one knee, has been a common obeisance of +subjects to rulers; that in ancient manuscripts and tapestries, servants +are depicted as assuming this attitude while offering the dishes to +their masters at table; and that this same attitude is assumed towards +our own queen at every presentation; we may infer, what the character of +the curtsy itself suggests, that it is an abridged act of kneeling. As +the word has been contracted from _courtoisie_ into curtsy, so the +motion has been contracted from a placing of the knee on the floor, to a +lowering of the knee towards the floor. Moreover, when we compare the +curtsy of a lady with the awkward one a peasant girl makes, which, if +continued, would bring her down on both knees, we may see in this last a +remnant of that greater reverence required of serfs. And when, from +considering that simple kneeling of the West, still represented by the +curtsy, we pass Eastward, and note the attitude of the Mahometan +worshipper, who not only kneels but bows his head to the ground, we may +infer that the curtsy also is an evanescent form of the aboriginal +prostration. + +In further evidence of this it may be remarked, that there has but +recently disappeared from the salutations of men, an action having the +same proximate derivation with the curtsy. That backward sweep of the +foot with which the conventional stage-sailor accompanies his bow--a +movement which prevailed generally in past generations, when "a bow and +a scrape" went together, and which, within the memory of living persons, +was made by boys to their schoolmaster with the effect of wearing a hole +in the floor--is pretty clearly a preliminary to going on one knee. A +motion so ungainly could never have been intentionally introduced; even +if the artificial introduction of obeisances were possible. Hence we +must regard it as the remnant of something antecedent: and that this +something antecedent was humiliating may be inferred from the phrase, +"scraping an acquaintance;" which, being used to denote the gaining of +favour by obsequiousness, implies that the scrape was considered a mark +of servility--that is, of _serf_-ility. + +Consider, again, the uncovering of the head. Almost everywhere this has +been a sign of reverence, alike in temples and before potentates; and it +yet preserves among us some of its original meaning. Whether it rains, +hails, or shines, you must keep your head bare while speaking to the +monarch; and on no plea may you remain covered in a place of worship. As +usual, however, this ceremony, at first a submission to gods and kings, +has become in process of time a common civility. Once an acknowledgment +of another's unlimited supremacy, the removal of the hat is now a salute +accorded to very ordinary persons, and that uncovering, originally +reserved for entrance into "the house of God," good manners now +dictates on entrance into the house of a common labourer. + +Standing, too, as a mark of respect, has undergone like extensions in +its application. Shown, by the practice in our churches, to be +intermediate between the humiliation signified by kneeling and the +self-respect which sitting implies, and used at courts as a form of +homage when more active demonstrations of it have been made, this +posture is now employed in daily life to show consideration; as seen +alike in the attitude of a servant before a master, and in that rising +which politeness prescribes on the entrance of a visitor. + +Many other threads of evidence might have been woven into our argument. +As, for example, the significant fact, that if we trace back our still +existing law of primogeniture--if we consider it as displayed by +Scottish clans, in which not only ownership but government devolved from +the beginning on the eldest son of the eldest--if we look further back, +and observe that the old titles of lordship, _Signor_, _Seigneur_, +_Sennor_, _Sire_, _Sieur_, all originally mean, senior, or elder--if we +go Eastward, and find that _Sheick_ has a like derivation, and that the +Oriental names for priests, as _Pir_, for instance, are literally +interpreted _old man_--if we note in Hebrew records how primeval is the +ascribed superiority of the first-born, how great the authority of +elders, and how sacred the memory of patriarchs--and if, then, we +remember that among divine titles are "Ancient of Days," and "Father of +Gods and men;"--we see how completely these facts harmonise with the +hypothesis, that the aboriginal god is the first man sufficiently great +to become a tradition, the earliest whose power and deeds made him +remembered; that hence antiquity unavoidably became associated with +superiority, and age with nearness in blood to "the powerful one;" that +so there naturally arose that domination of the eldest which +characterises all history, and that theory of human degeneracy which +even yet survives. + +We might further dwell on the facts, that _Lord_ signifies high-born, +or, as the same root gives a word meaning heaven, possibly heaven-born; +that, before it became common, _Sir_ or _Sire_, as well as _Father_, was +the distinction of a priest; that _worship_, originally worth-ship--a +term of respect that has been used commonly, as well as to +magistrates--is also our term for the act of attributing greatness or +worth to the Deity; so that to ascribe worth-ship to a man is to worship +him. We might make much of the evidence that all early governments are +more or less distinctly theocratic; and that among ancient Eastern +nations even the commonest forms and customs appear to have been +influenced by religion. We might enforce our argument respecting the +derivation of ceremonies, by tracing out the aboriginal obeisance made +by putting dust on the head, which probably symbolises putting the head +in the dust: by affiliating the practice prevailing among certain +tribes, of doing another honour by presenting him with a portion of hair +torn from the head--an act which seems tantamount to saying, "I am your +slave;" by investigating the Oriental custom of giving to a visitor any +object he speaks of admiringly, which is pretty clearly a carrying out +of the compliment, "All I have is yours." + +Without enlarging, however, on these and many minor facts, we venture to +think that the evidence already assigned is sufficient to justify our +position. Had the proofs been few or of one kind, little faith could +have been placed in the inference. But numerous as they are, alike in +the case of titles, in that of complimentary phrases, and in that of +salutes--similar and simultaneous, too, as the process of depreciation +has been in all of these; the evidences become strong by mutual +confirmation. And when we recollect, also, that not only have the +results of this process been visible in various nations and in all +times, but that they are occurring among ourselves at the present +moment, and that the causes assigned for previous depreciations may be +seen daily working out other ones--when we recollect this, it becomes +scarcely possible to doubt that the process has been as alleged; and +that our ordinary words, acts, and phrases of civility were originally +acknowledgments of submission to another's omnipotence. + +Thus the general doctrine, that all kinds of government exercised over +men were at first one government--that the political, the religious, and +the ceremonial forms of control are divergent branches of a general and +once indivisible control--begins to look tenable. When, with the above +facts fresh in mind, we read primitive records, and find that "there +were giants in those days"--when we remember that in Eastern traditions +Nimrod, among others, figures in all the characters of giant king, and +divinity--when we turn to the sculptures exhumed by Mr. Layard, and +contemplating in them the effigies of kings driving over enemies, +trampling on prisoners, and adored by prostrate slaves, then observe how +their actions correspond to the primitive names for the divinity, "the +strong," "the destroyer," "the powerful one"--when we find that the +earliest temples were also the residences of the kings--and when, +lastly, we discover that among races of men still living there are +current superstitions analogous to those which old records and old +buildings indicate; we begin to realise the probability of the +hypothesis that has been set forth. + +Going back, in imagination, to the remote era when men's theories of +things were yet unformed; and conceiving to ourselves the conquering +chief as dimly figured in ancient myths, and poems, and ruins; we may +see that all rules of conduct whatever spring from his will. Alike +legislator and judge, all quarrels among his subjects are decided by +him; and his words become the Law. Awe of him is the incipient Religion; +and his maxims furnish its first precepts. Submission is made to him in +the forms he prescribes; and these give birth to Manners. From the +first, time develops political allegiance and the administration of +justice; from the second, the worship of a being whose personality +becomes ever more vague, and the inculcation of precepts ever more +abstract; from the third, forms of honour and the rules of etiquette. + +In conformity with the law of evolution of all organised bodies, that +general functions are gradually separated into the special functions +constituting them, there have grown up in the social organism for the +better performance of the governmental office, an apparatus of +law-courts, judges, and barristers; a national church, with its bishops +and priests; and a system of caste, titles, and ceremonies, administered +by society at large. By the first, overt aggressions are cognised and +punished; by the second, the disposition to commit such aggressions is +in some degree checked; by the third, those minor breaches of good +conduct, which the others do not notice, are denounced and chastised. +Law and Religion control behaviour in its essentials: Manners control it +in its details. For regulating those daily actions which are too +numerous and too unimportant to be officially directed, there comes into +play this subtler set of restraints. And when we consider what these +restraints are--when we analyse the words, and phrases, and salutes +employed, we see that in origin as in effect, the system is a setting up +of temporary governments between all men who come in contact, for the +purpose of better managing the intercourse between them. + + * * * * * + +From the proposition, that these several kinds of government are +essentially one, both in genesis and function, may be deduced several +important corollaries, directly bearing on our special topic. + +Let us first notice, that there is not only a common origin and office +for all forms of rule, but a common necessity for them. The aboriginal +man, coming fresh from the killing of bears and from lying in ambush for +his enemy, has, by the necessities of his condition, a nature requiring +to be curbed in its every impulse. Alike in war and in the chase, his +daily discipline has been that of sacrificing other creatures to his own +needs and passions. His character, bequeathed to him by ancestors who +led similar lives, is moulded by this discipline--is fitted to this +existence. The unlimited selfishness, the love of inflicting pain, the +blood-thirstiness, thus kept active, he brings with him into the social +state. These dispositions put him in constant danger of conflict with +his equally savage neighbour. In small things as in great, in words as +in deeds, he is aggressive; and is hourly liable to the aggressions of +others like natured. Only, therefore, by the most rigorous control +exercised over all actions, can the primitive unions of men be +maintained. There must be a ruler strong, remorseless, and of +indomitable will; there must be a creed terrible in its threats to the +disobedient; and there must be the most servile submission of all +inferiors to superiors. The law must be cruel; the religion must be +stern; the ceremonies must be strict. + +The co-ordinate necessity for these several kinds of restraint might be +largely illustrated from history were there space. Suffice it to point +out, that where the civil power has been weak, the multiplication of +thieves, assassins, and banditti, has indicated the approach of social +dissolution; that when, from the corruptness of its ministry, religion +has lost its influence, as it did just before the Flagellants appeared, +the State has been endangered; and that the disregard of established +social observances has ever been an accompaniment of political +revolutions. Whoever doubts the necessity for a government of manners +proportionate in strength to the co-existing political and religious +governments, will be convinced on calling to mind that until recently +even elaborate codes of behaviour failed to keep gentlemen from +quarrelling in the streets and fighting duels in taverns; and on +remembering further, that even now people exhibit at the doors of a +theatre, where there is no ceremonial law to rule them, a degree of +aggressiveness which would produce confusion if carried into social +intercourse. + +As might be expected, we find that, having a common origin and like +general functions, these several controlling agencies act during each +era with similar degrees of vigour. Under the Chinese despotism, +stringent and multitudinous in its edicts and harsh in the enforcement +of them, and associated with which there is an equally stern domestic +despotism exercised by the eldest surviving male of the family, there +exists a system of observances alike complicated and rigid. There is a +tribunal of ceremonies. Previous to presentation at court, ambassadors +pass many days in practising the required forms. Social intercourse is +cumbered by endless compliments and obeisances. Class distinctions are +strongly marked by badges. The chief regret on losing an only son is, +that there will be no one to perform the sepulchral rites. And if there +wants a definite measure of the respect paid to social ordinances, we +have it in the torture to which ladies submit in having their feet +crushed. In India, and indeed throughout the East, there exists a like +connection between the pitiless tyranny of rulers, the dread terrors of +immemorial creeds, and the rigid restraint of unchangeable customs: the +caste regulations continue still unalterable; the fashions of clothes +and furniture have remained the same for ages; suttees are so ancient as +to be mentioned by Strabo and Diodorus Siculus; justice is still +administered at the palace-gates as of old; in short, "every usage is a +precept of religion and a maxim of jurisprudence." + +A similar relationship of phenomena was exhibited in Europe during the +Middle Ages. While all its governments were autocratic, while feudalism +held sway, while the Church was unshorn of its power, while the criminal +code was full of horrors and the hell of the popular creed full of +terrors, the rules of behaviour were both more numerous and more +carefully conformed to than now. Differences of dress marked divisions +of rank. Men were limited by law to a certain width of shoe-toes; and no +one below a specified degree might wear a cloak less than so many inches +long. The symbols on banners and shields were carefully attended to. +Heraldry was an important branch of knowledge. Precedence was strictly +insisted on. And those various salutes of which we now use the +abridgments were gone through in full. Even during our own last century, +with its corrupt House of Commons and little-curbed monarchs, we may +mark a correspondence of social formalities. Gentlemen were still +distinguished from lower classes by dress; people sacrificed themselves +to inconvenient requirements--as powder, hooped petticoats, and towering +head-dresses; and children addressed their parents as _Sir_ and +_Madam_. + +A further corollary naturally following this last, and almost, indeed, +forming part of it, is, that these several kinds of government decrease +in stringency at the same rate. Simultaneously with the decline in the +influence of priesthoods, and in the fear of eternal +torments--simultaneously with the mitigation of political tyranny, the +growth of popular power, and the amelioration of criminal codes; has +taken place that diminution of formalities and that fading of +distinctive marks, now so observable. Looking at home, we may note that +there is less attention to precedence than there used to be. No one in +our day ends an interview with the phrase "your humble servant." The +employment of the word _Sir_, once general in social intercourse, is at +present considered bad breeding; and on the occasions calling for them, +it is held vulgar to use the words "Your Majesty," or "Your Royal +Highness," more than once in a conversation. People no longer formally +drink each other's healths; and even the taking wine with each other at +dinner has ceased to be fashionable. The taking-off of hats between +gentlemen has been gradually falling into disuse. Even when the hat is +removed, it is no longer swept out at arm's length, but is simply +lifted. Hence the remark made upon us by foreigners, that we take off +our hats less than any other nation in Europe--a remark that should be +coupled with the other, that we are the freest nation in Europe. + +As already implied, this association of facts is not accidental. These +titles of address and modes of salutation, bearing about them, as they +all do, something of that servility which marks their origin, become +distasteful in proportion as men become more independent themselves, and +sympathise more with the independence of others. The feeling which makes +the modern gentleman tell the labourer standing bareheaded before him to +put on his hat--the feeling which gives us a dislike to those who cringe +and fawn--the feeling which makes us alike assert our own dignity and +respect that of others--the feeling which thus leads us more and more to +discountenance all forms and names which confess inferiority and +submission; is the same feeling which resists despotic power and +inaugurates popular government, denies the authority of the Church and +establishes the right of private judgment. + +A fourth fact, akin to the foregoing, is, that these several kinds of +government not only decline together, but corrupt together. By the same +process that a Court of Chancery becomes a place not for the +administration of justice, but for the withholding of it--by the same +process that a national church, from being an agency for moral control, +comes to be merely a thing of formulas and tithes and bishoprics--by +this same process do titles and ceremonies that once had a meaning and a +power become empty forms. + +Coats of arms which served to distinguish men in battle, now figure on +the carriage panels of retired grocers. Once a badge of high military +rank, the shoulder-knot has become, on the modern footman, a mark of +servitude. The name Banneret, which once marked a partially-created +Baron--a Baron who had passed his military "little go"--is now, under +the modification of Baronet, applicable to any one favoured by wealth or +interest or party feeling. Knighthood has so far ceased to be an honour, +that men now honour themselves by declining it. The military dignity +_Escuyer_ has, in the modern Esquire, become a wholly unmilitary affix. +Not only do titles, and phrases, and salutes cease to fulfil their +original functions, but the whole apparatus of social forms tends to +become useless for its original purpose--the facilitation of social +intercourse. Those most learned in ceremonies, and most precise in the +observance of them, are not always the best behaved; as those deepest +read in creeds and scriptures are not therefore the most religious; nor +those who have the clearest notions of legality and illegality, the most +honest. Just as lawyers are of all men the least noted for probity; as +cathedral towns have a lower moral character than most others; so, if +Swift is to be believed, courtiers are "the most insignificant race of +people that the island can afford, and with the smallest tincture of +good manners." + +But perhaps it is in that class of social observances comprehended under +the term Fashion, which we must here discuss parenthetically, that this +process of corruption is seen with the greatest distinctness. As +contrasted with Manners, which dictate our minor acts in relation to +other persons, Fashion dictates our minor acts in relation to ourselves. +While the one prescribes that part of our deportment which directly +affects our neighbours; the other prescribes that part of our deportment +which is primarily personal, and in which our neighbours are concerned +only as spectators. Thus distinguished as they are, however, the two +have a common source. For while, as we have shown, Manners originate by +imitation of the behaviour pursued _towards_ the great; Fashion +originates by imitation _of_ the behaviour of the great. While the one +has its derivation in the titles, phrases, and salutes used _to_ those +in power; the other is derived from the habits and appearances exhibited +_by_ those in power. + +The Carrib mother who squeezes her child's head into a shape like that +of the chief; the young savage who makes marks on himself similar to the +scars carried by the warriors of his tribe (which is probably the origin +of tattooing); the Highlander who adopts the plaid worn by the head of +his clan; the courtiers who affect greyness, or limp, or cover their +necks, in imitation of their king; and the people who ape the courtiers; +are alike acting under a kind of government connate with that of +Manners, and, like it too, primarily beneficial. For notwithstanding the +numberless absurdities into which this copyism has led the people, from +nose-rings to ear-rings, from painted faces to beauty-spots, from shaven +heads to powdered wigs, from filed teeth and stained nails to +bell-girdles, peaked shoes, and breeches stuffed with bran,--it must yet +be concluded, that as the strong men, the successful men, the men of +will, intelligence, and originality, who have got to the top, are, on +the average, more likely to show judgment in their habits and tastes +than the mass, the imitation of such is advantageous. + +By and by, however, Fashion, corrupting like these other forms of rule, +almost wholly ceases to be an imitation of the best, and becomes an +imitation of quite other than the best. As those who take orders are not +those having a special fitness for the priestly office, but those who +see their way to a living by it; as legislators and public functionaries +do not become such by virtue of their political insight and power to +rule, but by virtue of birth, acreage, and class influence; so, the +self-elected clique who set the fashion, gain this prerogative, not by +their force of nature, their intellect, their higher worth or better +taste, but gain it solely by their unchecked assumption. Among the +initiated are to be found neither the noblest in rank, the chief in +power, the best cultured, the most refined, nor those of greatest +genius, wit, or beauty; and their reunions, so far from being superior +to others, are noted for their inanity. Yet, by the example of these +sham great, and not by that of the truly great, does society at large +now regulate its goings and comings, its hours, its dress, its small +usages. As a natural consequence, these have generally little or none of +that suitableness which the theory of fashion implies they should have. +But instead of a continual progress towards greater elegance and +convenience, which might be expected to occur did people copy the ways +of the really best, or follow their own ideas of propriety, we have a +reign of mere whim, of unreason, of change for the sake of change, of +wanton oscillations from either extreme to the other--a reign of usages +without meaning, times without fitness, dress without taste. And thus +life _a la mode_, instead of being life conducted in the most rational +manner, is life regulated by spendthrifts and idlers, milliners and +tailors, dandies and silly women. + +To these several corollaries--that the various orders of control +exercised over men have a common origin and a common function, are +called out by co-ordinate necessities and co-exist in like stringency, +decline together and corrupt together--it now only remains to add that +they become needless together. Consequent as all kinds of government are +upon the unfitness of the aboriginal man for social life; and +diminishing in coerciveness as they all do in proportion as this +unfitness diminishes; they must one and all come to an end as humanity +acquires complete adaptation to its new conditions. That discipline of +circumstances which has already wrought out such great changes in us, +must go on eventually to work out yet greater ones. That daily curbing +of the lower nature and culture of the higher, which out of cannibals +and devil worshippers has evolved philanthropists, lovers of peace, and +haters of superstition, cannot fail to evolve out of these, men as much +superior to them as they are to their progenitors. The causes that have +produced past modifications are still in action; must continue in action +as long as there exists any incongruity between man's desires and the +requirements of the social state; and must eventually make him +organically fit for the social state. As it is now needless to forbid +man-eating and Fetishism, so will it ultimately become needless to +forbid murder, theft, and the minor offences of our criminal code. When +human nature has grown into conformity with the moral law, there will +need no judges and statute-books; when it spontaneously takes the right +course in all things, as in some things it does already, prospects of +future reward or punishment will not be wanted as incentives; and when +fit behaviour has become instinctive, there will need no code of +ceremonies to say how behaviour shall be regulated. + +Thus, then, may be recognised the meaning, the naturalness, the +necessity of those various eccentricities of reformers which we set out +by describing. They are not accidental; they are not mere personal +caprices, as people are apt to suppose. On the contrary, they are +inevitable results of the law of relationship above illustrated. That +community of genesis, function, and decay which all forms of restraint +exhibit, is simply the obverse of the fact at first pointed out, that +they have in two sentiments of human nature a common preserver and a +common destroyer. Awe of power originates and cherishes them all: love +of freedom undermines and periodically weakens them all. The one defends +despotism and asserts the supremacy of laws, adheres to old creeds and +supports ecclesiastical authority, pays respect to titles and conserves +forms; the other, putting rectitude above legality, achieves periodical +instalments of political liberty, inaugurates Protestantism and works +out its consequences, ignores the senseless dictates of Fashion and +emancipates men from dead customs. + +To the true reformer no institution is sacred, no belief above +criticism. Everything shall conform itself to equity and reason; nothing +shall be saved by its prestige. Conceding to each man liberty to pursue +his own ends and satisfy his own tastes, he demands for himself like +liberty; and consents to no restrictions on this, save those which other +men's equal claims involve. No matter whether it be an ordinance of one +man, or an ordinance of all men, if it trenches on his legitimate sphere +of action, he denies its validity. The tyranny that would impose on him +a particular style of dress and a set mode of behaviour, he resists +equally with the tyranny that would limit his buyings and sellings, or +dictate his creed. Whether the regulation be formally made by a +legislature, or informally made by society at large--whether the penalty +for disobedience be imprisonment, or frowns and social ostracism, he +sees to be a question of no moment. He will utter his belief +notwithstanding the threatened punishment; he will break conventions +spite of the petty persecutions that will be visited on him. Show him +that his actions are inimical to his fellow-men, and he will pause. +Prove that he is disregarding their legitimate claims--that he is doing +what in the nature of things must produce unhappiness; and he will alter +his course. But until you do this--until you demonstrate that his +proceedings are essentially inconvenient or inelegant, essentially +irrational, unjust, or ungenerous, he will persevere. + +Some, indeed, argue that his conduct _is_ unjust and ungenerous. They +say that he has no right to annoy other people by his whims; that the +gentleman to whom his letter comes with no "Esq." appended to the +address, and the lady whose evening party he enters with gloveless +hands, are vexed at what they consider his want of respect, or want of +breeding; that thus his eccentricities cannot be indulged save at the +expense of his neighbours' feelings; and that hence his nonconformity is +in plain terms selfishness. + +He answers that this position, if logically developed, would deprive men +of all liberty whatever. Each must conform all his acts to the public +taste, and not his own. The public taste on every point having been once +ascertained, men's habits must thenceforth remain for ever fixed; seeing +that no man can adopt other habits without sinning against the public +taste, and giving people disagreeable feelings. Consequently, be it an +era of pig-tails or high-heeled shoes, of starched ruffs or trunk-hose, +all must continue to wear pig-tails, high-heeled shoes, starched ruffs, +or trunk-hose to the crack of doom. + +If it be still urged that he is not justified in breaking through +others' forms that he may establish his own, and so sacrificing the +wishes of many to the wishes of one, he replies that all religious and +political changes might be negatived on like grounds. He asks whether +Luther's sayings and doings were not extremely offensive to the mass of +his contemporaries; whether the resistance of Hampden was not disgusting +to the time-servers around him; whether every reformer has not shocked +men's prejudices, and given immense displeasure by the opinions he +uttered. The affirmative answer he follows up by demanding what right +the reformer has, then, to utter these opinions; whether he is not +sacrificing the feelings of many to the feelings of one; and so proves +that, to be consistent, his antagonists must condemn not only all +nonconformity in actions, but all nonconformity in thoughts. + +His antagonists rejoin that _his_ position, too, may be pushed to an +absurdity. They argue that if a man may offend by the disregard of some +forms, he may as legitimately do so by the disregard of all; and they +inquire--Why should he not go out to dinner in a dirty shirt, and with +an unshorn chin? Why should he not spit on the drawing-room carpet, and +stretch his heels up to the mantle-shelf? + +The convention-breaker answers, that to ask this, implies a confounding +of two widely-different classes of actions--the actions that are +_essentially_ displeasurable to those around, with the actions that are +but _incidentally_ displeasurable to them. He whose skin is so unclean +as to offend the nostrils of his neighbours, or he who talks so loudly +as to disturb a whole room, may be justly complained of, and rightly +excluded by society from its assemblies. But he who presents himself in +a surtout in place of a dress-coat, or in brown trousers instead of +black, gives offence not to men's senses, or their innate tastes, but +merely to their prejudices, their bigotry of convention. It cannot be +said that his costume is less elegant or less intrinsically appropriate +than the one prescribed; seeing that a few hours earlier in the day it +is admired. It is the implied rebellion, therefore, that annoys. How +little the cause of quarrel has to do with the dress itself, is seen in +the fact that a century ago black clothes would have been thought +preposterous for hours of recreation, and that a few years hence some +now forbidden style may be nearer the requirements of Fashion than the +present one. Thus the reformer explains that it is not against the +natural restraints, but against the artificial ones, that he protests; +and that manifestly the fire of sneers and angry glances which he has to +bear, is poured upon him because he will not bow down to the idol which +society has set up. + +Should he be asked how we are to distinguish between conduct that is +_absolutely_ disagreeable to others, and conduct that is _relatively_ +so, he answers, that they will distinguish themselves if men will let +them. Actions intrinsically repugnant will ever be frowned upon, and +must ever remain as exceptional as now. Actions not intrinsically +repugnant will establish themselves as proper. No relaxation of customs +will introduce the practice of going to a party in muddy boots, and with +unwashed hands; for the dislike of dirt would continue were Fashion +abolished to-morrow. That love of approbation which now makes people so +solicitous to be _en regle_ would still exist--would still make them +careful of their personal appearance--would still induce them to seek +admiration by making themselves ornamental--would still cause them to +respect the natural laws of good behaviour, as they now do the +artificial ones. The change would simply be from a repulsive monotony to +a picturesque variety. And if there be any regulations respecting which +it is uncertain whether they are based on reality or on convention, +experiment will soon decide, if due scope be allowed. + +When at length the controversy comes round, as controversies often do, +to the point whence it started, and the "party of order" repeat their +charge against the rebel, that he is sacrificing the feelings of others +to the gratification of his own wilfulness, he replies once for all that +they cheat themselves by misstatements. He accuses them of being so +despotic, that, not content with being masters over their own ways and +habits, they would be masters over his also; and grumble because he +will not let them. He merely asks the same freedom which they exercise; +they, however, propose to regulate his course as well as their own--to +cut and clip his mode of life into agreement with their approved +pattern; and then charge him with wilfulness and selfishness, because he +does not quietly submit! He warns them that he shall resist, +nevertheless; and that he shall do so, not only for the assertion of his +own independence, but for their good. He tells them that they are +slaves, and know it not; that they are shackled, and kiss their chains; +that they have lived all their days in prison, and complain at the walls +being broken down. He says he must persevere, however, with a view to +his own release; and in spite of their present expostulations, he +prophesies that when they have recovered from the fright which the +prospect of freedom produces, they will thank him for aiding in their +emancipation. + +Unamiable as seems this find-fault mood, offensive as is this defiant +attitude, we must beware of overlooking the truths enunciated, in +dislike of the advocacy. It is an unfortunate hindrance to all +innovation, that in virtue of their very function, the innovators stand +in a position of antagonism; and the disagreeable manners, and sayings, +and doings, which this antagonism generates, are commonly associated +with the doctrines promulgated. Quite forgetting that whether the thing +attacked be good or bad, the combative spirit is necessarily repulsive; +and quite forgetting that the toleration of abuses seems amiable merely +from its passivity; the mass of men contract a bias against advanced +views, and in favour of stationary ones, from intercourse with their +respective adherents. "Conservatism," as Emerson says, "is debonnair and +social; reform is individual and imperious." And this remains true, +however vicious the system conserved, however righteous the reform to be +effected. Nay, the indignation of the purists is usually extreme in +proportion as the evils to be got rid of are great. The more urgent the +required change, the more intemperate is the vehemence of its promoters. +Let no one, then, confound with the principles of this social +nonconformity the acerbity and the disagreeable self-assertion of those +who first display it. + + * * * * * + +The most plausible objection raised against resistance to conventions, +is grounded on its impolicy, considered even from the progressist's +point of view. It is urged by many of the more liberal and +intelligent--usually those who have themselves shown some independence +of behaviour in earlier days--that to rebel in these small matters is to +destroy your own power of helping on reform in greater matters. "If you +show yourself eccentric in manners or dress, the world," they say, "will +not listen to you. You will be considered as crotchety, and +impracticable. The opinions you express on important subjects, which +might have been treated with respect had you conformed on minor points, +will now inevitably be put down among your singularities; and thus, by +dissenting in trifles, you disable yourself from spreading dissent in +essentials." + +Only noting, as we pass, that this is one of those anticipations which +bring about their own fulfilment--that it is because most who disapprove +these conventions do not show their disapproval, that the few who do +show it look eccentric--and that did all act out their convictions, no +such inference as the above would be drawn, and no such evil would +result;--noting this as we pass, we go on to reply that these social +restraints, and forms, and requirements, are not small evils, but among +the greatest. Estimate their sum total, and we doubt whether they would +not exceed most others. Could we add up the trouble, the cost, the +jealousies, vexations, misunderstandings, the loss of time and the loss +of pleasure, which these conventions entail--could we clearly realise +the extent to which we are all daily hampered by them, daily enslaved by +them; we should perhaps come to the conclusion that the tyranny of Mrs. +Grundy is worse than any other tyranny we suffer under. Let us look at a +few of its hurtful results; beginning with those of minor importance. + +It produces extravagance. The desire to be _comme il faut_, which +underlies all conformities, whether of manners, dress, or styles of +entertainment, is the desire which makes many a spendthrift and many a +bankrupt. To "keep up appearances," to have a house in an approved +quarter furnished in the latest taste, to give expensive dinners and +crowded _soirees_, is an ambition forming the natural outcome of the +conformist spirit. It is needless to enlarge on these follies: they have +been satirised by hosts of writers, and in every drawing-room. All that +here concerns us, is to point out that the respect for social +observances, which men think so praiseworthy, has the same root with +this effort to be fashionable in mode of living; and that, other things +equal, the last cannot be diminished without the first being diminished +also. If, now, we consider all that this extravagance entails--if we +count up the robbed tradesmen, the stinted governesses, the +ill-educated children, the fleeced relatives, who have to suffer from +it--if we mark the anxiety and the many moral delinquencies which its +perpetrators involve themselves in; we shall see that this regard for +conventions is not quite so innocent as it looks. + +Again, it decreases the amount of social intercourse. Passing over the +reckless, and those who make a great display on speculation with the +occasional result of getting on in the world to the exclusion of much +better men, we come to the far larger class who, being prudent and +honest enough not to exceed their means, and yet having a strong wish to +be "respectable," are obliged to limit their entertainments to the +smallest possible number; and that each of these may be turned to the +greatest advantage in meeting the claims upon their hospitality, are +induced to issue their invitations with little or no regard to the +comfort or mutual fitness of their guests. A few inconveniently-large +assemblies, made up of people mostly strange to each other or but +distantly acquainted, and having scarcely any tastes in common, are made +to serve in place of many small parties of friends intimate enough to +have some bond of thought and sympathy. Thus the quantity of intercourse +is diminished, and the quality deteriorated. Because it is the custom to +make costly preparations and provide costly refreshments; and because it +entails both less expense and less trouble to do this for many persons +on a few occasions than for few persons on many occasions; the reunions +of our less wealthy classes are rendered alike infrequent and tedious. + +Let it be further observed, that the existing formalities of social +intercourse drive away many who most need its refining influence: and +drive them into injurious habits and associations. Not a few men, and +not the least sensible men either, give up in disgust this going out to +stately dinners, and stiff evening-parties; and instead, seek society in +clubs, and cigar-divans, and taverns. "I'm sick of this standing about +in drawing-rooms, talking nonsense, and trying to look happy," will +answer one of them when taxed with his desertion. "Why should I any +longer waste time and money, and temper? Once I was ready enough to rush +home from the office to dress; I sported embroidered shirts, submitted +to tight boots, and cared nothing for tailors' and haberdashers' bills. +I know better now. My patience lasted a good while; for though I found +each night pass stupidly, I always hoped the next would make amends. But +I'm undeceived. Cab-hire and kid gloves cost more than any evening +party pays for; or rather--it is worth the cost of them to avoid the +party. No, no; I'll no more of it. Why should I pay five shillings a +time for the privilege of being bored?" + +If, now, we consider that this very common mood tends towards +billiard-rooms, towards long sittings over cigars and brandy-and-water, +towards Evans's and the Coal Hole, towards every place where amusement +may be had; it becomes a question whether these precise observances +which hamper our set meetings, have not to answer for much of the +prevalent dissoluteness. Men must have excitements of some kind or +other; and if debarred from higher ones will fall back upon lower. It is +not that those who thus take to irregular habits are essentially those +of low tastes. Often it is quite the reverse. Among half a dozen +intimate friends, abandoning formalities and sitting at ease round the +fire, none will enter with greater enjoyment into the highest kind of +social intercourse--the genuine communion of thought and feeling; and if +the circle includes women of intelligence and refinement, so much the +greater is their pleasure. It is because they will no longer be choked +with the mere dry husks of conversation which society offers them, that +they fly its assemblies, and seek those with whom they may have +discourse that is at least real, though unpolished. The men who thus +long for substantial mental sympathy, and will go where they can get it, +are often, indeed, much better at the core than the men who are content +with the inanities of gloved and scented party-goers--men who feel no +need to come morally nearer to their fellow creatures than they can come +while standing, tea-cup in hand, answering trifles with trifles; and +who, by feeling no such need, prove themselves shallow-thoughted and +cold-hearted. + +It is true, that some who shun drawing-rooms do so from inability to +bear the restraints prescribed by a genuine refinement, and that they +would be greatly improved by being kept under these restraints. But it +is not less true that, by adding to the legitimate restraints, which are +based on convenience and a regard for others, a host of factitious +restraints based only on convention, the refining discipline, which +would else have been borne with benefit, is rendered unbearable, and so +misses its end. Excess of government invariably defeats itself by +driving away those to be governed. And if over all who desert its +entertainments in disgust either at their emptiness or their formality, +society thus loses its salutary influence--if such not only fail to +receive that moral culture which the company of ladies, when rationally +regulated, would give them, but, in default of other relaxation, are +driven into habits and companionships which often end in gambling and +drunkenness; must we not say that here, too, is an evil not to be passed +over as insignificant? + +Then consider what a blighting effect these multitudinous preparations +and ceremonies have upon the pleasures they profess to subserve. Who, on +calling to mind the occasions of his highest social enjoyments, does not +find them to have been wholly informal, perhaps impromptu? How +delightful a picnic of friends, who forget all observances save those +dictated by good nature! How pleasant the little unpretended gatherings +of book-societies, and the like; or those purely accidental meetings of +a few people well known to each other! Then, indeed, we may see that "a +man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend." Cheeks flush, and eyes +sparkle. The witty grow brilliant, and even the dull are excited into +saying good things. There is an overflow of topics; and the right +thought, and the right words to put it in, spring up unsought. Grave +alternates with gay: now serious converse, and now jokes, anecdotes, and +playful raillery. Every one's best nature is shown, every one's best +feelings are in pleasurable activity; and, for the time, life seems well +worth having. + +Go now and dress for some half-past eight dinner, or some ten o'clock +"at home;" and present yourself in spotless attire, with every hair +arranged to perfection. How great the difference! The enjoyment seems in +the inverse ratio of the preparation. These figures, got up with such +finish and precision, appear but half alive. They have frozen each other +by their primness; and your faculties feel the numbing effects of the +atmosphere the moment you enter it. All those thoughts, so nimble and so +apt awhile since, have disappeared--have suddenly acquired a +preternatural power of eluding you. If you venture a remark to your +neighbour, there comes a trite rejoinder, and there it ends. No subject +you can hit upon outlives half a dozen sentences. Nothing that is said +excites any real interest in you; and you feel that all you say is +listened to with apathy. By some strange magic, things that usually give +pleasure seem to have lost all charm. + +You have a taste for art. Weary of frivolous talk, you turn to the +table, and find that the book of engravings and the portfolio of +photographs are as flat as the conversation. You are fond of music. Yet +the singing, good as it is, you hear with utter indifference; and say +"Thank you" with a sense of being a profound hypocrite. Wholly at ease +though you could be, for your own part, you find that your sympathies +will not let you. You see young gentlemen feeling whether their ties are +properly adjusted, looking vacantly round, and considering what they +shall do next. You see ladies sitting disconsolately, waiting for some +one to speak to them, and wishing they had the wherewith to occupy their +fingers. You see the hostess standing about the doorway, keeping a +factitious smile on her face, and racking her brain to find the +requisite nothings with which to greet her guests as they enter. You see +numberless traits of weariness and embarrassment; and, if you have any +fellow-feeling, these cannot fail to produce a feeling of discomfort. +The disorder is catching; and do what you will you cannot resist the +general infection. You struggle against it; you make spasmodic efforts +to be lively; but none of your sallies or your good stories do more than +raise a simper or a forced laugh: intellect and feeling are alike +asphyxiated. And when, at length, yielding to your disgust, you rush +away, how great is the relief when you get into the fresh air, and see +the stars! How you "Thank God, that's over!" and half resolve to avoid +all such boredom for the future! + +What, now, is the secret of this perpetual miscarriage and +disappointment? Does not the fault lie with all these needless +adjuncts--these elaborate dressings, these set forms, these expensive +preparations, these many devices and arrangements that imply trouble and +raise expectation? Who that has lived thirty years in the world has not +discovered that Pleasure is coy; and must not be too directly pursued, +but must be caught unawares? An air from a street-piano, heard while at +work, will often gratify more than the choicest music played at a +concert by the most accomplished musicians. A single good picture seen +in a dealer's window, may give keener enjoyment than a whole exhibition +gone through with catalogue and pencil. By the time we have got ready +our elaborate apparatus by which to secure happiness, the happiness is +gone. It is too subtle to be contained in these receivers, garnished +with compliments, and fenced round with etiquette. The more we multiply +and complicate appliances, the more certain are we to drive it away. + +The reason is patent enough. These higher emotions to which social +intercourse ministers, are of extremely complex nature; they +consequently depend for their production upon very numerous conditions; +the more numerous the conditions, the greater the liability that one or +other of them will be disturbed, and the emotions consequently +prevented. It takes a considerable misfortune to destroy appetite; but +cordial sympathy with those around may be extinguished by a look or a +word. Hence it follows, that the more multiplied the _unnecessary_ +requirements with which social intercourse is surrounded, the less +likely are its pleasures to be achieved. It is difficult enough to +fulfil continuously all the _essentials_ to a pleasurable communion with +others: how much more difficult, then, must it be continuously to fulfil +a host of _non-essentials_ also! It is, indeed, impossible. The attempt +inevitably ends in the sacrifice of the first to the last--the +essentials to the non-essentials. What chance is there of getting any +genuine response from the lady who is thinking of your stupidity in +taking her in to dinner on the wrong arm? How are you likely to have +agreeable converse with the gentleman who is fuming internally because +he is not placed next to the hostess? Formalities, familiar as they may +become, necessarily occupy attention--necessarily multiply the occasions +for mistake, misunderstanding, and jealousy, on the part of one or +other--necessarily distract all minds from the thoughts and feelings +that should occupy them--necessarily, therefore, subvert those +conditions under which only any sterling intercourse is to be had. + +And this indeed is the fatal mischief which these conventions entail--a +mischief to which every other is secondary. They destroy those highest +of our pleasures which they profess to subserve. All institutions are +alike in this, that however useful, and needful even, they originally +were, they not only in the end cease to be so, but become detrimental. +While humanity is growing, they continue fixed; daily get more +mechanical and unvital; and by and by tend to strangle what they before +preserved. It is not simply that they become corrupt and fail to act: +they become obstructions. Old forms of government finally grow so +oppressive, that they must be thrown off even at the risk of reigns of +terror. Old creeds end in being dead formulas, which no longer aid but +distort and arrest the general mind; while the State-churches +administering them, come to be instruments for subsidising conservatism +and repressing progress. Old schemes of education, incarnated in public +schools and colleges, continue filling the heads of new generations with +what has become relatively useless knowledge, and, by consequence, +excluding knowledge which is useful. Not an organisation of any +kind--political, religious, literary, philanthropic--but what, by its +ever-multiplying regulations, its accumulating wealth, its yearly +addition of officers, and the creeping into it of patronage and party +feeling, eventually loses its original spirit, and sinks into a mere +lifeless mechanism, worked with a view to private ends--a mechanism +which not merely fails of its first purpose, but is a positive hindrance +to it. + +Thus is it, too, with social usages. We read of the Chinese that they +have "ponderous ceremonies transmitted from time immemorial," which make +social intercourse a burden. The court forms prescribed by monarchs for +their own exaltation, have, in all times and places, ended in consuming +the comfort of their lives. And so the artificial observances of the +dining-room and saloon, in proportion as they are many and strict, +extinguish that agreeable communion which they were originally intended +to secure. The dislike with which people commonly speak of society that +is "formal," and "stiff," and "ceremonious," implies the general +recognition of this fact; and this recognition, logically developed, +involves that all usages of behaviour which are not based on natural +requirements, are injurious. That these conventions defeat their own +ends is no new assertion. Swift, criticising the manners of his day, +says--"Wise men are often more uneasy at the over-civility of these +refiners than they could possibly be in the conversation of peasants and +mechanics." + +But it is not only in these details that the self-defeating action of +our arrangements is traceable: it is traceable in the very substance and +nature of them. Our social intercourse, as commonly managed, is a mere +semblance of the reality sought. What is it that we want? Some +sympathetic converse with our fellow-creatures: some converse that shall +not be mere dead words, but the vehicle of living thoughts and +feelings--converse in which the eyes and the face shall speak, and the +tones of the voice be full of meaning--converse which shall make us feel +no longer alone, but shall draw us closer to another, and double our own +emotions by adding another's to them. Who is there that has not, from +time to time, felt how cold and flat is all this talk about politics and +science, and the new books and the new men, and how a genuine utterance +of fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of it? Mark the words of +Bacon:--"For a crowd is not a company, and faces are but a gallery of +pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love." + +If this be true, then it is only after acquaintance has grown into +intimacy, and intimacy has ripened into friendship, that the real +communion which men need becomes possible. A rationally-formed circle +must consist almost wholly of those on terms of familiarity and regard, +with but one or two strangers. What folly, then, underlies the whole +system of our grand dinners, our "at homes," our evening +parties--assemblages made up of many who never met before, many others +who just bow to each other, many others who though familiar feel mutual +indifference, with just a few real friends lost in the general mass! You +need but look round at the artificial expressions of face, to see at +once how it is. All have their disguises on; and how can there be +sympathy between masks? No wonder that in private every one exclaims +against the stupidity of these gatherings. No wonder that hostesses get +them up rather because they must than because they wish. No wonder that +the invited go less from the expectation of pleasure than from fear of +giving offence. The whole thing is a gigantic mistake--an organised +disappointment. + +And then note, lastly, that in this case, as in all others, when an +organisation has become effete and inoperative for its legitimate +purpose, it is employed for quite other ones--quite opposite ones. What +is the usual plea put in for giving and attending these tedious +assemblies? "I admit that they are stupid and frivolous enough," replies +every man to your criticisms; "but then, you know, one must keep up +one's connections." And could you get from his wife a sincere answer, it +would be--"Like you, I am sick of these frivolities; but then, we must +get our daughters married." The one knows that there is a profession to +push, a practice to gain, a business to extend: or parliamentary +influence, or county patronage, or votes, or office, to be got: +position, berths, favours, profit. The other's thoughts run upon +husbands and settlements, wives and dowries. Worthless for their +ostensible purpose of daily bringing human beings into pleasurable +relations with each other, these cumbrous appliances of our social +intercourse are now perseveringly kept in action with a view to the +pecuniary and matrimonial results which they indirectly produce. + +Who then shall say that the reform of our system of observances is +unimportant? When we see how this system induces fashionable +extravagance, with its entailed bankruptcy and ruin--when we mark how +greatly it limits the amount of social intercourse among the less +wealthy classes--when we find that many who most need to be disciplined +by mixing with the refined are driven away by it, and led into +dangerous and often fatal courses--when we count up the many minor evils +it inflicts, the extra work which its costliness entails on all +professional and mercantile men, the damage to public taste in dress and +decoration by the setting up of its absurdities as standards for +imitation, the injury to health indicated in the faces of its devotees +at the close of the London season, the mortality of milliners and the +like, which its sudden exigencies yearly involve;--and when to all these +we add its fatal sin, that it blights, withers up, and kills, that high +enjoyment it professedly ministers to--that enjoyment which is a chief +end of our hard struggling in life to obtain--shall we not conclude that +to reform our system of etiquette and fashion, is an aim yielding to few +in urgency? + + * * * * * + +There needs, then, a protestantism in social usages. Forms that have +ceased to facilitate and have become obstructive--whether political, +religious, or other--have ever to be swept away; and eventually are so +swept away in all cases. Signs are not wanting that some change is at +hand. A host of satirists, led on by Thackeray, have been for years +engaged in bringing our sham-festivities, and our fashionable follies, +into contempt; and in their candid moods, most men laugh at the +frivolities with which they and the world in general are deluded. +Ridicule has always been a revolutionary agent. That which is habitually +assailed with sneers and sarcasms cannot long survive. Institutions that +have lost their roots in men's respect and faith are doomed; and the day +of their dissolution is not far off. The time is approaching, then, when +our system of social observances must pass through some crisis, out of +which it will come purified and comparatively simple. + +How this crisis will be brought about, no one can with any certainty +say. Whether by the continuance and increase of individual protests, or +whether by the union of many persons for the practice and propagation of +some better system, the future alone can decide. The influence of +dissentients acting without co-operation, seems, under the present state +of things, inadequate. Standing severally alone, and having no +well-defined views; frowned on by conformists, and expostulated with +even by those who secretly sympathise with them; subject to petty +persecutions, and unable to trace any benefit produced by their example; +they are apt, one by one, to give up their attempts as hopeless. The +young convention-breaker eventually finds that he pays too heavily for +his nonconformity. Hating, for example, everything that bears about it +any remnant of servility, he determines, in the ardour of his +independence, that he will uncover to no one. But what he means simply +as a general protest, he finds that ladies interpret into a personal +disrespect. Though he sees that, from the days of chivalry downwards, +these marks of supreme consideration paid to the other sex have been but +a hypocritical counterpart to the actual subjection in which men have +held them--a pretended submission to compensate for a real domination; +and though he sees that when the true dignity of women is recognised, +the mock dignities given to them will be abolished; yet he does not like +to be thus misunderstood, and so hesitates in his practice. + +In other cases, again, his courage fails him. Such of his +unconventionalities as can be attributed only to eccentricity, he has no +qualms about: for, on the whole, he feels rather complimented than +otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public opinion. But when +they are liable to be put down to ignorance, to ill-breeding, or to +poverty, he becomes a coward. However clearly the recent innovation of +eating some kinds of fish with knife and fork proves the fork-and-bread +practice to have had little but caprice for its basis, yet he dares not +wholly ignore that practice while fashion partially maintains it. Though +he thinks that a silk handkerchief is quite as appropriate for +drawing-room use as a white cambric one, he is not altogether at ease in +acting out his opinion. Then, too, he begins to perceive that his +resistance to prescription brings round disadvantageous results which he +had not calculated upon. He had expected that it would save him from a +great deal of social intercourse of a frivolous kind--that it would +offend the fools, but not the sensible people; and so would serve as a +self-acting test by which those worth knowing would be separated from +those not worth knowing. But the fools prove to be so greatly in the +majority that, by offending them, he closes against himself nearly all +the avenues though which the sensible people are to be reached. Thus he +finds, that his nonconformity is frequently misinterpreted; that there +are but few directions in which he dares to carry it consistently out; +that the annoyances and disadvantages which it brings upon him are +greater than he anticipated; and that the chances of his doing any good +are very remote. Hence he gradually loses resolution, and lapses, step +by step, into the ordinary routine of observances. + +Abortive as individual protests thus generally turn out, it may possibly +be that nothing effectual will be done until there arises some organised +resistance to this invisible despotism, by which our modes and habits +are dictated. It may happen, that the government of Manners and Fashion +will be rendered less tyrannical, as the political and religious +governments have been, by some antagonistic union. Alike in Church and +State, men's first emancipations from excess of restriction were +achieved by numbers, bound together by a common creed or a common +political faith. What remained undone while there were but individual +schismatics or rebels, was effected when there came to be many acting in +concert. It is tolerably clear that these earliest instalments of +freedom could not have been obtained in any other way; for so long as +the feeling of personal independence was weak and the rule strong, there +could never have been a sufficient number of separate dissentients to +produce the desired results. Only in these later times, during which the +secular and spiritual controls have been growing less coercive, and the +tendency towards individual liberty greater, has it become possible for +smaller and smaller sects and parties to fight against established +creeds and laws; until now men may safely stand even alone in their +antagonism. + +The failure of individual nonconformity to customs, as above +illustrated, suggests that an analogous series of changes may have to be +gone through in this case also. It is true that the _lex non scripta_ +differs from the _lex scripta_ in this, that, being unwritten, it is +more readily altered; and that it has, from time to time, been quietly +ameliorated. Nevertheless, we shall find that the analogy holds +substantially good. For in this case, as in the others, the essential +revolution is not the substituting of any one set of restraints for any +other, but the limiting or abolishing the authority which prescribes +restraints. Just as the fundamental change inaugurated by the +Reformation was not a superseding of one creed by another, but an +ignoring of the arbiter who before dictated creeds--just as the +fundamental change which Democracy long ago commenced, was not from this +particular law to that, but from the despotism of one to the freedom of +all; so, the parallel change yet to be wrought out in this supplementary +government of which we are treating, is not the replacing of absurd +usages by sensible ones, but the dethronement of that secret, +irresponsible power which now imposes our usages, and the assertion of +the right of all individuals to choose their own usages. In rules of +living, a West-end clique is our Pope; and we are all papists, with but +a mere sprinkling of heretics. On all who decisively rebel, comes down +the penalty of excommunication, with its long catalogue of disagreeable +and, indeed, serious consequences. + +The liberty of the subject asserted in our constitution, and ever on the +increase, has yet to be wrested from this subtler tyranny. The right of +private judgment, which our ancestors wrung from the church, remains to +be claimed from this dictator of our habits. Or, as before said, to free +us from these idolatries and superstitious conformities, there has still +to come a protestanism in social usages. Parallel, therefore, as is the +change to be wrought out, it seems not improbable that it may be wrought +out in an analogous way. That influence which solitary dissentients fail +to gain, and that perseverance which they lack, may come into existence +when they unite. That persecution which the world now visits upon them +from mistaking their nonconformity for ignorance or disrespect, may +diminish when it is seen to result from principle. The penalty which +exclusion now entails may disappear when they become numerous enough to +form visiting circles of their own. And when a successful stand has been +made, and the brunt of the opposition has passed, that large amount of +secret dislike to our observances which now pervades society, may +manifest itself with sufficient power to effect the desired +emancipation. + +Whether such will be the process, time alone can decide. That community +of origin, growth, supremacy, and decadence, which we have found among +all kinds of government, suggests a community in modes of change also. +On the other hand, Nature often performs substantially similar +operations, in ways apparently different. Hence these details can never +be foretold. + + * * * * * + +Meanwhile, let us glance at the conclusions that have been reached. On +the one side, government, originally one, and afterwards subdivided for +the better fulfilment of its function, must be considered as having ever +been, in all its branches--political, religious, and +ceremonial--beneficial; and, indeed, absolutely necessary. On the other +side, government, under all its forms, must be regarded as subserving a +temporary office, made needful by the unfitness of aboriginal humanity +for social life; and the successive diminutions of its coerciveness in +State, in Church, and in Custom, must be looked upon as steps towards +its final disappearance. To complete the conception, there requires to +be borne in mind the third fact, that the genesis, the maintenance, and +the decline of all governments, however named, are alike brought about +by the humanity to be controlled: from which may be drawn the inference +that, on the average, restrictions of every kind cannot last much longer +than they are wanted, and cannot be destroyed much faster than they +ought to be. + +Society, in all its developments, undergoes the process of exuviation. +These old forms which it successively throws off, have all been once +vitally united with it--have severally served as the protective +envelopes within which a higher humanity was being evolved. They are +cast aside only when they become hindrances--only when some inner and +better envelope has been formed; and they bequeath to us all that there +was in them good. The periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws have left +the administration of justice not only uninjured, but purified. Dead and +buried creeds have not carried with them the essential morality they +contained, which still exists, uncontaminated by the sloughs of +superstition. And all that there is of justice and kindness and beauty, +embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette, will live perennially when +the forms themselves have been forgotten. + +[1] _Westminster Review_, April 1854. + +[2] This was written before moustaches and beards had become common. + + + + +ON THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE[1] + + +There has ever prevailed among men a vague notion that scientific +knowledge differs in nature from ordinary knowledge. By the Greeks, with +whom Mathematics--literally _things learnt_--was alone considered as +knowledge proper, the distinction must have been strongly felt; and it +has ever since maintained itself in the general mind. Though, +considering the contrast between the achievements of science and those +of daily unmethodic thinking, it is not surprising that such a +distinction has been assumed; yet it needs but to rise a little above +the common point of view, to see that no such distinction can really +exist: or that at best, it is but a superficial distinction. The same +faculties are employed in both cases; and in both cases their mode of +operation is fundamentally the same. + +If we say that science is organised knowledge, we are met by the truth +that all knowledge is organised in a greater or less degree--that the +commonest actions of the household and the field presuppose facts +colligated, inferences drawn, results expected; and that the general +success of these actions proves the data by which they were guided to +have been correctly put together. If, again, we say that science is +prevision--is a seeing beforehand--is a knowing in what times, places, +combinations, or sequences, specified phenomena will be found; we are +yet obliged to confess that the definition includes much that is utterly +foreign to science in its ordinary acceptation. For example, a child's +knowledge of an apple. This, as far as it goes, consists in previsions. +When a child sees a certain form and colours, it knows that if it puts +out its hand it will have certain impressions of resistance, and +roundness, and smoothness; and if it bites, a certain taste. And +manifestly its general acquaintance with surrounding objects is of like +nature--is made up of facts concerning them, so grouped as that any part +of a group being perceived, the existence of the other facts included in +it is foreseen. + +If, once more, we say that science is _exact_ prevision, we still fail +to establish the supposed difference. Not only do we find that much of +what we call science is not exact, and that some of it, as physiology, +can never become exact; but we find further, that many of the previsions +constituting the common stock alike of wise and ignorant, _are_ exact. +That an unsupported body will fall; that a lighted candle will go out +when immersed in water; that ice will melt when thrown on the +fire--these, and many like predictions relating to the familiar +properties of things have as high a degree of accuracy as predictions +are capable of. It is true that the results predicated are of a very +general character; but it is none the less true that they are rigorously +correct as far as they go: and this is all that is requisite to fulfil +the definition. There is perfect accordance between the anticipated +phenomena and the actual ones; and no more than this can be said of the +highest achievements of the sciences specially characterised as exact. + +Seeing thus that the assumed distinction between scientific knowledge +and common knowledge is not logically justifiable; and yet feeling, as +we must, that however impossible it may be to draw a line between them, +the two are not practically identical; there arises the question--What +is the relationship that exists between them? A partial answer to this +question may be drawn from the illustrations just given. On +reconsidering them, it will be observed that those portions of ordinary +knowledge which are identical in character with scientific knowledge, +comprehend only such combinations of phenomena as are directly +cognisable by the senses, and are of simple, invariable nature. That the +smoke from a fire which she is lighting will ascend, and that the fire +will presently boil water, are previsions which the servant-girl makes +equally well with the most learned physicist; they are equally certain, +equally exact with his; but they are previsions concerning phenomena in +constant and direct relation--phenomena that follow visibly and +immediately after their antecedents--phenomena of which the causation is +neither remote nor obscure--phenomena which may be predicted by the +simplest possible act of reasoning. + +If, now, we pass to the previsions constituting what is commonly known +as science--that an eclipse of the moon will happen at a specified time; +and when a barometer is taken to the top of a mountain of known height, +the mercurial column will descend a stated number of inches; that the +poles of a galvanic battery immersed in water will give off, the one an +inflammable and the other an inflaming gas, in definite ratio--we +perceive that the relations involved are not of a kind habitually +presented to our senses; that they depend, some of them, upon special +combinations of causes; and that in some of them the connection between +antecedents and consequents is established only by an elaborate series +of inferences. The broad distinction, therefore, between the two orders +of knowledge, is not in their nature, but in their remoteness from +perception. + +If we regard the cases in their most general aspect, we see that the +labourer, who, on hearing certain notes in the adjacent hedge, can +describe the particular form and colours of the bird making them; and +the astronomer, who, having calculated a transit of Venus, can delineate +the black spot entering on the sun's disc, as it will appear through the +telescope, at a specified hour; do essentially the same thing. Each +knows that on fulfilling the requisite conditions, he shall have a +preconceived impression--that after a definite series of actions will +come a group of sensations of a foreknown kind. The difference, then, is +not in the fundamental character of the mental acts; or in the +correctness of the previsions accomplished by them; but in the +complexity of the processes required to achieve the previsions. Much of +our commonest knowledge is, as far as it goes, rigorously precise. +Science does not increase this precision; cannot transcend it. What then +does it do? It reduces other knowledge to the same degree of precision. +That certainty which direct perception gives us respecting coexistences +and sequences of the simplest and most accessible kind, science gives us +respecting coexistences and sequences, complex in their dependencies or +inaccessible to immediate observation. In brief, regarded from this +point of view, science may be called _an extension of the perceptions by +means of reasoning_. + +On further considering the matter, however, it will perhaps be felt that +this definition does not express the whole fact--that inseparable as +science may be from common knowledge, and completely as we may fill up +the gap between the simplest previsions of the child and the most +recondite ones of the natural philosopher, by interposing a series of +previsions in which the complexity of reasoning involved is greater and +greater, there is yet a difference between the two beyond that which is +here described. And this is true. But the difference is still not such +as enables us to draw the assumed line of demarcation. It is a +difference not between common knowledge and scientific knowledge; but +between the successive phases of science itself, or knowledge +itself--whichever we choose to call it. In its earlier phases science +attains only to _certainty_ of foreknowledge; in its later phases it +further attains to _completeness_. We begin by discovering _a_ +relation: we end by discovering _the_ relation. Our first achievement is +to foretell the _kind_ of phenomenon which will occur under specific +conditions: our last achievement is to foretell not only the kind but +the _amount_. Or, to reduce the proposition to its most definite +form--undeveloped science is _qualitative_ prevision: developed science +is _quantitative_ prevision. + +This will at once be perceived to express the remaining distinction +between the lower and the higher stages of positive knowledge. The +prediction that a piece of lead will take more force to lift it than a +piece of wood of equal size, exhibits certainty, but not completeness, +of foresight. The kind of effect in which the one body will exceed the +other is foreseen; but not the amount by which it will exceed. There is +qualitative prevision only. On the other hand, the prediction that at a +stated time two particular planets will be in conjunction; that by means +of a lever having arms in a given ratio, a known force will raise just +so many pounds; that to decompose a specified quantity of sulphate of +iron by carbonate of soda will require so many grains--these predictions +exhibit foreknowledge, not only of the nature of the effects to be +produced, but of the magnitude, either of the effects themselves, of the +agencies producing them, or of the distance in time or space at which +they will be produced. There is not only qualitative but quantitative +prevision. + +And this is the unexpressed difference which leads us to consider +certain orders of knowledge as especially scientific when contrasted +with knowledge in general. Are the phenomena _measurable_? is the test +which we unconsciously employ. Space is measurable: hence Geometry. +Force and space are measureable: hence Statics. Time, force, and space +are measureable: hence Dynamics. The invention of the barometer enabled +men to extend the principles of mechanics to the atmosphere; and +Aerostatics existed. When a thermometer was devised there arose a +science of heat, which was before impossible. Such of our sensations as +we have not yet found modes of measuring do not originate sciences. We +have no science of smells; nor have we one of tastes. We have a science +of the relations of sounds differing in pitch, because we have +discovered a way to measure them; but we have no science of sounds in +respect to their loudness or their _timbre_, because we have got no +measures of loudness and _timbre_. + +Obviously it is this reduction of the sensible phenomena it represents, +to relations of magnitude, which gives to any division of knowledge its +especially scientific character. Originally men's knowledge of weights +and forces was in the same condition as their knowledge of smells and +tastes is now--a knowledge not extending beyond that given by the +unaided sensations; and it remained so until weighing instruments and +dynamometers were invented. Before there were hour-glasses and +clepsydras, most phenomena could be estimated as to their durations and +intervals, with no greater precision than degrees of hardness can be +estimated by the fingers. Until a thermometric scale was contrived, +men's judgments respecting relative amounts of heat stood on the same +footing with their present judgments respecting relative amounts of +sound. And as in these initial stages, with no aids to observation, only +the roughest comparisons of cases could be made, and only the most +marked differences perceived; it is obvious that only the most simple +laws of dependence could be ascertained--only those laws which, being +uncomplicated with others, and not disturbed in their manifestations, +required no niceties of observation to disentangle them. Whence it +appears not only that in proportion as knowledge becomes quantitative do +its previsions become complete as well as certain, but that until its +assumption of a quantitative character it is necessarily confined to the +most elementary relations. + +Moreover it is to be remarked that while, on the one hand, we can +discover the laws of the greater proportion of phenomena only by +investigating them quantitatively; on the other hand we can extend the +range of our quantitative previsions only as fast as we detect the laws +of the results we predict. For clearly the ability to specify the +magnitude of a result inaccessible to direct measurement, implies +knowledge of its mode of dependence on something which can be +measured--implies that we know the particular fact dealt with to be an +instance of some more general fact. Thus the extent to which our +quantitative previsions have been carried in any direction, indicates +the depth to which our knowledge reaches in that direction. And here, as +another aspect of the same fact, we may further observe that as we pass +from qualitative to quantitative prevision, we pass from inductive +science to deductive science. Science while purely inductive is purely +qualitative: when inaccurately quantitative it usually consists of part +induction, part deduction: and it becomes accurately quantitative only +when wholly deductive. We do not mean that the deductive and the +quantitative are coextensive; for there is manifestly much deduction +that is qualitative only. We mean that all quantitative prevision is +reached deductively; and that induction can achieve only qualitative +prevision. + +Still, however, it must not be supposed that these distinctions enable +us to separate ordinary knowledge from science, much as they seem to do +so. While they show in what consists the broad contrast between the +extreme forms of the two, they yet lead us to recognise their essential +identity; and once more prove the difference to be one of degree only. +For, on the one hand, the commonest positive knowledge is to some extent +quantitative; seeing that the amount of the foreseen result is known +within certain wide limits. And, on the other hand, the highest +quantitative prevision does not reach the exact truth, but only a very +near approximation to it. Without clocks the savage knows that the day +is longer in the summer than in the winter; without scales he knows that +stone is heavier than flesh: that is, he can foresee respecting certain +results that their amounts will exceed these, and be less than those--he +knows _about_ what they will be. And, with his most delicate instruments +and most elaborate calculations, all that the man of science can do, is +to reduce the difference between the foreseen and the actual results to +an unimportant quantity. + +Moreover, it must be borne in mind not only that all the sciences are +qualitative in their first stages,--not only that some of them, as +Chemistry, have but recently reached the quantitative stage--but that +the most advanced sciences have attained to their present power of +determining quantities not present to the senses, or not directly +measurable, by a slow process of improvement extending through thousands +of years. So that science and the knowledge of the uncultured are alike +in the nature of their previsions, widely as they differ in range; they +possess a common imperfection, though this is immensely greater in the +last than in the first; and the transition from the one to the other has +been through a series of steps by which the imperfection has been +rendered continually less, and the range continually wider. + +These facts, that science and the positive knowledge of the uncultured +cannot be separated in nature, and that the one is but a perfected and +extended form of the other, must necessarily underlie the whole theory +of science, its progress, and the relations of its parts to each other. +There must be serious incompleteness in any history of the sciences, +which, leaving out of view the first steps of their genesis, commences +with them only when they assume definite forms. There must be grave +defects, if not a general untruth, in a philosophy of the sciences +considered in their interdependence and development, which neglects the +inquiry how they came to be distinct sciences, and how they were +severally evolved out of the chaos of primitive ideas. + +Not only a direct consideration of the matter, but all analogy, goes to +show that in the earlier and simpler stages must be sought the key to +all subsequent intricacies. The time was when the anatomy and physiology +of the human being were studied by themselves--when the adult man was +analysed and the relations of parts and of functions investigated, +without reference either to the relations exhibited in the embryo or to +the homologous relations existing in other creatures. Now, however, it +has become manifest that no true conceptions, no true generalisations, +are possible under such conditions. Anatomists and physiologists now +find that the real natures of organs and tissues can be ascertained only +by tracing their early evolution; and that the affinities between +existing genera can be satisfactorily made out only by examining the +fossil genera to which they are allied. Well, is it not clear that the +like must be true concerning all things that undergo development? Is not +science a growth? Has not science, too, its embryology? And must not the +neglect of its embryology lead to a misunderstanding of the principles +of its evolution and of its existing organisation? + +There are _a priori_ reasons, therefore, for doubting the truth of all +philosophies of the sciences which tacitly proceed upon the common +notion that scientific knowledge and ordinary knowledge are separate; +instead of commencing, as they should, by affiliating the one upon the +other, and showing how it gradually came to be distinguishable from the +other. We may expect to find their generalisations essentially +artificial; and we shall not be deceived. Some illustrations of this may +here be fitly introduced, by way of preliminary to a brief sketch of the +genesis of science from the point of view indicated. And we cannot more +readily find such illustrations than by glancing at a few of the various +_classifications_ of the sciences that have from time to time been +proposed. To consider all of them would take too much space: we must +content ourselves with some of the latest. + + * * * * * + +Commencing with those which may be soonest disposed of, let us notice +first the arrangement propounded by Oken. An abstract of it runs +thus:-- + + Part I. MATHESIS.--_Pneumatogeny_: Primary Art, Primary + Consciousness, God, Primary Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, + Man, Space, Point. Line, Surface, Globe, + Rotation.--_Hylogeny_: Gravity, Matter, Ether, Heavenly + Bodies, Light, Heat, Fire. + + (He explains that MATHESIS is the doctrine of the whole; + _Pneumatogeny_ being the doctrine of immaterial totalities, and + _Hylogeny_ that of material totalities.) + + Part II. ONTOLOGY.--_Cosmogeny_: Rest, Centre, Motion, Line, + Planets, Form, Planetary System, Comets.--_Stoechiogeny_: + Condensation, Simple Matter, Elements, Air, Water, + Earth--_Stoechiology_: Functions of the Elements, etc., + etc.--_Kingdoms of Nature_: Individuals. + + (He says in explanation that "ONTOLOGY teaches us the phenomena + of matter. The first of these are the heavenly bodies + comprehended by _Cosmogeny_. These divide into + elements--_Stoechiogeny_. The earth element divides into + minerals--_Mineralogy_. These unite into one collective + body--_Geogeny_. The whole in singulars is the living, or + _Organic_, which again divides into plants and animals. + _Biology_, therefore, divides into _Organogeny_, _Phytosophy_, + _Zoosophy_.") + + FIRST KINGDOM.--MINERALS. _Mineralogy_, _Geology_. + + Part III. BIOLOGY.--_Organosophy_, _Phytogeny_, _Phyto-physiology_, + _Phytology_, _Zoogeny_, _Physiology_, _Zoology_, + _Psychology_. + +A glance over this confused scheme shows that it is an attempt to +classify knowledge, not after the order in which it has been, or may be, +built up in the human consciousness; but after an assumed order of +creation. It is a pseudo-scientific cosmogony, akin to those which men +have enunciated from the earliest times downwards; and only a little +more respectable. As such it will not be thought worthy of much +consideration by those who, like ourselves, hold that experience is the +sole origin of knowledge. Otherwise, it might have been needful to dwell +on the incongruities of the arrangements--to ask how motion can be +treated of before space? how there can be rotation without matter to +rotate? how polarity can be dealt with without involving points and +lines? But it will serve our present purpose just to point out a few of +the extreme absurdities resulting from the doctrine which Oken seems to +hold in common with Hegel, that "to philosophise on Nature is to +re-think the great thought of Creation." Here is a sample:-- + +"Mathematics is the universal science; so also is Physio-philosophy, +although it is only a part, or rather but a condition of the universe; +both are one, or mutually congruent. + +"Mathematics is, however, a science of mere forms without substance. +Physio-philosophy is, therefore, _mathematics endowed with substance_." + +From the English point of view it is sufficiently amusing to find such a +dogma not only gravely stated, but stated as an unquestionable truth. +Here we see the experiences of quantitative relations which men have +gathered from surrounding bodies and generalised (experiences which had +been scarcely at all generalised at the beginning of the historic +period)--we find these generalised experiences, these intellectual +abstractions, elevated into concrete actualities, projected back into +Nature, and considered as the internal framework of things--the skeleton +by which matter is sustained. But this new form of the old realism is by +no means the most startling of the physio-philosophic principles. We +presently read that, + +"The highest mathematical idea, or the fundamental principle of all +mathematics is the zero = 0.".... + +"Zero is in itself nothing. Mathematics is based upon nothing, and, +_consequently_, arises out of nothing. + +"Out of nothing, _therefore_, it is possible for something to arise; for +mathematics, consisting of propositions, is something, in relation to +0." + +By such "consequentlys" and "therefores" it is, that men philosophise +when they "re-think the great thought of Creation." By dogmas that +pretend to be reasons, nothing is made to generate mathematics; and by +clothing mathematics with matter, we have the universe! If now we deny, +as we _do_ deny, that the highest mathematical idea is the zero;--if, on +the other hand, we assert, as we _do_ assert, that the fundamental idea +underlying all mathematics, is that of equality; the whole of Oken's +cosmogony disappears. And here, indeed, we may see illustrated, the +distinctive peculiarity of the German method of procedure in these +matters--the bastard _a priori_ method, as it may be termed. The +legitimate _a priori_ method sets out with propositions of which the +negation is inconceivable; the _a priori_ method as illegitimately +applied, sets out either with propositions of which the negation is +_not_ inconceivable, or with propositions like Oken's, of which the +_affirmation_ is inconceivable. + +It is needless to proceed further with the analysis; else might we +detail the steps by which Oken arrives at the conclusions that "the +planets are coagulated colours, for they are coagulated light; that the +sphere is the expanded nothing;" that gravity is "a weighty nothing, a +heavy essence, striving towards a centre;" that "the earth is the +identical, water the indifferent, air the different; or the first the +centre, the second the radius, the last the periphery of the general +globe or of fire." To comment on them would be nearly as absurd as are +the propositions themselves. Let us pass on to another of the German +systems of knowledge--that of Hegel. + +The simple fact that Hegel puts Jacob Boehme on a par with Bacon, +suffices alone to show that his standpoint is far remote from the one +usually regarded as scientific: so far remote, indeed, that it is not +easy to find any common basis on which to found a criticism. Those who +hold that the mind is moulded into conformity with surrounding things by +the agency of surrounding things, are necessarily at a loss how to deal +with those, who, like Schelling and Hegel, assert that surrounding +things are solidified mind--that Nature is "petrified intelligence." +However, let us briefly glance at Hegel's classification. He divides +philosophy into three parts:-- + +1. _Logic_, or the science of the idea in itself, the pure idea. + +2. _The Philosophy of Nature_, or the science of the idea considered +under its other form--of the idea as Nature. + +3. _The Philosophy of the Mind_, or the science of the idea in its +return to itself. + +Of these, the second is divided into the natural sciences, commonly so +called; so that in its more detailed form the series runs thus:--Logic, +Mechanics, Physics, Organic Physics, Psychology. + +Now, if we believe with Hegel, first, that thought is the true essence +of man; second, that thought is the essence of the world; and that, +therefore, there is nothing but thought; his classification, beginning +with the science of pure thought, may be acceptable. But otherwise, it +is an obvious objection to his arrangement, that thought implies things +thought of--that there can be no logical forms without the substance of +experience--that the science of ideas and the science of things must +have a simultaneous origin. Hegel, however, anticipates this objection, +and, in his obstinate idealism, replies, that the contrary is true; that +all contained in the forms, to become something, requires to be thought: +and that logical forms are the foundations of all things. + +It is not surprising that, starting from such premises, and reasoning +after this fashion, Hegel finds his way to strange conclusions. Out of +_space_ and _time_ he proceeds to build up _motion_, _matter_, +_repulsion_, _attraction_, _weight_, and _inertia_. He then goes on to +logically evolve the solar system. In doing this he widely diverges +from the Newtonian theory; reaches by syllogism the conviction that the +planets are the most perfect celestial bodies; and, not being able to +bring the stars within his theory, says that they are mere formal +existences and not living matter, and that as compared with the solar +system they are as little admirable as a cutaneous eruption or a swarm +of flies.[2] + +Results so outrageous might be left as self-disproved, were it not that +speculators of this class are not alarmed by any amount of incongruity +with established beliefs. The only efficient mode of treating systems +like this of Hegel, is to show that they are self-destructive--that by +their first steps they ignore that authority on which all their +subsequent steps depend. If Hegel professes, as he manifestly does, to +develop his scheme by reasoning--if he presents successive inferences as +_necessarily following_ from certain premises; he implies the postulate +that a belief which necessarily follows after certain antecedents is a +true belief: and, did an opponent reply to one of his inferences, that, +though it was impossible to think the opposite, yet the opposite was +true, he would consider the reply irrational. The procedure, however, +which he would thus condemn as destructive of all thinking whatever, is +just the procedure exhibited in the enunciation of his own first +principles. + +Mankind find themselves unable to conceive that there can be thought +without things thought of. Hegel, however, asserts that there _can_ be +thought without things thought of. That ultimate test of a true +proposition--the inability of the human mind to conceive the negation of +it--which in all other cases he considers valid, he considers invalid +where it suits his convenience to do so; and yet at the same time denies +the right of an opponent to follow his example. If it is competent for +him to posit dogmas, which are the direct negations of what human +consciousness recognises; then is it also competent for his antagonists +to stop him at every step in his argument by saying, that though the +particular inference he is drawing seems to his mind, and to all minds, +necessarily to follow from the premises, yet it is not true, but the +contrary inference is true. Or, to state the dilemma in another +form:--If he sets out with inconceivable propositions, then may he with +equal propriety make all his succeeding propositions inconceivable +ones--may at every step throughout his reasoning draw exactly the +opposite conclusion to that which seems involved. + +Hegel's mode of procedure being thus essentially suicidal, the Hegelian +classification which depends upon it falls to the ground. Let us +consider next that of M. Comte. + +As all his readers must admit, M. Comte presents us with a scheme of the +sciences which, unlike the foregoing ones, demands respectful +consideration. Widely as we differ from him, we cheerfully bear witness +to the largeness of his views, the clearness of his reasoning, and the +value of his speculations as contributing to intellectual progress. Did +we believe a serial arrangement of the sciences to be possible, that of +M. Comte would certainly be the one we should adopt. His fundamental +propositions are thoroughly intelligible; and if not true, have a great +semblance of truth. His successive steps are logically co-ordinated; and +he supports his conclusions by a considerable amount of +evidence--evidence which, so long as it is not critically examined, or +not met by counter evidence, seems to substantiate his positions. But it +only needs to assume that antagonistic attitude which _ought_ to be +assumed towards new doctrines, in the belief that, if true, they will +prosper by conquering objectors--it needs but to test his leading +doctrines either by other facts than those he cites, or by his own facts +differently applied, to at once show that they will not stand. We will +proceed thus to deal with the general principle on which he bases his +hierarchy of the sciences. + +In the second chapter of his _Cours de Philosophic Positive_, M. Comte +says:--"Our problem is, then, to find the one _rational_ order, amongst +a host of possible systems." ... "This order is determined by the degree +of simplicity, or, what comes to the same thing, of generality of their +phenomena." And the arrangement he deduces runs thus: _Mathematics_, +_Astronomy_, _Physics_, _Chemistry_, _Physiology_, _Social Physics_. +This he asserts to be "the true _filiation_ of the sciences." He asserts +further, that the principle of progression from a greater to a less +degree of generality, "which gives this order to the whole body of +science, arranges the parts of each science." And, finally, he asserts +that the gradations thus established _a priori_ among the sciences, and +the parts of each science, "is in essential conformity with the order +which has spontaneously taken place among the branches of natural +philosophy;" or, in other words--corresponds with the order of historic +development. + +Let us compare these assertions with the facts. That there may be +perfect fairness, let us make no choice, but take as the field for our +comparison, the succeeding section treating of the first +science--Mathematics; and let us use none but M. Comte's own facts, and +his own admissions. Confining ourselves to this one science, of course +our comparisons must be between its several parts. M. Comte says, that +the parts of each science must be arranged in the order of their +decreasing generality; and that this order of decreasing generality +agrees with the order of historical development. Our inquiry must be, +then, whether the history of mathematics confirms this statement. + +Carrying out his principle, M. Comte divides Mathematics into "Abstract +Mathematics, or the Calculus (taking the word in its most extended +sense) and Concrete Mathematics, which is composed of General Geometry +and of Rational Mechanics." The subject-matter of the first of these is +_number_; the subject-matter of the second includes _space_, _time_, +_motion_, _force_. The one possesses the highest possible degree of +generality; for all things whatever admit of enumeration. The others are +less general; seeing that there are endless phenomena that are not +cognisable either by general geometry or rational mechanics. In +conformity with the alleged law, therefore, the evolution of the +calculus must throughout have preceded the evolution of the concrete +sub-sciences. Now somewhat awkwardly for him, the first remark M. Comte +makes bearing upon this point is, that "from an historical point of +view, mathematical analysis _appears to have risen out of_ the +contemplation of geometrical and mechanical facts." True, he goes on to +say that, "it is not the less independent of these sciences logically +speaking;" for that "analytical ideas are, above all others, universal, +abstract, and simple; and geometrical conceptions are necessarily +founded on them." + +We will not take advantage of this last passage to charge M. Comte with +teaching, after the fashion of Hegel, that there can be thought without +things thought of. We are content simply to compare the two assertions, +that analysis arose out of the contemplation of geometrical and +mechanical facts, and that geometrical conceptions are founded upon +analytical ones. Literally interpreted they exactly cancel each other. +Interpreted, however, in a liberal sense, they imply, what we believe to +be demonstrable, that the two had _a simultaneous origin_. The passage +is either nonsense, or it is an admission that abstract and concrete +mathematics are coeval. Thus, at the very first step, the alleged +congruity between the order of generality and the order of evolution +does not hold good. + +But may it not be that though abstract and concrete mathematics took +their rise at the same time, the one afterwards developed more rapidly +than the other; and has ever since remained in advance of it? No: and +again we call M. Comte himself as witness. Fortunately for his argument +he has said nothing respecting the early stages of the concrete and +abstract divisions after their divergence from a common root; otherwise +the advent of Algebra long after the Greek geometry had reached a high +development, would have been an inconvenient fact for him to deal with. +But passing over this, and limiting ourselves to his own statements, we +find, at the opening of the next chapter, the admission, that "the +historical development of the abstract portion of mathematical science +has, since the time of Descartes, been for the most part _determined_ by +that of the concrete." Further on we read respecting algebraic functions +that "most functions were concrete in their origin--even those which are +at present the most purely abstract; and the ancients discovered only +through geometrical definitions elementary algebraic properties of +functions to which a numerical value was not attached till long +afterwards, rendering abstract to us what was concrete to the old +geometers." How do these statements tally with his doctrine? Again, +having divided the calculus into algebraic and arithmetical, M. Comte +admits, as perforce he must, that the algebraic is more general than the +arithmetical; yet he will not say that algebra preceded arithmetic in +point of time. And again, having divided the calculus of functions into +the calculus of direct functions (common algebra) and the calculus of +indirect functions (transcendental analysis), he is obliged to speak of +this last as possessing a higher generality than the first; yet it is +far more modern. Indeed, by implication, M. Comte himself confesses this +incongruity; for he says:--"It might seem that the transcendental +analysis ought to be studied before the ordinary, as it provides the +equations which the other has to resolve; but though the transcendental +_is logically independent of the ordinary_, it is best to follow the +usual method of study, taking the ordinary first." In all these cases, +then, as well as at the close of the section where he predicts that +mathematicians will in time "create procedures of _a wider generality_", +M. Comte makes admissions that are diametrically opposed to the alleged +law. + +In the succeeding chapters treating of the concrete department of +mathematics, we find similar contradictions M. Comte himself names the +geometry of the ancients _special_ geometry, and that of moderns the +_general_ geometry. He admits that while "the ancients studied geometry +with reference to the bodies under notice, or specially; the moderns +study it with reference to the _phenomena_ to be considered, or +generally." He admits that while "the ancients extracted all they could +out of one line or surface before passing to another," "the moderns, +since Descartes, employ themselves on questions which relate to any +figure whatever." These facts are the reverse of what, according to his +theory, they should be. So, too, in mechanics. Before dividing it into +statics and dynamics, M. Comte treats of the three laws of _motion_, and +is obliged to do so; for statics, the more _general_ of the two +divisions, though it does not involve motion, is impossible as a science +until the laws of motion are ascertained. Yet the laws of motion pertain +to dynamics, the more _special_ of the divisions. Further on he points +out that after Archimedes, who discovered the law of equilibrium of the +lever, statics made no progress until the establishment of dynamics +enabled us to seek "the conditions of equilibrium through the laws of +the composition of forces." And he adds--"At this day _this is the +method universally employed_. At the first glance it does not appear the +most rational--dynamics being more complicated than statics, and +precedence being natural to the simpler. It would, in fact, be more +philosophical to refer dynamics to statics, as has since been done." +Sundry discoveries are afterwards detailed, showing how completely the +development of statics has been achieved by considering its problems +dynamically; and before the close of the section M. Comte remarks that +"before hydrostatics could be comprehended under statics, it was +necessary that the abstract theory of equilibrium should be made so +general as to apply directly to fluids as well as solids. This was +accomplished when Lagrange supplied, as the basis of the whole of +rational mechanics, the single principle of virtual velocities." In +which statement we have two facts directly at variance: with M. Comte's +doctrine; first, that the simpler science, statics, reached its present +development only by the aid of the principle of virtual velocities, +which belongs to the more complex science, dynamics; and that this +"single principle" underlying all rational mechanics--this _most +general form_ which includes alike the relations of statical, +hydro-statical, and dynamical forces--was reached so late as the time of +Lagrange. + +Thus it is _not_ true that the historical succession of the divisions of +mathematics has corresponded with the order of decreasing generality. It +is _not_ true that abstract mathematics was evolved antecedently to, +and independently of concrete mathematics. It is _not_ true that of the +subdivisions of abstract mathematics, the more general came before the +more special. And it is _not_ true that concrete mathematics, in either +of its two sections, began with the most abstract and advanced to the +less abstract truths. + +It may be well to mention, parenthetically, that in defending his +alleged law of progression from the general to the special, M. Comte +somewhere comments upon the two meanings of the word _general_, and the +resulting liability to confusion. Without now discussing whether the +asserted distinction can be maintained in other cases, it is manifest +that it does not exist here. In sundry of the instances above quoted, +the endeavours made by M. Comte himself to disguise, or to explain away, +the precedence of the special over the general, clearly indicate that +the generality spoken of is of the kind meant by his formula. And it +needs but a brief consideration of the matter to show that, even did he +attempt it, he could not distinguish this generality, which, as above +proved, frequently comes last, from the generality which he says always +comes first. For what is the nature of that mental process by which +objects, dimensions, weights, times, and the rest, are found capable of +having their relations expressed numerically? It is the formation of +certain abstract conceptions of unity, duality and multiplicity, which +are applicable to all things alike. It is the invention of general +symbols serving to express the numerical relations of entities, whatever +be their special characters. And what is the nature of the mental +process by which numbers are found capable of having their relations +expressed algebraically? It is just the same. It is the formation of +certain abstract conceptions of numerical functions which are the same +whatever be the magnitudes of the numbers. It is the invention of +general symbols serving to express the relations between numbers, as +numbers express the relations between things. And transcendental +analysis stands to algebra in the same position that algebra stands in +to arithmetic. + +To briefly illustrate their respective powers--arithmetic can express in +one formula the value of a _particular_ tangent to a _particular_ curve; +algebra can express in one formula the values of _all_ tangents to a +_particular_ curve; transcendental analysis can express in one formula +the values of _all_ tangents to _all_ curves. Just as arithmetic deals +with the common properties of lines, areas, bulks, forces, periods; so +does algebra deal with the common properties of the numbers which +arithmetic presents; so does transcendental analysis deal with the +common properties of the equations exhibited by algebra. Thus, the +generality of the higher branches of the calculus, when compared with +the lower, is the same kind of generality as that of the lower branches +when compared with geometry or mechanics. And on examination it will be +found that the like relation exists in the various other cases above +given. + +Having shown that M. Comte's alleged law of progression does not hold +among the several parts of the same science, let us see how it agrees +with the facts when applied to separate sciences. "Astronomy," says M. +Comte, at the opening of Book III., "was a positive science, in its +geometrical aspect, from the earliest days of the school of Alexandria; +but Physics, which we are now to consider, had no positive character at +all till Galileo made his great discoveries on the fall of heavy +bodies." On this, our comment is simply that it is a misrepresentation +based upon an arbitrary misuse of words--a mere verbal artifice. By +choosing to exclude from terrestrial physics those laws of magnitude, +motion, and position, which he includes in celestial physics, M. Comte +makes it appear that the one owes nothing to the other. Not only is this +altogether unwarrantable, but it is radically inconsistent with his own +scheme of divisions. At the outset he says--and as the point is +important we quote from the original--"Pour la _physique inorganique_ +nous voyons d'abord, en nous conformant toujours a l'ordre de generalite +et de dependance des phenomenes, qu'elle doit etre partagee en deux +sections distinctes, suivant qu'elle considere les phenomenes generaux +de l'univers, ou, en particulier, ceux que presentent les corps +terrestres. D'ou la physique celeste, ou l'astronomie, soit geometrique, +soit mechanique; et la physique terrestre." + +Here then we have _inorganic physics_ clearly divided into _celestial +physics_ and _terrestrial physics_--the phenomena presented by the +universe, and the phenomena presented by earthly bodies. If now +celestial bodies and terrestrial bodies exhibit sundry leading phenomena +in common, as they do, how can the generalisation of these common +phenomena be considered as pertaining to the one class rather than to +the other? If inorganic physics includes geometry (which M. Comte has +made it do by comprehending _geometrical_ astronomy in its +sub-section--celestial physics); and if its sub-section--terrestrial +physics, treats of things having geometrical properties; how can the +laws of geometrical relations be excluded from terrestrial physics? +Clearly if celestial physics includes the geometry of objects in the +heavens, terrestrial physics includes the geometry of objects on the +earth. And if terrestrial physics includes terrestrial geometry, while +celestial physics includes celestial geometry, then the geometrical part +of terrestrial physics precedes the geometrical part of celestial +physics; seeing that geometry gained its first ideas from surrounding +objects. Until men had learnt geometrical relations from bodies on the +earth, it was impossible for them to understand the geometrical +relations of bodies in the heavens. + +So, too, with celestial mechanics, which had terrestrial mechanics for +its parent. The very conception of _force_, which underlies the whole of +mechanical astronomy, is borrowed from our earthly experiences; and the +leading laws of mechanical action as exhibited in scales, levers, +projectiles, etc., had to be ascertained before the dynamics of the +solar system could be entered upon. What were the laws made use of by +Newton in working out his grand discovery? The law of falling bodies +disclosed by Galileo; that of the composition of forces also disclosed +by Galileo; and that of centrifugal force found out by Huyghens--all of +them generalisations of terrestrial physics. Yet, with facts like these +before him, M. Comte places astronomy before physics in order of +evolution! He does not compare the geometrical parts of the two +together, and the mechanical parts of the two together; for this would +by no means suit his hypothesis. But he compares the geometrical part of +the one with the mechanical part of the other, and so gives a semblance +of truth to his position. He is led away by a verbal delusion. Had he +confined his attention to the things and disregarded the words, he would +have seen that before mankind scientifically co-ordinated _any one class +of phenomena_ displayed in the heavens, they had previously co-ordinated +_a parallel class of phenomena_ displayed upon the surface of the earth. + +Were it needful we could fill a score pages with the incongruities of M. +Comte's scheme. But the foregoing samples will suffice. So far is his +law of evolution of the sciences from being tenable, that, by following +his example, and arbitrarily ignoring one class of facts, it would be +possible to present, with great plausibility, just the opposite +generalisation to that which he enunciates. While he asserts that the +rational order of the sciences, like the order of their historic +development, "is determined by the degree of simplicity, or, what comes +to the same thing, of generality of their phenomena;" it might +contrariwise be asserted, that, commencing with the complex and the +special, mankind have progressed step by step to a knowledge of greater +simplicity and wider generality. So much evidence is there of this as to +have drawn from Whewell, in his _History of the Inductive Sciences_, the +general remark that "the reader has already seen repeatedly in the +course of this history, complex and derivative principles presenting +themselves to men's minds before simple and elementary ones." + +Even from M. Comte's own work, numerous facts, admissions, and +arguments, might be picked out, tending to show this. We have already +quoted his words in proof that both abstract and concrete mathematics +have progressed towards a higher degree of generality, and that he looks +forward to a higher generality still. Just to strengthen this adverse +hypothesis, let us take a further instance. From the _particular_ case +of the scales, the law of equilibrium of which was familiar to the +earliest nations known, Archimedes advanced to the more _general_ case +of the unequal lever with unequal weights; the law of equilibrium of +which _includes_ that of the scales. By the help of Galileo's discovery +concerning the composition of forces, D'Alembert "established, for the +first time, the equations of equilibrium of _any_ system of forces +applied to the different points of a solid body"--equations which +include all cases of levers and an infinity of cases besides. Clearly +this is progress towards a higher generality--towards a knowledge more +independent of special circumstances--towards a study of phenomena "the +most disengaged from the incidents of particular cases;" which is M. +Comte's definition of "the most simple phenomena." Does it not indeed +follow from the familiarly admitted fact, that mental advance is from +the concrete to the abstract, from the particular to the general, that +the universal and therefore most simple truths are the last to be +discovered? Is not the government of the solar system by a force varying +inversely as the square of the distance, a simpler conception than any +that preceded it? Should we ever succeed in reducing all orders of +phenomena to some single law--say of atomic action, as M. Comte +suggests--must not that law answer to his test of being _independent_ of +all others, and therefore most simple? And would not such a law +generalise the phenomena of gravity, cohesion, atomic affinity, and +electric repulsion, just as the laws of number generalise the +quantitative phenomena of space, time, and force? + +The possibility of saying so much in support of an hypothesis the very +reverse of M. Comte's, at once proves that his generalisation is only a +half-truth. The fact is, that neither proposition is correct by itself; +and the actuality is expressed only by putting the two together. The +progress of science is duplex: it is at once from the special to the +general, and from the general to the special: it is analytical and +synthetical at the same time. + +M. Comte himself observes that the evolution of science has been +accomplished by the division of labour; but he quite misstates the mode +in which this division of labour has operated. As he describes it, it +has simply been an arrangement of phenomena into classes, and the study +of each class by itself. He does not recognise the constant effect of +progress in each class upon _all_ other classes; but only on the class +succeeding it in his hierarchical scale. Or if he occasionally admits +collateral influences and intercommunications, he does it so grudgingly, +and so quickly puts the admissions out of sight and forgets them, as to +leave the impression that, with but trifling exceptions, the sciences +aid each other only in the order of their alleged succession. The fact +is, however, that the division of labour in science, like the division +of labour in society, and like the "physiological division of labour" in +individual organisms, has been not only a specialisation of functions, +but a continuous helping of each division by all the others, and of all +by each. Every particular class of inquirers has, as it were, secreted +its own particular order of truths from the general mass of material +which observation accumulates; and all other classes of inquirers have +made use of these truths as fast as they were elaborated, with the +effect of enabling them the better to elaborate each its own order of +truths. + +It was thus in sundry of the cases we have quoted as at variance with M. +Comte's doctrine. It was thus with the application of Huyghens's optical +discovery to astronomical observation by Galileo. It was thus with the +application of the isochronism of the pendulum to the making of +instruments for measuring intervals, astronomical and other. It was thus +when the discovery that the refraction and dispersion of light did not +follow the same law of variation, affected both astronomy and physiology +by giving us achromatic telescopes and microscopes. It was thus when +Bradley's discovery of the aberration of light enabled him to make the +first step towards ascertaining the motions of the stars. It was thus +when Cavendish's torsion-balance experiment determined the specific +gravity of the earth, and so gave a datum for calculating the specific +gravities of the sun and planets. It was thus when tables of +atmospheric refraction enabled observers to write down the real places +of the heavenly bodies instead of their apparent places. It was thus +when the discovery of the different expansibilities of metals by heat, +gave us the means of correcting our chronometrical measurements of +astronomical periods. It was thus when the lines of the prismatic +spectrum were used to distinguish the heavenly bodies that are of like +nature with the sun from those which are not. It was thus when, as +recently, an electro-telegraphic instrument was invented for the more +accurate registration of meridional transits. It was thus when the +difference in the rates of a clock at the equator, and nearer the poles, +gave data for calculating the oblateness of the earth, and accounting +for the precession of the equinoxes. It was thus--but it is needless to +continue. + +Here, within our own limited knowledge of its history, we have named ten +additional cases in which the single science of astronomy has owed its +advance to sciences coming _after_ it in M. Comte's series. Not only its +secondary steps, but its greatest revolutions have been thus determined. +Kepler could not have discovered his celebrated laws had it not been for +Tycho Brahe's accurate observations; and it was only after some progress +in physical and chemical science that the improved instruments with +which those observations were made, became possible. The heliocentric +theory of the solar system had to wait until the invention of the +telescope before it could be finally established. Nay, even the grand +discovery of all--the law of gravitation--depended for its proof upon an +operation of physical science, the measurement of a degree on the +Earth's surface. So completely indeed did it thus depend, that Newton +_had actually abandoned his hypothesis_ because the length of a degree, +as then stated, brought out wrong results; and it was only after +Picart's more exact measurement was published, that he returned to his +calculations and proved his great generalisation. Now this constant +intercommunion, which, for brevity's sake, we have illustrated in the +case of one science only, has been taking place with all the sciences. +Throughout the whole course of their evolution there has been a +continuous _consensus_ of the sciences--a _consensus_ exhibiting a +general correspondence with the _consensus_ of faculties in each phase +of mental development; the one being an objective registry of the +subjective state of the other. + +From our present point of view, then, it becomes obvious that the +conception of a _serial_ arrangement of the sciences is a vicious one. +It is not simply that the schemes we have examined are untenable; but it +is that the sciences cannot be rightly placed in any linear order +whatever. It is not simply that, as M. Comte admits, a classification +"will always involve something, if not arbitrary, at least artificial;" +it is not, as he would have us believe, that, neglecting minor +imperfections a classification may be substantially true; but it is that +any grouping of the sciences in a succession gives a radically erroneous +idea of their genesis and their dependencies. There is no "one +_rational_ order among a host of possible systems." There is no "true +_filiation_ of the sciences." The whole hypothesis is fundamentally +false. Indeed, it needs but a glance at its origin to see at once how +baseless it is. Why a _series_? What reason have we to suppose that the +sciences admit of a _linear_ arrangement? Where is our warrant for +assuming that there is some _succession_ in which they can be placed? +There is no reason; no warrant. Whence then has arisen the supposition? +To use M. Comte's own phraseology, we should say, it is a metaphysical +conception. It adds another to the cases constantly occurring, of the +human mind being made the measure of Nature. We are obliged to think in +sequence; it is the law of our minds that we must consider subjects +separately, one after another: _therefore_ Nature must be +serial--_therefore_ the sciences must be classifiable in a succession. +See here the birth of the notion, and the sole evidence of its truth. +Men have been obliged when arranging in books their schemes of education +and systems of knowledge, to choose _some_ order or other. And from +inquiring what is the best order, have naturally fallen into the belief +that there is an order which truly represents the facts--have persevered +in seeking such an order; quite overlooking the previous question +whether it is likely that Nature has consulted the convenience of +book-making. + +For German philosophers, who hold that Nature is "petrified +intelligence," and that logical forms are the foundations of all things, +it is a consistent hypothesis that as thought is serial, Nature is +serial; but that M. Comte, who is so bitter an opponent of all +anthropomorphism, even in its most evanescent shapes, should have +committed the mistake of imposing upon the external world an arrangement +which so obviously springs from a limitation of the human consciousness, +is somewhat strange. And it is the more strange when we call to mind +how, at the outset, M. Comte remarks that in the beginning "_toutes les +sciences sont cultivees simultanement par les memes esprits_;" that +this is "_inevitable et meme indispensable_;" and how he further remarks +that the different sciences are "_comme les diverses branches d'un tronc +unique_." Were it not accounted for by the distorting influence of a +cherished hypothesis, it would be scarcely possible to understand how, +after recognising truths like these, M. Comte should have persisted in +attempting to construct "_une echelle encyclopedique_." + +The metaphor which M. Comte has here so inconsistently used to express +the relations of the sciences--branches of one trunk--is an +approximation to the truth, though not the truth itself. It suggests the +facts that the sciences had a common origin; that they have been +developing simultaneously; and that they have been from time to time +dividing and subdividing. But it does not suggest the yet more important +fact, that the divisions and subdivisions thus arising do not remain +separate, but now and again reunite in direct and indirect ways. They +inosculate; they severally send off and receive connecting growths; and +the intercommunion has been ever becoming more frequent, more intricate, +more widely ramified. There has all along been higher specialisation, +that there might be a larger generalisation; and a deeper analysis, that +there might be a better synthesis. Each larger generalisation has lifted +sundry specialisations still higher; and each better synthesis has +prepared the way for still deeper analysis. + +And here we may fitly enter upon the task awhile since indicated--a +sketch of the Genesis of Science, regarded as a gradual outgrowth from +common knowledge--an extension of the perceptions by the aid of the +reason. We propose to treat it as a psychological process historically +displayed; tracing at the same time the advance from qualitative to +quantitative prevision; the progress from concrete facts to abstract +facts, and the application of such abstract facts to the analysis of new +orders of concrete facts; the simultaneous advance in generalisation and +specialisation; the continually increasing subdivision and reunion of +the sciences; and their constantly improving _consensus_. + +To trace out scientific evolution from its deepest roots would, of +course, involve a complete analysis of the mind. For as science is a +development of that common knowledge acquired by the unaided senses and +uncultured reason, so is that common knowledge itself gradually built up +out of the simplest perceptions. We must, therefore, begin somewhere +abruptly; and the most appropriate stage to take for our point of +departure will be the adult mind of the savage. + +Commencing thus, without a proper preliminary analysis, we are naturally +somewhat at a loss how to present, in a satisfactory manner, those +fundamental processes of thought out of which science ultimately +originates. Perhaps our argument may be best initiated by the +proposition, that all intelligent action whatever depends upon the +discerning of distinctions among surrounding things. The condition under +which only it is possible for any creature to obtain food and avoid +danger is, that it shall be differently affected by different +objects--that it shall be led to act in one way by one object, and in +another way by another. In the lower orders of creatures this condition +is fulfilled by means of an apparatus which acts automatically. In the +higher orders the actions are partly automatic, partly conscious. And in +man they are almost wholly conscious. + +Throughout, however, there must necessarily exist a certain +classification of things according to their properties--a classification +which is either organically registered in the system, as in the inferior +creation, or is formed by experience, as in ourselves. And it may be +further remarked, that the extent to which this classification is +carried, roughly indicates the height of intelligence--that while the +lowest organisms are able to do little more than discriminate organic +from inorganic matter; while the generality of animals carry their +classifications no further than to a limited number of plants or +creatures serving for food, a limited number of beasts of prey, and a +limited number of places and materials; the most degraded of the human +race possess a knowledge of the distinctive natures of a great variety +of substances, plants, animals, tools, persons, etc., not only as +classes but as individuals. + +What now is the mental process by which classification is effected? +Manifestly it is a recognition of the _likeness_ or _unlikeness_ of +things, either in respect of their sizes, colours, forms, weights, +textures, tastes, etc., or in respect of their modes of action. By some +special mark, sound, or motion, the savage identifies a certain +four-legged creature he sees, as one that is good for food, and to be +caught in a particular way; or as one that is dangerous; and acts +accordingly. He has classed together all the creatures that are _alike_ +in this particular. And manifestly in choosing the wood out of which to +form his bow, the plant with which to poison his arrows, the bone from +which to make his fish-hooks, he identifies them through their chief +sensible properties as belonging to the general classes, wood, plant, +and bone, but distinguishes them as belonging to sub-classes by virtue +of certain properties in which they are _unlike_ the rest of the general +classes they belong to; and so forms genera and species. + +And here it becomes manifest that not only is classification carried on +by grouping together in the mind things that are _like_; but that +classes and sub-classes are formed and arranged according to the +_degrees of unlikeness_. Things widely contrasted are alone +distinguished in the lower stages of mental evolution; as may be any day +observed in an infant. And gradually as the powers of discrimination +increase, the widely contrasted classes at first distinguished, come to +be each divided into sub-classes, differing from each other less than +the classes differ; and these sub-classes are again divided after the +same manner. By the continuance of which process, things are gradually +arranged into groups, the members of which are less and less _unlike_; +ending, finally, in groups whose members differ only as individuals, and +not specifically. And thus there tends ultimately to arise the notion of +_complete likeness_. For, manifestly, it is impossible that groups +should continue to be subdivided in virtue of smaller and smaller +differences, without there being a simultaneous approximation to the +notion of _no difference_. + +Let us next notice that the recognition of likeness and unlikeness, +which underlies classification, and out of which continued +classification evolves the idea of complete likeness--let us next notice +that it also underlies the process of _naming_, and by consequence +_language_. For all language consists, at the beginning, of symbols +which are as _like_ to the things symbolised as it is practicable to +make them. The language of signs is a means of conveying ideas by +mimicking the actions or peculiarities of the things referred to. Verbal +language is also, at the beginning, a mode of suggesting objects or acts +by imitating the sounds which the objects make, or with which the acts +are accompanied. Originally these two languages were used +simultaneously. It needs but to watch the gesticulations with which the +savage accompanies his speech--to see a Bushman or a Kaffir dramatising +before an audience his mode of catching game--or to note the extreme +paucity of words in all primitive vocabularies; to infer that at first, +attitudes, gestures, and sounds, were all combined to produce as good a +_likeness_ as possible, of the things, animals, persons, or events +described; and that as the sounds came to be understood by themselves +the gestures fell into disuse: leaving traces, however, in the manners +of the more excitable civilised races. But be this as it may, it +suffices simply to observe, how many of the words current among +barbarous peoples are like the sounds appertaining to the things +signified; how many of our own oldest and simplest words have the same +peculiarity; how children tend to invent imitative words; and how the +sign-language spontaneously formed by deaf mutes is invariably based +upon imitative actions--to at once see that the nation of _likeness_ is +that from which the nomenclature of objects takes its rise. + +Were there space we might go on to point out how this law of life is +traceable, not only in the origin but in the development of language; +how in primitive tongues the plural is made by a duplication of the +singular, which is a multiplication of the word to make it _like_ the +multiplicity of the things; how the use of metaphor--that prolific +source of new words--is a suggesting of ideas that are _like_ the ideas +to be conveyed in some respect or other; and how, in the copious use of +simile, fable, and allegory among uncivilised races, we see that complex +conceptions, which there is yet no direct language for, are rendered, by +presenting known conceptions more or less _like_ them. + +This view is further confirmed, and the predominance of this notion of +likeness in primitive times further illustrated, by the fact that our +system of presenting ideas to the eye originated after the same fashion. +Writing and printing have descended from picture-language. The earliest +mode of permanently registering a fact was by depicting it on a wall; +that is--by exhibiting something as _like_ to the thing to be remembered +as it could be made. Gradually as the practice grew habitual and +extensive, the most frequently repeated forms became fixed, and +presently abbreviated; and, passing through the hieroglyphic and +ideographic phases, the symbols lost all apparent relations to the +things signified: just as the majority of our spoken words have done. + +Observe again, that the same thing is true respecting the genesis of +reasoning. The _likeness_ that is perceived to exist between cases, is +the essence of all early reasoning and of much of our present reasoning. +The savage, having by experience discovered a relation between a certain +object and a certain act, infers that the _like_ relation will be found +in future cases. And the expressions we constantly use in our +arguments--"_analogy_ implies," "the cases are not _parallel_," "by +_parity_ of reasoning," "there is no _similarity_,"--show how constantly +the idea of likeness underlies our ratiocinative processes. + +Still more clearly will this be seen on recognising the fact that there +is a certain parallelism between reasoning and classification; that the +two have a common root; and that neither can go on without the other. +For on the one hand, it is a familiar truth that the attributing to a +body in consequence of some of its properties, all those other +properties in virtue of which it is referred to a particular class, is +an act of inference. And, on the other hand, the forming of a +generalisation is the putting together in one class all those cases +which present like relations; while the drawing a deduction is +essentially the perception that a particular case belongs to a certain +class of cases previously generalised. So that as classification is a +grouping together of _like things_; reasoning is a grouping together of +_like relations_ among things. Add to which, that while the perfection +gradually achieved in classification consists in the formation of groups +of _objects_ which are _completely alike_; the perfection gradually +achieved in reasoning consists in the formation of groups of _cases_ +which are _completely alike_. + +Once more we may contemplate this dominant idea of likeness as exhibited +in art. All art, civilised as well as savage, consists almost wholly in +the making of objects _like_ other objects; either as found in Nature, +or as produced by previous art. If we trace back the varied art-products +now existing, we find that at each stage the divergence from previous +patterns is but small when compared with the agreement; and in the +earliest art the persistency of imitation is yet more conspicuous. The +old forms and ornaments and symbols were held sacred, and perpetually +copied. Indeed, the strong imitative tendency notoriously displayed by +the lowest human races, ensures among them a constant reproducing of +likeness of things, forms, signs, sounds, actions, and whatever else is +imitable; and we may even suspect that this aboriginal peculiarity is in +some way connected with the culture and development of this general +conception, which we have found so deep and widespread in its +applications. + +And now let us go on to consider how, by a further unfolding of this +same fundamental notion, there is a gradual formation of the first germs +of science. This idea of likeness which underlies classification, +nomenclature, language spoken and written, reasoning, and art; and which +plays so important a part because all acts of intelligence are made +possible only by distinguishing among surrounding things, or grouping +them into like and unlike;--this idea we shall find to be the one of +which science is the especial product. Already during the stage we have +been describing, there has existed _qualitative_ prevision in respect to +the commoner phenomena with which savage life is familiar; and we have +now to inquire how the elements of _quantitative_ prevision are evolved. +We shall find that they originate by the perfecting of this same idea of +likeness; that they have their rise in that conception of _complete +likeness_ which, as we have seen, necessarily results from the continued +process of classification. + +For when the process of classification has been carried as far as it is +possible for the uncivilised to carry it--when the animal kingdom has +been grouped not merely into quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and insects, but +each of these divided into kinds--when there come to be sub-classes, in +each of which the members differ only as individuals, and not +specifically; it is clear that there must occur a frequent observation +of objects which differ so little as to be indistinguishable. Among +several creatures which the savage has killed and carried home, it must +often happen that some one, which he wished to identify, is so exactly +like another that he cannot tell which is which. Thus, then, there +originates the notion of _equality_. The things which among ourselves +are called _equal_--whether lines, angles, weights, temperatures, sounds +or colours--are things which produce in us sensations that cannot be +distinguished from each other. It is true we now apply the word _equal_ +chiefly to the separate phenomena which objects exhibit, and not to +groups of phenomena; but this limitation of the idea has evidently +arisen by subsequent analysis. And that the notion of equality did thus +originate, will, we think, become obvious on remembering that as there +were no artificial objects from which it could have been abstracted, it +must have been abstracted from natural objects; and that the various +families of the animal kingdom chiefly furnish those natural objects +which display the requisite exactitude of likeness. + +The same order of experiences out of which this general idea of equality +is evolved, gives birth at the same time to a more complex idea of +equality; or, rather, the process just described generates an idea of +equality which further experience separates into two ideas--_equality of +things_ and _equality of relations_. While organic, and more especially +animal forms, occasionally exhibit this perfection of likeness out of +which the notion of simple equality arises, they more frequently +exhibit only that kind of likeness which we call _similarity_; and which +is really compound equality. For the similarity of two creatures of the +same species but of different sizes, is of the same nature as the +similarity of two geometrical figures. In either case, any two parts of +the one bear the same ratio to one another as the homologous parts of +the other. Given in any species, the proportions found to exist among +the bones, and we may, and zoologists do, predict from any one, the +dimensions of the rest; just as, when knowing the proportions subsisting +among the parts of a geometrical figure, we may, from the length of one, +calculate the others. And if, in the case of similar geometrical +figures, the similarity can be established only by proving exactness of +proportion among the homologous parts; if we express this relation +between two parts in the one, and the corresponding parts in the other, +by the formula A is to B as _a_ is to _b_; if we otherwise write this, A +to B = _a_ to _b_; if, consequently, the fact we prove is that the +relation of A to B _equals_ the relation of _a_ to _b_; then it is +manifest that the fundamental conception of similarity is _equality of +relations_. + +With this explanation we shall be understood when we say that the notion +of equality of relations is the basis of all exact reasoning. Already it +has been shown that reasoning in general is a recognition of _likeness_ +of relations; and here we further find that while the notion of likeness +of things ultimately evolves the idea of simple equality, the notion of +likeness of relations evolves the idea of equality of relations: of +which the one is the concrete germ of exact science, while the other is +its abstract germ. + +Those who cannot understand how the recognition of similarity in +creatures of the same kind can have any alliance with reasoning, will +get over the difficulty on remembering that the phenomena among which +equality of relations is thus perceived, are phenomena of the same order +and are present to the senses at the same time; while those among which +developed reason perceives relations, are generally neither of the same +order, nor simultaneously present. And if further, they will call to +mind how Cuvier and Owen, from a single part of a creature, as a tooth, +construct the rest by a process of reasoning based on this equality of +relations, they will see that the two things are intimately connected, +remote as they at first seem. But we anticipate. What it concerns us +here to observe is, that from familiarity with organic forms there +simultaneously arose the ideas of _simple equality_, and _equality of +relations_. + +At the same time, too, and out of the same mental processes, came the +first distinct ideas of _number_. In the earliest stages, the +presentation of several like objects produced merely an indefinite +conception of multiplicity; as it still does among Australians, and +Bushmen, and Damaras, when the number presented exceeds three or four. +With such a fact before us we may safely infer that the first clear +numerical conception was that of duality as contrasted with unity. And +this notion of duality must necessarily have grown up side by side with +those of likeness and equality; seeing that it is impossible to +recognise the likeness of two things without also perceiving that there +are two. From the very beginning the conception of number must have been +as it is still, associated with the likeness or equality of the things +numbered. If we analyse it, we find that simple enumeration is a +registration of repeated impressions of any kind. That these may be +capable of enumeration it is needful that they be more or less alike; +and before any _absolutely true_ numerical results can be reached, it is +requisite that the units be _absolutely equal_. The only way in which we +can establish a numerical relationship between things that do not yield +us like impressions, is to divide them into parts that _do_ yield us +like impressions. Two unlike magnitudes of extension, force, time, +weight, or what not, can have their relative amounts estimated only by +means of some small unit that is contained many times in both; and even +if we finally write down the greater one as a unit and the other as a +fraction of it, we state, in the denominator of the fraction, the number +of parts into which the unit must be divided to be comparable with the +fraction. + +It is, indeed, true, that by an evidently modern process of abstraction, +we occasionally apply numbers to unequal units, as the furniture at a +sale or the various animals on a farm, simply as so many separate +entities; but no true result can be brought out by calculation with +units of this order. And, indeed, it is the distinctive peculiarity of +the calculus in general, that it proceeds on the hypothesis of that +absolute equality of its abstract units, which no real units possess; +and that the exactness of its results holds only in virtue of this +hypothesis. The first ideas of number must necessarily then have been +derived from like or equal magnitudes as seen chiefly in organic +objects; and as the like magnitudes most frequently observed magnitudes +of extension, it follows that geometry and arithmetic had a +simultaneous origin. + +Not only are the first distinct ideas of number co-ordinate with ideas +of likeness and equality, but the first efforts at numeration displayed +the same relationship. On reading the accounts of various savage tribes, +we find that the method of counting by the fingers, still followed by +many children, is the aboriginal method. Neglecting the several cases in +which the ability to enumerate does not reach even to the number of +fingers on one hand, there are many cases in which it does not extend +beyond ten--the limit of the simple finger notation. The fact that in so +many instances, remote, and seemingly unrelated nations, have adopted +_ten_ as their basic number; together with the fact that in the +remaining instances the basic number is either _five_ (the fingers of +one hand) or _twenty_ (the fingers and toes); almost of themselves show +that the fingers were the original units of numeration. The still +surviving use of the word _digit_, as the general name for a figure in +arithmetic, is significant; and it is even said that our word _ten_ +(Sax. _tyn_; Dutch, _tien_; German, _zehn_) means in its primitive +expanded form _two hands_. So that originally, to say there were ten +things, was to say there were two hands of them. + +From all which evidence it is tolerably clear that the earliest mode of +conveying the idea of any number of things, was by holding up as many +fingers as there were things; that is--using a symbol which was _equal_, +in respect of multiplicity, to the group symbolised. For which inference +there is, indeed, strong confirmation in the recent statement that our +own soldiers are even now spontaneously adopting this device in their +dealings with the Turks. And here it should be remarked that in this +recombination of the notion of equality with that of multiplicity, by +which the first steps in numeration are effected, we may see one of the +earliest of those inosculations between the diverging branches of +science, which are afterwards of perpetual occurrence. + +Indeed, as this observation suggests, it will be well, before tracing +the mode in which exact science finally emerges from the merely +approximate judgments of the senses, and showing the non-serial +evolution of its divisions, to note the non-serial character of those +preliminary processes of which all after development is a continuation. +On reconsidering them it will be seen that not only are they divergent +growths from a common root, not only are they simultaneous in their +progress; but that they are mutual aids; and that none can advance +without the rest. That completeness of classification for which the +unfolding of the perceptions paves the way, is impossible without a +corresponding progress in language, by which greater varieties of +objects are thinkable and expressible. On the one hand it is impossible +to carry classification far without names by which to designate the +classes; and on the other hand it is impossible to make language faster +than things are classified. + +Again, the multiplication of classes and the consequent narrowing of +each class, itself involves a greater likeness among the things classed +together; and the consequent approach towards the notion of complete +likeness itself allows classification to be carried higher. Moreover, +classification necessarily advances _pari passu_ with rationality--the +classification of _things_ with the classification of _relations_. For +things that belong to the same class are, by implication, things of +which the properties and modes of behaviour--the co-existences and +sequences--are more or less the same; and the recognition of this +sameness of co-existences and sequences is reasoning. Whence it follows +that the advance of classification is necessarily proportionate to the +advance of generalisations. Yet further, the notion of _likeness_, both +in things and relations, simultaneously evolves by one process of +culture the ideas of _equality_ of things and _equality_ of relations; +which are the respective bases of exact concrete reasoning and exact +abstract reasoning--Mathematics and Logic. And once more, this idea of +equality, in the very process of being formed, necessarily gives origin +to two series of relations--those of magnitude and those of number: from +which arise geometry and the calculus. Thus the process throughout is +one of perpetual subdivision and perpetual intercommunication of the +divisions. From the very first there has been that _consensus_ of +different kinds of knowledge, answering to the _consensus_ of the +intellectual faculties, which, as already said, must exist among the +sciences. + +Let us now go on to observe how, out of the notions of _equality_ and +_number_, as arrived at in the manner described, there gradually arose +the elements of quantitative prevision. + +Equality, once having come to be definitely conceived, was readily +applicable to other phenomena than those of magnitude. Being predicable +of all things producing indistinguishable impressions, there naturally +grew up ideas of equality in weights, sounds, colours, etc.; and indeed +it can scarcely be doubted that the occasional experience of equal +weights, sounds, and colours, had a share in developing the abstract +conception of equality--that the ideas of equality in size, relations, +forces, resistances, and sensible properties in general, were evolved +during the same period. But however this may be, it is clear that as +fast as the notion of equality gained definiteness, so fast did that +lowest kind of quantitative prevision which is achieved without any +instrumental aid, become possible. + +The ability to estimate, however roughly, the amount of a foreseen +result, implies the conception that it will be _equal to_ a certain +imagined quantity; and the correctness of the estimate will manifestly +depend upon the accuracy at which the perceptions of sensible equality +have arrived. A savage with a piece of stone in his hand, and another +piece lying before him of greater bulk of the same kind (a fact which he +infers from the _equality_ of the two in colour and texture) knows about +what effort he must put forth to raise this other piece; and he judges +accurately in proportion to the accuracy with which he perceives that +the one is twice, three times, four times, etc., as large as the other; +that is--in proportion to the precision of his ideas of equality and +number. And here let us not omit to notice that even in these vaguest of +quantitative previsions, the conception of _equality of relations_ is +also involved. For it is only in virtue of an undefined perception that +the relation between bulk and weight in the one stone is _equal_ to the +relation between bulk and weight in the other, that even the roughest +approximation can be made. + +But how came the transition from those uncertain perceptions of equality +which the unaided senses give, to the certain ones with which science +deals? It came by placing the things compared in juxtaposition. Equality +being predicated of things which give us indistinguishable impressions, +and no accurate comparison of impressions being possible unless they +occur in immediate succession, it results that exactness of equality is +ascertainable in proportion to the closeness of the compared things. +Hence the fact that when we wish to judge of two shades of colour +whether they are alike or not, we place them side by side; hence the +fact that we cannot, with any precision, say which of two allied sounds +is the louder, or the higher in pitch, unless we hear the one +immediately after the other; hence the fact that to estimate the ratio +of weights, we take one in each hand, that we may compare their +pressures by rapidly alternating in thought from the one to the other; +hence the fact, that in a piece of music we can continue to make equal +beats when the first beat has been given, but cannot ensure commencing +with the same length of beat on a future occasion; and hence, lastly, +the fact, that of all magnitudes, those of _linear extension_ are those +of which the equality is most accurately ascertainable, and those to +which by consequence all others have to be reduced. For it is the +peculiarity of linear extension that it alone allows its magnitudes to +be placed in _absolute_ juxtaposition, or, rather, in coincident +position; it alone can test the equality of two magnitudes by observing +whether they will coalesce, as two equal mathematical lines do, when +placed between the same points; it alone can test _equality_ by trying +whether it will become _identity_. Hence, then, the fact, that all exact +science is reducible, by an ultimate analysis, to results measured in +equal units of linear extension. + +Still it remains to be noticed in what manner this determination of +equality by comparison of linear magnitudes originated. Once more may we +perceive that surrounding natural objects supplied the needful lessons. +From the beginning there must have been a constant experience of like +things placed side by side--men standing and walking together; animals +from the same herd; fish from the same shoal. And the ceaseless +repetition of these experiences could not fail to suggest the +observation, that the nearer together any objects were, the more visible +became any inequality between them. Hence the obvious device of putting +in apposition things of which it was desired to ascertain the relative +magnitudes. Hence the idea of _measure_. And here we suddenly come upon +a group of facts which afford a solid basis to the remainder of our +argument; while they also furnish strong evidence in support of the +foregoing speculations. Those who look sceptically on this attempted +rehabilitation of the earliest epochs of mental development, and who +more especially think that the derivation of so many primary notions +from organic forms is somewhat strained, will perhaps see more +probability in the several hypotheses that have been ventured, on +discovering that all measures of _extension_ and _force_ originated from +the lengths and weights of organic bodies; and all measures of _time_ +from the periodic phenomena of either organic or inorganic bodies. + +Thus, among linear measures, the cubit of the Hebrews was the _length of +the forearm_ from the elbow to the end of the middle finger; and the +smaller scriptural dimensions are expressed in _hand-breadths_ and +_spans_. The Egyptian cubit, which was similarly derived, was divided +into digits, which were _finger-breadths_; and each finger-breadth was +more definitely expressed as being equal to four _grains of barley_ +placed breadthwise. Other ancient measures were the orgyia or _stretch +of the arms_, the _pace_, and the _palm_. So persistent has been the use +of these natural units of length in the East, that even now some of the +Arabs mete out cloth by the forearm. So, too, is it with European +measures. The _foot_ prevails as a dimension throughout Europe, and has +done since the time of the Romans, by whom, also, it was used: its +lengths in different places varying not much more than men's feet vary. +The heights of horses are still expressed in _hands_. The inch is the +length of the terminal joint of _the thumb_; as is clearly shown in +France, where _pouce_ means both thumb and inch. Then we have the inch +divided into three _barley-corns_. + +So completely, indeed, have these organic dimensions served as the +substrata of all mensuration, that it is only by means of them that we +can form any estimate of some of the ancient distances. For example, the +length of a degree on the Earth's surface, as determined by the Arabian +astronomers shortly after the death of Haroun-al-Raschid, was fifty-six +of their miles. We know nothing of their mile further than that it was +4000 cubits; and whether these were sacred cubits or common cubits, +would remain doubtful, but that the length of the cubit is given as +twenty-seven inches, and each inch defined as the thickness of six +barley-grains. Thus one of the earliest measurements of a degree comes +down to us in barley-grains. Not only did organic lengths furnish those +approximate measures which satisfied men's needs in ruder ages, but they +furnished also the standard measures required in later times. One +instance occurs in our own history. To remedy the irregularities then +prevailing, Henry I. commanded that the ulna, or ancient ell, which +answers to the modern yard, should be made of the exact length of _his +own arm_. + +Measures of weight again had a like derivation. Seeds seem commonly to +have supplied the unit. The original of the carat used for weighing in +India is _a small bean_. Our own systems, both troy and avoirdupois, are +derived primarily from wheat-corns. Our smallest weight, the grain, is +_a grain of wheat_. This is not a speculation; it is an historically +registered fact. Henry III. enacted that an ounce should be the weight +of 640 dry grains of wheat from the middle of the ear. And as all the +other weights are multiples or sub-multiples of this, it follows that +the grain of wheat is the basis of our scale. So natural is it to use +organic bodies as weights, before artificial weights have been +established, or where they are not to be had, that in some of the +remoter parts of Ireland the people are said to be in the habit, even +now, of putting a man into the scales to serve as a measure for heavy +commodities. + +Similarly with time. Astronomical periodicity, and the periodicity of +animal and vegetable life, are simultaneously used in the first stages +of progress for estimating epochs. The simplest unit of time, the day, +nature supplies ready made. The next simplest period, the mooneth or +month, is also thrust upon men's notice by the conspicuous changes +constituting a lunation. For larger divisions than these, the phenomena +of the seasons, and the chief events from time to time occurring, have +been used by early and uncivilised races. Among the Egyptians the rising +of the Nile served as a mark. The New Zealanders were found to begin +their year from the reappearance of the Pleiades above the sea. One of +the uses ascribed to birds, by the Greeks, was to indicate the seasons +by their migrations. Barrow describes the aboriginal Hottentot as +denoting periods by the number of moons before or after the ripening of +one of his chief articles of food. He further states that the Kaffir +chronology is kept by the moon, and is registered by notches on +sticks--the death of a favourite chief, or the gaining of a victory, +serving for a new era. By which last fact, we are at once reminded that +in early history, events are commonly recorded as occurring in certain +reigns, and in certain years of certain reigns: a proceeding which +practically made a king's reign a measure of duration. + +And, as further illustrating the tendency to divide time by natural +phenomena and natural events, it may be noticed that even by our own +peasantry the definite divisions of months and years are but little +used; and that they habitually refer to occurrences as "before +sheep-shearing," or "after harvest," or "about the time when the squire +died." It is manifest, therefore, that the more or less equal periods +perceived in Nature gave the first units of measure for time; as did +Nature's more or less equal lengths and weights give the first units of +measure for space and force. + +It remains only to observe, as further illustrating the evolution of +quantitative ideas after this manner, that measures of value were +similarly derived. Barter, in one form or other, is found among all but +the very lowest human races. It is obviously based upon the notion of +_equality of worth_. And as it gradually merges into trade by the +introduction of some kind of currency, we find that the _measures of +worth_, constituting this currency, are organic bodies; in some cases +_cowries_, in others _cocoa-nuts_, in others _cattle_, in others _pigs_; +among the American Indians peltry or _skins_, and in Iceland _dried +fish_. + +Notions of exact equality and of measure having been reached, there came +to be definite ideas of relative magnitudes as being multiples one of +another; whence the practice of measurement by direct apposition of a +measure. The determination of linear extensions by this process can +scarcely be called science, though it is a step towards it; but the +determination of lengths of time by an analogous process may be +considered as one of the earliest samples of quantitative prevision. For +when it is first ascertained that the moon completes the cycle of her +changes in about thirty days--a fact known to most uncivilised tribes +that can count beyond the number of their fingers--it is manifest that +it becomes possible to say in what number of days any specified phase of +the moon will recur; and it is also manifest that this prevision is +effected by an opposition of two times, after the same manner that +linear space is measured by the opposition of two lines. For to express +the moon's period in days, is to say how many of these units of measure +are contained in the period to be measured--is to ascertain the distance +between two points in time by means of a _scale of days_, just as we +ascertain the distance between two points in space by a scale of feet or +inches: and in each case the scale coincides with the thing +measured--mentally in the one; visibly in the other. So that in this +simplest, and perhaps earliest case of quantitative prevision, the +phenomena are not only thrust daily upon men's notice, but Nature is, as +it were, perpetually repeating that process of measurement by observing +which the prevision is effected. And thus there may be significance in +the remark which some have made, that alike in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, +there is an affinity between the word meaning moon, and that meaning +measure. + +This fact, that in very early stages of social progress it is known that +the moon goes through her changes in about thirty days, and that in +about twelve moons the seasons return--this fact that chronological +astronomy assumes a certain scientific character even before geometry +does; while it is partly due to the circumstance that the astronomical +divisions, day, month, and year, are ready made for us, is partly due to +the further circumstances that agricultural and other operations were at +first regulated astronomically, and that from the supposed divine +nature of the heavenly bodies their motions determined the periodical +religious festivals. As instances of the one we have the observation of +the Egyptians, that the rising of the Nile corresponded with the +heliacal rising of Sirius; the directions given by Hesiod for reaping +and ploughing, according to the positions of the Pleiades; and his maxim +that "fifty days after the turning of the sun is a seasonable time for +beginning a voyage." As instances of the other, we have the naming of +the days after the sun, moon, and planets; the early attempts among +Eastern nations to regulate the calendar so that the gods might not be +offended by the displacement of their sacrifices; and the fixing of the +great annual festival of the Peruvians by the position of the sun. In +all which facts we see that, at first, science was simply an appliance +of religion and industry. + +After the discoveries that a lunation occupies nearly thirty days, and +that some twelve lunations occupy a year--discoveries of which there is +no historical account, but which may be inferred as the earliest, from +the fact that existing uncivilised races have made them--we come to the +first known astronomical records, which are those of eclipses. The +Chaldeans were able to predict these. "This they did, probably," says +Dr. Whewell in his useful history, from which most of the materials we +are about to use will be drawn, "by means of their cycle of 223 months, +or about eighteen years; for at the end of this time, the eclipses of +the moon begin to return, at the same intervals and in the same order as +at the beginning." Now this method of calculating eclipses by means of a +recurring cycle,--the _Saros_ as they called it--is a more complex case +of prevision by means of coincidence of measures. For by what +observations must the Chaldeans have discovered this cycle? Obviously, +as Delambre infers, by inspecting their registers; by comparing the +successive intervals; by finding that some of the intervals were alike; +by seeing that these equal intervals were eighteen years apart; by +discovering that _all_ the intervals that were eighteen years apart were +equal; by ascertaining that the intervals formed a series which repeated +itself, so that if one of the cycles of intervals were superposed on +another the divisions would fit. This once perceived, and it manifestly +became possible to use the cycle as a scale of time by which to measure +out future periods. Seeing thus that the process of so predicting +eclipses is in essence the same as that of predicting the moon's monthly +changes, by observing the number of days after which they repeat--seeing +that the two differ only in the extent and irregularity of the +intervals, it is not difficult to understand how such an amount of +knowledge should so early have been reached. And we shall be less +surprised, on remembering that the only things involved in these +previsions were _time_ and _number_; and that the time was in a manner +self-numbered. + +Still, the ability to predict events recurring only after so long a +period as eighteen years, implies a considerable advance in +civilisation--a considerable development of general knowledge; and we +have now to inquire what progress in other sciences accompanied, and was +necessary to, these astronomical previsions. In the first place, there +must clearly have been a tolerably efficient system of calculation. Mere +finger-counting, mere head-reckoning, even with the aid of a regular +decimal notation, could not have sufficed for numbering the days in a +year; much less the years, months, and days between eclipses. +Consequently there must have been a mode of registering numbers; +probably even a system of numerals. The earliest numerical records, if +we may judge by the practices of the less civilised races now existing, +were probably kept by notches cut on sticks, or strokes marked on walls; +much as public-house scores are kept now. And there seems reason to +believe that the first numerals used were simply groups of straight +strokes, as some of the still-extant Roman ones are; leading us to +suspect that these groups of strokes were used to represent groups of +fingers, as the groups of fingers had been used to represent groups of +objects--a supposition quite in conformity with the aboriginal system of +picture writing and its subsequent modifications. Be this so or not, +however, it is manifest that before the Chaldeans discovered their +_Saros_, there must have been both a set of written symbols serving for +an extensive numeration, and a familiarity with the simpler rules of +arithmetic. + +Not only must abstract mathematics have made some progress, but concrete +mathematics also. It is scarcely possible that the buildings belonging +to this era should have been laid out and erected without any knowledge +of geometry. At any rate, there must have existed that elementary +geometry which deals with direct measurement--with the apposition of +lines; and it seems that only after the discovery of those simple +proceedings, by which right angles are drawn, and relative positions +fixed, could so regular an architecture be executed. In the case of the +other division of concrete mathematics--mechanics, we have definite +evidence of progress. We know that the lever and the inclined plane were +employed during this period: implying that there was a qualitative +prevision of their effects, though not a quantitative one. But we know +more. We read of weights in the earliest records; and we find weights in +ruins of the highest antiquity. Weights imply scales, of which we have +also mention; and scales involve the primary theorem of mechanics in its +least complicated form--involve not a qualitative but a quantitative +prevision of mechanical effects. And here we may notice how mechanics, +in common with the other exact sciences, took its rise from the simplest +application of the idea of _equality_. For the mechanical proposition +which the scales involve, is, that if a lever with _equal_ arms, have +_equal_ weights suspended from them, the weights will remain at _equal_ +altitudes. And we may further notice how, in this first step of rational +mechanics, we see illustrated that truth awhile since referred to, that +as magnitudes of linear extension are the only ones of which the +equality is exactly ascertainable, the equalities of other magnitudes +have at the outset to be determined by means of them. For the equality +of the weights which balance each other in scales, wholly depends upon +the equality of the arms: we can know that the weights are equal only by +proving that the arms are equal. And when by this means we have obtained +a system of weights,--a set of equal units of force, then does a science +of mechanics become possible. Whence, indeed, it follows, that rational +mechanics could not possibly have any other starting-point than the +scales. + +Let us further remember, that during this same period there was a +limited knowledge of chemistry. The many arts which we know to have been +carried on must have been impossible without a generalised experience of +the modes in which certain bodies affect each other under special +conditions. In metallurgy, which was extensively practised, this is +abundantly illustrated. And we even have evidence that in some cases the +knowledge possessed was, in a sense, quantitative. For, as we find by +analysis that the hard alloy of which the Egyptians made their cutting +tools, was composed of copper and tin in fixed proportions, there must +have been an established prevision that such an alloy was to be obtained +only by mixing them in these proportions. It is true, this was but a +simple empirical generalisation; but so was the generalisation +respecting the recurrence of eclipses; so are the first generalisations +of every science. + +Respecting the simultaneous advance of the sciences during this early +epoch, it only remains to remark that even the most complex of them +must have made some progress--perhaps even a greater relative progress +than any of the rest. For under what conditions only were the foregoing +developments possible? There first required an established and organised +social system. A long continued registry of eclipses; the building of +palaces; the use of scales; the practice of metallurgy--alike imply a +fixed and populous nation. The existence of such a nation not only +presupposes laws, and some administration of justice, which we know +existed, but it presupposes successful laws--laws conforming in some +degree to the conditions of social stability--laws enacted because it +was seen that the actions forbidden by them were dangerous to the State. +We do not by any means say that all, or even the greater part, of the +laws were of this nature; but we do say, that the fundamental ones were. +It cannot be denied that the laws affecting life and property were such. +It cannot be denied that, however little these were enforced between +class and class, they were to a considerable extent enforced between +members of the same class. It can scarcely be questioned, that the +administration of them between members of the same class was seen by +rulers to be necessary for keeping their subjects together. And knowing, +as we do, that, other things equal, nations prosper in proportion to the +justness of their arrangements, we may fairly infer that the very cause +of the advance of these earliest nations out of aboriginal barbarism was +the greater recognition among them of the claims to life and property. + +But supposition aside, it is clear that the habitual recognition of +these claims in their laws implied some prevision of social phenomena. +Even thus early there was a certain amount of social science. Nay, it +may even be shown that there was a vague recognition of that fundamental +principle on which all the true social science is based--the equal +rights of all to the free exercise of their faculties. That same idea of +_equality_ which, as we have seen, underlies all other science, +underlies also morals and sociology. The conception of justice, which is +the primary one in morals; and the administration of justice, which is +the vital condition of social existence; are impossible without the +recognition of a certain likeness in men's claims in virtue of their +common humanity. _Equity_ literally means _equalness_; and if it be +admitted that there were even the vaguest ideas of equity in these +primitive eras, it must be admitted that there was some appreciation of +the equalness of men's liberties to pursue the objects of life--some +appreciation, therefore, of the essential principle of national +equilibrium. + +Thus in this initial stage of the positive sciences, before geometry had +yet done more than evolve a few empirical rules--before mechanics had +passed beyond its first theorem--before astronomy had advanced from its +merely chronological phase into the geometrical; the most involved of +the sciences had reached a certain degree of development--a development +without which no progress in other sciences was possible. + +Only noting as we pass, how, thus early, we may see that the progress of +exact science was not only towards an increasing number of previsions, +but towards previsions more accurately quantitative--how, in astronomy, +the recurring period of the moon's motions was by and by more correctly +ascertained to be nineteen years, or two hundred and thirty-five +lunations; how Callipus further corrected this Metonic cycle, by leaving +out a day at the end of every seventy-six years; and how these +successive advances implied a longer continued registry of observations, +and the co-ordination of a greater number of facts--let us go on to +inquire how geometrical astronomy took its rise. + +The first astronomical instrument was the gnomon. This was not only +early in use in the East, but it was found also among the Mexicans; the +sole astronomical observations of the Peruvians were made by it; and we +read that 1100 B.C., the Chinese found that, at a certain place, the +length of the sun's shadow, at the summer solstice, was to the height of +the gnomon as one and a half to eight. Here again it is observable, not +only that the instrument is found ready made, but that Nature is +perpetually performing the process of measurement. Any fixed, erect +object--a column, a dead palm, a pole, the angle of a building--serves +for a gnomon; and it needs but to notice the changing position of the +shadow it daily throws to make the first step in geometrical astronomy. +How small this first step was, may be seen in the fact that the only +things ascertained at the outset were the periods of the summer and +winter solstices, which corresponded with the least and greatest lengths +of the mid-shadow; and to fix which, it was needful merely to mark the +point to which each day's shadow reached. + +And now let it not be overlooked that in the observing at what time +during the next year this extreme limit of the shadow was again reached, +and in the inference that the sun had then arrived at the same turning +point in his annual course, we have one of the simplest instances of +that combined use of _equal magnitudes_ and _equal relations_, by which +all exact science, all quantitative prevision, is reached. For the +relation observed was between the length of the sun's shadow and his +position in the heavens; and the inference drawn was that when, next +year, the extremity of his shadow came to the same point, he occupied +the same place. That is, the ideas involved were, the equality of the +shadows, and the equality of the relations between shadow and sun in +successive years. As in the case of the scales, the equality of +relations here recognised is of the simplest order. It is not as those +habitually dealt with in the higher kinds of scientific reasoning, which +answer to the general type--the relation between two and three equals +the relation between six and nine; but it follows the type--the relation +between two and three, equals the relation between two and three; it is +a case of not simply _equal_ relations, but _coinciding_ relations. And +here, indeed, we may see beautifully illustrated how the idea of equal +relations takes its rise after the same manner that that of equal +magnitude does. As already shown, the idea of equal magnitudes arose +from the observed coincidence of two lengths placed together; and in +this case we have not only two coincident lengths of shadows, but two +coincident relations between sun and shadows. + +From the use of the gnomon there naturally grew up the conception of +angular measurements; and with the advance of geometrical conceptions +there came the hemisphere of Berosus, the equinoctial armil, the +solstitial armil, and the quadrant of Ptolemy--all of them employing +shadows as indices of the sun's position, but in combination with +angular divisions. It is obviously out of the question for us here to +trace these details of progress. It must suffice to remark that in all +of them we may see that notion of equality of relations of a more +complex kind, which is best illustrated in the astrolabe, an instrument +which consisted "of circular rims, movable one within the other, or +about poles, and contained circles which were to be brought into the +position of the ecliptic, and of a plane passing through the sun and the +poles of the ecliptic"--an instrument, therefore, which represented, as +by a model, the relative positions of certain imaginary lines and planes +in the heavens; which was adjusted by putting these representative lines +and planes into parallelism and coincidence with the celestial ones; and +which depended for its use upon the perception that the relations +between these representative lines and planes were _equal_ to the +relations between those represented. + +Were there space, we might go on to point out how the conception of the +heavens as a revolving hollow sphere, the discovery of the globular form +of the earth, the explanation of the moon's phases, and indeed all the +successive steps taken, involved this same mental process. But we must +content ourselves with referring to the theory of eccentrics and +epicycles, as a further marked illustration of it. As first suggested, +and as proved by Hipparchus to afford an explanation of the leading +irregularities in the celestial motions, this theory involved the +perception that the progressions, retrogressions, and variations of +velocity seen in the heavenly bodies, might be reconciled with their +assumed uniform movement in circles, by supposing that the earth was not +in the centre of their orbits; or by supposing that they revolved in +circles whose centres revolved round the earth; or by both. The +discovery that this would account for the appearances, was the discovery +that in certain geometrical diagrams the relations were such, that the +uniform motion of a point would, when looked at from a particular +position, present analogous irregularities; and the calculations of +Hipparchus involved the belief that the relations subsisting among these +geometrical curves were _equal_ to the relations subsisting among the +celestial orbits. + +Leaving here these details of astronomical progress, and the philosophy +of it, let us observe how the relatively concrete science of geometrical +astronomy, having been thus far helped forward by the development of +geometry in general, reacted upon geometry, caused it also to advance, +and was again assisted by it. Hipparchus, before making his solar and +lunar tables, had to discover rules for calculating the relations +between the sides and angles of triangles--_trigonometry_ a subdivision +of pure mathematics. Further, the reduction of the doctrine of the +sphere to the quantitative form needed for astronomical purposes, +required the formation of a _spherical trigonometry_, which was also +achieved by Hipparchus. Thus both plane and spherical trigonometry, +which are parts of the highly abstract and simple science of extension, +remained undeveloped until the less abstract and more complex science of +the celestial motions had need of them. The fact admitted by M. Comte, +that since Descartes the progress of the abstract division of +mathematics has been determined by that of the concrete division, is +paralleled by the still more significant fact that even thus early the +progress of mathematics was determined by that of astronomy. + +And here, indeed, we may see exemplified the truth, which the subsequent +history of science frequently illustrates, that before any more +abstract division makes a further advance, some more concrete division +must suggest the necessity for that advance--must present the new order +of questions to be solved. Before astronomy presented Hipparchus with +the problem of solar tables, there was nothing to raise the question of +the relations between lines and angles; the subject-matter of +trigonometry had not been conceived. And as there must be subject-matter +before there can be investigation, it follows that the progress of the +concrete divisions is as necessary to that of the abstract, as the +progress of the abstract to that of the concrete. + +Just incidentally noticing the circumstance that the epoch we are +describing witnessed the evolution of algebra, a comparatively abstract +division of mathematics, by the union of its less abstract divisions, +geometry and arithmetic--a fact proved by the earliest extant samples of +algebra, which are half algebraic, half geometric--we go on to observe +that during the era in which mathematics and astronomy were thus +advancing, rational mechanics made its second step; and something was +done towards giving a quantitative form to hydrostatics, optics, and +harmonics. In each case we shall see, as before, how the idea of +equality underlies all quantitative prevision; and in what simple forms +this idea is first applied. + +As already shown, the first theorem established in mechanics was, that +equal weights suspended from a lever with equal arms would remain in +equilibrium. Archimedes discovered that a lever with unequal arms was in +equilibrium when one weight was to its arm as the other arm to its +weight; that is--when the numerical relation between one weight and its +arm was _equal_ to the numerical relation between the other arm and its +weight. + +The first advance made in hydrostatics, which we also owe to Archimedes, +was the discovery that fluids press _equally_ in all directions; and +from this followed the solution of the problem of floating bodies: +namely, that they are in equilibrium when the upward and downward +pressures are _equal_. + +In optics, again, the Greeks found that the angle of incidence is +_equal_ to the angle of reflection; and their knowledge reached no +further than to such simple deductions from this as their geometry +sufficed for. In harmonics they ascertained the fact that three strings +of _equal_ lengths would yield the octave, fifth and fourth, when +strained by weights having certain definite ratios; and they did not +progress much beyond this. In the one of which cases we see geometry +used in elucidation of the laws of light; and in the other, geometry and +arithmetic made to measure the phenomena of sound. + +Did space permit, it would be desirable here to describe the state of +the less advanced sciences--to point out how, while a few had thus +reached the first stages of quantitative prevision, the rest were +progressing in qualitative prevision--how some small generalisations +were made respecting evaporation, and heat, and electricity, and +magnetism, which, empirical as they were, did not in that respect differ +from the first generalisations of every science--how the Greek +physicians had made advances in physiology and pathology, which, +considering the great imperfection of our present knowledge, are by no +means to be despised--how zoology had been so far systematised by +Aristotle, as, to some extent, enabled him from the presence of certain +organs to predict the presence of others--how in Aristotle's _Politics_ +there is some progress towards a scientific conception of social +phenomena, and sundry previsions respecting them--and how in the state +of the Greek societies, as well as in the writings of Greek +philosophers, we may recognise not only an increasing clearness in that +conception of equity on which the social science is based, but also some +appreciation of the fact that social stability depends upon the +maintenance of equitable regulations. We might dwell at length upon the +causes which retarded the development of some of the sciences, as, for +example, chemistry; showing that relative complexity had nothing to do +with it--that the oxidation of a piece of iron is a simpler phenomenon +than the recurrence of eclipses, and the discovery of carbonic acid less +difficult than that of the precession of the equinoxes--but that the +relatively slow advance of chemical knowledge was due, partly to the +fact that its phenomena were not daily thrust on men's notice as those +of astronomy were; partly to the fact that Nature does not habitually +supply the means, and suggest the modes of investigation, as in the +sciences dealing with time, extension, and force; and partly to the fact +that the great majority of the materials with which chemistry deals, +instead of being ready to hand, are made known only by the arts in their +slow growth; and partly to the fact that even when known, their chemical +properties are not self-exhibited, but have to be sought out by +experiment. + +Merely indicating all these considerations, however, let us go on to +contemplate the progress and mutual influence of the sciences in modern +days; only parenthetically noticing how, on the revival of the +scientific spirit, the successive stages achieved exhibit the dominance +of the same law hitherto traced--how the primary idea in dynamics, a +uniform force, was defined by Galileo to be a force which generates +_equal_ velocities in _equal_ successive times--how the uniform action +of gravity was first experimentally determined by showing that the time +elapsing before a body thrown up, stopped, was _equal_ to the time it +took to fall--how the first fact in compound motion which Galileo +ascertained was, that a body projected horizontally will have a uniform +motion onwards and a uniformly accelerated motion downwards; that is, +will describe _equal_ horizontal spaces in _equal_ times, compounded +with _equal_ vertical increments in _equal_ times--how his discovery +respecting the pendulum was, that its oscillations occupy _equal_ +intervals of time whatever their length--how the principle of virtual +velocities which he established is, that in any machine the weights that +balance each other are reciprocally as their virtual velocities; that +is, the relation of one set of weights to their velocities _equals_ the +relation of the other set of velocities to their weights; and how thus +his achievements consisted in showing the equalities of certain +magnitudes and relations, whose equalities had not been previously +recognised. + +When mechanics had reached the point to which Galileo brought it--when +the simple laws of force had been disentangled from the friction and +atmospheric resistance by which all their earthly manifestations are +disguised--when progressing knowledge of _physics_ had given a due +insight into these disturbing causes--when, by an effort of abstraction, +it was perceived that all motion would be uniform and rectilinear unless +interfered with by external forces--and when the various consequences of +this perception had been worked out; then it became possible, by the +union of geometry and mechanics, to initiate physical astronomy. +Geometry and mechanics having diverged from a common root in men's +sensible experiences; having, with occasional inosculations, been +separately developed, the one partly in connection with astronomy, the +other solely by analysing terrestrial movements; now join in the +investigations of Newton to create a true theory of the celestial +motions. And here, also, we have to notice the important fact that, in +the very process of being brought jointly to bear upon astronomical +problems, they are themselves raised to a higher phase of development. +For it was in dealing with the questions raised by celestial dynamics +that the then incipient infinitesimal calculus was unfolded by Newton +and his continental successors; and it was from inquiries into the +mechanics of the solar system that the general theorems of mechanics +contained in the _Principia_,--many of them of purely terrestrial +application--took their rise. Thus, as in the case of Hipparchus, the +presentation of a new order of concrete facts to be analysed, led to the +discovery of new abstract facts; and these abstract facts having been +laid hold of, gave means of access to endless groups of concrete facts +before incapable of quantitative treatment. + +Meanwhile, physics had been carrying further that progress without +which, as just shown, rational mechanics could not be disentangled. In +hydrostatics, Stevinus had extended and applied the discovery of +Archimedes. Torricelli had proved atmospheric pressure, "by showing that +this pressure sustained different liquids at heights inversely +proportional to their densities;" and Pascal "established the necessary +diminution of this pressure at increasing heights in the atmosphere:" +discoveries which in part reduced this branch of science to a +quantitative form. Something had been done by Daniel Bernouilli towards +the dynamics of fluids. The thermometer had been invented; and a number +of small generalisations reached by it. Huyghens and Newton had made +considerable progress in optics; Newton had approximately calculated the +rate of transmission of sound; and the continental mathematicians had +succeeded in determining some of the laws of sonorous vibrations. +Magnetism and electricity had been considerably advanced by Gilbert. +Chemistry had got as far as the mutual neutralisation of acids and +alkalies. And Leonardo da Vinci had advanced in geology to the +conception of the deposition of marine strata as the origin of fossils. +Our present purpose does not require that we should give particulars. +All that it here concerns us to do is to illustrate the _consensus_ +subsisting in this stage of growth, and afterwards. Let us look at a few +cases. + +The theoretic law of the velocity of sound enunciated by Newton on +purely mechanical considerations, was found wrong by one-sixth. The +error remained unaccounted for until the time of Laplace, who, +suspecting that the heat disengaged by the compression of the undulating +strata of the air, gave additional elasticity, and so produced the +difference, made the needful calculations and found he was right. Thus +acoustics was arrested until thermology overtook and aided it. When +Boyle and Marriot had discovered the relation between the density of +gases and the pressures they are subject to; and when it thus became +possible to calculate the rate of decreasing density in the upper parts +of the atmosphere, it also became possible to make approximate tables of +the atmospheric refraction of light. Thus optics, and with it astronomy, +advanced with barology. After the discovery of atmospheric pressure had +led to the invention of the air-pump by Otto Guericke; and after it had +become known that evaporation increases in rapidity as atmospheric +pressure decreases; it became possible for Leslie, by evaporation in a +vacuum, to produce the greatest cold known; and so to extend our +knowledge of thermology by showing that there is no zero within reach of +our researches. When Fourier had determined the laws of conduction of +heat, and when the Earth's temperature had been found to increase below +the surface one degree in every forty yards, there were data for +inferring the past condition of our globe; the vast period it has taken +to cool down to its present state; and the immense age of the solar +system--a purely astronomical consideration. + +Chemistry having advanced sufficiently to supply the needful materials, +and a physiological experiment having furnished the requisite hint, +there came the discovery of galvanic electricity. Galvanism reacting on +chemistry disclosed the metallic bases of the alkalies, and inaugurated +the electro-chemical theory; in the hands of Oersted and Ampere it led +to the laws of magnetic action; and by its aid Faraday has detected +significant facts relative to the constitution of light. Brewster's +discoveries respecting double refraction and dipolarisation proved the +essential truth of the classification of crystalline forms according to +the number of axes, by showing that the molecular constitution depends +upon the axes. In these and in numerous other cases, the mutual +influence of the sciences has been quite independent of any supposed +hierarchical order. Often, too, their inter-actions are more complex +than as thus instanced--involve more sciences than two. One illustration +of this must suffice. We quote it in full from the _History of the +Inductive Sciences_. In book xi., chap, ii., on "The Progress of the +Electrical Theory," Dr. Whewell writes:-- + + "Thus at that period, mathematics was behind experiment, and a + problem was proposed, in which theoretical results were wanted for + comparison with observation, but could not be accurately obtained; + as was the case in astronomy also, till the time of the approximate + solution of the problem of three bodies, and the consequent + formation of the tables of the moon and planets, on the theory of + universal gravitation. After some time, electrical theory was + relieved from this reproach, mainly in consequence of the progress + which astronomy had occasioned in pure mathematics. About 1801 + there appeared in the _Bulletin des Sciences_, an exact solution of + the problem of the distribution of electric fluid on a spheroid, + obtained by Biot, by the application of the peculiar methods which + Laplace had invented for the problem of the figure of the planets. + And, in 1811, M. Poisson applied Laplace's artifices to the case of + two spheres acting upon one another in contact, a case to which + many of Coulomb's experiments were referrible; and the agreement of + the results of theory and observation, thus extricated from + Coulomb's numbers obtained above forty years previously, was very + striking and convincing." + +Not only do the sciences affect each other after this direct manner, but +they affect each other indirectly. Where there is no dependence, there +is yet analogy--_equality of relations_; and the discovery of the +relations subsisting among one set of phenomena, constantly suggests a +search for the same relations among another set. Thus the established +fact that the force of gravitation varies inversely as the square of the +distance, being recognised as a necessary characteristic of all +influences proceeding from a centre, raised the suspicion that heat and +light follow the same law; which proved to be the case--a suspicion and +a confirmation which were repeated in respect to the electric and +magnetic forces. Thus again the discovery of the polarisation of light +led to experiments which ended in the discovery of the polarisation of +heat--a discovery that could never have been made without the antecedent +one. Thus, too, the known refrangibility of light and heat lately +produced the inquiry whether sound also is not refrangible; which on +trial it turns out to be. + +In some cases, indeed, it is only by the aid of conceptions derived from +one class of phenomena that hypotheses respecting other classes can be +formed. The theory, at one time favoured, that evaporation is a solution +of water in air, was an assumption that the relation between water and +air is _like_ the relation between salt and water; and could never have +been conceived if the relation between salt and water had not been +previously known. Similarly the received theory of evaporation--that it +is a diffusion of the particles of the evaporating fluid in virtue of +their atomic repulsion--could not have been entertained without a +foregoing experience of magnetic and electric repulsions. So complete in +recent days has become this _consensus_ among the sciences, caused +either by the natural entanglement of their phenomena, or by analogies +in the relations of their phenomena, that scarcely any considerable +discovery concerning one order of facts now takes place, without very +shortly leading to discoveries concerning other orders. + +To produce a tolerably complete conception of this process of +scientific evolution, it would be needful to go back to the beginning, +and trace in detail the growth of classifications and nomenclatures; and +to show how, as subsidiary to science, they have acted upon it, and it +has reacted upon them. We can only now remark that, on the one hand, +classifications and nomenclatures have aided science by continually +subdividing the subject-matter of research, and giving fixity and +diffusion to the truths disclosed; and that on the other hand, they have +caught from it that increasing quantitativeness, and that progress from +considerations touching single phenomena to considerations touching the +relations among many phenomena, which we have been describing. + +Of this last influence a few illustrations must be given. In chemistry +it is seen in the facts, that the dividing of matter into the four +elements was ostensibly based upon the single property of weight; that +the first truly chemical division into acid and alkaline bodies, grouped +together bodies which had not simply one property in common, but in +which one property was constantly related to many others; and that the +classification now current, places together in groups _supporters of +combustion_, _metallic and non-metallic bases_, _acids_, _salts_, etc., +bodies which are often quite unlike in sensible qualities, but which are +like in the majority of their _relations_ to other bodies. In mineralogy +again, the first classifications were based upon differences in aspect, +texture, and other physical attributes. Berzelius made two attempts at a +classification based solely on chemical constitution. That now current, +recognises as far as possible the _relations_ between physical and +chemical characters. In botany the earliest classes formed were _trees_, +_shrubs_, and _herbs_: magnitude being the basis of distinction. +Dioscorides divided vegetables into _aromatic_, _alimentary_, +_medicinal_, and _vinous_: a division of chemical character. Caesalpinus +classified them by the seeds, and seed-vessels, which he preferred +because of the _relations_ found to subsist between the character of the +fructification and the general character of the other parts. + +While the "natural system" since developed, carrying out the doctrine of +Linnaeus, that "natural orders must be formed by attention not to one or +two, but to _all_ the parts of plants," bases its divisions on like +peculiarities which are found to be _constantly related_ to the greatest +number of other like peculiarities. And similarly in zoology, the +successive classifications, from having been originally determined by +external and often subordinate characters not indicative of the +essential nature, have been gradually more and more determined by those +internal and fundamental differences, which have uniform _relations_ to +the greatest number of other differences. Nor shall we be surprised at +this analogy between the modes of progress of positive science and +classification, when we bear in mind that both proceed by making +generalisations; that both enable us to make previsions differing only +in their precision; and that while the one deals with equal properties +and relations, the other deals with properties and relations that +approximate towards equality in variable degrees. + +Without further argument, it will, we think, be sufficiently clear that +the sciences are none of them separately evolved--are none of them +independent either logically or historically; but that all of them have, +in a greater or less degree, required aid and reciprocated it. Indeed, +it needs but to throw aside these, and contemplate the mixed character +of surrounding phenomena, to at once see that these notions of division +and succession in the kinds of knowledge are none of them actually true, +but are simple scientific fictions: good, if regarded merely as aids to +study; bad, if regarded as representing realities in Nature. Consider +them critically, and no facts whatever are presented to our senses +uncombined with other facts--no facts whatever but are in some degree +disguised by accompanying facts: disguised in such a manner that all +must be partially understood before any one can be understood. If it be +said, as by M. Comte, that gravitating force should be treated of before +other forces, seeing that all things are subject to it, it may on like +grounds be said that heat should be first dealt with; seeing that +thermal forces are everywhere in action; that the ability of any portion +of matter to manifest visible gravitative phenomena depends on its state +of aggregation, which is determined by heat; that only by the aid of +thermology can we explain those apparent exceptions to the gravitating +tendency which are presented by steam and smoke, and so establish its +universality, and that, indeed, the very existence of the solar system +in a solid form is just as much a question of heat as it is one of +gravitation. + +Take other cases:--All phenomena recognised by the eyes, through which +only are the data of exact science ascertainable, are complicated with +optical phenomena; and cannot be exhaustively known until optical +principles are known. The burning of a candle cannot be explained +without involving chemistry, mechanics, thermology. Every wind that +blows is determined by influences partly solar, partly lunar, partly +hygrometric; and implies considerations of fluid equilibrium and +physical geography. The direction, dip, and variations of the magnetic +needle, are facts half terrestrial, half celestial--are caused by +earthly forces which have cycles of change corresponding with +astronomical periods. The flowing of the gulf-stream and the annual +migration of icebergs towards the equator, depending as they do on the +balancing of the centripetal and centrifugal forces acting on the ocean, +involve in their explanation the Earth's rotation and spheroidal form, +the laws of hydrostatics, the relative densities of cold and warm water, +and the doctrines of evaporation. It is no doubt true, as M. Comte says, +that "our position in the solar system, and the motions, form, size, +equilibrium of the mass of our world among the planets, must be known +before we can understand the phenomena going on at its surface." But, +fatally for his hypothesis, it is also true that we must understand a +great part of the phenomena going on at its surface before we can know +its position, etc., in the solar system. It is not simply that, as we +have already shown, those geometrical and mechanical principles by which +celestial appearances are explained, were first generalised from +terrestrial experiences; but it is that the very obtainment of correct +data, on which to base astronomical generalisations, implies advanced +terrestrial physics. + +Until after optics had made considerable advance, the Copernican system +remained but a speculation. A single modern observation on a star has to +undergo a careful analysis by the combined aid of various sciences--has +to _be digested by the organism of the sciences_; which have severally +to assimilate their respective parts of the observation, before the +essential fact it contains is available for the further development of +astronomy. It has to be corrected not only for nutation of the earth's +axis and for precession of the equinoxes, but for aberration and for +refraction; and the formation of the tables by which refraction is +calculated, presupposes knowledge of the law of decreasing density in +the upper atmospheric strata; of the law of decreasing temperature, and +the influence of this on the density; and of hygrometric laws as also +affecting density. So that, to get materials for further advance, +astronomy requires not only the indirect aid of the sciences which have +presided over the making of its improved instruments, but the direct aid +of an advanced optics, of barology, of thermology, of hygrometry; and if +we remember that these delicate observations are in some cases +registered electrically, and that they are further corrected for the +"personal equation"--the time elapsing between seeing and registering, +which varies with different observers--we may even add electricity and +psychology. If, then, so apparently simple a thing as ascertaining the +position of a star is complicated with so many phenomena, it is clear +that this notion of the independence of the sciences, or certain of +them, will not hold. + +Whether objectively independent or not, they cannot be subjectively +so--they cannot have independence as presented to our consciousness; and +this is the only kind of independence with which we are concerned. And +here, before leaving these illustrations, and especially this last one, +let us not omit to notice how clearly they exhibit that increasingly +active _consensus_ of the sciences which characterises their advancing +development. Besides finding that in these later times a discovery in +one science commonly causes progress in others; besides finding that a +great part of the questions with which modern science deals are so mixed +as to require the co-operation of many sciences for their solution; we +find in this last case that, to make a single good observation in the +purest of the natural sciences, requires the combined assistance of half +a dozen other sciences. + +Perhaps the clearest comprehension of the interconnected growth of the +sciences may be obtained by contemplating that of the arts, to which it +is strictly analogous, and with which it is inseparably bound up. Most +intelligent persons must have been, at one time or other, struck with +the vast array of antecedents pre-supposed by one of our processes of +manufacture. Let him trace the production of a printed cotton, and +consider all that is implied by it. There are the many successive +improvements through which the power-looms reached their present +perfection; there is the steam-engine that drives them, having its long +history from Papin downwards; there are the lathes in which its cylinder +was bored, and the string of ancestral lathes from which those lathes +proceeded; there is the steam-hammer under which its crank shaft was +welded; there are the puddling-furnaces, the blast-furnaces, the +coal-mines and the iron-mines needful for producing the raw material; +there are the slowly improved appliances by which the factory was built, +and lighted, and ventilated; there are the printing engine, and the die +house, and the colour laboratory with its stock of materials from all +parts of the world, implying cochineal-culture, logwood-cutting, +indigo-growing; there are the implements used by the producers of +cotton, the gins by which it is cleaned, the elaborate machines by which +it is spun: there are the vessels in which cotton is imported, with the +building-slips, the rope-yards, the sail-cloth factories, the +anchor-forges, needful for making them; and besides all these directly +necessary antecedents, each of them involving many others, there are the +institutions which have developed the requisite intelligence, the +printing and publishing arrangements which have spread the necessary +information, the social organisation which has rendered possible such a +complex co-operation of agencies. + +Further analysis would show that the many arts thus concerned in the +economical production of a child's frock, have each of them been brought +to its present efficiency by slow steps which the other arts have aided; +and that from the beginning this reciprocity has been ever on the +increase. It needs but on the one hand to consider how utterly +impossible it is for the savage, even with ore and coal ready, to +produce so simple a thing as an iron hatchet; and then to consider, on +the other hand, that it would have been impracticable among ourselves, +even a century ago, to raise the tubes of the Britannia bridge from lack +of the hydraulic press; to at once see how mutually dependent are the +arts, and how all must advance that each may advance. Well, the sciences +are involved with each other in just the same manner. They are, in fact, +inextricably woven into the same complex web of the arts; and are only +conventionally independent of it. Originally the two were one. How to +fix the religious festivals; when to sow: how to weigh commodities; and +in what manner to measure ground; were the purely practical questions +out of which arose astronomy, mechanics, geometry. Since then there has +been a perpetual inosculation of the sciences and the arts. Science has +been supplying art with truer generalisations and more completely +quantitative previsions. Art has been supplying science with better +materials and more perfect instruments. And all along the +interdependence has been growing closer, not only between art and +science, but among the arts themselves, and among the sciences +themselves. + +How completely the analogy holds throughout, becomes yet clearer when we +recognise the fact that _the sciences are arts to each other_. If, as +occurs in almost every case, the fact to be analysed by any science, has +first to be prepared--to be disentangled from disturbing facts by the +afore discovered methods of other sciences; the other sciences so used, +stand in the position of arts. If, in solving a dynamical problem, a +parallelogram is drawn, of which the sides and diagonal represent +forces, and by putting magnitudes of extension for magnitudes of force a +measurable relation is established between quantities not else to be +dealt with; it may be fairly said that geometry plays towards mechanics +much the same part that the fire of the founder plays towards the metal +he is going to cast. If, in analysing the phenomena of the coloured +rings surrounding the point of contact between two lenses, a Newton +ascertains by calculation the amount of certain interposed spaces, far +too minute for actual measurement; he employs the science of number for +essentially the same purpose as that for which the watchmaker employs +tools. If, before writing down his observation on a star, the astronomer +has to separate from it all the errors resulting from atmospheric and +optical laws, it is manifest that the refraction-tables, and +logarithm-books, and formulae, which he successively uses, serve him much +as retorts, and filters, and cupels serve the assayer who wishes to +separate the pure gold from all accompanying ingredients. + +So close, indeed, is the relationship, that it is impossible to say +where science begins and art ends. All the instruments of the natural +philosopher are the products of art; the adjusting one of them for use +is an art; there is art in making an observation with one of them; it +requires art properly to treat the facts ascertained; nay, even the +employing established generalisations to open the way to new +generalisations, may be considered as art. In each of these cases +previously organised knowledge becomes the implement by which new +knowledge is got at: and whether that previously organised knowledge is +embodied in a tangible apparatus or in a formula, matters not in so far +as its essential relation to the new knowledge is concerned. If, as no +one will deny, art is applied knowledge, then such portion of a +scientific investigation as consists of applied knowledge is art. So +that we may even say that as soon as any prevision in science passes out +of its originally passive state, and is employed for reaching other +previsions, it passes from theory into practice--becomes science in +action--becomes art. And when we thus see how purely conventional is the +ordinary distinction, how impossible it is to make any real +separation--when we see not only that science and art were originally +one; that the arts have perpetually assisted each other; that there has +been a constant reciprocation of aid between the sciences and arts; but +that the sciences act as arts to each other, and that the established +part of each science becomes an art to the growing part--when we +recognise the closeness of these associations, we shall the more clearly +perceive that as the connection of the arts with each other has been +ever becoming more intimate; as the help given by sciences to arts and +by arts to sciences, has been age by age increasing; so the +interdependence of the sciences themselves has been ever growing +greater, their mutual relations more involved, their _consensus_ more +active. + + * * * * * + +In here ending our sketch of the Genesis of Science, we are conscious of +having done the subject but scant justice. Two difficulties have stood +in our way: one, the having to touch on so many points in such small +space; the other, the necessity of treating in serial arrangement a +process which is not serial--a difficulty which must ever attend all +attempts to delineate processes of development, whatever their special +nature. Add to which, that to present in anything like completeness and +proportion, even the outlines of so vast and complex a history, demands +years of study. Nevertheless, we believe that the evidence which has +been assigned suffices to substantiate the leading propositions with +which we set out. Inquiry into the first stages of science confirms the +conclusion which we drew from the analysis of science as now existing, +that it is not distinct from common knowledge, but an outgrowth from +it--an extension of the perception by means of the reason. + +That which we further found by analysis to form the more specific +characteristic of scientific previsions, as contrasted with the +previsions of uncultured intelligence--their quantitativeness--we also +see to have been the characteristic alike in the initial steps in +science, and of all the steps succeeding them. The facts and admissions +cited in disproof of the assertion that the sciences follow one another, +both logically and historically, in the order of their decreasing +generality, have been enforced by the sundry instances we have met with, +in which the more general or abstract sciences have been advanced only +at the instigation of the more special or concrete--instances serving to +show that a more general science as much owes its progress to the +presentation of new problems by a more special science, as the more +special science owes its progress to the solutions which the more +general science is thus led to attempt--instances therefore illustrating +the position that scientific advance is as much from the special to the +general as from the general to the special. + +Quite in harmony with this position we find to be the admissions that +the sciences are as branches of one trunk, and that they were at first +cultivated simultaneously; and this harmony becomes the more marked on +finding, as we have done, not only that the sciences have a common root, +but that science in general has a common root with language, +classification, reasoning, art; that throughout civilisation these have +advanced together, acting and reacting upon each other just as the +separate sciences have done; and that thus the development of +intelligence in all its divisions and subdivisions has conformed to this +same law which we have shown that the sciences conform to. From all +which we may perceive that the sciences can with no greater propriety be +arranged in a succession, than language, classification, reasoning, art, +and science, can be arranged in a succession; that, however needful a +succession may be for the convenience of books and catalogues, it must +be recognised merely as a convention; and that so far from its being the +function of a philosophy of the sciences to establish a hierarchy, it is +its function to show that the linear arrangements required for literary +purposes, have none of them any basis either in Nature or History. + +There is one further remark we must not omit--a remark touching the +importance of the question that has been discussed. Unfortunately it +commonly happens that topics of this abstract nature are slighted as of +no practical moment; and, we doubt not, that many will think it of very +little consequence what theory respecting the genesis of science may be +entertained. But the value of truths is often great, in proportion as +their generality is wide. Remote as they seem from practical +application, the highest generalisations are not unfrequently the most +potent in their effects, in virtue of their influence on all those +subordinate generalisations which regulate practice. And it must be so +here. Whenever established, a correct theory of the historical +development of the sciences must have an immense effect upon education; +and, through education, upon civilisation. Greatly as we differ from him +in other respects, we agree with M. Comte in the belief that, rightly +conducted, the education of the individual must have a certain +correspondence with the evolution of the race. + +No one can contemplate the facts we have cited in illustration of the +early stages of science, without recognising the _necessity_ of the +processes through which those stages were reached--a necessity which, in +respect to the leading truths, may likewise be traced in all after +stages. This necessity, originating in the very nature of the phenomena +to be analysed and the faculties to be employed, more or less fully +applies to the mind of the child as to that of the savage. We say more +or less fully, because the correspondence is not special but general +only. Were the _environment_ the same in both cases, the correspondence +would be complete. But though the surrounding material out of which +science is to be organised, is, in many cases, the same to the juvenile +mind and the aboriginal mind, it is not so throughout; as, for instance, +in the case of chemistry, the phenomena of which are accessible to the +one, but were inaccessible to the other. Hence, in proportion as the +environment differs, the course of evolution must differ. After +admitting sundry exceptions, however, there remains a substantial +parallelism; and, if so, it becomes of great moment to ascertain what +really has been the process of scientific evolution. The establishment +of an erroneous theory must be disastrous in its educational results; +while the establishments of a true one must eventually be fertile in +school-reforms and consequent social benefits. + +[1] _British Quarterly Review_, July 1854. + +[2] It is somewhat curious that the author of _The Plurality of Worlds_, +with quite other aims, should have persuaded himself into similar +conclusions. + + + + +ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAUGHTER[1] + + +Why do we smile when a child puts on a man's hat? or what induces us to +laugh on reading that the corpulent Gibbon was unable to rise from his +knees after making a tender declaration? The usual reply to such +questions is, that laughter results from a perception of incongruity. +Even were there not on this reply the obvious criticism that laughter +often occurs from extreme pleasure or from mere vivacity, there would +still remain the real problem--How comes a sense of the incongruous to +be followed by these peculiar bodily actions? Some have alleged that +laughter is due to the pleasure of a relative self-elevation, which we +feel on seeing the humiliation of others. But this theory, whatever +portion of truth it may contain, is, in the first place, open to the +fatal objection, that there are various humiliations to others which +produce in us anything but laughter; and, in the second place, it does +not apply to the many instances in which no one's dignity is implicated: +as when we laugh at a good pun. Moreover, like the other, it is merely a +generalisation of certain conditions to laughter; and not an explanation +of the odd movements which occur under these conditions. Why, when +greatly delighted, or impressed with certain unexpected contrasts of +ideas, should there be a contraction of particular facial muscles, and +particular muscles of the chest and abdomen? Such answer to this +question as may be possible can be rendered only by physiology. + + * * * * * + +Every child has made the attempt to hold the foot still while it is +tickled, and has failed; and probably there is scarcely any one who has +not vainly tried to avoid winking, when a hand has been suddenly passed +before the eyes. These examples of muscular movements which occur +independently of the will, or in spite of it, illustrate what +physiologists call reflex-action; as likewise do sneezing and coughing. +To this class of cases, in which involuntary motions are accompanied by +sensations, has to be added another class of cases, in which involuntary +motions are unaccompanied by sensations:--instance the pulsations of the +heart; the contractions of the stomach during digestion. Further, the +great mass of seemingly-voluntary acts in such creatures as insects, +worms, molluscs, are considered by physiologists to be as purely +automatic as is the dilatation or closure of the iris under variations +in quantity of light; and similarly exemplify the law, that an +impression on the end of an afferent nerve is conveyed to some +ganglionic centre, and is thence usually reflected along an efferent +nerve to one or more muscles which it causes to contract. + +In a modified form this principle holds with voluntary acts. Nervous +excitation always _tends_ to beget muscular motion; and when it rises to +a certain intensity, always does beget it. Not only in reflex actions, +whether with or without sensation, do we see that special nerves, when +raised to a state of tension, discharge themselves on special muscles +with which they are indirectly connected; but those external actions +through which we read the feelings of others, show us that under any +considerable tension, the nervous system in general discharges itself on +the muscular system in general: either with or without the guidance of +the will. The shivering produced by cold, implies irregular muscular +contractions, which, though at first only partly involuntary, become, +when the cold is extreme, almost wholly involuntary. When you have +severely burnt your finger, it is very difficult to preserve a dignified +composure: contortion of face, or movement of limb, is pretty sure to +follow. If a man receives good news with neither change of feature nor +bodily motion, it is inferred that he is not much pleased, or that he +has extraordinary self-control--either inference implying that joy +almost universally produces contraction of the muscles; and so, alters +the expression, or attitude, or both. And when we hear of the feats of +strength which men have performed when their lives were at stake--when +we read how, in the energy of despair, even paralytic patients have +regained for a time the use of their limbs, we see still more clearly +the relations between nervous and muscular excitements. It becomes +manifest both that emotions and sensations tend to generate bodily +movements and that the movements are vehement in proportion as the +emotions or sensations are intense.[2] + +This, however, is not the sole direction in which nervous excitement +expends itself. Viscera as well as muscles may receive the discharge. +That the heart and blood-vessels (which, indeed, being all contractile, +may in a restricted sense be classed with the muscular system) are +quickly affected by pleasures and pains, we have daily proved to us. +Every sensation of any acuteness accelerates the pulse; and how +sensitive the heart is to emotions, is testified by the familiar +expressions which use heart and feeling as convertible terms. Similarly +with the digestive organs. Without detailing the various ways in which +these may be influenced by our mental states, it suffices to mention the +marked benefits derived by dyspeptics, as well as other invalids, from +cheerful society, welcome news, change of scene, to show how pleasurable +feeling stimulates the viscera in general into greater activity. + +There is still another direction in which any excited portion of the +nervous system may discharge itself; and a direction in which it usually +does discharge itself when the excitement is not strong. It may pass on +the stimulus to some other portion of the nervous system. This is what +occurs in quiet thinking and feeling. The successive states which +constitute consciousness, result from this. Sensations excite ideas and +emotions; these in their turns arouse other ideas and emotions; and so, +continuously. That is to say, the tension existing in particular nerves, +or groups of nerves, when they yield us certain sensations, ideas, or +emotions, generates an equivalent tension in some other nerves, or +groups of nerves, with which there is a connection: the flow of energy +passing on, the one idea or feeling dies in producing the next. + +Thus, then, while we are totally unable to comprehend how the excitement +of certain nerves should generate feeling--while, in the production of +consciousness by physical agents acting on physical structure, we come +to an absolute mystery never to be solved; it is yet quite possible for +us to know by observation what are the successive forms which this +absolute mystery may take. We see that there are three channels along +which nerves in a state of tension may discharge themselves; or rather, +I should say, three classes of channels. They may pass on the excitement +to other nerves that have no direct connections with the bodily members, +and may so cause other feelings and ideas; or they may pass on the +excitement to one or more motor nerves, and so cause muscular +contractions; or they may pass on the excitement to nerves which supply +the viscera, and may so stimulate one or more of these. + +For simplicity's sake, I have described these as alternative routes, one +or other of which any current of nerve-force must take; thereby, as it +may be thought, implying that such current will be exclusively confined +to some one of them. But this is by no means the case. Rarely, if ever, +does it happen that a state of nervous tension, present to consciousness +as a feeling, expends itself in one direction only. Very generally it +may be observed to expend itself in two; and it is probable that the +discharge is never absolutely absent from any one of the three. There +is, however, variety in the _proportions_ in which the discharge is +divided among these different channels under different circumstances. In +a man whose fear impels him to run, the mental tension generated is only +in part transformed into a muscular stimulus: there is a surplus which +causes a rapid current of ideas. An agreeable state of feeling produced, +say by praise, is not wholly used up in arousing the succeeding phase of +the feeling, and the new ideas appropriate to it; but a certain portion +overflows into the visceral nervous system, increasing the action of the +heart, and probably facilitating digestion. And here we come upon a +class of considerations and facts which open the way to a solution of +our special problem. + +For starting with the unquestionable truth, that at any moment the +existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an inscrutable way +produces in us the state we call feeling, _must_ expend itself in some +direction--_must_ generate an equivalent manifestation of force +somewhere--it clearly follows that, if of the several channels it may +take, one is wholly or partially closed, more must be taken by the +others; or that if two are closed, the discharge along the remaining one +must be more intense; and that, conversely, should anything determine an +unusual efflux in one direction, there will be a diminished efflux in +other directions. + +Daily experience illustrates these conclusions. It is commonly remarked, +that the suppression of external signs of feeling, makes feeling more +intense. The deepest grief is silent grief. Why? Because the nervous +excitement not discharged in muscular action, discharges itself in other +nervous excitements--arouses more numerous and more remote associations +of melancholy ideas, and so increases the mass of feelings. People who +conceal their anger are habitually found to be more revengeful than +those who explode in loud speech and vehement action. Why? Because, as +before, the emotion is reflected back, accumulates, and intensifies. +Similarly, men who, as proved by their powers of representation, have +the keenest appreciation of the comic, are usually able to do and say +the most ludicrous things with perfect gravity. + +On the other hand, all are familiar with the truth that bodily activity +deadens emotion. Under great irritation we get relief by walking about +rapidly. Extreme effort in the bootless attempt to achieve a desired +end greatly diminishes the intensity of the desire. Those who are forced +to exert themselves after misfortunes, do not suffer nearly so much as +those who remain quiescent. If any one wishes to check intellectual +excitement, he cannot choose a more efficient method than running till +he is exhausted. Moreover, these cases, in which the production of +feeling and thought is hindered by determining the nervous energy +towards bodily movements, have their counterparts in the cases in which +bodily movements are hindered by extra absorption of nervous energy in +sudden thoughts and feelings. If, when walking along, there flashes on +you an idea that creates great surprise, hope, or alarm, you stop; or if +sitting cross-legged, swinging your pendent foot, the movement is at +once arrested. From the viscera, too, intense mental action abstracts +energy. Joy, disappointment, anxiety, or any moral perturbation rising +to a great height, will destroy appetite; or if food has been taken, +will arrest digestion; and even a purely intellectual activity, when +extreme, will do the like. + +Facts, then, fully bear out these _a priori_ inferences, that the +nervous excitement at any moment present to consciousness as feeling, +must expend itself in some way or other; that of the three classes of +channels open to it, it must take one, two, or more, according to +circumstances; that the closure or obstruction of one, must increase the +discharge through the others; and conversely, that if to answer some +demand, the efflux of nervous energy in one direction is unusually +great, there must be a corresponding decrease of the efflux in other +directions. Setting out from these premises, let us now see what +interpretation is to be put on the phenomena of laughter. + + * * * * * + +That laughter is a display of muscular excitement, and so illustrates +the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch habitually vents +itself in bodily action, scarcely needs pointing out. It perhaps needs +pointing out, however, that strong feeling of almost any kind produces +this result. It is not a sense of the ludicrous, only, which does it; +nor are the various forms of joyous emotion the sole additional causes. +We have, besides, the sardonic laughter and the hysterical laughter, +which result from mental distress; to which must be added certain +sensations, as tickling, and, according to Mr. Bain, cold, and some +kinds of acute pain. + +Strong feeling, mental or physical, being, then, the general cause of +laughter, we have to note that the muscular actions constituting it are +distinguished from most others by this, that they are purposeless. In +general, bodily motions that are prompted by feelings are directed to +special ends; as when we try to escape a danger, or struggle to secure a +gratification. But the movements of chest and limbs which we make when +laughing have no object. And now remark that these quasi-convulsive +contractions of the muscles, having no object, but being results of an +uncontrolled discharge of energy, we may see whence arise their special +characters--how it happens that certain classes of muscles are affected +first, and then certain other classes. For an overflow of nerve-force, +undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual +routes; and if these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less +habitual ones. Well, it is through the organs of speech that feeling +passes into movement with the greatest frequency. The jaws, tongue, and +lips are used not only to express strong irritation or gratification; +but that very moderate flow of mental energy which accompanies ordinary +conversation, finds its chief vent through this channel. Hence it +happens that certain muscles round the mouth, small and easy to move, +are the first to contract under pleasurable emotion. The class of +muscles which, next after those of articulation, are most constantly set +in action (or extra action, we should say) by feelings of all kinds, are +those of respiration. Under pleasurable or painful sensations we breathe +more rapidly: possibly as a consequence of the increased demand for +oxygenated blood. The sensations that accompany exertion also bring on +hard-breathing; which here more evidently responds to the physiological +needs. And emotions, too, agreeable and disagreeable, both, at first, +excite respiration; though the last subsequently depress it. That is to +say, of the bodily muscles, the respiratory are more constantly +implicated than any others in those various acts which our feelings +impel us to; and, hence, when there occurs an undirected discharge of +nervous energy into the muscular system, it happens that, if the +quantity be considerable, it convulses not only certain of the +articulatory and vocal muscles, but also those which expel air from the +lungs. + +Should the feeling to be expended be still greater in amount--too great +to find vent in these classes of muscles--another class comes into play. +The upper limbs are set in motion. Children frequently clap their hands +in glee; by some adults the hands are rubbed together; and others, under +still greater intensity of delight, slap their knees and sway their +bodies backwards and forwards. Last of all, when the other channels for +the escape of the surplus nerve-force have been filled to overflowing, a +yet further and less-used group of muscles is spasmodically affected: +the head is thrown back and the spine bent inwards--there is a slight +degree of what medical men call opisthotonos. Thus, then, without +contending that the phenomena of laughter in all their details are to be +so accounted for, we see that in their _ensemble_ they conform to these +general principles:--that feeling excites to muscular action; that when +the muscular action is unguided by a purpose, the muscles first affected +are those which feeling most habitually stimulates; and that as the +feeling to be expended increases in quantity, it excites an increasing +number of muscles, in a succession determined by the relative frequency +with which they respond to the regulated dictates of feeling. + +There still, however, remains the question with which we set out. The +explanation here given applies only to the laughter produced by acute +pleasure or pain: it does not apply to the laughter that follows certain +perceptions of incongruity. It is an insufficient explanation that, in +these cases, laughter is a result of the pleasure we take in escaping +from the restraint of grave feelings. That this is a part-cause is true. +Doubtless very often, as Mr. Bain says, "it is the coerced form of +seriousness and solemnity without the reality that gives us that stiff +position from which a contact with triviality or vulgarity relieves us, +to our uproarious delight." And in so far as mirth is caused by the gush +of agreeable feeling that follows the cessation of mental strain, it +further illustrates the general principle above set forth. But no +explanation is thus afforded of the mirth which ensues when the short +silence between the _andante_ and _allegro_ in one of Beethoven's +symphonies, is broken by a loud sneeze. In this, and hosts of like +cases, the mental tension is not coerced but spontaneous--not +disagreeable but agreeable; and the coming impressions to which the +attention is directed, promise a gratification that few, if any, desire +to escape. Hence, when the unlucky sneeze occurs, it cannot be that the +laughter of the audience is due simply to the release from an irksome +attitude of mind: some other cause must be sought. + +This cause we shall arrive at by carrying our analysis a step further. +We have but to consider the quantity of feeling that exists under such +circumstances, and then to ask what are the conditions that determine +the direction of its discharge, to at once reach a solution. Take a +case. You are sitting in a theatre, absorbed in the progress of an +interesting drama. Some climax has been reached which has aroused your +sympathies--say, a reconciliation between the hero and heroine, after +long and painful misunderstanding. The feelings excited by this scene +are not of a kind from which you seek relief; but are, on the contrary, +a grateful relief from the painful feelings with which you have +witnessed the previous estrangement. Moreover, the sentiments these +fictitious personages have for the moment inspired you with, are not +such as would lead you to rejoice in any indignity offered to them; but +rather, such as would make you resent the indignity. And now, while you +are contemplating the reconciliation with a pleasurable sympathy, there +appears from behind the scenes a tame kid, which, having stared round at +the audience, walks up to the lovers and sniffs at them. You cannot help +joining in the roar which greets this _contretemps_. Inexplicable as is +this irresistible burst on the hypothesis of a pleasure in escaping from +mental restraint; or on the hypothesis of a pleasure from relative +increase of self-importance, when witnessing the humiliation of others; +it is readily explicable if we consider what, in such a case, must +become of the feeling that existed at the moment the incongruity arose. +A large mass of emotion had been produced; or, to speak in physiological +language, a large portion of the nervous system was in a state of +tension. There was also great expectation with respect to the further +evolution of the scene--a quantity of vague, nascent thought and +emotion, into which the existing quantity of thought and emotion was +about to pass. + +Had there been no interruption, the body of new ideas and feelings next +excited would have sufficed to absorb the whole of the liberated nervous +energy. But now, this large amount of nervous energy, instead of being +allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new +thoughts and emotions which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its +flow. The channels along which the discharge was about to take place are +closed. The new channel opened--that afforded by the appearance and +proceedings of the kid--is a small one; the ideas and feelings suggested +are not numerous and massive enough to carry off the nervous energy to +be expended. The excess must therefore discharge itself in some other +direction; and in the way already explained, there results an efflux +through the motor nerves to various classes of the muscles, producing +the half-convulsive actions we term laughter. + +This explanation is in harmony with the fact, that when, among several +persons who witness the same ludicrous occurrence, there are some who do +not laugh; it is because there has arisen in them an emotion not +participated in by the rest, and which is sufficiently massive to absorb +all the nascent excitement. Among the spectators of an awkward tumble, +those who preserve their gravity are those in whom there is excited a +degree of sympathy with the sufferer, sufficiently great to serve as an +outlet for the feeling which the occurrence had turned out of its +previous course. Sometimes anger carries off the arrested current; and +so prevents laughter. An instance of this was lately furnished me by a +friend who had been witnessing the feats at Franconi's. A tremendous +leap had just been made by an acrobat over a number of horses. The +clown, seemingly envious of this success, made ostentatious preparations +for doing the like; and then, taking the preliminary run with immense +energy, stopped short on reaching the first horse, and pretended to wipe +some dust from its haunches. In the majority of the spectators, +merriment was excited; but in my friend, wound up by the expectation of +the coming leap to a state of great nervous tension, the effect of the +baulk was to produce indignation. Experience thus proves what the theory +implies: namely, that the discharge of arrested feelings into the +muscular system, takes place only in the absence of other adequate +channels--does not take place if there arise other feelings equal in +amount to those arrested. + +Evidence still more conclusive is at hand. If we contrast the +incongruities which produce laughter with those which do not, we at once +see that in the non-ludicrous ones the unexpected state of feeling +aroused, though wholly different in kind, is not less in quantity or +intensity. Among incongruities that may excite anything but a laugh, Mr. +Bain instances--"A decrepit man under a heavy burden, five loaves and +two fishes among a multitude, and all unfitness and gross disproportion; +an instrument out of tune, a fly in ointment, snow in May, Archimedes +studying geometry in a siege, and all discordant things; a wolf in +sheep's clothing, a breach of bargain, and falsehood in general; the +multitude taking the law in their own hands, and everything of the +nature of disorder; a corpse at a feast, parental cruelty, filial +ingratitude, and whatever is unnatural; the entire catalogue of the +vanities given by Solomon, are all incongruous, but they cause feelings +of pain, anger, sadness, loathing, rather than mirth." Now in these +cases, where the totally unlike state of consciousness suddenly produced +is not inferior in mass to the preceding one, the conditions to laughter +are not fulfilled. As above shown, laughter naturally results only when +consciousness is unawares transferred from great things to small--only +when there is what we call a _descending_ incongruity. + +And now observe, finally, the fact, alike inferable _a priori_ and +illustrated in experience, that an _ascending_ incongruity not only +fails to cause laughter, but works on the muscular system an effect of +exactly the reverse kind. When after something very insignificant there +arises without anticipation something very great, the emotion we call +wonder results; and this emotion is accompanied not by an excitement of +the muscles, but by a relaxation of them. In children and country +people, that falling of the jaw which occurs on witnessing something +that is imposing and unexpected exemplifies this effect. Persons who +have been wonder-struck at the production of very striking results by a +seemingly inadequate cause, are frequently described as unconsciously +dropping the things they held in their hands. Such are just the effects +to be anticipated. After an average state of consciousness, absorbing +but a small quantity of nervous energy, is aroused without the slightest +notice, a strong emotion of awe, terror, or admiration, joined with the +astonishment due to an apparent want of adequate causation. This new +state of consciousness demands far more nervous energy than that which +it has suddenly replaced; and this increased absorption of nervous +energy in mental changes involves a temporary diminution of the outflow +in other directions: whence the pendent jaw and the relaxing grasp. + +One further observation is worth making. Among the several sets of +channels into which surplus feeling might be discharged, was named the +nervous system of the viscera. The sudden overflow of an arrested mental +excitement, which, as we have seen, results from a descending +incongruity, must doubtless stimulate not only the muscular system, as +we see it does, but also the internal organs; the heart and stomach must +come in for a share of the discharge. And thus there seems to be a good +physiological basis for the popular notion that mirth-creating +excitement facilitates digestion. + + * * * * * + +Though in doing so I go beyond the boundaries of the immediate topic, I +may fitly point out that the method of inquiry here followed, is one +which enables us to understand various phenomena besides those of +laughter. To show the importance of pursuing it, I will indicate the +explanation it furnishes of another familiar class of facts. + +All know how generally a large amount of emotion disturbs the action of +the intellect, and interferes with the power of expression. A speech +delivered with great facility to tables and chairs, is by no means so +easily delivered to an audience. Every schoolboy can testify that his +trepidation, when standing before a master, has often disabled him from +repeating a lesson which he had duly learnt. In explanation of this we +commonly say that the attention is distracted--that the proper train of +ideas is broken by the intrusion of ideas that are irrelevant. But the +question is, in what manner does unusual emotion produce this effect; +and we are here supplied with a tolerably obvious answer. The repetition +of a lesson, or set speech previously thought out, implies the flow of a +very moderate amount of nervous excitement through a comparatively +narrow channel. The thing to be done is simply to call up in succession +certain previously-arranged ideas--a process in which no great amount of +mental energy is expended. Hence, when there is a large quantity of +emotion, which must be discharged in some direction or other; and when, +as usually happens, the restricted series of intellectual actions to be +gone through, does not suffice to carry it off; there result discharges +along other channels besides the one prescribed: there are aroused +various ideas foreign to the train of thought to be pursued; and these +tend to exclude from consciousness those which should occupy it. + +And now observe the meaning of those bodily actions spontaneously set up +under these circumstances. The school-boy saying his lesson commonly has +his fingers actively engaged--perhaps in twisting about a broken pen, or +perhaps squeezing the angle of his jacket; and if told to keep his hands +still, he soon again falls into the same or a similar trick. Many +anecdotes are current of public speakers having incurable automatic +actions of this class: barristers who perpetually wound and unwound +pieces of tape; members of parliament ever putting on and taking off +their spectacles. So long as such movements are unconscious, they +facilitate the mental actions. At least this seems a fair inference from +the fact that confusion frequently results from putting a stop to them: +witness the case narrated by Sir Walter Scott of his school-fellow, who +became unable to say his lesson after the removal of the +waistcoat-button that he habitually fingered while in class. But why do +they facilitate the mental actions? Clearly because they draw off a +portion of the surplus nervous excitement. If, as above explained, the +quantity of mental energy generated is greater than can find vent along +the narrow channel of thought that is open to it; and if, in +consequence, it is apt to produce confusion by rushing into other +channels of thought; then by allowing it an exit through the motor +nerves into the muscular system, the pressure is diminished, and +irrelevant ideas are less likely to intrude on consciousness. + +This further illustration will, I think, justify the position that +something may be achieved by pursuing in other cases this method of +psychological inquiry. A complete explanation of the phenomena, requires +us to trace out _all_ the consequences of any given state of +consciousness; and we cannot do this without studying the effects, +bodily and mental, as varying in quantity at each other's expense. We +should probably learn much if we in every case asked--Where is all the +nervous energy gone? + +[1] _Macmillan's Magazine_, March 1860. + +[2] For numerous illustrations see essay on "The Origin and Function of +Music." + + + + +ON THE ORIGIN AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC[1] + + +When Carlo, standing, chained to his kennel, sees his master in the +distance, a slight motion of the tail indicates his but faint hope that +he is about to be let out. A much more decided wagging of the tail, +passing by and by into lateral undulations of the body, follows his +master's nearer approach. When hands are laid on his collar, and he +knows that he is really to have an outing, his jumping and wriggling are +such that it is by no means easy to loose his fastenings. And when he +finds himself actually free, his joy expends itself in bounds, in +pirouettes, and in scourings hither and thither at the top of his speed. +Puss, too, by erecting her tail, and by every time raising her back to +meet the caressing hand of her mistress, similarly expresses her +gratification by certain muscular actions; as likewise do the parrot by +awkward dancing on his perch, and the canary by hopping and fluttering +about his cage with unwonted rapidity. Under emotions of an opposite +kind, animals equally display muscular excitement. The enraged lion +lashes his sides with his tail, knits his brows, protrudes his claws. +The cat sets up her back; the dog retracts his upper lip; the horse +throws back his ears. And in the struggles of creatures in pain, we see +that the like relation holds between excitement of the muscles and +excitement of the nerves of sensation. + +In ourselves, distinguished from lower creatures as we are by feelings +alike more powerful and more varied, parallel facts are at once more +conspicuous and more numerous. We may conveniently look at them in +groups. We shall find that pleasurable sensations and painful +sensations, pleasurable emotions and painful emotions, all tend to +produce active demonstrations in proportion to their intensity. + +In children, and even in adults who are not restrained by regard for +appearances, a highly agreeable taste is followed by a smacking of the +lips. An infant will laugh and bound in its nurse's arms at the sight of +a brilliant colour or the hearing of a new sound. People are apt to beat +time with head or feet to music which particularly pleases them. In a +sensitive person an agreeable perfume will produce a smile; and smiles +will be seen on the faces of a crowd gazing at some splendid burst of +fireworks Even the pleasant sensation of warmth felt on getting to the +fireside out of a winter's storm, will similarly express itself in the +face. + +Painful sensations, being mostly far more intense than pleasurable ones, +cause muscular actions of a much more decided kind. A sudden twinge +produces a convulsive start of the whole body. A pain less violent, but +continuous, is accompanied by a knitting of the brows, a setting of the +teeth or biting of the lip, and a contraction of the features generally. +Under a persistent pain of a severer kind, other muscular actions are +added: the body is swayed to and fro; the hands clench anything they can +lay hold of; and should the agony rise still higher, the sufferer rolls +about on the floor almost convulsed. + +Though more varied, the natural language of the pleasurable emotions +comes within the same generalisation. A smile, which is the commonest +expression of gratified feeling, is a contraction of certain facial +muscles; and when the smile broadens into a laugh, we see a more violent +and more general muscular excitement produced by an intenser +gratification. Rubbing together of the hands, and that other motion +which Dickens somewhere describes as "washing with impalpable soap in +invisible water," have like implications. Children may often be seen to +"jump for joy." Even in adults of excitable temperament, an action +approaching to it is sometimes witnessed. And dancing has all the world +through been regarded as natural to an elevated state of mind. Many of +the special emotions show themselves in special muscular actions. The +gratification resulting from success, raises the head and gives firmness +to the gait. A hearty grasp of the hand is currently taken as indicative +of friendship. Under a gush of affection the mother clasps her child to +her breast, feeling as though she could squeeze it to death. And so in +sundry other cases. Even in that brightening of the eye with which good +news is received we may trace the same truth; for this appearance of +greater brilliancy is due to an extra contraction of the muscle which +raises the eyelid, and so allows more light to fall upon, and be +reflected from, the wet surface of the eyeball. + +The bodily indications of painful emotions are equally numerous, and +still more vehement. Discontent is shown by raised eyebrows and wrinkled +forehead; disgust by a curl of the lip; offence by a pout. The impatient +man beats a tattoo with his fingers on the table, swings his pendent leg +with increasing rapidity, gives needless pokings to the fire, and +presently paces with hasty strides about the room. In great grief there +is wringing of the hands, and even tearing of the hair. An angry child +stamps, or rolls on its back and kicks its heels in the air; and in +manhood, anger, first showing itself in frowns, in distended nostrils, +in compressed lips, goes on to produce grinding of the teeth, clenching +of the fingers, blows of the fist on the table, and perhaps ends in a +violent attack on the offending person, or in throwing about and +breaking the furniture. From that pursing of the mouth indicative of +slight displeasure, up to the frantic struggles of the maniac, we shall +find that mental irritation tends to vent itself in bodily activity. + +All feelings, then--sensations or emotions, pleasurable or painful--have +this common characteristic, that they are muscular stimuli. Not +forgetting the few apparently exceptional cases in which emotions +exceeding a certain intensity produce prostration, we may set it down as +a general law that, alike in man and animals, there is a direct +connection between feeling and motion; the last growing more vehement as +the first grows more intense. Were it allowable here to treat the matter +scientifically, we might trace this general law down to the principle +known among physiologists as that of _reflex action_.[2] Without doing +this, however, the above numerous instances justify the generalisation, +that mental excitement of all kinds ends in excitement of the muscles; +and that the two preserve a more or less constant ratio to each other. + + * * * * * + +"But what has all this to do with _The Origin and Function of Music_?" +asks the reader. Very much, as we shall presently see. All music is +originally vocal. All vocal sounds are produced by the agency of certain +muscles. These muscles, in common with those of the body at large, are +excited to contraction by pleasurable and painful feelings. And +therefore it is that feelings demonstrate themselves in sounds as well +as in movements. Therefore it is that Carlo barks as well as leaps when +he is let out--that puss purrs as well as erects her tail--that the +canary chirps as well as flutters. Therefore it is that the angry lion +roars while he lashes his sides, and the dog growls while he retracts +his lip. Therefore it is that the maimed animal not only struggles, but +howls. And it is from this cause that in human beings bodily suffering +expresses itself not only in contortions, but in shrieks and +groans--that in anger, and fear, and grief, the gesticulations are +accompanied by shouts and screams--that delightful sensations are +followed by exclamations--and that we hear screams of joy and shouts of +exultation. + +We have here, then, a principle underlying all vocal phenomena; +including those of vocal music, and by consequence those of music in +general. The muscles that move the chest, larynx, and vocal chords, +contracting like other muscles in proportion to the intensity of the +feelings; every different contraction of these muscles involving, as it +does, a different adjustment of the vocal organs; every different +adjustment of the vocal organs causing a change in the sound +emitted;--it follows that variations of voice are the physiological +results of variations of feeling; it follows that each inflection or +modulation is the natural outcome of some passing emotion or sensation; +and it follows that the explanation of all kinds of vocal expression +must be sought in this general relation between mental and muscular +excitements. Let us, then, see whether we cannot thus account for the +chief peculiarities in the utterance of the feelings: grouping these +peculiarities under the heads of _loudness_, _quality_, _or_ _timbre_, +_pitch_, _intervals_, and _rate of variation_. + + * * * * * + +Between the lungs and the organs of voice there is much the same +relation as between the bellows of an organ and its pipes. And as the +loudness of the sound given out by an organ-pipe increases with the +strength of the blast from the bellows; so, other things equal, the +loudness of a vocal sound increases with the strength of the blast from +the lungs. But the expulsion of air from the lungs is effected by +certain muscles of the chest and abdomen. The force with which these +muscles contract, is proportionate to the intensity of the feeling +experienced. Hence, _a priori_, loud sounds will be the habitual results +of strong feelings. That they are so we have daily proof. The pain +which, if moderate, can be borne silently, causes outcries if it becomes +extreme. While a slight vexation makes a child whimper, a fit of passion +calls forth a howl that disturbs the neighbourhood. When the voices in +an adjacent room become unusually audible, we infer anger, or surprise, +or joy. Loudness of applause is significant of great approbation; and +with uproarious mirth we associate the idea of high enjoyment. +Commencing with the silence of apathy, we find that the utterances grow +louder as the sensations or emotions, whether pleasurable or painful, +grow stronger. + +That different _qualities_ of voice accompany different mental states, +and that under states of excitement the tones are more sonorous than +usual, is another general fact admitting of a parallel explanation. The +sounds of common conversation have but little resonance; those of strong +feeling have much more. Under rising ill temper the voice acquires a +metallic ring. In accordance with her constant mood, the ordinary speech +of a virago has a piercing quality quite opposite to that softness +indicative of placidity. A ringing laugh marks an especially joyous +temperament. Grief unburdening itself uses tones approaching in _timbre_ +to those of chanting: and in his most pathetic passages an eloquent +speaker similarly falls into tones more vibratory than those common to +him. Now any one may readily convince himself that resonant vocal sounds +can be produced only by a certain muscular effort additional to that +ordinarily needed. If after uttering a word in his speaking voice, the +reader, without changing the pitch or the loudness, will _sing_ this +word, he will perceive that before he can sing it, he has to alter the +adjustment of the vocal organs; to do which a certain force must be +used; and by putting his fingers on that external prominence marking the +top of the larynx, he will have further evidence that to produce a +sonorous tone the organs must be drawn out of their usual position. +Thus, then, the fact that the tones of excited feeling are more +vibratory than those of common conversation is another instance of the +connection between mental excitement and muscular excitement. The +speaking voice, the recitative voice, and the singing voice, severally +exemplify one general principle. + +That the _pitch_ of the voice varies according to the action of the +vocal muscles scarcely needs saying. All know that the middle notes, in +which they converse, are made without any appreciable effort; and all +know that to make either very high or very low notes requires a +considerable effort. In either ascending or descending from the pitch of +ordinary speech, we are conscious of an increasing muscular strain, +which, at both extremes of the register, becomes positively painful. +Hence it follows from our general principle, that while indifference or +calmness will use the medium tones, the tones used during excitement +will be either above or below them; and will rise higher and higher, or +fall lower and lower, as the feelings grow stronger. This physiological +deduction we also find to be in harmony with familiar facts. The +habitual sufferer utters his complaints in a voice raised considerably +above the natural key; and agonising pain vents itself in either shrieks +or groans--in very high or very low notes. Beginning at his talking +pitch, the cry of the disappointed urchin grows more shrill as it grows +louder. The "Oh!" of astonishment or delight, begins several notes below +the middle voice, and descends still lower. Anger expresses itself in +high tones, or else in "curses not loud but _deep_." Deep tones, too, +are always used in uttering strong reproaches. Such an exclamation as +"Beware!" if made dramatically--that is, if made with a show of +feeling--must be many notes lower than ordinary. Further, we have groans +of disapprobation, groans of horror, groans of remorse. And extreme joy +and fear are alike accompanied by shrill outcries. + +Nearly allied to the subject of pitch, is that of _intervals_; and the +explanation of them carries our argument a step further. While calm +speech is comparatively monotonous, emotion makes use of fifths, +octaves, and even wider intervals. Listen to any one narrating or +repeating something in which he has no interest, and his voice will not +wander more than two or three notes above or below his medium note, and +that by small steps; but when he comes to some exciting event he will be +heard not only to use the higher and lower notes of his register, but to +go from one to the other by larger leaps. Being unable in print to +imitate these traits of feeling, we feel some difficulty in fully +realising them to the reader. But we may suggest a few remembrances +which will perhaps call to mind a sufficiency of others. If two men +living in the same place, and frequently seeing one another, meet, say +at a public assembly, any phrase with which one may be heard to accost +the other--as "Hallo, are you here?"--will have an ordinary intonation. +But if one of them, after long absence, has unexpectedly returned, the +expression of surprise with which his friend may greet him--"Hallo! how +came you here?"--will be uttered in much more strongly contrasted tones. +The two syllables of the word "Hallo" will be, the one much higher and +the other much lower than before; and the rest of the sentence will +similarly ascend and descend by longer steps. + +Again, if, supposing her to be in an adjoining room, the mistress of the +house calls "Mary," the two syllables of the name will be spoken in an +ascending interval of a third. If Mary does not reply, the call will be +repeated probably in a descending fifth; implying the slightest shade of +annoyance at Mary's inattention. Should Mary still make no answer, the +increasing annoyance will show itself by the use of a descending octave +on the next repetition of the call. And supposing the silence to +continue, the lady, if not of a very even temper, will show her +irritation at Mary's seemingly intentional negligence by finally calling +her in tones still more widely contrasted--the first syllable being +higher and the last lower than before. + +Now, these and analogous facts, which the reader will readily +accumulate, clearly conform to the law laid down. For to make large +intervals requires more muscular action than to make small ones. But not +only is the _extent_ of vocal intervals thus explicable as due to the +relation between nervous and muscular excitement, but also in some +degree their _direction_, as ascending or descending. The middle notes +being those which demand no appreciable effort of muscular adjustment; +and the effort becoming greater as we either ascend or descend; it +follows that a departure from the middle notes in either direction will +mark increasing emotion; while a return towards the middle notes will +mark decreasing emotion. Hence it happens that an enthusiastic person +uttering such a sentence as--"It was the most splendid sight I ever +saw!" will ascend to the first syllable of the word "splendid," and +thence will descend: the word "splendid" marking the climax of the +feeling produced by the recollection. Hence, again, it happens that, +under some extreme vexation produced by another's stupidity, an +irascible man, exclaiming--"What a confounded fool the fellow is!" will +begin somewhat below his middle voice, and descending to the word +"fool," which he will utter in one of his deepest notes, will then +ascend again. And it may be remarked, that the word "fool" will not only +be deeper and louder than the rest, but will also have more emphasis of +articulation--another mode in which muscular excitement is shown. + +There is some danger, however, in giving instances like this; seeing +that as the mode of rendering will vary according to the intensity of +the feeling which the reader feigns to himself, the right cadence may +not be hit upon. With single words there is less difficulty. Thus the +"Indeed!" with which a surprising fact is received, mostly begins on the +middle note of the voice, and rises with the second syllable; or, if +disapprobation as well as astonishment is felt, the first syllable will +be below the middle note, and the second lower still. Conversely, the +word "Alas!" which marks not the rise of a paroxysm of grief, but its +decline, is uttered in a cadence descending towards the middle note; or, +if the first syllable is in the lower part of the register, the second +ascends towards the middle note. In the "Heigh-ho!" expressive of mental +and muscular prostration, we may see the same truth; and if the cadence +appropriate to it be inverted, the absurdity of the effect clearly shows +how the meaning of intervals is dependent on the principle we have been +illustrating. + +The remaining characteristic of emotional speech which we have to notice +is that of _variability of pitch_. It is scarcely possible here to +convey adequate ideas of this more complex manifestation. We must be +content with simply indicating some occasions on which it may be +observed. On a meeting of friends, for instance--as when there arrives a +party of much-wished-for-visitors--the voices of all will be heard to +undergo changes of pitch not only greater but much more numerous than +usual. If a speaker at a public meeting is interrupted by some squabble +among those he is addressing, his comparatively level tones will be in +marked contrast with the rapidly changing one of the disputants. And +among children, whose feelings are less under control than those of +adults, this peculiarity is still more decided. During a scene of +complaint and recrimination between two excitable little girls, the +voices may be heard to run up and down the gamut several times in each +sentence. In such cases we once more recognise the same law: for +muscular excitement is shown not only in strength of contraction but +also in the rapidity with which different muscular adjustments succeed +each other. + +Thus we find all the leading vocal phenomena to have a physiological +basis. They are so many manifestations of the general law that feeling +is a stimulus to muscular action--a law conformed to throughout the +whole economy, not of man only, but of every sensitive creature--a law, +therefore, which lies deep in the nature of animal organisation. The +expressiveness of these various modifications of voice is therefore +innate. Each of us, from babyhood upwards, has been spontaneously making +them, when under the various sensations and emotions by which they are +produced. Having been conscious of each feeling at the same time that we +heard ourselves make the consequent sound, we have acquired an +established association of ideas between such sound and the feeling +which caused it. When the like sound is made by another, we ascribe the +like feeling to him; and by a further consequence we not only ascribe to +him that feeling, but have a certain degree of it aroused in ourselves: +for to become conscious of the feeling which another is experiencing, is +to have that feeling awakened in our own consciousness, which is the +same thing as experiencing the feeling. Thus these various modifications +of voice become not only a language through which we understand the +emotions of others, but also the means of exciting our sympathy with +such emotions. + +Have we not here, then, adequate data for a theory of music? These vocal +peculiarities which indicate excited feeling _are those which especially +distinguish song from ordinary speech_. Every one of the alterations of +voice which we have found to be a physiological result of pain or +pleasure, _is carried to its greatest extreme in vocal music_. For +instance, we saw that, in virtue of the general relation between mental +and muscular excitement, one characteristic of passionate utterance is +_loudness_. Well, its comparative loudness is one of the distinctive +marks of song as contrasted with the speech of daily life; and further, +the _forte_ passages of an air are those intended to represent the +climax of its emotion. We next saw that the tones in which emotion +expresses itself are, in conformity with this same law, of a more +sonorous _timbre_ than those of calm conversation. Here, too, song +displays a still higher degree of the peculiarity; for the singing tone +is the most resonant we can make. Again, it was shown that, from a like +cause, mental excitement vents itself in the higher and lower notes of +the register; using the middle notes but seldom. And it scarcely needs +saying that vocal music is still more distinguished by its comparative +neglect of the notes in which we talk, and its habitual use of those +above or below them and, moreover, that its most passionate effects are +commonly produced at the two extremities of its scale, but especially +the upper one. + +A yet further trait of strong feeling, similarly accounted for, was the +employment of larger intervals than are employed in common converse. +This trait, also, every ballad and _aria_ carries to an extent beyond +that heard in the spontaneous utterances of emotion: add to which, that +the direction of these intervals, which, as diverging from or converging +towards the medium tones, we found to be physiologically expressive of +increasing or decreasing emotion, may be observed to have in music like +meanings. Once more, it was pointed out that not only extreme but also +rapid variations of pitch are characteristic of mental excitement; and +once more we see in the quick changes of every melody, that song carries +the characteristic as far, if not farther. Thus, in respect alike of +_loudness_, _timbre_, _pitch_, _intervals_, and _rate of variation_, +song employs and exaggerates the natural language of the emotions;--it +arises from a systematic combination of those vocal peculiarities which +are the physiological effects of acute pleasure and pain. + +Besides these chief characteristics of song as distinguished from common +speech, there are sundry minor ones similarly explicable as due to the +relation between mental and muscular excitement; and before proceeding +further these should be briefly noticed. Thus, certain passions, and +perhaps all passions when pushed to an extreme, produce (probably +through their influence over the action of the heart) an effect the +reverse of that which has been described: they cause a physical +prostration, one symptom of which is a general relaxation of the +muscles, and a consequent trembling. We have the trembling of anger, of +fear, of hope, of joy; and the vocal muscles being implicated with the +rest, the voice too becomes tremulous. Now, in singing, this +tremulousness of voice is very effectively used by some vocalists in +highly pathetic passages; sometimes, indeed, because of its +effectiveness, too much used by them--as by Tamberlik, for instance. + +Again, there is a mode of musical execution known as the _staccato_, +appropriate to energetic passages--to passages expressive of +exhilaration, of resolution, of confidence. The action of the vocal +muscles which produces this staccato style is analogous to the muscular +action which produces the sharp decisive, energetic movements of body +indicating these states of mind; and therefore it is that the staccato +style has the meaning we ascribe to it. Conversely, slurred intervals +are expressive of gentler and less active feelings; and are so because +they imply the smaller muscular vivacity due to a lower mental energy. +The difference of effect resulting from difference of _time_ in music is +also attributable to the same law. Already it has been pointed out that +the more frequent changes of pitch which ordinarily result from passion +are imitated and developed in song; and here we have to add, that the +various rates of such changes, appropriate to the different styles of +music, are further traits having the same derivation. The slowest +movements, _largo_ and _adagio_, are used where such depressing emotions +as grief, or such unexciting emotions as reverence, are to be portrayed; +while the more rapid movements, _andante_, _allegro_, _presto_, +represent successively increasing degrees of mental vivacity; and do +this because they imply that muscular activity which flows from this +mental vivacity. Even the _rhythm_, which forms a remaining distinction +between song and speech, may not improbably have a kindred cause. Why +the actions excited by strong feeling should tend to become rhythmical +is not very obvious; but that they do so there are divers evidences. +There is the swaying of the body to and fro under pain or grief, of the +leg under impatience or agitation. Dancing, too, is a rhythmical action +natural to elevated emotion. That under excitement speech acquires a +certain rhythm, we may occasionally perceive in the highest efforts of +an orator. In poetry, which is a form of speech used for the better +expression of emotional ideas, we have this rhythmical tendency +developed. And when we bear in mind that dancing, poetry, and music are +connate--are originally constituent parts of the same thing, it becomes +clear that the measured movement common to them all implies a rhythmical +action of the whole system, the vocal apparatus included; and that so +the rhythm of music is a more subtle and complex result of this relation +between mental and muscular excitement. + +But it is time to end this analysis, which possibly we have already +carried too far. It is not to be supposed that the more special +peculiarities of musical expression are to be definitely explained. +Though probably they may all in some way conform to the principle that +has been worked out, it is obviously impracticable to trace that +principle in its more ramified applications. Nor is it needful to our +argument that it should be so traced. The foregoing facts sufficiently +prove that what we regard as the distinctive traits of song, are simply +the traits of emotional speech intensified and systematised. In respect +of its general characteristics, we think it has been made clear that +vocal music, and by consequence all music, is an idealisation of the +natural language of passion. + + * * * * * + +As far as it goes, the scanty evidence furnished by history confirms +this conclusion. Note first the fact (not properly an historical one, +but fitly grouped with such) that the dance-chants of savage tribes are +very monotonous; and in virtue of their monotony are much more nearly +allied to ordinary speech than are the songs of civilised races. Joining +with this the fact that there are still extant among boatmen and others +in the East, ancient chants of a like monotonous character, we may infer +that vocal music originally diverged from emotional speech in a gradual, +unobtrusive manner; and this is the inference to which our argument +points. Further evidence to the same effect is supplied by Greek +history. The early poems of the Greeks--which, be it remembered, were +sacred legends embodied in that rhythmical, metaphorical language which +strong feeling excites--were not recited, but chanted: the tones and +the cadences were made musical by the same influences which made the +speech poetical. + +By those who have investigated the matter, this chanting is believed to +have been not what we call singing, but nearly allied to our recitative +(far simpler indeed, if we may judge from the fact that the early Greek +lyre, which had but _four_ strings, was played in _unison_ with the +voice, which was therefore confined to four notes), and as such, much +less remote from common speech than our own singing is. For recitative, +or musical recitation, is in all respects intermediate between speech +and song. Its average effects are not so _loud_ as those of song. Its +tones are less sonorous in _timbre_ than those of song. Commonly it +diverges to a smaller extent from the middle notes--uses notes neither +so high nor so low in _pitch_. The _intervals_ habitual to it are +neither so wide nor so varied. Its _rate of variation_ is not so rapid. +And at the same time that its primary _rhythm_ is less decided, it has +none of that secondary rhythm produced by recurrence of the same or +parallel musical phrases, which is one of the marked characteristics of +song. Thus, then, we may not only infer, from the evidence furnished by +existing barbarous tribes, that the vocal music of pre-historic times +was emotional speech very slightly exalted; but we see that the earliest +vocal music of which we have any account differed much less from +emotional speech than does the vocal music of our days. + +That recitative--beyond which, by the way, the Chinese and Hindoos seem +never to have advanced--grew naturally out of the modulations and +cadences of strong feeling, we have indeed still current evidence. There +are even now to be met with occasions on which strong feeling vents +itself in this form. Whoever has been present when a meeting of Quakers +was addressed by one of their preachers (whose practice it is to speak +only under the influence of religious emotion), must have been struck by +the quite unusual tones, like those of a subdued chant, in which the +address was made. It is clear, too, that the intoning used in some +churches is representative of this same mental state; and has been +adopted on account of the instinctively felt congruity between it and +the contrition, supplication, or reverence verbally expressed. + +And if, as we have good reason to believe, recitative arose by degrees +out of emotional speech, it becomes manifest that by a continuance of +the same process song has arisen out of recitative. Just as, from the +orations and legends of savages, expressed in the metaphorical, +allegorical style natural to them, there sprung epic poetry, out of +which lyric poetry was afterwards developed; so, from the exalted tones +and cadences in which such orations and legends were delivered, came the +chant or recitative music, from whence lyrical music has since grown up. +And there has not only thus been a simultaneous and parallel genesis, +but there is also a parallelism of results. For lyrical poetry differs +from epic poetry, just as lyrical music differs from recitative: each +still further intensifies the natural language of the emotions. Lyrical +poetry is more metaphorical, more hyperbolic, more elliptical, and adds +the rhythm of lines to the rhythm of feet; just as lyrical music is +louder, more sonorous, more extreme in its intervals, and adds the +rhythm of phrases to the rhythm of bars. And the known fact that out of +epic poetry the stronger passions developed lyrical poetry as their +appropriate vehicle, strengthens the inference that they similarly +developed lyrical music out of recitative. + +Nor indeed are we without evidences of the transition. It needs but to +listen to an opera to hear the leading gradations. Between the +comparatively level recitative of ordinary dialogue, the more varied +recitative with wider intervals and higher tones used in exciting +scenes, the still more musical recitative which preludes an air, and the +air itself, the successive steps are but small; and the fact that among +airs themselves gradations of like nature may be traced, further +confirms the conclusion that the highest form of vocal music was arrived +at by degrees. + +Moreover, we have some clue to the influences which have induced this +development; and may roughly conceive the process of it. As the tones, +intervals, and cadences of strong emotion were the elements out of which +song was elaborated, so we may expect to find that still stronger +emotion produced the elaboration: and we have evidence implying this. +Instances in abundance may be cited, showing that musical composers are +men of extremely acute sensibilities. The Life of Mozart depicts him as +one of intensely active affections and highly impressionable +temperament. Various anecdotes represent Beethoven as very susceptible +and very passionate. Mendelssohn is described by those who knew him to +have been full of fine feeling. And the almost incredible sensitiveness +of Chopin has been illustrated in the memoirs of George Sand. An +unusually emotional nature being thus the general characteristic of +musical composers, we have in it just the agency required for the +development of recitative and song. Intenser feeling producing intenser +manifestations, any cause of excitement will call forth from such a +nature tones and changes of voice more marked than those called forth +from an ordinary nature--will generate just those exaggerations which we +have found to distinguish the lower vocal music from emotional speech, +and the higher vocal music from the lower. Thus it becomes credible that +the four-toned recitative of the early Greek poets (like all poets, +nearly allied to composers in the comparative intensity of their +feelings), was really nothing more than the slightly exaggerated +emotional speech natural to them, which grew by frequent use into an +organised form. And it is readily conceivable that the accumulated +agency of subsequent poet-musicians, inheriting and adding to the +products of those who went before them, sufficed, in the course of the +ten centuries which we know it took, to develop this four-toned +recitative into a vocal music having a range of two octaves. + +Not only may we so understand how more sonorous tones, greater extremes +of pitch, and wider intervals, were gradually introduced; but also how +there arose a greater variety and complexity of musical expression. For +this same passionate, enthusiastic temperament, which naturally leads +the musical composer to express the feelings possessed by others as well +as himself, in extremer intervals and more marked cadences than they +would use, also leads him to give musical utterance to feelings which +they either do not experience, or experience in but slight degrees. In +virtue of this general susceptibility which distinguishes him, he +regards with emotion, events, scenes, conduct, character, which produce +upon most men no appreciable effect. The emotions so generated, +compounded as they are of the simpler emotions, are not expressible by +intervals and cadences natural to these, but by combinations of such +intervals and cadences: whence arise more involved musical phrases, +conveying more complex, subtle, and unusual feelings. And thus we may in +some measure understand how it happens that music not only so strongly +excites our more familiar feelings, but also produces feelings we never +had before--arouses dormant sentiments of which we had not conceived the +possibility and do not know the meaning; or, as Richter says--tells us +of things we have not seen and shall not see. + + * * * * * + +Indirect evidences of several kinds remain to be briefly pointed out. +One of them is the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of otherwise +accounting for the expressiveness of music. Whence comes it that +special combinations of notes should have special effects upon our +emotions?--that one should give us a feeling of exhilaration, another of +melancholy, another of affection, another of reverence? Is it that these +special combinations have intrinsic meanings apart from the human +constitution?--that a certain number of aerial waves per second, +followed by a certain other number, in the nature of things signify +grief, while in the reverse order they signify joy; and similarly with +all other intervals, phrases, and cadences? Few will be so irrational as +to think this. Is it, then, that the meanings of these special +combinations are conventional only?--that we learn their implications, +as we do those of words, by observing how others understand them? This +is an hypothesis not only devoid of evidence, but directly opposed to +the experience of every one. How, then, are musical effects to be +explained? If the theory above set forth be accepted, the difficulty +disappears. If music, taking for its raw material the various +modifications of voice which are the physiological results of excited +feelings, intensifies, combines, and complicates them--if it exaggerates +the loudness, the resonance, the pitch, the intervals, and the +variability, which, in virtue of an organic law, are the characteristics +of passionate speech--if, by carrying out these further, more +consistently, more unitedly, and more sustainedly, it produces an +idealised language of emotion; then its power over us becomes +comprehensible. But in the absence of this theory, the expressiveness of +music appears to be inexplicable. + +Again, the preference we feel for certain qualities of sound presents a +like difficulty, admitting only of a like solution. It is generally +agreed that the tones of the human voice are more pleasing than any +others. Grant that music takes its rise from the modulations of the +human voice under emotion, and it becomes a natural consequence that the +tones of that voice should appeal to our feelings more than any others; +and so should be considered more beautiful than any others. But deny +that music has this origin, and the only alternative is the untenable +position that the vibrations proceeding from a vocalist's throat are, +objectively considered, of a higher order than those from a horn or a +violin. Similarly with harsh and soft sounds. If the conclusiveness of +the foregoing reasonings be not admitted, it must be supposed that the +vibrations causing the last are intrinsically better than those causing +the first; and that, in virtue of some pre-established harmony, the +higher feelings and natures produce the one, and the lower the other. +But if the foregoing reasonings be valid, it follows, as a matter of +course, that we shall like the sounds that habitually accompany +agreeable feelings, and dislike those that habitually accompany +disagreeable feelings. + +Once more, the question--How is the expressiveness of music to be +otherwise accounted for? may be supplemented by the question--How is the +genesis of music to be otherwise accounted for? That music is a product +of civilisation is manifest; for though savages have their dance-chants, +these are of a kind scarcely to be dignified by the title musical: at +most, they supply but the vaguest rudiment of music, properly so called. +And if music has been by slow steps developed in the course of +civilisation, it must have been developed out of something. If, then, +its origin is not that above alleged, what is its origin? + +Thus we find that the negative evidence confirms the positive, and that, +taken together, they furnish strong proof. We have seen that there is a +physiological relation, common to man and all animals, between feeling +and muscular action; that as vocal sounds are produced by muscular +action, there is a consequent physiological relation between feeling and +vocal sounds; that all the modifications of voice expressive of feeling +are the direct results of this physiological relation; that music, +adopting all these modifications, intensifies them more and more as it +ascends to its higher and higher forms, and becomes music simply in +virtue of thus intensifying them; that, from the ancient epic poet +chanting his verses, down to the modern musical composer, men of +unusually strong feelings prone to express them in extreme forms, have +been naturally the agents of these successive intensifications; and that +so there has little by little arisen a wide divergence between this +idealised language of emotion and its natural language: to which direct +evidence we have just added the indirect--that on no other tenable +hypothesis can either the expressiveness or the genesis of music be +explained. + + * * * * * + +And now, what is the _function_ of music? Has music any effect beyond +the immediate pleasure it produces? Analogy suggests that it has. The +enjoyments of a good dinner do not end with themselves, but minister to +bodily well-being. Though people do not marry with a view to maintain +the race, yet the passions which impel them to marry secure its +maintenance. Parental affection is a feeling which, while it conduces to +parental happiness, ensures the nurture of offspring. Men love to +accumulate property, often without thought of the benefits it produces; +but in pursuing the pleasure of acquisition they indirectly open the way +to other pleasures. The wish for public approval impels all of us to do +many things which we should otherwise not do,--to undertake great +labours, face great dangers, and habitually rule ourselves in a way that +smooths social intercourse: that is, in gratifying our love of +approbation we subserve divers ulterior purposes. And, generally, our +nature is such that in fulfilling each desire, we in some way facilitate +the fulfilment of the rest. But the love of music seems to exist for its +own sake. The delights of melody and harmony do not obviously minister +to the welfare either of the individual or of society. May we not +suspect, however, that this exception is apparent only? Is it not a +rational inquiry--What are the indirect benefits which accrue from +music, in addition to the direct pleasure it gives? + +But that it would take us too far out of our track, we should prelude +this inquiry by illustrating at some length a certain general law of +progress;--the law that alike in occupations, sciences, arts, the +divisions that had a common root, but by continual divergence have +become distinct, and are now being separately developed, are not truly +independent, but severally act and react on each other to their mutual +advancement. Merely hinting thus much, however, by way of showing that +there are many analogies to justify us, we go on to express the opinion +that there exists a relationship of this kind between music and speech. + +All speech is compounded of two elements, the words and the tones in +which they are uttered--the signs of ideas and the signs of feelings. +While certain articulations express the thought, certain vocal sounds +express the more or less of pain or pleasure which the thought gives. +Using the word _cadence_ in an unusually extended sense, as +comprehending all modifications of voice, we may say that _cadence is +the commentary of the emotions upon the propositions of the intellect_. +The duality of spoken language, though not formally recognised, is +recognised in practice by every one; and every one knows that very often +more weight attaches to the tones than to the words. Daily experience +supplies cases in which the same sentence of disapproval will be +understood as meaning little or meaning much, according to the +inflections of voice which accompany it; and daily experience supplies +still more striking cases in which words and tones are in direct +contradiction--the first expressing consent, while the last express +reluctance; and the last being believed rather than the first. + +These two distinct but interwoven elements of speech have been +undergoing a simultaneous development. We know that in the course of +civilisation words have been multiplied, new parts of speech have been +introduced, sentences have grown more varied and complex; and we may +fairly infer that during the same time new modifications of voice have +come into use, fresh intervals have been adopted, and cadences have +become more elaborate. For while, on the one hand, it is absurd to +suppose that, along with the undeveloped verbal forms of barbarism, +there existed a developed system of vocal inflections; it is, on the +other hand, necessary to suppose that, along with the higher and more +numerous verbal forms needed to convey the multiplied and complicated +ideas of civilised life, there have grown up those more involved changes +of voice which express the feelings proper to such ideas. If +intellectual language is a growth, so also, without doubt, is emotional +language a growth. + +Now, the hypothesis which we have hinted above, is, that beyond the +direct pleasure which it gives, music has the indirect effect of +developing this language of the emotions. Having its root, as we have +endeavoured to show, in those tones, intervals, and cadences of speech +which express feeling--arising by the combination and intensifying of +these, and coming finally to have an embodiment of its own--music has +all along been reacting upon speech, and increasing its power of +rendering emotion. The use in recitative and song of inflections more +expressive than ordinary ones, must from the beginning have tended to +develop the ordinary ones. Familiarity with the more varied combinations +of tones that occur in vocal music can scarcely have failed to give +greater variety of combination to the tones in which we utter our +impressions and desires. The complex musical phrases by which composers +have conveyed complex emotions, may rationally be supposed to have +influenced us in making those involved cadences of conversation by which +we convey our subtler thoughts and feelings. + +That the cultivation of music has no effect on the mind, few will be +absurd enough to contend. And if it has an effect, what more natural +effect is there than this of developing our perception of the meanings +of inflections, qualities, and modulations of voice; and giving us a +correspondingly increased power of using them? Just as mathematics, +taking its start from the phenomena of physics and astronomy, and +presently coming to be a separate science, has since reacted on physics +and astronomy to their immense advancement--just as chemistry, first +arising out of the processes of metallurgy and the industrial arts, and +gradually growing into an independent study, has now become an aid to +all kinds of production--just as physiology, originating out of medicine +and once subordinate to it, but latterly pursued for its own sake, is in +our day coming to be the science on which the progress of medicine +depends;--so, music, having its root in emotional language, and +gradually evolved from it, has ever been reacting upon and further +advancing it. Whoever will examine the facts will find this hypothesis +to be in harmony with the method of civilisation everywhere displayed. + +It will scarcely be expected that much direct evidence in support of +this conclusion can be given. The facts are of a kind which it is +difficult to measure, and of which we have no records. Some suggestive +traits, however, may be noted. May we not say, for instance, that the +Italians, among whom modern music was earliest cultivated, and who have +more especially practised and excelled in melody (the division of music +with which our argument is chiefly concerned)--may we not say that these +Italians speak in more varied and expressive inflections and cadences +than any other nation? On the other hand, may we not say that, confined +almost exclusively as they have hitherto been to their national airs, +which have a marked family likeness, and therefore accustomed to but a +limited range of musical expression, the Scotch are unusually monotonous +in the intervals and modulations of their speech? And again, do we not +find among different classes of the same nation, differences that have +like implications? The gentleman and the clown stand in a very decided +contrast with respect to variety of intonation. Listen to the +conversation of a servant-girl, and then to that of a refined, +accomplished lady, and the more delicate and complex changes of voice +used by the latter will be conspicuous. Now, without going so far as to +say that out of all the differences of culture to which the upper and +lower classes are subjected, difference of musical culture is that to +which alone this difference of speech is ascribable, yet we may fairly +say that there seems a much more obvious connection of cause and effect +between these than between any others. Thus, while the inductive +evidence to which we can appeal is but scanty and vague, yet what there +is favours our position. + + * * * * * + +Probably most will think that the function here assigned to music is one +of very little moment. But further reflection may lead them to a +contrary conviction. In its bearings upon human happiness, we believe +that this emotional language which musical culture develops and refines +is only second in importance to the language of the intellect; perhaps +not even second to it. For these modifications of voice produced by +feelings are the means of exciting like feelings in others. Joined with +gestures and expressions of face, they give life to the otherwise dead +words in which the intellect utters its ideas; and so enable the hearer +not only to _understand_ the state of mind they accompany, but to +_partake_ of that state. In short, they are the chief media of +_sympathy_. And if we consider how much both our general welfare and our +immediate pleasures depend upon sympathy, we shall recognise the +importance of whatever makes this sympathy greater. If we bear in mind +that by their fellow-feeling men are led to behave justly, kindly, and +considerately to each other--that the difference between the cruelty of +the barbarous and the humanity of the civilised, results from the +increase of fellow-feeling; if we bear in mind that this faculty which +makes us sharers in the joys and sorrows of others, is the basis of all +the higher affections--that in friendship, love, and all domestic +pleasures, it is an essential element; if we bear in mind how much our +direct gratifications are intensified by sympathy,--how, at the theatre, +the concert, the picture gallery, we lose half our enjoyment if we have +no one to enjoy with us; if, in short, we bear in mind that for all +happiness beyond what the unfriended recluse can have, we are indebted +to this same sympathy;--we shall see that the agencies which communicate +it can scarcely be overrated in value. + +The tendency of civilisation is more and more to repress the +antagonistic elements of our characters and to develop the social +ones--to curb our purely selfish desires and exercise our unselfish +ones--to replace private gratifications by gratifications resulting +from, or involving, the happiness of others. And while, by this +adaptation to the social state, the sympathetic side of our nature is +being unfolded, there is simultaneously growing up a language of +sympathetic intercourse--a language through which we communicate to +others the happiness we feel, and are made sharers in their happiness. + +This double process, of which the effects are already sufficiently +appreciable, must go on to an extent of which we can as yet have no +adequate conception. The habitual concealment of our feelings +diminishing, as it must, in proportion as our feelings become such as do +not demand concealment, we may conclude that the exhibition of them will +become much more vivid than we now dare allow it to be; and this implies +a more expressive emotional language. At the same time, feelings of a +higher and more complex kind, as yet experienced only by the cultivated +few, will become general; and there will be a corresponding development +of the emotional language into more involved forms. Just as there has +silently grown up a language of ideas, which, rude as it at first was, +now enables us to convey with precision the most subtle and complicated +thoughts; so, there is still silently growing up a language of feelings, +which, notwithstanding its present imperfection, we may expect will +ultimately enable men vividly and completely to impress on each other +all the emotions which they experience from moment to moment. + +Thus if, as we have endeavoured to show, it is the function of music to +facilitate the development of this emotional language, we may regard +music as an aid to the achievement of that higher happiness which it +indistinctly shadows forth. Those vague feelings of unexperienced +felicity which music arouses--those indefinite impressions of an unknown +ideal life which it calls up, may be considered as a prophecy, to the +fulfilment of which music is itself partly instrumental. The strange +capacity which we have for being so affected by melody and harmony may +be taken to imply both that it is within the possibilities of our nature +to realise those intenser delights they dimly suggest, and that they are +in some way concerned in the realisation of them. On this supposition +the power and the meaning of music become comprehensible; but otherwise +they are a mystery. + +We will only add, that if the probability of these corollaries be +admitted, then music must take rank as he highest of the fine arts--as +the one which, more than any other, ministers to human welfare. And +thus, even leaving out of view the immediate gratifications it is hourly +giving, we cannot too much applaud that progress of musical culture +which is becoming one of the characteristics of our age. + +[1] _Fraser's Magazine_, October 1857. + +[2] Those who seek information on this point may find it in an +interesting tract by Mr. Alexander Bain, on _Animal Instinct and +Intelligence_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays on Education and Kindred +Subjects, by Herbert Spencer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS ON EDUCATION *** + +***** This file should be named 16510.txt or 16510.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/1/16510/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Joel Schlosberg and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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