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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo Silversmiths, by Washington Matthews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Navajo Silversmiths
+       Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1880-1881,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1883, pages 167-178
+
+Author: Washington Matthews
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2005 [EBook #17275]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Verity White, PM for Bureau of American
+Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS.
+
+BY
+
+Dr. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+PLATE XVI.    Objects in silver                        172
+      XVII.   Navajo workshop                          175
+      XVIII.  Crucible, and Sandstone molds for
+                shaping silver objects                 175
+      XIX.    Objects in silver                        177
+      XX.     Navajo Indian with silver ornaments      178
+
+
+
+
+NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS.
+
+BY WASHINGTON MATTHEWS.
+
+
+Among the Navajo Indians there are many smiths, who sometimes forge iron
+and brass, but who work chiefly in silver. When and how the art of
+working metals was introduced among them I have not been able to
+determine; but there are many reasons for supposing that they have long
+possessed it; many believe that they are not indebted to the Europeans
+for it. Doubtless the tools obtained from American and Mexican traders
+have influenced their art. Old white residents of the Navajo country
+tell me that the art has improved greatly within their recollection;
+that the ornaments made fifteen years ago do not compare favorably with
+those made at the present time; and they attribute this change largely
+to the recent introduction of fine files and emery-paper. At the time of
+the Conquest the so-called civilized tribes of Mexico had attained
+considerable skill in the working of metal, and it has been inferred
+that in the same period the sedentary tribes of New Mexico also wrought
+at the forge. From either of these sources the first smiths among the
+Navajos may have learned their trade; but those who have seen the
+beautiful gold ornaments made by the rude Indians of British Columbia
+and Alaska, many of whom are allied in language to the Navajos, may
+doubt that the latter derived their art from a people higher in culture
+than themselves.
+
+The appliances and processes of the smith are much the same among the
+Navajos as among the Pueblo Indians. But the Pueblo artisan, living in a
+spacious house, builds a permanent forge on a frame at such a height
+that he can work standing, while his less fortunate Navajo _confrère_,
+dwelling in a low hut or shelter, which he may abandon any day,
+constructs a temporary forge on the ground in the manner hereafter
+described. Notwithstanding the greater disadvantages under which the
+latter labors, the ornaments made by his hand are generally conceded to
+be equal or even superior to those made by the Pueblo Indian.
+
+A large majority of these savage smiths make only such simple articles
+as buttons, rosettes, and bracelets; those who make the more elaborate
+articles, such as powder-chargers, round beads (Pl. XVI), tobacco cases,
+belts, and bridle ornaments are few. Tobacco cases, made in the shape of
+an army canteen, such as that represented in Fig. 6, are made by only
+three or four men in the tribe, and the design is of very recent origin.
+
+Their tools and materials are few and simple; and rude as the results of
+their labor may appear, it is surprising that they do so well with such
+imperfect appliances, which usually consist of the following articles: A
+forge, a bellows, an anvil, crucibles, molds, tongs, scissors, pliers,
+files, awls, cold-chisels, matrix and die for molding buttons, wooden
+implement used in grinding buttons, wooden stake, basin, charcoal, tools
+and materials for soldering (blow-pipe, braid of cotton rags soaked in
+grease, wire, and borax), materials for polishing (sand-paper,
+emery-paper, powdered sandstone, sand, ashes, and solid stone), and
+materials for whitening (a native mineral substance--almogen--salt and
+water). Fig. 1, taken from a photograph, represents the complete shop of
+a silversmith, which was set up temporarily in a summer lodge or
+_hogan_, near Fort Wingate. Fragments of boards, picked up around the
+fort, were used, in part, in the construction of the _hogan_, an old
+raisin-box was made to serve as the curb or frame of the forge, and
+these things detracted somewhat from the aboriginal aspect of the place.
+
+A forge built in an outhouse on my own premises by an Indian
+silversmith, whom I employed to work where I could constantly observe
+him, was twenty-three inches long, sixteen inches broad, five inches in
+height to the edge of the fire-place, and the latter, which was
+bowl-shaped, was eight inches in diameter and three inches deep. No
+other Navajo forge that I have seen differed materially in size or shape
+from this. The Indian thus constructed it: In the first place, he
+obtained a few straight sticks--four would have sufficed--and laid them
+on the ground to form a frame or curb; then he prepared some mud, with
+which he filled the frame, and which he piled up two inches above the
+latter, leaving the depression for the fire-place. Before the structure
+of mud was completed he laid in it the wooden nozzle of the bellows,
+where it was to remain, with one end about six inches from the
+fire-place, and the other end projecting about the same distance beyond
+the frame; then he stuck into the nozzle a round piece of wood, which
+reached from the nozzle to the fire-place, and when the mud work was
+finished the stick was withdrawn, leaving an uninflammable tweer. When
+the structure of mud was completed a flat rock about four inches thick
+was laid on at the head of the forge--the end next to the bellows--to
+form a back to the fire, and lastly the bellows was tied on to the
+nozzle, which, as mentioned above, was built into the forge, with a
+portion projecting to receive the bellows. The task of constructing this
+forge did not occupy more than an hour.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVI. OBJECTS IN SILVER.]
+
+A bellows, of the kind most commonly used, consists of a tube or bag of
+goatskin, about twelve inches in length and about ten inches in
+diameter, tied at one end to its nozzle and nailed at the other to a
+circular disk of wood, in which is the valve. This disk has two arms:
+one above for a handle and the other below for a support. Two or more
+rings or hoops of wood are placed in the skin-tube to keep it distended,
+while the tube is constricted between the hoops with buckskin thongs,
+and thus divided into a number of compartments, as shown in Pl. XVII.
+The nozzle is made of four pieces of wood tied together and rounded on
+the outside so as to form a cylinder about ten inches long and three
+inches in diameter, with a quadrangular hole in the center about one
+inch square. The bellows is worked by horizontal movements of the arm. I
+have seen among the Navajos one double-chambered bellows with a
+sheet-iron tweer. This bellows was about the same size as the single
+chambered one described above. It was also moved horizontally, and by
+means of an iron rod passing from one end to the other and attached to
+the disks, one chamber was opened at the same time that the other was
+closed, and _vice versa_. This gave a more constant current of air than
+the single-chambered implement, but not as steady a blast as the bellows
+of our blacksmiths. Such a bellows, too, I have seen in the Pueblo of
+Zuñi.
+
+For an anvil they usually use any suitable piece of iron they may happen
+to pick up, as for instance an old wedge or a large bolt, such as the
+king-bolt of a wagon. A wedge or other large fragment of iron may be
+stuck in the ground to steady it. A bolt is maintained in position by
+being driven into a log. Hard stones are still sometimes used for anvils
+and perhaps they were, at one time, the only anvils they possessed.
+
+Crucibles are made by the more careful smiths of clay, baked hard, and
+they are nearly the same shape as those used by our metallurgists,
+having three-cornered edges and rounded bottoms. They are usually about
+two inches in every dimension.
+
+Fig. 1, Pl. XVIII represents one of ordinary shape and size, which I
+have in my collection. The Navajos are not good potters; their
+earthenware being limited to these crucibles and a few unornamented
+water-jars; and it is probably in consequence of their inexperience in
+the ceramic art that their crucibles are not durable. After being put in
+the fire two or three times they swell and become very porous, and when
+used for a longer time they often crack and fall to pieces. Some smiths,
+instead of making crucibles, melt their metal in suitable fragments of
+Pueblo pottery, which may be picked up around ruins in many localities
+throughout the Navajo country or purchased from the Pueblo Indians.
+
+The moulds in which they cast their ingots, cut in soft sandstone with a
+home-made chisel, are so easily formed that the smith leaves them behind
+when he moves his residence. Each mould is cut approximately in the
+shape of the article which is to be wrought out of the ingot cast in it,
+and it is greased with suet before the metal is poured in. In Figs. 2
+and 3, Pl. XVIII, are represented pieces of sand-stone, graven for
+molds, now in my possession. The figures are one-third the dimensions of
+the subjects. In the middle cavity or mould shown in Fig. 2, Pl. XVIII,
+was cast the ingot from which was wrought the arrow-shaped handle of
+the powder-charger shown in Pl. XIX; in the lower cavity depicted in the
+same figure was moulded the piece from which the bowl of this charger
+was formed. The circular depression, delineated in the lower right
+corner of Fig. 3, Pl. XVIII, gave form to the ingot from which the sides
+of the canteen-shaped tobacco-case (Fig. 6) was made.
+
+Tongs are often made by the Navajo silversmiths. One of these which I
+saw had a U-shaped spring joint, and the ends were bent at right angles
+downwards, so as more effectually to grasp the flat-sided crucible.
+Often nippers or scissors are used as tongs.
+
+Ordinary scissors, purchased from the whites, are used for cutting:
+their metal after it is wrought into thin plates. The metal saw and
+metal shears do not seem as yet to have been imported for their benefit.
+Some of the more poorly provided smiths use their scissors also for
+tongs, regardless or ignorant of consequences, and when the shears lose
+their temper and become loose-jointed and blunt, the efforts of the
+Indian to cut a rather thick plate of silver are curious to see. Often,
+then, one or two bystanders are called to hold the plate in a horizontal
+position, and perhaps another will be asked to hold the points of the
+scissors to keep them from spreading. Scissors are sometimes used as
+dividers, by being spread to the desired distance and held in position
+by being grasped in the hand. By this means I have seen them attempt to
+find centers, but not to describe circles. It is probable that had they
+trusted to the eye they might have found their centers as well.
+
+Their iron pliers, hammers, and files they purchase from the whites.
+Pliers, both flat-pointed and round-pointed, are used as with us. Of
+files they usually employ only small sizes, and the varieties they
+prefer are the flat, triangular, and rat-tail. Files are used not only
+for their legitimate purposes, as with us, but the shanks serve for
+punches and the points for gravers, with which figures are engraved on
+silver.
+
+The Indians usually make their own cold-chisels. These are not used
+where the scissors and file can be conveniently and economically
+employed. The re-entrant rectangles on the bracelet represented in Fig.
+4, Pl. XIX, were cut with a cold-chisel and finished with a file.
+
+Awls are used to mark figures on the silver. Often they cut out of paper
+a pattern, which they lay on the silver, tracing the outline with an
+awl. These tools are sometimes purchased and sometimes made by the
+Indians. I have seen one made from a broken knife which had been picked
+up around the fort. The blade had been ground down to a point.
+
+Metallic hemispheres for beads and buttons are made in a concave matrix
+by means of a round-pointed bolt which I will call a die. These tools
+are always made by the Indians. On one bar of iron there may be many
+matrices of different sizes, only one die fitting the smallest
+concavity, is required to work the metal in all. In the picture of the
+smithy (Pl. XVII, in the right lower corner beside the tin-plate), a
+piece of an old horse-shoe may be seen in which a few matrices have been
+worked, and, beside it, the die used in connection with the matrices.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVIII. CRUCIBLE, AND SANDSTONE MOLDS FOR
+SHAPING SILVER OBJECTS.]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVII. WORKSHOP OF NAVAJO SILVERSMITH.]
+
+A little instrument employed in levelling the edges of the metallic
+hemispheres, is rude but effective. In one end of a cylinder of wood,
+about three or four inches long, is cut a small roundish cavity of such
+a size that it will hold the hemisphere tightly, but allow the uneven
+edges to project. The hemisphere is placed in this, and then rubbed on a
+flat piece of sandstone until the edges are worn level with the base of
+the wooden cylinder. The uses of the basin and the wooden stake are
+described further on.
+
+Their method of preparing charcoal is much more expeditious than that
+usually employed by our charcoal-burners, but more wasteful; wood,
+however, need not yet be economized on the juniper-covered _mesas_ of
+New Mexico. They build a large fire of dry juniper, and when it has
+ceased to flame and is reduced to a mass of glowing coals, they smother
+it well with earth and leave it to cool. If the fire is kindled at
+sunset, the charcoal is ready for use next morning.
+
+The smith makes his own blow-pipe, out of brass, usually by beating a
+piece of thick brass wire into a flat strip, and then bending this into
+a tube. The pipe is about a foot long, slightly tapering and curved at
+one end; there is no arrangement for retaining the moisture proceeding
+from the mouth. These Indians do not understand our method of making an
+air chamber of the mouth; they blow with undistended cheeks, hence the
+current of air directed on the flame is intermitting. The flame used in
+soldering with the blow-pipe is derived from a thick braid of cotton
+rags soaked in mutton suet or other grease. Their borax is purchased
+from the whites, and from the same source is derived the fine wire with
+which they bind together the parts to be soldered. I have been told by
+reliable persons that it is not many years since the Navajos employed a
+flux mined by themselves in their own country; but, finding the pure
+borax introduced by the traders to be much better, they gradually
+abandoned the use of the former substance.
+
+For polishing, they have sand-paper and emery-paper purchased from the
+whites; but as these are expensive, they are usually required only for
+the finishing touches, the first part of the work being done with
+powdered sandstone, sand, or ashes, all of which are used with or
+without water. At certain stages in the progress of the work, some
+articles are rubbed on a piece of sandstone to reduce the surfaces to
+smoothness; but the stone, in this instance, is more a substitute for
+the file than for the sand-paper. Perhaps I should say that the file is
+a substitute for the stone, for there is little doubt that stone, sand,
+and ashes preceded file and paper in the shop of the Indian smith.
+
+For blanching the silver, when the forging is done, they use a mineral
+substance found in various parts of their country, which, I am informed
+by Mr. Taylor, of the Smithsonian Institution, is a "hydrous sulphate of
+alumina," called almogen. This they dissolve in water, in a metal basin,
+with the addition, sometimes, of salt. The silver, being first slightly
+heated in the forge, is boiled in this solution and in a short time
+becomes very white.
+
+The processes of the Navajo silversmith may be best understood from
+descriptions of the ways in which he makes some of his silver ornament.
+I once engaged two of the best workmen in the tribe to come to Fort
+Wingate and work under my observation for a week. They put up their
+forge in a small outbuilding at night, and early next morning they were
+at work. Their labor was almost all performed while they were sitting or
+crouching on the ground in very constrained positions; yet I never saw
+men who worked harder or more steadily. They often labored from twelve
+to fifteen hours a day, eating their meals with dispatch and returning
+to their toil the moment they had done. Occasionally they stopped to
+roll a cigarette or consult about their work, but they lost very few
+moments in this way. They worked by the job and their prices were such
+that they earned about two dollars a day each.
+
+The first thing they made was a powder charger with a handle in the
+shape of a dart (Fig. 2, Pl. XIX). Having cut in sandstone rock (Fig. 2,
+Pl. XVIII) the necessary grooves for molds and greased the same, they
+melted two Mexican dollars--one for the bowl or receptacle, and one for
+the handle--and poured each one into its appropriate mold. Then each
+smith went to work on a separate part; but they helped one another when
+necessary. The ingot cast for the receptacle was beaten into a plate
+(triangular in shape, with obtuse corners), of a size which the smith
+guessed would be large enough for his purpose. Before the process of
+bending was quite completed the margins that were to form the seam were
+straightened by clipping and filing so as to assume a pretty accurate
+contact, and when the bending was done, a small gap still left in the
+seam was filled with a shred of silver beaten in. The cone, at this
+stage, being indented and irregular, the workman thrust into it a
+conical stake or mandrel, which he had formed carefully out of hard
+wood, and with gentle taps of the hammer soon made the cone even and
+shapely. Next, withdrawing the stake, he laid on the seam a mixture of
+borax and minute clippings of silver moistened with saliva, put the
+article into the fire, seam up, blew with the bellows until the silver
+was at a dull red-heat, and then applied the blow-pipe and flame until
+the soldering was completed. In the meantime the other smith had, with
+hammer and file, wrought the handle until it was sufficiently formed to
+be joined to the receptacle, the base of the handle being filed down for
+a length of about a quarter of an inch so that it would fit tightly into
+the orifice at the apex of the receptacle. The two parts were then
+adjusted and bound firmly together with a fine wire passing in various
+directions, over the base of the cone, across the protuberances on the
+dart-shaped handle, and around both. This done, the parts were soldered
+together in the manner already described, the ring by which it is
+suspended was fastened on, the edge of the receptacle was clipped and
+filed, and the whole was brought into good shape with file, sand,
+emery-paper, &c.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XIX. OBJECTS IN SILVER.]
+
+The chasing was the next process. To make the round indentations on
+the handle, one smith held the article on the anvil while the other
+applied the point of the shank of a file--previously rounded--and struck
+the file with a hammer. The other figures were made with the sharpened
+point of a file, pushed forward with a zigzag motion of the hand. When
+the chasing was done the silver was blanched by the process before
+referred to, being occasionally taken from the boiling solution of
+almogen to be rubbed with ashes and sand. For about five hours both of
+the smiths worked together on this powder-charger; subsequently, for
+about three hours' more, there was only one man engaged on it; so that,
+in all, thirteen hours labor was spent in constructing it. Of this time,
+about ten hours were consumed in forging, about one and one-half hours
+in filing and rubbing, and about the same time in ornamenting and
+cleaning.
+
+In making the hollow silver beads they did not melt the silver, but beat
+out a Mexican dollar until it was of the proper tenuity--frequently
+annealing it in the forge as the work advanced. When the plate was ready
+they carefully described on it, with an awl, a figure (which, by
+courtesy, we will call a circle) that they conjectured would include a
+disk large enough to make half a bead of the required size. The disk was
+then cut out with scissors, trimmed, and used as a pattern to cut other
+circular pieces by. One of the smiths proceeded to cut out the rest of
+the planchets, while his partner formed them into hollow hemispheres
+with his matrix and die. He did not put them at once into the cavity
+from which they were to get their final shape, but first worked them a
+little in one or more larger cavities, so as to bring them gradually to
+the desired form. Next the hemispheres were leveled at the edges by a
+method already described, and subsequently perforated by holding them,
+convex surface downwards, on a piece of wood, and driving through them
+the shank of a file with blows of a hammer. By this means of boring, a
+neck was left projecting from the hole, which was not filed off until
+the soldering was done. The hemispheres were now strung or, I may say,
+spitted on a stout wire in pairs forming globes. The wire or spit
+referred to was bent at one end and supplied with a washer to keep the
+heads from slipping off, and all the pieces being pressed closely
+together were secured in position by many wraps of finer wire at the
+other end of the spit. The mixture of borax, saliva, and silver was next
+applied to the seams of all the beads; they were put into the fire and
+all soldered at one operation. When taken from the fire they were
+finished by filing, polishing and blanching.
+
+These Indians are quite fertile in design. In Pl. XIX are shown two
+powder-chargers, which I consider very graceful in form. I have seen
+many of these powder-chargers, all very graceful, but no two alike
+except in cases where duplicates had been specially ordered. Their
+designs upon bracelets and rings are of great variety. Ornaments for
+bridles, consisting of broad bands of silver, sufficient in size and
+number to almost entirely conceal the leather, are not particularly
+handsome, but are greatly in demand among the Navajos and are
+extensively manufactured by them. Leather belts studded with large
+plates of silver are favorite articles of apparel, and often contain
+metal to the value of forty or fifty dollars. Pl. XX represents an
+Indian wearing such a belt, in which only three of the plates are shown.
+Single and double crosses of silver are represented attached to his
+necklace. The cross is much worn by the Navajos, among whom, I
+understand, it is not intended to represent the "Cross of Christ," but
+is a symbol of the morning star. The lengthening of the lower limb,
+however, is probably copied from the usual form of the Christian emblem.
+These savage smiths also display much ingenuity in working from models
+and from drawings of objects entirely new to them.
+
+They are very wasteful of material. They usually preserve the clippings
+and melt them in the crucible, or use them in soldering; but they make
+no attempt to save the metal carried off in filing, polishing, and by
+oxidizing in the forge, all of which is considerable. In one article of
+silver, for which, allowing for clippings saved, 836 grains were given
+to the smith, and the work on which I watched so closely throughout that
+I am certain none of the material was stolen, there was a loss of 120
+grains, or over 14 per cent.
+
+The smiths whom I have seen working had no dividers, square, measure, or
+any instrument of precision. As before stated, I have seen scissors used
+as compasses, but as a rule they find approximate centers with the eye,
+and cut all shapes and engrave all figures by the unaided guidance of
+this unreliable organ. Often they cut out their designs in paper first
+and from them mark off patterns on the metal. Even in the matter of
+cutting patterns they do not seem to know the simple device of doubling
+the paper in order to secure lateral uniformity.
+
+Here ends my description of the smithcraft of a rude but docile and
+progressive people. I trust that it may serve not only to illustrate
+some aspects of their mental condition, their inventive and imitative
+talents, but possibly to shed some light on the condition and diffusion
+of the art of the metalist in the prehistoric days of our continent,
+notwithstanding the fact that some elements of their craft are of recent
+introduction and others of doubtful origin.
+
+[Illustration: Pl. XX. NAVAJO INDIAN WITH SILVER ORNAMENTS.]
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+Almogen used by Navajoes in blanching silver 175
+Articles made by Navajo silversmiths 171, 176
+Bellows used by Navajo silversmiths 172
+Blanching silver, Navajo method of 175
+Blow-pipe of Navajo silversmiths 175
+Charcoal, Navajo method of preparing 175
+Chasing silver, Navajo method of 176
+Coin used by Navajo silversmiths 177
+Cross design associated with others
+    in Navajo silver ornamentation 178
+Crucibles of Navajo silversmiths 173
+Fertility of design of Navajo silversmiths 177
+Files used in engraving silver 174
+Forge of the Navajo silversmith 172
+Improvement of the silversmith's craft among the Navajoes 171
+Matthews, Dr. W., Navajo silversmiths by, 167
+Moulds used by Navajo Silversmiths 173
+Silversmith's craft among the Navajoes 171
+Polishing silver, Navajo method of 175
+Processes of the Navajo silversmith 171, 176
+    ; blanching 175
+    ; chasing 176
+    ; polishing 175
+    ; soldering 176
+Silversmith among the Navajos and Pueblos, Origin of 171
+Soldering silver, Navajo method of 176
+Tools used by Navajo silversmith 172
+    ; anvil 173
+    ; awl 174
+    ; bellows 172
+    ; blow-pipe 175
+    ; cold-chisel 174
+    ; crucibles 173
+    ; files 174
+    ; hammers 174
+    inefficient 178
+    ; metallic hemispheres 174
+    ; molds 173
+    ; pliers 174
+    ; scissors 174, 178
+Wastefulness of the Navajo silversmith 174, 178
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Navajo Silversmiths, by Washington Matthews
+
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+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Navajo Silversmiths, by Dr. Washington Matthews.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
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+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo Silversmiths, by Washington Matthews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Navajo Silversmiths
+       Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1880-1881,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1883, pages 167-178
+
+Author: Washington Matthews
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2005 [EBook #17275]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Verity White, PM for Bureau of American
+Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<!-- Page 167 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page167" id="page167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+<h3>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h1>NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS.</h1>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h3>Dr. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, U.S.A.</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+<!-- Page 168 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page168" id="page168"></a></span>
+<!-- Page 169 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page169" id="page169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<table cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="illustrations">
+   <tr>
+      <td></td>
+      <td></td>
+      <td></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">Page.</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: right;"><span class="smcap">Plate</span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">XVI.</td>
+      <td><a href="#xvi">Objects in silver</a></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;"><a href="#page172">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">XVII.</td>
+      <td><a href="#xvii">Navajo workshop</a></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;"><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">XVIII.</td>
+      <td><a href="#xviii">Crucible,
+and Sandstone molds for shaping
+silver objects</a></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;"><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">XIX.</td>
+      <td><a href="#xix">Objects in silver</a></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;"><a href="#page177">177</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">XX.</td>
+      <td><a href="#xx">Navajo
+Indian with silver ornament</a></td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;"><a href="#page178">178</a></td>
+    </tr>
+ </table>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+<!-- Page 171 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page171" id="page171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+
+<h2>NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS.</h2>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>BY WASHINGTON MATTHEWS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Among the Navajo Indians there are many smiths, who sometimes forge iron
+and brass, but who work chiefly in silver. When and how the art of
+working metals was introduced among them I have not been able to
+determine; but there are many reasons for supposing that they have long
+possessed it; many believe that they are not indebted to the Europeans
+for it. Doubtless the tools obtained from American and Mexican traders
+have influenced their art. Old white residents of the Navajo country
+tell me that the art has improved greatly within their recollection;
+that the ornaments made fifteen years ago do not compare favorably with
+those made at the present time; and they attribute this change largely
+to the recent introduction of fine files and emery-paper. At the time of
+the Conquest the so-called civilized tribes of Mexico had attained
+considerable skill in the working of metal, and it has been inferred
+that in the same period the sedentary tribes of New Mexico also wrought
+at the forge. From either of these sources the first smiths among the
+Navajos may have learned their trade; but those who have seen the
+beautiful gold ornaments made by the rude Indians of British Columbia
+and Alaska, many of whom are allied in language to the Navajos, may
+doubt that the latter derived their art from a people higher in culture
+than themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The appliances and processes of the smith are much the same among the
+Navajos as among the Pueblo Indians. But the Pueblo artisan, living in a
+spacious house, builds a permanent forge on a frame at such a height
+that he can work standing, while his less fortunate Navajo <i>confr&egrave;re</i>,
+dwelling in a low hut or shelter, which he may abandon any day,
+constructs a temporary forge on the ground in the manner hereafter
+described. Notwithstanding the greater disadvantages under which the
+latter labors, the ornaments made by his hand are generally conceded to
+be equal or even superior to those made by the Pueblo Indian.</p>
+
+<p>A large majority of these savage smiths make only such simple articles
+as buttons, rosettes, and bracelets; those who make the more elaborate
+articles, such as powder-chargers, round beads (<a href="#xvi">Pl. XVI</a>), tobacco cases,
+belts, and bridle ornaments are few. Tobacco cases, made in the shape of
+an army canteen, such as that represented in Fig. 6, are made by only three
+or four men in the tribe, and the design is of very recent origin.</p>
+
+<!-- Page 172 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page172" id="page172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+
+<p>Their tools and materials are few and simple; and rude as the results of
+their labor may appear, it is surprising that they do so well with such
+imperfect appliances, which usually consist of the following articles: A
+forge, a bellows, an anvil, crucibles, molds, tongs, scissors, pliers,
+files, awls, cold-chisels, matrix and die for molding buttons, wooden
+implement used in grinding buttons, wooden stake, basin, charcoal, tools
+and materials for soldering (blow-pipe, braid of cotton rags soaked in
+grease, wire, and borax), materials for polishing (sand-paper,
+emery-paper, powdered sandstone, sand, ashes, and solid stone), and
+materials for whitening (a native mineral substance&mdash;almogen&mdash;salt and
+water). Fig. 1, taken from a photograph, represents the complete shop of
+a silversmith, which was set up temporarily in a summer lodge or
+<i>hogan</i>, near Fort Wingate. Fragments of boards, picked up around the
+fort, were used, in part, in the construction of the <i>hogan</i>, an old
+raisin-box was made to serve as the curb or frame of the forge, and
+these things detracted somewhat from the aboriginal aspect of the place.</p>
+
+<p>A forge built in an outhouse on my own premises by an Indian
+silversmith, whom I employed to work where I could constantly observe
+him, was twenty-three inches long, sixteen inches broad, five inches in
+height to the edge of the fire-place, and the latter, which was
+bowl-shaped, was eight inches in diameter and three inches deep. No
+other Navajo forge that I have seen differed materially in size or shape
+from this. The Indian thus constructed it: In the first place, he
+obtained a few straight sticks&mdash;four would have sufficed&mdash;and laid them
+on the ground to form a frame or curb; then he prepared some mud, with
+which he filled the frame, and which he piled up two inches above the
+latter, leaving the depression for the fire-place. Before the structure
+of mud was completed he laid in it the wooden nozzle of the bellows,
+where it was to remain, with one end about six inches from the
+fire-place, and the other end projecting about the same distance beyond
+the frame; then he stuck into the nozzle a round piece of wood, which
+reached from the nozzle to the fire-place, and when the mud work was
+finished the stick was withdrawn, leaving an uninflammable tweer. When
+the structure of mud was completed a flat rock about four inches thick
+was laid on at the head of the forge&mdash;the end next to the bellows&mdash;to
+form a back to the fire, and lastly the bellows was tied on to the
+nozzle, which, as mentioned above, was built into the forge, with a
+portion projecting to receive the bellows. The task of constructing this
+forge did not occupy more than an hour.</p>
+
+<a name="xvi" id="xvi"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/image1.jpg" width="250" height="562" alt="PL. XVI. OBJECTS IN SILVER." title="PL. XVI. OBJECTS IN SILVER." />
+<span class="caption">PL. XVI. OBJECTS IN SILVER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Page 173 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page173" id="page173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+
+<p>A bellows, of the kind most commonly used, consists of a tube or bag of
+goatskin, about twelve inches in length and about ten inches in
+diameter, tied at one end to its nozzle and nailed at the other to a
+circular disk of wood, in which is the valve. This disk has two arms:
+one above for a handle and the other below for a support. Two or more
+rings or hoops of wood are placed in the skin-tube to keep it distended,
+while the tube is constricted between the hoops with buckskin thongs,
+and thus divided into a number of compartments, as shown in <a href="#xvii">Pl. XVII</a>.
+The nozzle is made of four pieces of wood tied together and rounded on
+the outside so as to form a cylinder about ten inches long and three
+inches in diameter, with a quadrangular hole in the center about one
+inch square. The bellows is worked by horizontal movements of the arm. I
+have seen among the Navajos one double-chambered bellows with a
+sheet-iron tweer. This bellows was about the same size as the single
+chambered one described above. It was also moved horizontally, and by
+means of an iron rod passing from one end to the other and attached to
+the disks, one chamber was opened at the same time that the other was
+closed, and <i>vice versa</i>. This gave a more constant current of air than
+the single-chambered implement, but not as steady a blast as the bellows
+of our blacksmiths. Such a bellows, too, I have seen in the Pueblo of
+Zu&ntilde;i.</p>
+
+<p>For an anvil they usually use any suitable piece of iron they may happen
+to pick up, as for instance an old wedge or a large bolt, such as the
+king-bolt of a wagon. A wedge or other large fragment of iron may be
+stuck in the ground to steady it. A bolt is maintained in position by
+being driven into a log. Hard stones are still sometimes used for anvils
+and perhaps they were, at one time, the only anvils they possessed.</p>
+
+<p>Crucibles are made by the more careful smiths of clay, baked hard, and
+they are nearly the same shape as those used by our metallurgists,
+having three-cornered edges and rounded bottoms. They are usually about
+two inches in every dimension.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1, <a href="#xviii">Pl. XVIII</a> represents one of ordinary shape and size, which I
+have in my collection. The Navajos are not good potters; their
+earthenware being limited to these crucibles and a few unornamented
+water-jars; and it is probably in consequence of their inexperience in
+the ceramic art that their crucibles are not durable. After being put in
+the fire two or three times they swell and become very porous, and when
+used for a longer time they often crack and fall to pieces. Some smiths,
+instead of making crucibles, melt their metal in suitable fragments of
+Pueblo pottery, which may be picked up around ruins in many localities
+throughout the Navajo country or purchased from the Pueblo Indians.</p>
+
+<p>The moulds in which they cast their ingots, cut in soft sandstone with a
+home-made chisel, are so easily formed that the smith leaves them behind
+when he moves his residence. Each mould is cut approximately in the
+shape of the article which is to be wrought out of the ingot cast in it,
+and it is greased with suet before the metal is poured in. In Figs. 2
+and 3, <a href="#xviii">Pl. XVIII</a>, are represented pieces of sand-stone, graven for
+molds, now in my possession. The figures are one-third the dimensions of
+the subjects. In the middle cavity or mould shown in Fig. 2, <a href="#xviii">Pl. XVIII</a>,
+was cast the ingot from which was wrought the arrow-shaped
+
+<!-- Page 174 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page174" id="page174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+
+handle of the powder-charger shown in <a href="#xix">Pl. XIX</a>; in the lower cavity depicted in the
+same figure was moulded the piece from which the bowl of this charger
+was formed. The circular depression, delineated in the lower right
+corner of Fig. 3, <a href="#xviii">Pl. XVIII</a>, gave form to the ingot from which the sides
+of the canteen-shaped tobacco-case (Fig. 6) was made.</p>
+
+<p>Tongs are often made by the Navajo silversmiths. One of these which I
+saw had a U-shaped spring joint, and the ends were bent at right angles
+downwards, so as more effectually to grasp the flat-sided crucible.
+Often nippers or scissors are used as tongs.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary scissors, purchased from the whites, are used for cutting:
+their metal after it is wrought into thin plates. The metal saw and
+metal shears do not seem as yet to have been imported for their benefit.
+Some of the more poorly provided smiths use their scissors also for
+tongs, regardless or ignorant of consequences, and when the shears lose
+their temper and become loose-jointed and blunt, the efforts of the
+Indian to cut a rather thick plate of silver are curious to see. Often,
+then, one or two bystanders are called to hold the plate in a horizontal
+position, and perhaps another will be asked to hold the points of the
+scissors to keep them from spreading. Scissors are sometimes used as
+dividers, by being spread to the desired distance and held in position
+by being grasped in the hand. By this means I have seen them attempt to
+find centers, but not to describe circles. It is probable that had they
+trusted to the eye they might have found their centers as well.</p>
+
+<p>Their iron pliers, hammers, and files they purchase from the whites.
+Pliers, both flat-pointed and round-pointed, are used as with us. Of
+files they usually employ only small sizes, and the varieties they
+prefer are the flat, triangular, and rat-tail. Files are used not only
+for their legitimate purposes, as with us, but the shanks serve for
+punches and the points for gravers, with which figures are engraved on
+silver.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians usually make their own cold-chisels. These are not used
+where the scissors and file can be conveniently and economically
+employed. The re-entrant rectangles on the bracelet represented in Fig.
+4, <a href="#xix">Pl. XIX</a>, were cut with a cold-chisel and finished with a file.</p>
+
+<p>Awls are used to mark figures on the silver. Often they cut out of paper
+a pattern, which they lay on the silver, tracing the outline with an
+awl. These tools are sometimes purchased and sometimes made by the
+Indians. I have seen one made from a broken knife which had been picked
+up around the fort. The blade had been ground down to a point.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic hemispheres for beads and buttons are made in a concave matrix
+by means of a round-pointed bolt which I will call a die. These tools
+are always made by the Indians. On one bar of iron there may be many
+matrices of different sizes, only one die fitting the smallest
+concavity, is required to work the metal in all. In the picture of the
+smithy (<a href="#xvii">Pl. XVII</a>, in the right lower corner beside the tin-plate), a
+piece of an old horse-shoe may be seen in which a few matrices have been
+worked, and, beside it, the die used in connection with the matrices.</p>
+
+<a name="xviii" id="xviii"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/image2.jpg" width="250" height="351" alt="PL. XVIII. CRUCIBLE, AND SANDSTONE MOLDS FOR SHAPING SILVER OBJECTS. " title="PL. XVIII. CRUCIBLE, AND SANDSTONE MOLDS FOR SHAPING SILVER OBJECTS. " />
+<span class="caption">PL. XVIII. CRUCIBLE, AND SANDSTONE MOLDS FOR SHAPING SILVER OBJECTS. </span>
+</div>
+
+<a name="xvii" id="xvii"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;">
+<img src="images/image3.jpg" width="416" height="275" alt="PL. XVII. WORKSHOP OF NAVAJO SILVERSMITH." title="PL. XVII. WORKSHOP OF NAVAJO SILVERSMITH." />
+<span class="caption">PL. XVII. WORKSHOP OF NAVAJO SILVERSMITH.</span>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Page 175 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page175" id="page175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+
+<p>A little instrument employed in levelling the edges of the metallic
+hemispheres, is rude but effective. In one end of a cylinder of wood,
+about three or four inches long, is cut a small roundish cavity of such
+a size that it will hold the hemisphere tightly, but allow the uneven
+edges to project. The hemisphere is placed in this, and then rubbed on a
+flat piece of sandstone until the edges are worn level with the base of
+the wooden cylinder. The uses of the basin and the wooden stake are
+described further on.</p>
+
+<p>Their method of preparing charcoal is much more expeditious than that
+usually employed by our charcoal-burners, but more wasteful; wood,
+however, need not yet be economized on the juniper-covered <i>mesas</i> of
+New Mexico. They build a large fire of dry juniper, and when it has
+ceased to flame and is reduced to a mass of glowing coals, they smother
+it well with earth and leave it to cool. If the fire is kindled at
+sunset, the charcoal is ready for use next morning.</p>
+
+<p>The smith makes his own blow-pipe, out of brass, usually by beating a
+piece of thick brass wire into a flat strip, and then bending this into
+a tube. The pipe is about a foot long, slightly tapering and curved at
+one end; there is no arrangement for retaining the moisture proceeding
+from the mouth. These Indians do not understand our method of making an
+air chamber of the mouth; they blow with undistended cheeks, hence the
+current of air directed on the flame is intermitting. The flame used in
+soldering with the blow-pipe is derived from a thick braid of cotton
+rags soaked in mutton suet or other grease. Their borax is purchased
+from the whites, and from the same source is derived the fine wire with
+which they bind together the parts to be soldered. I have been told by
+reliable persons that it is not many years since the Navajos employed a
+flux mined by themselves in their own country; but, finding the pure
+borax introduced by the traders to be much better, they gradually
+abandoned the use of the former substance.</p>
+
+<p>For polishing, they have sand-paper and emery-paper purchased from the
+whites; but as these are expensive, they are usually required only for
+the finishing touches, the first part of the work being done with
+powdered sandstone, sand, or ashes, all of which are used with or
+without water. At certain stages in the progress of the work, some
+articles are rubbed on a piece of sandstone to reduce the surfaces to
+smoothness; but the stone, in this instance, is more a substitute for
+the file than for the sand-paper. Perhaps I should say that the file is
+a substitute for the stone, for there is little doubt that stone, sand,
+and ashes preceded file and paper in the shop of the Indian smith.</p>
+
+<p>For blanching the silver, when the forging is done, they use a mineral
+substance found in various parts of their country, which, I am informed
+by Mr. Taylor, of the Smithsonian Institution, is a "hydrous sulphate of
+alumina," called almogen. This they dissolve in water, in a metal basin,
+with the addition, sometimes, of salt. The silver, being first slightly
+heated in the forge, is boiled in this solution and in a short time
+becomes very white.</p>
+
+<!-- Page 176 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page176" id="page176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+
+<p>The processes of the Navajo silversmith may be best understood from
+descriptions of the ways in which he makes some of his silver ornament.
+I once engaged two of the best workmen in the tribe to come to Fort
+Wingate and work under my observation for a week. They put up their
+forge in a small outbuilding at night, and early next morning they were
+at work. Their labor was almost all performed while they were sitting or
+crouching on the ground in very constrained positions; yet I never saw
+men who worked harder or more steadily. They often labored from twelve
+to fifteen hours a day, eating their meals with dispatch and returning
+to their toil the moment they had done. Occasionally they stopped to
+roll a cigarette or consult about their work, but they lost very few
+moments in this way. They worked by the job and their prices were such
+that they earned about two dollars a day each.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing they made was a powder charger with a handle in the
+shape of a dart (Fig. 2, <a href="#xix">Pl. XIX</a>). Having cut in sandstone rock (Fig. 2,
+<a href="#xviii">Pl. XVIII</a>) the necessary grooves for molds and greased the same, they
+melted two Mexican dollars&mdash;one for the bowl or receptacle, and one for
+the handle&mdash;and poured each one into its appropriate mold. Then each
+smith went to work on a separate part; but they helped one another when
+necessary. The ingot cast for the receptacle was beaten into a plate
+(triangular in shape, with obtuse corners), of a size which the smith
+guessed would be large enough for his purpose. Before the process of
+bending was quite completed the margins that were to form the seam were
+straightened by clipping and filing so as to assume a pretty accurate
+contact, and when the bending was done, a small gap still left in the
+seam was filled with a shred of silver beaten in. The cone, at this
+stage, being indented and irregular, the workman thrust into it a
+conical stake or mandrel, which he had formed carefully out of hard
+wood, and with gentle taps of the hammer soon made the cone even and
+shapely. Next, withdrawing the stake, he laid on the seam a mixture of
+borax and minute clippings of silver moistened with saliva, put the
+article into the fire, seam up, blew with the bellows until the silver
+was at a dull red-heat, and then applied the blow-pipe and flame until
+the soldering was completed. In the meantime the other smith had, with
+hammer and file, wrought the handle until it was sufficiently formed to
+be joined to the receptacle, the base of the handle being filed down for
+a length of about a quarter of an inch so that it would fit tightly into
+the orifice at the apex of the receptacle. The two parts were then
+adjusted and bound firmly together with a fine wire passing in various
+directions, over the base of the cone, across the protuberances on the
+dart-shaped handle, and around both. This done, the parts were soldered
+together in the manner already described, the ring by which it is
+suspended was fastened on, the edge of the receptacle was clipped and
+filed, and the whole was brought into good shape with file, sand,
+emery-paper, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<a name="xix" id="xix"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;">
+<img src="images/image4.jpg" width="527" height="275" alt="PL. XIX. OBJECTS IN SILVER." title="PL. XIX. OBJECTS IN SILVER." />
+<span class="caption">PL. XIX. OBJECTS IN SILVER.</span>
+</div><p>
+
+<!-- Page 177 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page177" id="page177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chasing was the next process. To make the round indentations on
+the handle, one smith held the article on the anvil while the other
+applied the point of the shank of a file&mdash;previously rounded&mdash;and struck
+the file with a hammer. The other figures were made with the sharpened
+point of a file, pushed forward with a zigzag motion of the hand. When
+the chasing was done the silver was blanched by the process before
+referred to, being occasionally taken from the boiling solution of
+almogen to be rubbed with ashes and sand. For about five hours both of
+the smiths worked together on this powder-charger; subsequently, for
+about three hours' more, there was only one man engaged on it; so that,
+in all, thirteen hours labor was spent in constructing it. Of this time,
+about ten hours were consumed in forging, about one and one-half hours
+in filing and rubbing, and about the same time in ornamenting and
+cleaning.</p>
+
+<p>In making the hollow silver beads they did not melt the silver, but beat
+out a Mexican dollar until it was of the proper tenuity&mdash;frequently
+annealing it in the forge as the work advanced. When the plate was ready
+they carefully described on it, with an awl, a figure (which, by
+courtesy, we will call a circle) that they conjectured would include a
+disk large enough to make half a bead of the required size. The disk was
+then cut out with scissors, trimmed, and used as a pattern to cut other
+circular pieces by. One of the smiths proceeded to cut out the rest of
+the planchets, while his partner formed them into hollow hemispheres
+with his matrix and die. He did not put them at once into the cavity
+from which they were to get their final shape, but first worked them a
+little in one or more larger cavities, so as to bring them gradually to
+the desired form. Next the hemispheres were leveled at the edges by a
+method already described, and subsequently perforated by holding them,
+convex surface downwards, on a piece of wood, and driving through them
+the shank of a file with blows of a hammer. By this means of boring, a
+neck was left projecting from the hole, which was not filed off until
+the soldering was done. The hemispheres were now strung or, I may say,
+spitted on a stout wire in pairs forming globes. The wire or spit
+referred to was bent at one end and supplied with a washer to keep the
+heads from slipping off, and all the pieces being pressed closely
+together were secured in position by many wraps of finer wire at the
+other end of the spit. The mixture of borax, saliva, and silver was next
+applied to the seams of all the beads; they were put into the fire and
+all soldered at one operation. When taken from the fire they were
+finished by filing, polishing and blanching.</p>
+
+<p>These Indians are quite fertile in design. In <a href="#xix">Pl. XIX</a> are shown two
+powder-chargers, which I consider very graceful in form. I have seen
+many of these powder-chargers, all very graceful, but no two alike
+except in cases where duplicates had been specially ordered. Their
+designs upon bracelets and rings are of great variety. Ornaments for
+bridles, consisting of broad bands of silver, sufficient in size and
+number to almost entirely conceal the leather, are not particularly
+handsome, but
+
+<!-- Page 178 --><span class='pagenum'><a name="page178" id="page178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+
+ are greatly in demand among the Navajos and are
+extensively manufactured by them. Leather belts studded with large
+plates of silver are favorite articles of apparel, and often contain
+metal to the value of forty or fifty dollars. <a href="#xx">Pl. XX</a> represents an
+Indian wearing such a belt, in which only three of the plates are shown.
+Single and double crosses of silver are represented attached to his
+necklace. The cross is much worn by the Navajos, among whom, I
+understand, it is not intended to represent the "Cross of Christ," but
+is a symbol of the morning star. The lengthening of the lower limb,
+however, is probably copied from the usual form of the Christian emblem.
+These savage smiths also display much ingenuity in working from models
+and from drawings of objects entirely new to them.</p>
+
+<p>They are very wasteful of material. They usually preserve the clippings
+and melt them in the crucible, or use them in soldering; but they make
+no attempt to save the metal carried off in filing, polishing, and by
+oxidizing in the forge, all of which is considerable. In one article of
+silver, for which, allowing for clippings saved, 836 grains were given
+to the smith, and the work on which I watched so closely throughout that
+I am certain none of the material was stolen, there was a loss of 120
+grains, or over 14 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>The smiths whom I have seen working had no dividers, square, measure, or
+any instrument of precision. As before stated, I have seen scissors used
+as compasses, but as a rule they find approximate centers with the eye,
+and cut all shapes and engrave all figures by the unaided guidance of
+this unreliable organ. Often they cut out their designs in paper first
+and from them mark off patterns on the metal. Even in the matter of
+cutting patterns they do not seem to know the simple device of doubling
+the paper in order to secure lateral uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>Here ends my description of the smithcraft of a rude but docile and
+progressive people. I trust that it may serve not only to illustrate
+some aspects of their mental condition, their inventive and imitative
+talents, but possibly to shed some light on the condition and diffusion
+of the art of the metalist in the prehistoric days of our continent,
+notwithstanding the fact that some elements of their craft are of recent
+introduction and others of doubtful origin.</p>
+
+<a name="xx" id="xx"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<img src="images/image5.jpg" width="275" height="540" alt="Pl. XX. NAVAJO INDIAN WITH SILVER ORNAMENTS." title="Pl. XX. NAVAJO INDIAN WITH SILVER ORNAMENTS." />
+<span class="caption">Pl. XX. NAVAJO INDIAN WITH SILVER ORNAMENTS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<table cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="index">
+    <tr>
+      <td>Almogen used by Navajoes in blanching silver</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Articles made by Navajo silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Bellows used by Navajo silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page172">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Blanching silver, Navajo method of</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Blow-pipe of Navajo silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Charcoal, Navajo method of preparing</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Chasing silver, Navajo method of</td>
+      <td><a href="#page176">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Coin used by Navajo silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page177">177</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Cross design associated with others,</td>
+      <td></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;in Navajo silver ornamentation</td>
+      <td><a href="#page178">178</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Crucibles of Navajo silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page173">173</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Fertility of design of Navajo silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page177">177</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Files used in engraving silver</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Forge of the Navajo silversmith</td>
+      <td><a href="#page172">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Improvement of the silversmith's craft among the
+Navajoes</td>
+      <td><a href="#page171">171</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Matthews, Dr. W., Navajo silversmiths, by</td>
+      <td><a href="#page167">167</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Moulds used by Navajo Silversmiths</td>
+      <td><a href="#page173">173</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Silversmith's craft among the Navajoes</td>
+      <td><a href="#page171">171</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Polishing silver, Navajo method of</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Processes of the Navajo silversmith</td>
+      <td><a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;blanching</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;chasing</td>
+      <td><a href="#page176">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;polishing</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;soldering</td>
+      <td><a href="#page176">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Silversmith among the Navajos and Pueblos, Origin of</td>
+      <td><a href="#page171">171</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Soldering silver, Navajo method of</td>
+      <td><a href="#page176">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Tools used by Navajo silversmith</td>
+      <td><a href="#page172">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;anvil</td>
+      <td><a href="#page173">173</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;awl</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;bellows</td>
+      <td><a href="#page172">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;blow-pipe</td>
+      <td><a href="#page175">175</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;cold-chisel</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;crucibles</td>
+      <td><a href="#page173">173</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;files</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;hammers</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;inefficient</td>
+      <td><a href="#page178">178</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;metallic hemispheres</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;molds</td>
+      <td><a href="#page173">173</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;pliers</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;scissors</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp;;tongs</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Wastefulness of the Navajo silversmith</td>
+      <td><a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a></td>
+    </tr>
+ </table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo Silversmiths, by Washington Matthews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Navajo Silversmiths
+       Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1880-1881,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1883, pages 167-178
+
+Author: Washington Matthews
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2005 [EBook #17275]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Verity White, PM for Bureau of American
+Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliotheque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS.
+
+BY
+
+Dr. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+PLATE XVI.    Objects in silver                        172
+      XVII.   Navajo workshop                          175
+      XVIII.  Crucible, and Sandstone molds for
+                shaping silver objects                 175
+      XIX.    Objects in silver                        177
+      XX.     Navajo Indian with silver ornaments      178
+
+
+
+
+NAVAJO SILVERSMITHS.
+
+BY WASHINGTON MATTHEWS.
+
+
+Among the Navajo Indians there are many smiths, who sometimes forge iron
+and brass, but who work chiefly in silver. When and how the art of
+working metals was introduced among them I have not been able to
+determine; but there are many reasons for supposing that they have long
+possessed it; many believe that they are not indebted to the Europeans
+for it. Doubtless the tools obtained from American and Mexican traders
+have influenced their art. Old white residents of the Navajo country
+tell me that the art has improved greatly within their recollection;
+that the ornaments made fifteen years ago do not compare favorably with
+those made at the present time; and they attribute this change largely
+to the recent introduction of fine files and emery-paper. At the time of
+the Conquest the so-called civilized tribes of Mexico had attained
+considerable skill in the working of metal, and it has been inferred
+that in the same period the sedentary tribes of New Mexico also wrought
+at the forge. From either of these sources the first smiths among the
+Navajos may have learned their trade; but those who have seen the
+beautiful gold ornaments made by the rude Indians of British Columbia
+and Alaska, many of whom are allied in language to the Navajos, may
+doubt that the latter derived their art from a people higher in culture
+than themselves.
+
+The appliances and processes of the smith are much the same among the
+Navajos as among the Pueblo Indians. But the Pueblo artisan, living in a
+spacious house, builds a permanent forge on a frame at such a height
+that he can work standing, while his less fortunate Navajo _confrere_,
+dwelling in a low hut or shelter, which he may abandon any day,
+constructs a temporary forge on the ground in the manner hereafter
+described. Notwithstanding the greater disadvantages under which the
+latter labors, the ornaments made by his hand are generally conceded to
+be equal or even superior to those made by the Pueblo Indian.
+
+A large majority of these savage smiths make only such simple articles
+as buttons, rosettes, and bracelets; those who make the more elaborate
+articles, such as powder-chargers, round beads (Pl. XVI), tobacco cases,
+belts, and bridle ornaments are few. Tobacco cases, made in the shape of
+an army canteen, such as that represented in Fig. 6, are made by only
+three or four men in the tribe, and the design is of very recent origin.
+
+Their tools and materials are few and simple; and rude as the results of
+their labor may appear, it is surprising that they do so well with such
+imperfect appliances, which usually consist of the following articles: A
+forge, a bellows, an anvil, crucibles, molds, tongs, scissors, pliers,
+files, awls, cold-chisels, matrix and die for molding buttons, wooden
+implement used in grinding buttons, wooden stake, basin, charcoal, tools
+and materials for soldering (blow-pipe, braid of cotton rags soaked in
+grease, wire, and borax), materials for polishing (sand-paper,
+emery-paper, powdered sandstone, sand, ashes, and solid stone), and
+materials for whitening (a native mineral substance--almogen--salt and
+water). Fig. 1, taken from a photograph, represents the complete shop of
+a silversmith, which was set up temporarily in a summer lodge or
+_hogan_, near Fort Wingate. Fragments of boards, picked up around the
+fort, were used, in part, in the construction of the _hogan_, an old
+raisin-box was made to serve as the curb or frame of the forge, and
+these things detracted somewhat from the aboriginal aspect of the place.
+
+A forge built in an outhouse on my own premises by an Indian
+silversmith, whom I employed to work where I could constantly observe
+him, was twenty-three inches long, sixteen inches broad, five inches in
+height to the edge of the fire-place, and the latter, which was
+bowl-shaped, was eight inches in diameter and three inches deep. No
+other Navajo forge that I have seen differed materially in size or shape
+from this. The Indian thus constructed it: In the first place, he
+obtained a few straight sticks--four would have sufficed--and laid them
+on the ground to form a frame or curb; then he prepared some mud, with
+which he filled the frame, and which he piled up two inches above the
+latter, leaving the depression for the fire-place. Before the structure
+of mud was completed he laid in it the wooden nozzle of the bellows,
+where it was to remain, with one end about six inches from the
+fire-place, and the other end projecting about the same distance beyond
+the frame; then he stuck into the nozzle a round piece of wood, which
+reached from the nozzle to the fire-place, and when the mud work was
+finished the stick was withdrawn, leaving an uninflammable tweer. When
+the structure of mud was completed a flat rock about four inches thick
+was laid on at the head of the forge--the end next to the bellows--to
+form a back to the fire, and lastly the bellows was tied on to the
+nozzle, which, as mentioned above, was built into the forge, with a
+portion projecting to receive the bellows. The task of constructing this
+forge did not occupy more than an hour.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVI. OBJECTS IN SILVER.]
+
+A bellows, of the kind most commonly used, consists of a tube or bag of
+goatskin, about twelve inches in length and about ten inches in
+diameter, tied at one end to its nozzle and nailed at the other to a
+circular disk of wood, in which is the valve. This disk has two arms:
+one above for a handle and the other below for a support. Two or more
+rings or hoops of wood are placed in the skin-tube to keep it distended,
+while the tube is constricted between the hoops with buckskin thongs,
+and thus divided into a number of compartments, as shown in Pl. XVII.
+The nozzle is made of four pieces of wood tied together and rounded on
+the outside so as to form a cylinder about ten inches long and three
+inches in diameter, with a quadrangular hole in the center about one
+inch square. The bellows is worked by horizontal movements of the arm. I
+have seen among the Navajos one double-chambered bellows with a
+sheet-iron tweer. This bellows was about the same size as the single
+chambered one described above. It was also moved horizontally, and by
+means of an iron rod passing from one end to the other and attached to
+the disks, one chamber was opened at the same time that the other was
+closed, and _vice versa_. This gave a more constant current of air than
+the single-chambered implement, but not as steady a blast as the bellows
+of our blacksmiths. Such a bellows, too, I have seen in the Pueblo of
+Zuni.
+
+For an anvil they usually use any suitable piece of iron they may happen
+to pick up, as for instance an old wedge or a large bolt, such as the
+king-bolt of a wagon. A wedge or other large fragment of iron may be
+stuck in the ground to steady it. A bolt is maintained in position by
+being driven into a log. Hard stones are still sometimes used for anvils
+and perhaps they were, at one time, the only anvils they possessed.
+
+Crucibles are made by the more careful smiths of clay, baked hard, and
+they are nearly the same shape as those used by our metallurgists,
+having three-cornered edges and rounded bottoms. They are usually about
+two inches in every dimension.
+
+Fig. 1, Pl. XVIII represents one of ordinary shape and size, which I
+have in my collection. The Navajos are not good potters; their
+earthenware being limited to these crucibles and a few unornamented
+water-jars; and it is probably in consequence of their inexperience in
+the ceramic art that their crucibles are not durable. After being put in
+the fire two or three times they swell and become very porous, and when
+used for a longer time they often crack and fall to pieces. Some smiths,
+instead of making crucibles, melt their metal in suitable fragments of
+Pueblo pottery, which may be picked up around ruins in many localities
+throughout the Navajo country or purchased from the Pueblo Indians.
+
+The moulds in which they cast their ingots, cut in soft sandstone with a
+home-made chisel, are so easily formed that the smith leaves them behind
+when he moves his residence. Each mould is cut approximately in the
+shape of the article which is to be wrought out of the ingot cast in it,
+and it is greased with suet before the metal is poured in. In Figs. 2
+and 3, Pl. XVIII, are represented pieces of sand-stone, graven for
+molds, now in my possession. The figures are one-third the dimensions of
+the subjects. In the middle cavity or mould shown in Fig. 2, Pl. XVIII,
+was cast the ingot from which was wrought the arrow-shaped handle of
+the powder-charger shown in Pl. XIX; in the lower cavity depicted in the
+same figure was moulded the piece from which the bowl of this charger
+was formed. The circular depression, delineated in the lower right
+corner of Fig. 3, Pl. XVIII, gave form to the ingot from which the sides
+of the canteen-shaped tobacco-case (Fig. 6) was made.
+
+Tongs are often made by the Navajo silversmiths. One of these which I
+saw had a U-shaped spring joint, and the ends were bent at right angles
+downwards, so as more effectually to grasp the flat-sided crucible.
+Often nippers or scissors are used as tongs.
+
+Ordinary scissors, purchased from the whites, are used for cutting:
+their metal after it is wrought into thin plates. The metal saw and
+metal shears do not seem as yet to have been imported for their benefit.
+Some of the more poorly provided smiths use their scissors also for
+tongs, regardless or ignorant of consequences, and when the shears lose
+their temper and become loose-jointed and blunt, the efforts of the
+Indian to cut a rather thick plate of silver are curious to see. Often,
+then, one or two bystanders are called to hold the plate in a horizontal
+position, and perhaps another will be asked to hold the points of the
+scissors to keep them from spreading. Scissors are sometimes used as
+dividers, by being spread to the desired distance and held in position
+by being grasped in the hand. By this means I have seen them attempt to
+find centers, but not to describe circles. It is probable that had they
+trusted to the eye they might have found their centers as well.
+
+Their iron pliers, hammers, and files they purchase from the whites.
+Pliers, both flat-pointed and round-pointed, are used as with us. Of
+files they usually employ only small sizes, and the varieties they
+prefer are the flat, triangular, and rat-tail. Files are used not only
+for their legitimate purposes, as with us, but the shanks serve for
+punches and the points for gravers, with which figures are engraved on
+silver.
+
+The Indians usually make their own cold-chisels. These are not used
+where the scissors and file can be conveniently and economically
+employed. The re-entrant rectangles on the bracelet represented in Fig.
+4, Pl. XIX, were cut with a cold-chisel and finished with a file.
+
+Awls are used to mark figures on the silver. Often they cut out of paper
+a pattern, which they lay on the silver, tracing the outline with an
+awl. These tools are sometimes purchased and sometimes made by the
+Indians. I have seen one made from a broken knife which had been picked
+up around the fort. The blade had been ground down to a point.
+
+Metallic hemispheres for beads and buttons are made in a concave matrix
+by means of a round-pointed bolt which I will call a die. These tools
+are always made by the Indians. On one bar of iron there may be many
+matrices of different sizes, only one die fitting the smallest
+concavity, is required to work the metal in all. In the picture of the
+smithy (Pl. XVII, in the right lower corner beside the tin-plate), a
+piece of an old horse-shoe may be seen in which a few matrices have been
+worked, and, beside it, the die used in connection with the matrices.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVIII. CRUCIBLE, AND SANDSTONE MOLDS FOR
+SHAPING SILVER OBJECTS.]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVII. WORKSHOP OF NAVAJO SILVERSMITH.]
+
+A little instrument employed in levelling the edges of the metallic
+hemispheres, is rude but effective. In one end of a cylinder of wood,
+about three or four inches long, is cut a small roundish cavity of such
+a size that it will hold the hemisphere tightly, but allow the uneven
+edges to project. The hemisphere is placed in this, and then rubbed on a
+flat piece of sandstone until the edges are worn level with the base of
+the wooden cylinder. The uses of the basin and the wooden stake are
+described further on.
+
+Their method of preparing charcoal is much more expeditious than that
+usually employed by our charcoal-burners, but more wasteful; wood,
+however, need not yet be economized on the juniper-covered _mesas_ of
+New Mexico. They build a large fire of dry juniper, and when it has
+ceased to flame and is reduced to a mass of glowing coals, they smother
+it well with earth and leave it to cool. If the fire is kindled at
+sunset, the charcoal is ready for use next morning.
+
+The smith makes his own blow-pipe, out of brass, usually by beating a
+piece of thick brass wire into a flat strip, and then bending this into
+a tube. The pipe is about a foot long, slightly tapering and curved at
+one end; there is no arrangement for retaining the moisture proceeding
+from the mouth. These Indians do not understand our method of making an
+air chamber of the mouth; they blow with undistended cheeks, hence the
+current of air directed on the flame is intermitting. The flame used in
+soldering with the blow-pipe is derived from a thick braid of cotton
+rags soaked in mutton suet or other grease. Their borax is purchased
+from the whites, and from the same source is derived the fine wire with
+which they bind together the parts to be soldered. I have been told by
+reliable persons that it is not many years since the Navajos employed a
+flux mined by themselves in their own country; but, finding the pure
+borax introduced by the traders to be much better, they gradually
+abandoned the use of the former substance.
+
+For polishing, they have sand-paper and emery-paper purchased from the
+whites; but as these are expensive, they are usually required only for
+the finishing touches, the first part of the work being done with
+powdered sandstone, sand, or ashes, all of which are used with or
+without water. At certain stages in the progress of the work, some
+articles are rubbed on a piece of sandstone to reduce the surfaces to
+smoothness; but the stone, in this instance, is more a substitute for
+the file than for the sand-paper. Perhaps I should say that the file is
+a substitute for the stone, for there is little doubt that stone, sand,
+and ashes preceded file and paper in the shop of the Indian smith.
+
+For blanching the silver, when the forging is done, they use a mineral
+substance found in various parts of their country, which, I am informed
+by Mr. Taylor, of the Smithsonian Institution, is a "hydrous sulphate of
+alumina," called almogen. This they dissolve in water, in a metal basin,
+with the addition, sometimes, of salt. The silver, being first slightly
+heated in the forge, is boiled in this solution and in a short time
+becomes very white.
+
+The processes of the Navajo silversmith may be best understood from
+descriptions of the ways in which he makes some of his silver ornament.
+I once engaged two of the best workmen in the tribe to come to Fort
+Wingate and work under my observation for a week. They put up their
+forge in a small outbuilding at night, and early next morning they were
+at work. Their labor was almost all performed while they were sitting or
+crouching on the ground in very constrained positions; yet I never saw
+men who worked harder or more steadily. They often labored from twelve
+to fifteen hours a day, eating their meals with dispatch and returning
+to their toil the moment they had done. Occasionally they stopped to
+roll a cigarette or consult about their work, but they lost very few
+moments in this way. They worked by the job and their prices were such
+that they earned about two dollars a day each.
+
+The first thing they made was a powder charger with a handle in the
+shape of a dart (Fig. 2, Pl. XIX). Having cut in sandstone rock (Fig. 2,
+Pl. XVIII) the necessary grooves for molds and greased the same, they
+melted two Mexican dollars--one for the bowl or receptacle, and one for
+the handle--and poured each one into its appropriate mold. Then each
+smith went to work on a separate part; but they helped one another when
+necessary. The ingot cast for the receptacle was beaten into a plate
+(triangular in shape, with obtuse corners), of a size which the smith
+guessed would be large enough for his purpose. Before the process of
+bending was quite completed the margins that were to form the seam were
+straightened by clipping and filing so as to assume a pretty accurate
+contact, and when the bending was done, a small gap still left in the
+seam was filled with a shred of silver beaten in. The cone, at this
+stage, being indented and irregular, the workman thrust into it a
+conical stake or mandrel, which he had formed carefully out of hard
+wood, and with gentle taps of the hammer soon made the cone even and
+shapely. Next, withdrawing the stake, he laid on the seam a mixture of
+borax and minute clippings of silver moistened with saliva, put the
+article into the fire, seam up, blew with the bellows until the silver
+was at a dull red-heat, and then applied the blow-pipe and flame until
+the soldering was completed. In the meantime the other smith had, with
+hammer and file, wrought the handle until it was sufficiently formed to
+be joined to the receptacle, the base of the handle being filed down for
+a length of about a quarter of an inch so that it would fit tightly into
+the orifice at the apex of the receptacle. The two parts were then
+adjusted and bound firmly together with a fine wire passing in various
+directions, over the base of the cone, across the protuberances on the
+dart-shaped handle, and around both. This done, the parts were soldered
+together in the manner already described, the ring by which it is
+suspended was fastened on, the edge of the receptacle was clipped and
+filed, and the whole was brought into good shape with file, sand,
+emery-paper, &c.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XIX. OBJECTS IN SILVER.]
+
+The chasing was the next process. To make the round indentations on
+the handle, one smith held the article on the anvil while the other
+applied the point of the shank of a file--previously rounded--and struck
+the file with a hammer. The other figures were made with the sharpened
+point of a file, pushed forward with a zigzag motion of the hand. When
+the chasing was done the silver was blanched by the process before
+referred to, being occasionally taken from the boiling solution of
+almogen to be rubbed with ashes and sand. For about five hours both of
+the smiths worked together on this powder-charger; subsequently, for
+about three hours' more, there was only one man engaged on it; so that,
+in all, thirteen hours labor was spent in constructing it. Of this time,
+about ten hours were consumed in forging, about one and one-half hours
+in filing and rubbing, and about the same time in ornamenting and
+cleaning.
+
+In making the hollow silver beads they did not melt the silver, but beat
+out a Mexican dollar until it was of the proper tenuity--frequently
+annealing it in the forge as the work advanced. When the plate was ready
+they carefully described on it, with an awl, a figure (which, by
+courtesy, we will call a circle) that they conjectured would include a
+disk large enough to make half a bead of the required size. The disk was
+then cut out with scissors, trimmed, and used as a pattern to cut other
+circular pieces by. One of the smiths proceeded to cut out the rest of
+the planchets, while his partner formed them into hollow hemispheres
+with his matrix and die. He did not put them at once into the cavity
+from which they were to get their final shape, but first worked them a
+little in one or more larger cavities, so as to bring them gradually to
+the desired form. Next the hemispheres were leveled at the edges by a
+method already described, and subsequently perforated by holding them,
+convex surface downwards, on a piece of wood, and driving through them
+the shank of a file with blows of a hammer. By this means of boring, a
+neck was left projecting from the hole, which was not filed off until
+the soldering was done. The hemispheres were now strung or, I may say,
+spitted on a stout wire in pairs forming globes. The wire or spit
+referred to was bent at one end and supplied with a washer to keep the
+heads from slipping off, and all the pieces being pressed closely
+together were secured in position by many wraps of finer wire at the
+other end of the spit. The mixture of borax, saliva, and silver was next
+applied to the seams of all the beads; they were put into the fire and
+all soldered at one operation. When taken from the fire they were
+finished by filing, polishing and blanching.
+
+These Indians are quite fertile in design. In Pl. XIX are shown two
+powder-chargers, which I consider very graceful in form. I have seen
+many of these powder-chargers, all very graceful, but no two alike
+except in cases where duplicates had been specially ordered. Their
+designs upon bracelets and rings are of great variety. Ornaments for
+bridles, consisting of broad bands of silver, sufficient in size and
+number to almost entirely conceal the leather, are not particularly
+handsome, but are greatly in demand among the Navajos and are
+extensively manufactured by them. Leather belts studded with large
+plates of silver are favorite articles of apparel, and often contain
+metal to the value of forty or fifty dollars. Pl. XX represents an
+Indian wearing such a belt, in which only three of the plates are shown.
+Single and double crosses of silver are represented attached to his
+necklace. The cross is much worn by the Navajos, among whom, I
+understand, it is not intended to represent the "Cross of Christ," but
+is a symbol of the morning star. The lengthening of the lower limb,
+however, is probably copied from the usual form of the Christian emblem.
+These savage smiths also display much ingenuity in working from models
+and from drawings of objects entirely new to them.
+
+They are very wasteful of material. They usually preserve the clippings
+and melt them in the crucible, or use them in soldering; but they make
+no attempt to save the metal carried off in filing, polishing, and by
+oxidizing in the forge, all of which is considerable. In one article of
+silver, for which, allowing for clippings saved, 836 grains were given
+to the smith, and the work on which I watched so closely throughout that
+I am certain none of the material was stolen, there was a loss of 120
+grains, or over 14 per cent.
+
+The smiths whom I have seen working had no dividers, square, measure, or
+any instrument of precision. As before stated, I have seen scissors used
+as compasses, but as a rule they find approximate centers with the eye,
+and cut all shapes and engrave all figures by the unaided guidance of
+this unreliable organ. Often they cut out their designs in paper first
+and from them mark off patterns on the metal. Even in the matter of
+cutting patterns they do not seem to know the simple device of doubling
+the paper in order to secure lateral uniformity.
+
+Here ends my description of the smithcraft of a rude but docile and
+progressive people. I trust that it may serve not only to illustrate
+some aspects of their mental condition, their inventive and imitative
+talents, but possibly to shed some light on the condition and diffusion
+of the art of the metalist in the prehistoric days of our continent,
+notwithstanding the fact that some elements of their craft are of recent
+introduction and others of doubtful origin.
+
+[Illustration: Pl. XX. NAVAJO INDIAN WITH SILVER ORNAMENTS.]
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+Almogen used by Navajoes in blanching silver 175
+Articles made by Navajo silversmiths 171, 176
+Bellows used by Navajo silversmiths 172
+Blanching silver, Navajo method of 175
+Blow-pipe of Navajo silversmiths 175
+Charcoal, Navajo method of preparing 175
+Chasing silver, Navajo method of 176
+Coin used by Navajo silversmiths 177
+Cross design associated with others
+    in Navajo silver ornamentation 178
+Crucibles of Navajo silversmiths 173
+Fertility of design of Navajo silversmiths 177
+Files used in engraving silver 174
+Forge of the Navajo silversmith 172
+Improvement of the silversmith's craft among the Navajoes 171
+Matthews, Dr. W., Navajo silversmiths by, 167
+Moulds used by Navajo Silversmiths 173
+Silversmith's craft among the Navajoes 171
+Polishing silver, Navajo method of 175
+Processes of the Navajo silversmith 171, 176
+    ; blanching 175
+    ; chasing 176
+    ; polishing 175
+    ; soldering 176
+Silversmith among the Navajos and Pueblos, Origin of 171
+Soldering silver, Navajo method of 176
+Tools used by Navajo silversmith 172
+    ; anvil 173
+    ; awl 174
+    ; bellows 172
+    ; blow-pipe 175
+    ; cold-chisel 174
+    ; crucibles 173
+    ; files 174
+    ; hammers 174
+    inefficient 178
+    ; metallic hemispheres 174
+    ; molds 173
+    ; pliers 174
+    ; scissors 174, 178
+Wastefulness of the Navajo silversmith 174, 178
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Navajo Silversmiths, by Washington Matthews
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