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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of France
+
+Author: Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+Editor: J.R. Green
+
+Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17287]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the
+Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+History Primers. _Edited by_ J.R. GREEN.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE.
+
+BY
+
+CHARLOTTE M. YONGE.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.
+1882.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                     PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE             1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR                 25
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY             43
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ITALIAN WARS                       52
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WARS OF RELIGION                   63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POWER OF THE CROWN                     81
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE REVOLUTION                        102
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION           116
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF FRANCE.
+
+_Shewing the Provinces._]
+
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF FRANCE.
+
+_Shewing the Departments._]
+
+
+
+
+FRANCE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+1. France.--The country we now know as France is the tract of land
+shut in by the British Channel, the Bay of Biscay, the Pyrenees, the
+Mediterranean, and the Alps. But this country only gained the name of
+France by degrees. In the earliest days of which we have any account, it
+was peopled by the Celts, and it was known to the Romans as part of a
+larger country which bore the name of Gaul. After all of it, save the
+north-western moorlands, or what we now call Brittany, had been
+conquered and settled by the Romans, it was overrun by tribes of the
+great Teutonic race, the same family to which Englishmen belong. Of
+these tribes, the Goths settled in the provinces to the south; the
+Burgundians, in the east, around the Jura; while the Franks, coming
+over the rivers in its unprotected north-eastern corner, and making
+themselves masters of a far wider territory, broke up into two
+kingdoms--that of the Eastern Franks in what is now Germany, and that of
+the Western Franks reaching from the Rhine to the Atlantic. These Franks
+subdued all the other Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, while they adopted
+the religion, the language, and some of the civilization of the
+Romanized Gauls who became their subjects. Under the second Frankish
+dynasty, the Empire was renewed in the West, where it had been for a
+time put an end to by these Teutonic invasions, and the then Frankish
+king, Charles the Great, took his place as Emperor at its head. But in
+the time of his grandsons the various kingdoms and nations of which the
+Empire was composed, fell apart again under different descendants of
+his. One of these, _Charles the Bald_, was made King of the Western
+Franks in what was termed the Neustrian, or "not eastern," kingdom, from
+which the present France has sprung. This kingdom in name covered all
+the country west of the Upper Meuse, but practically the Neustrian king
+had little power south of the Loire; and the Celts of Brittany were
+never included in it.
+
+
+2. The House of Paris.--The great danger which this Neustrian kingdom
+had to meet came from the Northmen, or as they were called in England
+the Danes. These ravaged in Neustria as they ravaged in England; and a
+large part of the northern coast, including the mouth of the Seine, was
+given by Charles the Bald to Rolf or Rollo, one of their leaders, whose
+land became known as the Northman's land, or Normandy. What most checked
+the ravages of these pirates was the resistance of Paris, a town which
+commanded the road along the river Seine; and it was in defending the
+city of Paris from the Northmen, that a warrior named Robert the Strong
+gained the trust and affection of the inhabitants of the Neustrian
+kingdom. He and his family became Counts (_i.e._, judges and protectors)
+of Paris, and Dukes (or leaders) of the Franks. Three generations of
+them were really great men--Robert the Strong, Odo, and Hugh the White;
+and when the descendants of Charles the Great had died out, a Duke of
+the Franks, _Hugh Capet_, was in 987 crowned King of the Franks. All the
+after kings of France down to Louis Philippe were descendants of Hugh
+Capet. By this change, however, he gained little in real power; for,
+though he claimed to rule over the whole country of the Neustrian
+Franks, his authority was little heeded, save in the domain which he had
+possessed as Count of Paris, including the cities of Paris, Orleans,
+Amiens, and Rheims (the coronation place). He was guardian, too, of the
+great Abbeys of St. Denys and St. Martin of Tours. The Duke of Normandy
+and the Count of Anjou to the west, the Count of Flanders to the north,
+the Count of Champagne to the east, and the Duke of Aquitaine to the
+south, paid him homage, but were the only actual rulers in their own
+domains.
+
+
+3. The Kingdom of Hugh Capet.--The language of Hugh's kingdom was
+clipped Latin; the peasantry and townsmen were mostly Gaulish; the
+nobles were almost entirely Frank. There was an understanding that the
+king could only act by their consent, and must be chosen by them; but
+matters went more by old custom and the right of the strongest than by
+any law. A Salic law, so called from the place whence the Franks had
+come, was supposed to exist; but this had never been used by their
+subjects, whose law remained that of the old Roman Empire. Both of these
+systems of law, however, fell into disuse, and were replaced by rude
+bodies of "customs," which gradually grew up. The habits of the time
+were exceedingly rude and ferocious. The Franks had been the fiercest
+and most untamable of all the Teutonic nations, and only submitted
+themselves to the influence of Christianity and civilization from the
+respect which the Roman Empire inspired. Charles the Great had tried to
+bring in Roman cultivation, but we find him reproaching the young Franks
+in his schools with letting themselves be surpassed by the Gauls, whom
+they despised; and in the disorders that followed his death, barbarism
+increased again. The convents alone kept up any remnants of culture; but
+as the fury of the Northmen was chiefly directed to them, numbers had
+been destroyed, and there was more ignorance and wretchedness than at
+any other time. In the duchy of Aquitaine, much more of the old Roman
+civilization survived, both among the cities and the nobility; and the
+Normans, newly settled in the north, had brought with them the vigour of
+their race. They had taken up such dead or dying culture as they found
+in France, and were carrying it further, so as in some degree to awaken
+their neighbours. Kings and their great vassals could generally read and
+write, and understand the Latin in which all records were made, but few
+except the clergy studied at all. There were schools in convents, and
+already at Paris a university was growing up for the study of theology,
+grammar, law, philosophy, and music, the sciences which were held to
+form a course of education. The doctors of these sciences lectured; the
+scholars of low degree lived, begged, and struggled as best they could;
+and gentlemen were lodged with clergy, who served as a sort of private
+tutors.
+
+
+4. Earlier Kings of the House of Paris.--Neither Hugh nor the next
+three kings (_Robert_, 996-1031; _Henry_, 1031-1060; _Philip_,
+1060-1108) were able men, and they were almost helpless among the
+fierce nobles of their own domain, and the great counts and dukes around
+them. Castles were built of huge strength, and served as nests of
+plunderers, who preyed on travellers and made war on each other,
+grievously tormenting one another's "villeins"--as the peasants were
+termed. Men could travel nowhere in safety, and horrid ferocity and
+misery prevailed. The first three kings were good and pious men, but too
+weak to deal with their ruffian nobles. _Robert, called the Pious_, was
+extremely devout, but weak. He became embroiled with the Pope on account
+of having married Bertha--a lady pronounced to be within the degrees of
+affinity prohibited by the Church. He was excommunicated, but held out
+till there was a great religious reaction, produced by the belief that
+the world would end in 1000. In this expectation many persons left their
+land untilled, and the consequence was a terrible famine, followed by a
+pestilence; and the misery of France was probably unequalled in this
+reign, when it was hardly possible to pass safely from one to another of
+the three royal cities, Paris, Orleans, and Tours. Beggars swarmed, and
+the king gave to them everything he could lay his hands on, and even
+winked at their stealing gold off his dress, to the great wrath of a
+second wife, the imperious Constance of Provence, who, coming from the
+more luxurious and corrupt south, hated and despised the roughness and
+asceticism of her husband. She was a fierce and passionate woman, and
+brought an element of cruelty into the court. In this reign the first
+instance of persecution to the death for heresy took place. The victim
+had been the queen's confessor; but so far was she from pitying him that
+she struck out one of his eyes with her staff, as he was led past her to
+the hut where he was shut in and burnt. On Robert's death Constance took
+part against her son, _Henry I._, on behalf of his younger brother, but
+Henry prevailed. During his reign the clergy succeeded in proclaiming
+what was called the Truce of God, which forbade war and bloodshed at
+certain seasons of the year and on certain days of the week, and made
+churches and clerical lands places of refuge and sanctuary, which often
+indeed protected the lawless, but which also saved the weak and
+oppressed. It was during these reigns that the Papacy was beginning the
+great struggle for temporal power, and freedom from the influence of the
+Empire, which resulted in the increased independence and power of the
+clergy. The religious fervour which had begun with the century led to
+the foundation of many monasteries, and to much grand church
+architecture. In the reign of _Philip I._, William, Duke of Normandy,
+obtained the kingdom of England, and thus became far more powerful than
+his suzerain, the King of France, a weak man of vicious habits, who lay
+for many years of his life under sentence of excommunication for an
+adulterous marriage with Bertrade de Montfort, Countess of Anjou. The
+power of the king and of the law was probably at the very lowest ebb
+during the time of Philip I., though minds and manners were less debased
+than in the former century.
+
+
+5. The First Crusade (1095--1100).--Pilgrimage to the Holy Land had
+now become one great means by which the men of the West sought pardon
+for their sins. Jerusalem had long been held by the Arabs, who had
+treated the pilgrims well; but these had been conquered by a fierce
+Turcoman tribe, who robbed and oppressed the pilgrims. Peter the Hermit,
+returning from a pilgrimage, persuaded Pope Urban II. that it would be
+well to stir up Christendom to drive back the Moslem power, and deliver
+Jerusalem and the holy places. Urban II. accordingly, when holding a
+council at Clermont, in Auvergne, permitted Peter to describe in glowing
+words the miseries of pilgrims and the profanation of the holy places.
+Cries broke out, "God wills it!" and multitudes thronged to receive
+crosses cut out in cloth, which were fastened to the shoulder, and
+pledged the wearer to the holy war or crusade, as it was called. Philip
+I. took no interest in the cause, but his brother Hugh, Count of
+Vermandois, Stephen, Count of Blois, Robert, Duke of Normandy, and
+Raymond, Count of Toulouse, joined the expedition, which was made under
+Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, or what we now call the
+Netherlands. The crusade proved successful; Jerusalem was gained, and a
+kingdom of detached cities and forts was founded in Palestine, of which
+Godfrey became the first king. The whole of the West was supposed to
+keep up the defence of the Holy Land, but, in fact, most of those who
+went as armed pilgrims were either French, Normans, or Aquitanians; and
+the men of the East called all alike Franks. Two orders of monks, who
+were also knights, became the permanent defenders of the kingdom--the
+Knights of St. John, also called Hospitallers, because they also lodged
+pilgrims and tended the sick; and the Knights Templars. Both had
+establishments in different countries in Europe, where youths were
+trained to the rules of their order. The old custom of solemnly girding
+a young warrior with his sword was developing into a system by which the
+nobly born man was trained through the ranks of page and squire to full
+knighthood, and made to take vows which bound him to honourable customs
+to equals, though, unhappily, no account was taken of his inferiors.
+
+
+6. Louis VI. and VII.--Philip's son, _Louis VI., or the Fat_, was the
+first able man whom the line of Hugh Capet had produced since it mounted
+the throne. He made the first attempt at curbing the nobles, assisted by
+Suger, the Abbot of St. Denys. The only possibility of doing this was to
+obtain the aid of one party of nobles against another; and when any
+unusually flagrant offence had been committed, Louis called together the
+nobles, bishops, and abbots of his domain, and obtained their consent
+and assistance in making war on the guilty man, and overthrowing his
+castle, thus, in some degree, lessening the sense of utter impunity
+which had caused so many violences and such savage recklessness. He also
+permitted a few of the cities to purchase the right of self-government,
+and freedom from the ill usage of the counts, who, from their guardians,
+had become their tyrants; but in this he seems not to have been so much
+guided by any fixed principle, as by his private interests and feelings
+towards the individual city or lord in question. However, the royal
+authority had begun to be respected by 1137, when Louis VI. died, having
+just effected the marriage of his son, _Louis VII._, with Eleanor, the
+heiress of the Dukes of Aquitaine--thus hoping to make the crown really
+more powerful than the great princes who owed it homage. At this time
+lived the great St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, who had a wonderful
+influence over men's minds. It was a time of much thought and
+speculation, and Peter Abailard, an able student of the Paris
+University, held a controversy with Bernard, in which we see the first
+struggle between intellect and authority. Bernard roused the young king,
+Louis VII., to go on the second crusade, which was undertaken by the
+Emperor and the other princes of Europe to relieve the distress of the
+kingdom of Palestine. France had no navy, so the war was by land,
+through the rugged hills of Asia Minor, where the army was almost
+destroyed by the Saracens. Though Louis did reach Palestine, it was with
+weakened forces; he could effect nothing by his campaign, and Eleanor,
+who had accompanied him, seems to have been entirely corrupted by the
+evil habits of the Franks settled in the East. Soon after his return,
+Louis dissolved his marriage; and Eleanor became the wife of Henry,
+Count of Anjou, who soon after inherited the kingdom of England as our
+Henry II., as well as the duchy of Normandy, and betrothed his third son
+to the heiress of Brittany. Eleanor's marriage seemed to undo all that
+Louis VI. had done in raising the royal power; for Henry completely
+overshadowed Louis, whose only resource was in feeble endeavours to take
+part against him in his many family quarrels. The whole reign of Louis
+the Young, the title that adhered to him on account of his simple,
+childish nature, is only a record of weakness and disaster, till he died
+in 1180. What life went on in France, went on principally in the south.
+The lands of Aquitaine and Provence had never dropped the old classical
+love of poetry and art. A softer form of broken Latin was then spoken,
+and the art of minstrelsy was frequent among all ranks. Poets were
+called troubadours and _trouvères_ (finders). Courts of love were held,
+where there were competitions in poetry, the prize being a golden
+violet; and many of the bravest warriors were also distinguished
+troubadours--among them the elder sons of Queen Eleanor. There was much
+license of manners, much turbulence; and as the Aquitanians hated
+Angevin rule, the troubadours never ceased to stir up the sons of Henry
+II. against him.
+
+
+7. Philip II. (1180--1223).--Powerful in fact as Henry II. was, it was
+his gathering so large a part of France under his rule which was, in the
+end, to build up the greatness of the French kings. What had held them
+in check was the existence of the great fiefs or provinces, each with
+its own line of dukes or counts, and all practically independent of the
+king. But now nearly all the provinces of southern and western France
+were gathered into the hand of a single ruler; and though he was a
+Frenchman in blood, yet, as he was King of England, this ruler seemed to
+his French subjects no Frenchman, but a foreigner. They began therefore
+to look to the French king to free them from a foreign ruler; and the
+son of Louis VII., called _Philip Augustus_, was ready to take advantage
+of their disposition. Philip was a really able man, making up by address
+for want of personal courage. He set himself to lower the power of the
+house of Anjou and increase that of the house of Paris. As a boy he had
+watched conferences between his father and Henry under the great elm of
+Gisors, on the borders of Normandy, and seeing his father overreached,
+he laid up a store of hatred to the rival king. As soon as he had the
+power, he cut down the elm, which was so large that 300 horsemen could
+be sheltered under its branches. He supported the sons of Henry II. in
+their rebellions, and was always the bitter foe of the head of the
+family. Philip assumed the cross in 1187, on the tidings of the loss of
+Jerusalem, and in 1190 joined Richard I. of England at Messina, where
+they wintered, and then sailed for St. Jean d'Acre. After this city was
+taken, Philip returned to France, where he continued to profit by the
+crimes and dissensions of the Angevins, and gained, both as their enemy
+and as King of France. When Richard's successor, John, murdered Arthur,
+the heir of the dukedom of Brittany and claimant of both Anjou and
+Normandy, Philip took advantage of the general indignation to hold a
+court of peers, in which John, on his non-appearance, was adjudged to
+have forfeited his fiefs. In the war which followed and ended in 1204,
+Philip not only gained the great Norman dukedom, which gave him the
+command of Rouen and of the mouth of the Seine, as well as Anjou, Maine,
+and Poitou, the countries which held the Loire in their power, but
+established the precedent that a crown vassal was amenable to justice,
+and might be made to forfeit his lands. What he had won by the sword he
+held by wisdom and good government. Seeing that the cities were capable
+of being made to balance the power of the nobles, he granted them
+privileges which caused him to be esteemed their best friend, and he
+promoted all improvements. Though once laid under an interdict by Pope
+Innocent III. for an unlawful marriage, Philip usually followed the
+policy which gained for the Kings of France the title of "Most Christian
+King." The real meaning of this was that he should always support the
+Pope against the Emperor, and in return be allowed more than ordinary
+power over his clergy. The great feudal vassals of eastern France, with
+a strong instinct that he was their enemy, made a league with the
+Emperor Otto IV. and his uncle King John, against Philip Augustus. John
+attacked him in the south, and was repulsed by Philip's son, Louis,
+called the "Lion;" while the king himself, backed by the burghers of his
+chief cities, gained at Bouvines, over Otto, the first real French
+victory, in 1214, thus establishing the power of the crown. Two years
+later, Louis the Lion, who had married John's niece, Blanche of Castile,
+was invited by the English barons to become their king on John's
+refusing to be bound by the Great Charter; and Philip saw his son
+actually in possession of London at the time of the death of the last
+of the sons of his enemy, Henry II. On John's death, however, the barons
+preferred his child to the French prince, and fell away from Louis, who
+was forced to return to France.
+
+
+8. The Albigenses (1203--1240).--The next great step in the building
+up of the French kingdom was made by taking advantage of a religious
+strife in the south. The lands near the Mediterranean still had much of
+the old Roman cultivation, and also of the old corruption, and here
+arose a sect called the Albigenses, who held opinions other than those
+of the Church on the origin of evil. Pope Innocent III., after sending
+some of the order of friars freshly established by the Spaniard,
+Dominic, to preach to them in vain, declared them as great enemies of
+the faith as Mahometans, and proclaimed a crusade against them and their
+chief supporter, Raymond, Count of Toulouse. Shrewd old King Philip
+merely permitted this crusade; but the dislike of the north of France to
+the south made hosts of adventurers flock to the banner of its leader,
+Simon de Montfort, a Norman baron, devout and honourable, but harsh and
+pitiless. Dreadful execution was done; the whole country was laid waste,
+and Raymond reduced to such distress that Peter I., King of Aragon, who
+was regarded as the natural head of the southern races, came to his
+aid, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Muret. After this
+Raymond was forced to submit, but such hard terms were forced on him
+that his people revolted. His country was granted to De Montfort, who
+laid siege to Toulouse, and was killed before he could take the city.
+The war was then carried on by _Louis the Lion_, who had succeeded his
+father as Louis VIII. in 1223, though only to reign three years, as he
+died of a fever caught in a southern campaign in 1226. His widow,
+Blanche, made peace in the name of her son, _Louis IX._, and Raymond was
+forced to give his only daughter in marriage to one of her younger sons.
+On their death, the county of Toulouse lapsed to the crown, which thus
+became possessor of all southern France, save Guienne, which still
+remained to the English kings. But the whole of the district once
+peopled by the Albigenses had been so much wasted as never to recover
+its prosperity, and any cropping up of their opinions was guarded
+against by the establishment of the Inquisition, which appointed
+Dominican friars to _inquire_ into and exterminate all that differed
+from the Church. At the same time the order of St. Francis did much to
+instruct and quicken the consciences of the people; and at the
+universities--especially that of Paris--a great advance both in thought
+and learning was made. Louis IX.'s confessor, Henry de Sorbonne,
+founded, for the study of divinity, the college which was known by his
+name, and whose decisions were afterwards received as of paramount
+authority.
+
+
+9. The Parliament of Paris.--France had a wise ruler in Blanche, and a
+still better one in her son, _Louis IX._, who is better known as _St.
+Louis_, and who was a really good and great man. He was the first to
+establish the Parliament of Paris--a court consisting of the great
+feudal vassals, lay and ecclesiastical, who held of the king direct, and
+who had to try all causes. They much disliked giving such attendance,
+and a certain number of men trained to the law were added to them to
+guide the decisions. The Parliament was thus only a court of justice and
+an office for registering wills and edicts. The representative assembly
+of France was called the States-General, and consisted of all estates of
+the realm, but was only summoned in time of emergency. Louis IX. was the
+first king to bring nobles of the highest rank to submit to the judgment
+of Parliament when guilty of a crime. Enguerrand de Coucy, one of the
+proudest nobles of France, who had hung two Flemish youths for killing a
+rabbit, was sentenced to death. The penalty was commuted, but the
+principle was established. Louis's uprightness and wisdom gained him
+honour and love everywhere, and he was always remembered as sitting
+under the great oak at Vincennes, doing equal justice to rich and poor.
+Louis was equally upright in his dealings with foreign powers. He would
+not take advantage of the weakness of Henry III. of England to attack
+his lands in Guienne, though he maintained the right of France to
+Normandy as having been forfeited by King John. So much was he respected
+that he was called in to judge between Henry and his barons, respecting
+the oaths exacted from the king by the Mad Parliament. His decision in
+favour of Henry was probably an honest one; but he was misled by the
+very different relations of the French and English kings to their
+nobles, who in France maintained lawlessness and violence, while in
+England they were struggling for law and order. Throughout the struggles
+between the Popes and the Emperor Frederick II., Louis would not be
+induced to assist in a persecution of the Emperor which he considered
+unjust, nor permit one of his sons to accept the kingdom of Apulia and
+Sicily, when the Pope declared that Frederick had forfeited it. He could
+not, however, prevent his brother Charles, Count of Anjou, from
+accepting it; for Charles had married Beatrice, heiress of the imperial
+fief of Provence, and being thus independent of his brother Louis, was
+able to establish a branch of the French royal family on the throne at
+Naples. The reign of St. Louis was a time of much progress and
+improvement. There were great scholars and thinkers at all the
+universities. Romance and poetry were flourishing, and influencing
+people's habits, so that courtesy, _i.e._ the manners taught in castle
+courts, was softening the demeanour of knights and nobles. Architecture
+was at its most beautiful period, as is seen, above all, in the Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris. This was built by Louis IX. to receive a gift of the
+Greek Emperor, namely, a thorn, which was believed to be from the crown
+of thorns. It is one of the most perfect buildings in existence.
+
+
+10. Crusade of Louis IX.--Unfortunately, Louis, during a severe
+illness, made a vow to go on a crusade. His first fulfilment of this vow
+was made early in his reign, in 1250, when his mother was still alive to
+undertake the regency. His attempt was to attack the heart of the
+Saracen power in Egypt, and he effected a landing and took the city of
+Damietta. There he left his queen, and advanced on Cairo; but near
+Mansourah he found himself entangled in the canals of the Nile, and with
+a great army of Mamelukes in front. A ford was found, and the English
+Earl of Salisbury, who had brought a troop to join the crusade, advised
+that the first to cross should wait and guard the passage of the next.
+But the king's brother, Robert, Count of Artois, called this cowardice.
+The earl was stung, and declared he would be as forward among the foe as
+any Frenchman. They both charged headlong, were enclosed by the enemy,
+and slain; and though the king at last put the Mamelukes to flight, his
+loss was dreadful. The Nile rose and cut off his return. He lost great
+part of his troops from sickness, and was horribly harassed by the
+Mamelukes, who threw among his host a strange burning missile, called
+Greek fire; and he was finally forced to surrender himself as a prisoner
+at Mansourah, with all his army. He obtained his release by giving up
+Damietta, and paying a heavy ransom. After twenty years, in 1270, he
+attempted another crusade, which was still more unfortunate, for he
+landed at Tunis to wait for his brother to arrive from Sicily,
+apparently on some delusion of favourable dispositions on the part of
+the Bey. Sickness broke out in the camp, and the king, his daughter, and
+his third son all died of fever; and so fatal was the expedition, that
+his son Philip III. returned to France escorting five coffins, those of
+his father, his brother, his sister and her husband, and his own wife
+and child.
+
+
+11. Philip the Fair.--The reign of _Philip III._ was very short. The
+insolence and cruelty of the Provençals in Sicily had provoked the
+natives to a massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers, and they then
+called in the King of Aragon, who finally obtained the island, as a
+separate kingdom from that on the Italian mainland where Charles of
+Anjou and his descendants still reigned. While fighting his uncle's
+battles on the Pyrenees, and besieging Gerona, Philip III. caught a
+fever, and died on his way home in 1285. His successor, _Philip IV.,
+called the Fair_, was crafty, cruel, and greedy, and made the Parliament
+of Paris the instrument of his violence and exactions, which he carried
+out in the name of the law. To prevent Guy de Dampierre, Count of
+Flanders, from marrying his daughter to the son of Edward I. of England,
+he invited her and her father to his court, and threw them both into
+prison, while he offered his own daughter Isabel to Edward of Carnarvon
+in her stead. The Scottish wars prevented Edward I. from taking up the
+cause of Guy; but the Pope, Boniface VIII., a man of a fierce temper,
+though of a great age, loudly called on Philip to do justice to
+Flanders, and likewise blamed in unmeasured terms his exactions from the
+clergy, his debasement of the coinage, and his foul and vicious life.
+Furious abuse passed on both sides. Philip availed himself of a flaw in
+the Pope's election to threaten him with deposition, and in return was
+excommunicated. He then sent a French knight named William de Nogaret,
+with Sciarra Colonna, a turbulent Roman, the hereditary enemy of
+Boniface, and a band of savage mercenary soldiers to Anagni, where the
+Pope then was, to force him to recall the sentence, apparently intending
+them to act like the murderers of Becket. The old man's dignity,
+however, overawed them at the moment, and they retired without laying
+hands on him, but the shock he had undergone caused his death a few days
+later. His successor was poisoned almost immediately on his election,
+being known to be adverse to Philip. Parties were equally balanced in
+the conclave; but Philip's friends advised him to buy over to his
+interest one of his supposed foes, whom they would then unite in
+choosing. Bertrand de Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was the man, and in
+a secret interview promised Philip to fulfil six conditions if he were
+made Pope by his interest. These were: 1st, the reconciliation of Philip
+with the Church; 2nd, that of his agents; 3rd, a grant to the king of a
+tenth of all clerical property for five years; 4th, the restoration of
+the Colonna family to Rome; 5th, the censure of Boniface's memory. These
+five were carried out by Clement V., as he called himself, as soon as he
+was on the Papal throne; the sixth remained a secret, but was probably
+the destruction of the Knights Templars. This order of military monks
+had been created for the defence of the crusading kingdom of Jerusalem,
+and had acquired large possessions in Europe. Now that their occupation
+in the East was gone, they were hated and dreaded by the kings, and
+Philip was resolved on their wholesale destruction.
+
+
+12. The Papacy at Avignon.--Clement had never quitted France, but had
+gone through the ceremonies of his installation at Lyons; and Philip,
+fearing that in Italy he would avoid carrying out the scheme for the
+ruin of the Templars, had him conducted to Avignon, a city of the Empire
+which belonged to the Angevin King of Naples, as Count of Provence, and
+there for eighty years the Papal court remained. As they were thus
+settled close to the French frontier, the Popes became almost vassals of
+France; and this added greatly to the power and renown of the French
+kings. How real their hold on the Papacy was, was shown in the ruin of
+the Templars. The order was now abandoned by the Pope, and its knights
+were invited in large numbers to Paris, under pretence of arranging a
+crusade. Having been thus entrapped, they were accused of horrible and
+monstrous crimes, and torture elicited a few supposed confessions. They
+were then tried by the Inquisition, and the greater number were put to
+death by fire, the Grand Master last of all, while their lands were
+seized by the king. They seem to have been really a fierce, arrogant,
+and oppressive set of men, or else there must have been some endeavour
+to save them, belonging, as most of them did, to noble French families.
+The "Pest of France," as Dante calls Philip the Fair, was now the most
+formidable prince in Europe. He contrived to annex to his dominions the
+city of Lyons, hitherto an imperial city under its archbishop. Philip
+died in 1314; and his three sons--_Louis X._, _Philip V._, and _Charles
+IV._,--were as cruel and harsh as himself, but without his talent, and
+brought the crown and people to disgrace and misery. Each reigned a few
+years and then died, leaving only daughters, and the question arose
+whether the inheritance should go to females. When Louis X. died, in
+1316, his brother Philip, after waiting for the birth of a posthumous
+child who only lived a few days, took the crown, and the Parliament then
+declared that the law of the old Salian Franks had been against the
+inheritance of women. By this newly discovered Salic law, Charles IV.,
+the third brother, reigned on Philip's death; but the kingdom of Navarre
+having accrued to the family through their grandmother, and not being
+subject to the Salic law, went to the eldest daughter of Louis X., Jane,
+wife of the Count of Evreux.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.
+
+
+1. Wars of Edward III.--By the Salic law, as the lawyers called it,
+the crown was given, on the death of Charles IV., to _Philip, Count of
+Valois_, son to a brother of Philip IV., but it was claimed by Edward
+III. of England as son of the daughter of Philip IV. Edward contented
+himself, however, with the mere assertion of his pretensions, until
+Philip exasperated him by attacks on the borders of Guienne, which the
+French kings had long been coveting to complete their possession of the
+south, and by demanding the surrender of Robert of Artois, who, being
+disappointed in his claim to the county of Artois by the judgment of the
+Parliament of Paris, was practising by sorcery on the life of the King
+of France. Edward then declared war, and his supposed right caused a
+century of warfare between France and England, in which the broken,
+down-trodden state of the French peasantry gave England an immense
+advantage. The knights and squires were fairly matched; but while the
+English yeomen were strong, staunch, and trustworthy, the French were
+useless, and only made a defeat worse by plundering the fallen on each
+side alike. The war began in Flanders, where Philip took the part of the
+count, whose tyrannies had caused his expulsion. Edward was called in to
+the aid of the citizens of Ghent by their leader Jacob van Arteveldt;
+and gained a great victory over the French fleet at Sluys, but with no
+important result. At the same time the two kings took opposite sides in
+the war of the succession in Brittany, each defending the claim most
+inconsistent with his own pretensions to the French crown--Edward
+upholding the male heir, John de Montfort, and Philip the direct female
+representative, the wife of Charles de Blois.
+
+
+2. Creçy and Poitiers.--Further difficulties arose through Charles the
+Bad, King of Navarre and Count of Evreux, who was always on the watch to
+assert his claim to the French throne through his mother, the daughter
+of Louis X., and was much hated and distrusted by Philip VI. and his son
+John, Duke of Normandy. Fearing the disaffection of the Norman and
+Breton nobles, Philip invited a number of them to a tournament at Paris,
+and there had them put to death after a hasty form of trial, thus
+driving their kindred to join his enemies. One of these offended
+Normans, Godfrey of Harcourt, invited Edward to Normandy, where he
+landed, and having consumed his supplies was on his march to Flanders,
+when Philip, with the whole strength of the kingdom, endeavoured to
+intercept him at _Creçy_ in Picardy, in 1348. Philip was utterly
+incapable as a general; his knights were wrong-headed and turbulent, and
+absolutely cut down their own Genoese hired archers for being in their
+way. The defeat was total. Philip rode away to Amiens, and Edward laid
+siege to Calais. The place was so strong that he was forced to blockade
+it, and Philip had time to gather another army to attempt its relief;
+but the English army were so posted that he could not attack them
+without great loss. He retreated, and the men of Calais surrendered,
+Edward insisting that six burghers should bring him the keys with ropes
+round their necks, to submit themselves to him. Six offered themselves,
+but their lives were spared, and they were honourably treated. Edward
+expelled all the French, and made Calais an English settlement. A truce
+followed, chiefly in consequence of the ravages of the Black Death,
+which swept off multitudes throughout Europe, a pestilence apparently
+bred by filth, famine, and all the miseries of war and lawlessness, but
+which spared no ranks. It had scarcely ceased before Philip died, in
+1350. His son, _John_, was soon involved in a fresh war with England by
+the intrigues of Charles the Bad, and in 1356 advanced southwards to
+check the Prince of Wales, who had come out of Guienne on a plundering
+expedition. The French were again totally routed at Poitiers, and the
+king himself, with his third son, Philip, were made prisoners and
+carried to London with most of the chief nobles.
+
+
+3. The Jacquerie.--The calls made on their vassals by these captive
+nobles to supply their ransoms brought the misery to a height. The salt
+tax, or _gabelle_, which was first imposed to meet the expenses of the
+war, was only paid by those who were neither clergy nor nobles, and the
+general saying was--"Jacques Bonhomme (the nickname for the peasant) has
+a broad back, let him bear all the burthens." Either by the king, the
+feudal lords, the clergy, or the bands of men-at-arms who roved through
+the country, selling themselves to any prince who would employ them, the
+wretched people were stripped of everything, and used to hide in holes
+and caves from ill-usage or insult, till they broke out in a rebellion
+called the Jacquerie, and whenever they could seize a castle revenged
+themselves, like the brutes they had been made, on those within it.
+Taxation was so levied by the king's officers as to be frightfully
+oppressive, and corruption reigned everywhere. As the king was in
+prison, and his heir, Charles, had fled ignominiously from Poitiers,
+the citizens of Paris hoped to effect a reform, and rose with their
+provost-marshal, Stephen Marcel, at their head, threatened Charles, and
+slew two of his officers before his eyes. On their demand the
+States-General were convoked, and made wholesome regulations as to the
+manner of collecting the taxes, but no one, except perhaps Marcel, had
+any real zeal or public spirit. Charles the Bad, of Navarre, who had
+pretended to espouse their cause, betrayed it; the king declared the
+decisions of the States-General null and void; and the crafty management
+of his son prevented any union between the malcontents. The gentry
+rallied, and put down the Jacquerie with horrible cruelty and revenge.
+The burghers of Paris found that Charles the Bad only wanted to gain the
+throne, and Marcel would have proclaimed him; but those who thought him
+even worse than his cousins of Valois admitted the other Charles, by
+whom Marcel and his partisans were put to death. The attempt at reform
+thus ended in talk and murder, and all fell back into the same state of
+misery and oppression.
+
+
+4. The Peace of Bretigny.--This Charles, eldest son of John, obtained
+by purchase the imperial fief of Vienne, of which the counts had always
+been called Dauphins, a title thenceforth borne by the heir apparent of
+the kingdom. His father's captivity and the submission of Paris left
+him master of the realm; but he did little to defend it when Edward III.
+again attacked it, and in 1360 he was forced to bow to the terms which
+the English king demanded as the price of peace. The Peace of Bretigny
+permitted King John to ransom himself, but resigned to England the
+sovereignty over the duchy of Aquitaine, and left Calais and Ponthieu in
+the hands of Edward III. John died in 1364, before his ransom was paid,
+and his son mounted the throne as _Charles V_. Charles showed himself
+from this time a wary, able man, and did much to regain what had been
+lost by craftily watching his opportunity. The war went on between the
+allies of each party, though the French and English kings professed to
+be at peace; and at the battle of Cocherel, in 1364, Charles the Bad was
+defeated, and forced to make peace with France. On the other hand, the
+French party in Brittany, led by Charles de Blois and the gallant Breton
+knight, Bertrand du Guesclin, were routed, the same year, by the English
+party under Sir John Chandos; Charles de Blois was killed, and the house
+of Montfort established in the duchy. These years of war had created a
+dreadful class of men, namely, hired soldiers of all nations, who, under
+some noted leader, sold their services to whatever prince might need
+them, under the name of Free Companies, and when unemployed lived by
+plunder. The peace had only let these wretches loose on the peasants.
+Some had seized castles, whence they could plunder travellers; others
+roamed the country, preying on the miserable peasants, who, fleeced as
+they were by king, barons, and clergy, were tortured and murdered by
+these ruffians, so that many lived in holes in the ground that their
+dwellings might not attract attention. Bertrand du Guesclin offered the
+king to relieve the country from these Free Companies by leading them to
+assist the Castilians against their tyrannical king, Peter the Cruel.
+Edward, the Black Prince, who was then acting as Governor of Aquitaine,
+took, however, the part of Peter, and defeated Du Guesclin at the battle
+of Navarete, on the Ebro, in 1367.
+
+
+5. Renewal of the War.--This expedition ruined the prince's health,
+and exhausted his treasury. A hearth-tax was laid on the inhabitants of
+Aquitaine, and they appealed against it to the King of France, although,
+by the Peace of Bretigny, he had given up all right to hear appeals as
+suzerain. The treaty, however, was still not formally settled, and on
+this ground Charles received their complaint. The war thus began again,
+and the sword of the Constable of France--the highest military dignity
+of the realm--was given to Du Guesclin, but only on condition that he
+would avoid pitched battles, and merely harass the English and take
+their castles. This policy was so strictly followed, that the Duke of
+Lancaster was allowed to march from Brittany to Gascony without meeting
+an enemy in the field; and when King Edward III. made his sixth and last
+invasion, nearly to the walls of Paris, he was only turned back by
+famine, and by a tremendous thunderstorm, which made him believe that
+Heaven was against him. Du Guesclin died while besieging a castle, and
+such was his fame that the English captain would place the keys in no
+hand but that of his corpse. The Constable's sword was given to Oliver
+de Clisson, also a Breton, and called the "Butcher," because he gave no
+quarter to the English in revenge for the death of his brother. The
+Bretons were, almost to a man, of the French party, having been offended
+by the insolence and oppression of the English; and John de Montfort,
+after clinging to the King of England as long as possible, was forced to
+make his peace at length with Charles. Charles V. had nearly regained
+all that had been lost, when, in 1380 his death left the kingdom to his
+son.
+
+
+6. House of Burgundy.--_Charles VI._ was a boy of nine years old,
+motherless, and beset with ambitious uncles. These uncles were Louis,
+Duke of Anjou, to whom Queen Joanna, the last of the earlier Angevin
+line in Naples, bequeathed her rights; John, Duke of Berry, a weak
+time-server; and Philip, the ablest and most honest of the three. His
+grandmother Joan, the wife of Philip VI., had been heiress of the duchy
+and county of Burgundy, and these now became his inheritance, giving him
+the richest part of France. By still better fortune he had married
+Margaret, the only child of Louis, Count of Flanders. Flanders contained
+the great cloth-manufacturing towns of Europe--Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
+etc., all wealthy and independent, and much inclined to close alliance
+with England, whence they obtained their wool, while their counts were
+equally devoted to France. Just as Count Louis II. had, for his lawless
+rapacity, been driven out of Ghent by Jacob van Arteveldt, so his son,
+Louis III., was expelled by Philip van Arteveldt, son to Jacob. Charles
+had been disgusted by Louis's coarse violence, and would not help him;
+but after the old king's death, Philip of Burgundy used his influence in
+the council to conduct the whole power of France to Flanders, where
+Arteveldt was defeated and trodden to death in the battle of Rosbecque,
+in 1382. On the count's death, Philip succeeded him as Count of Flanders
+in right of his wife; and thus was laid the foundation of the powerful
+and wealthy house of Burgundy, which for four generations almost
+overshadowed the crown of France.
+
+
+7. Insanity of Charles VI.--The Constable, Clisson, was much hated by
+the Duke of Brittany, and an attack which was made on him in the
+streets of Paris was clearly traced to Montfort. The young king, who was
+much attached to Clisson, set forth to exact punishment. On his way, a
+madman rushed out of a forest and called out, "King, you are betrayed!"
+Charles was much frightened, and further seems to have had a sunstroke,
+for he at once became insane. He recovered for a time; but at Christmas,
+while he and five others were dancing, disguised as wild men, their
+garments of pitched flax caught fire. Four were burnt, and the shock
+brought back the king's madness. He became subject to fits of insanity
+of longer or shorter duration, and in their intervals he seems to have
+been almost imbecile. No provision had then been made for the
+contingency of a mad king. The condition of the country became worse
+than ever, and power was grasped at by whoever could obtain it. Of the
+king's three uncles, the Duke of Anjou and his sons were generally
+engrossed by a vain struggle to obtain Naples; the Duke of Berry was
+dull and weak; and the chief struggle for influence was between Philip
+of Burgundy and his son, John the Fearless, on the one hand, and on the
+other the king's wife, Isabel of Bavaria, and his brother Louis, Duke of
+Orleans, who was suspected of being her lover; while the unhappy king
+and his little children were left in a wretched state, often scarcely
+provided with clothes or food.
+
+
+8. Burgundians and Armagnacs.--Matters grew worse after the death of
+Duke Philip in 1404; and in 1407, just after a seeming reconciliation,
+the Duke of Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris by servants of
+John the Fearless. Louis of Orleans had been a vain, foolish man,
+heedless of all save his own pleasure, but his death increased the
+misery of France through the long and deadly struggle for vengeance that
+followed. The king was helpless, and the children of the Duke of Orleans
+were young; but their cause was taken up by a Gascon noble, Bernard,
+Count of Armagnac, whose name the party took. The Duke of Burgundy was
+always popular in Paris, where the people, led by the Guild of Butchers,
+were so devoted to him that he ventured to have a sermon preached at the
+university, justifying the murder. There was again a feeble attempt at
+reform made by the burghers; but, as before, the more violent and
+lawless were guilty of such excesses that the opposite party were called
+in to put them down. The Armagnacs were admitted into Paris, and took a
+terrible vengeance on the Butchers and on all adherents of Burgundy, in
+the name of the Dauphin Louis, the king's eldest son, a weak, dissipated
+youth, who was entirely led by the Count of Armagnac.
+
+
+9. Invasion of Henry V.--All this time the war with England had
+smouldered on, only broken by brief truces; and when France was in this
+wretched state Henry V. renewed the claim of Edward III., and in 1415
+landed before Harfleur. After delaying till he had taken the city, the
+dauphin called together the whole nobility of the kingdom, and advanced
+against Henry, who, like Edward III., had been obliged to leave Normandy
+and march towards Calais in search of supplies. The armies met at
+Agincourt, where, though the French greatly outnumbered the English, the
+skill of Henry and the folly and confusion of the dauphin's army led to
+a total defeat, and the captivity of half the chief men in France of the
+Armagnac party--among them the young Duke of Orleans. It was Henry V.'s
+policy to treat France, not as a conquest, but as an inheritance; and he
+therefore refused to let these captives be ransomed till he should have
+reduced the country to obedience, while he treated all the places that
+submitted to him with great kindness. The Duke of Burgundy held aloof
+from the contest, and the Armagnacs, who ruled in Paris, were too weak
+or too careless to send aid to Rouen, which was taken by Henry after a
+long siege. The Dauphin Louis died in 1417; his next brother, John, who
+was more inclined to Burgundy, did not survive him a year; and the third
+brother, Charles, a mere boy, was in the hands of the Armagnacs. In 1418
+their reckless misuse of power provoked the citizens of Paris into
+letting in the Burgundians, when an unspeakably horrible massacre took
+place. Bernard of Armagnac himself was killed; his naked corpse, scored
+with his red cross, was dragged about the streets; and men, women, and
+even infants of his party were slaughtered pitilessly. Tanneguy
+Duchatel, one of his partisans, carried off the dauphin; but the queen,
+weary of Armagnac insolence, had joined the Burgundian party.
+
+
+10. Treaty of Troyes.--Meanwhile Henry V. continued to advance, and
+John of Burgundy felt the need of joining the whole strength of France
+against him, and made overtures to the dauphin. Duchatel, either fearing
+to be overshadowed by his power, or else in revenge for Orleans and
+Armagnac, no sooner saw that a reconciliation was likely to take place,
+than he murdered John the Fearless before the dauphin's eyes, at a
+conference on the bridge of Montereau-sur-Yonne (1419). John's wound was
+said to be the hole which let the English into France. His son Philip,
+the new Duke of Burgundy, viewing the dauphin as guilty of his death,
+went over with all his forces to Henry V., taking with him the queen and
+the poor helpless king. At the treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Henry was
+declared regent, and heir of the kingdom, at the same time as he
+received the hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. This gave him
+Paris and all the chief cities in northern France; but the Armagnacs
+held the south, with the Dauphin Charles at their head. Charles was
+declared an outlaw by his father's court, but he was in truth the leader
+of what had become the national and patriotic cause. During this time,
+after a long struggle and schism, the Pope again returned to Rome.
+
+
+11. The Maid of Orleans.--When Henry V. died in 1422, and the unhappy
+Charles a few weeks later, the infant Henry VI. was proclaimed King of
+France as well as of England, at both Paris and London, while _Charles
+VII._ was only proclaimed at Bourges, and a few other places in the
+south. Charles was of a slow, sluggish nature, and the men around him
+were selfish and pleasure-loving intriguers, who kept aloof all the
+bolder spirits from him. The brother of Henry V., John, Duke of Bedford,
+ruled all the country north of the Loire, with Rouen as his
+head-quarters. For seven years little was done; but in 1429 he caused
+Orleans to be besieged. The city held out bravely, all France looked on
+anxiously, and a young peasant girl, named Joan d'Arc, believed herself
+called by voices from the saints to rescue the city, and lead the king
+to his coronation at Rheims. With difficulty she obtained a hearing of
+the king, and was allowed to proceed to Orleans. Leading the army with a
+consecrated sword, which she never stained with blood, she filled the
+French with confidence, the English with fear as of a witch, and thus
+she gained the day wherever she appeared. Orleans was saved, and she
+then conducted Charles VII. to Rheims, and stood beside his throne when
+he was crowned. Then she said her work was done, and would have returned
+home; but, though the wretched king and his court never appreciated her,
+they thought her useful with the soldiers, and would not let her leave
+them. She had lost her heart and hope, and the men began to be angered
+at her for putting down all vice and foul language. The captains were
+envious of her; and at last, when she had led a sally out of the
+besieged town of Compiègne, the gates were shut, and she was made
+prisoner by a Burgundian, John of Luxembourg. The Burgundians hated her
+even more than the English. The inquisitor was of their party, and a
+court was held at Rouen, which condemned her to die as a witch. Bedford
+consented, but left the city before the execution. Her own king made no
+effort to save her, though, many years later, he caused enquiries to be
+made, established her innocence, ennobled her family, and freed her
+village from taxation.
+
+12. Recovery of France (1434--1450).--But though Joan was gone, her
+work lasted. The Constable, Artur of Richmond, the Count of Dunois, and
+other brave leaders, continued to attack the English. After seventeen
+years' vengeance for his father's death, the Duke of Burgundy made his
+peace with Charles by a treaty at Arras, on condition of paying no more
+homage, in 1434. Bedford died soon after, and there were nothing but
+disputes among the English. Paris opened its gates to the king, and
+Charles, almost in spite of himself, was restored. An able merchant,
+named Jacques CÅ“ur, lent him money which equipped his men for the
+recovery of Normandy, and he himself, waking into activity, took Rouen
+and the other cities on the coast.
+
+
+13. Conquest of Aquitaine (1450).--By these successes Charles had
+recovered all, save Calais, that Henry V. or Edward III. had taken from
+France. But he was now able to do more. The one province of the south
+which the French kings had never been able to win was Guienne, the duchy
+on the river Garonne. Guienne had been a part of Eleanor's inheritance,
+and passed through her to the English kings; but though they had lost
+all else, the hatred of its inhabitants to the French enabled them to
+retain this, and Guienne had never yet passed under French rule. It was
+wrested, however, from Eleanor's descendants in this flood-tide of
+conquest. Bordeaux held out as long as it could, but Henry VI. could
+send no aid, and it was forced to yield. Two years later, brave old Lord
+Talbot led 5000 men to recover the duchy, and was gladly welcomed; but
+he was slain in the battle of Castillon, fighting like a lion. His two
+sons fell beside him, and his army was broken. Bordeaux again
+surrendered, and the French kings at last found themselves master of the
+great fief of the south. Calais was, at the close of the great Hundred
+Years' War, the only possession left to England south of the Channel.
+
+
+14. The Standing Army (1452).--As at the end of the first act in the
+Hundred Years' War, the great difficulty in time of peace was the
+presence of the bands of free companions, or mercenary soldiers, who,
+when war and plunder failed them, lived by violence and robbery of the
+peasants. Charles VII., who had awakened into vigour, thereupon took
+into regular pay all who would submit to discipline, and the rest were
+led off on two futile expeditions into Switzerland and Germany, and
+there left to their fate. The princes and nobles were at first so much
+disgusted at the regulations which bound the soldiery to respect the
+magistracy, that they raised a rebellion, which was fostered by the
+Dauphin Louis, who was ready to do anything that could annoy his father.
+But he was soon detached from them; the Duke of Burgundy would not
+assist them, and the league fell to pieces. Charles VII. by thus
+retaining companies of hired troops in his pay laid the foundation of
+the first standing army in Europe, and enabled the monarchy to tread
+down the feudal force of the nobles. His government was firm and wise;
+and with his reign began better times for France. But it was long before
+it recovered from the miseries of the long strife. The war had kept back
+much of progress. There had been grievous havoc of buildings in the
+north and centre of France; much lawlessness and cruelty prevailed; and
+yet there was a certain advance in learning, and much love of romance
+and the theory of chivalry. Pages of noble birth were bred up in castles
+to be first squires and then knights. There was immense formality and
+stateliness, the order of precedence was most minute, and pomp and
+display were wonderful. Strange alternations took place. One month the
+streets of Paris would be a scene of horrible famine, where hungry dogs,
+and even wolves, put an end to the miseries of starving, homeless
+children of slaughtered parents; another, the people would be gazing at
+royal banquets, lasting a whole day, with allegorical "subtleties" of
+jelly on the table, and pageants coming between the courses, where all
+the Virtues harangued in turn, or where knights delivered maidens from
+giants and "salvage men." In the south there was less misery and more
+progress. Jacques CÅ“ur's house at Bourges is still a marvel of household
+architecture; and René, Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence, was an
+excellent painter on glass, and also a poet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY.
+
+
+1. Power of Burgundy.--All the troubles of France, for the last 80
+years, had gone to increase the strength of the Dukes of Burgundy. The
+county and duchy, of which Dijon was the capital, lay in the most
+fertile district of France, and had, as we have seen, been conferred on
+Philip the Bold. His marriage had given to him Flanders, with a gallant
+nobility, and with the chief manufacturing cities of Northern Europe.
+Philip's son, John the Fearless, had married a lady who ultimately
+brought into the family the great imperial counties of Holland and
+Zealand; and her son, Duke Philip the Good, by purchase or inheritance,
+obtained possession of all the adjoining little fiefs forming the
+country called the Netherlands, some belonging to the Empire, some to
+France. Philip had turned the scale in the struggle between England and
+France, and, as his reward, had won the cities on the Somme. He had
+thus become the richest and most powerful prince in Europe, and seemed
+on the point of founding a middle state lying between France and
+Germany, his weak point being that the imperial fiefs in Lorraine and
+Elsass lay between his dukedom of Burgundy and his counties in the
+Netherlands. No European court equalled in splendour that of Philip. The
+great cities of Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and the rest, though full of
+fierce and resolute men, paid him dues enough to make him the richest of
+princes, and the Flemish knights were among the boldest in Europe. All
+the arts of life, above all painting and domestic architecture,
+nourished at Brussels; and nowhere were troops so well equipped,
+burghers more prosperous, learning more widespread, than in his domains.
+Here, too, were the most ceremonious courtesy, the most splendid
+banquets, and the most wonderful display of jewels, plate, and
+cloth-of-gold. Charles VII., a clever though a cold-hearted, indolent
+man, let Philip alone, already seeing how the game would go for the
+future; for when the dauphin had quarrelled with the reigning favourite,
+and was kindly received on his flight to Burgundy, the old king sneered,
+saying that the duke was fostering the fox who would steal his chickens.
+
+
+2. Louis XI.'s Policy.--_Louis XI._ succeeded his father Charles in
+1461. He was a man of great skill and craft, with an iron will, and
+subtle though pitiless nature, who knew in what the greatness of a king
+consisted, and worked out his ends mercilessly and unscrupulously. The
+old feudal dukes and counts had all passed away, except the Duke of
+Brittany; but the Dukes of Orleans, Burgundy, and Anjou held princely
+appanages, and there was a turbulent nobility who had grown up during
+the wars, foreign and civil, and been encouraged by the favouritism of
+Charles VI. All these, feeling that Louis was their natural foe, united
+against him in what was called the "League of the Public Good," with his
+own brother, the Duke of Berry, and Count Charles of Charolais, who was
+known as Charles the Bold, the son of Duke Philip of Burgundy, at their
+head. Louis was actually defeated by Charles of Charolais in the battle
+of Montlhéry; but he contrived so cleverly to break up the league, by
+promises to each member and by sowing dissension among them, that he
+ended by becoming more powerful than before.
+
+
+3. Charles the Bold.--On the death of Philip the Good, in 1467,
+Charles the Bold succeeded to the duchy of Burgundy. He pursued more
+ardently the plan of forming a new kingdom of Burgundy, and had even
+hopes of being chosen Emperor. First, however, he had to consolidate his
+dominions, by making himself master of the countries which parted
+Burgundy from the Netherlands. With this view he obtained Elsass in
+pledge from its owner, a needy son of the house of Austria, who was
+never likely to redeem it. Lorraine had been inherited by Yolande, the
+wife of René, Duke of Anjou and titular King of Sicily, and had passed
+from her to her daughter, who had married the nearest heir in the male
+line, the Count of Vaudémont; but Charles the Bold unjustly seized the
+dukedom, driving out the lawful heir, René de Vaudémont, son of this
+marriage. Louis, meantime, was on the watch for every error of Charles,
+and constantly sowing dangers in his path. Sometimes his mines exploded
+too soon, as when he had actually put himself into Charles's power by
+visiting him at Peronne at the very moment when his emissaries had
+encouraged the city of Liège to rise in revolt against their bishop, an
+ally of the duke; and he only bought his freedom by profuse promises,
+and by aiding Charles in a most savage destruction of Liège. But after
+this his caution prevailed. He gave secret support to the adherents of
+René de Vaudémont, and intrigued with the Swiss, who were often at issue
+with the Burgundian bailiffs and soldiery in Elsass--greedy, reckless
+men, from whom the men of Elsass revolted in favour of their former
+Austrian lord. Meantime Edward IV. of England, Charles's brother-in-law,
+had planned with him an invasion of France and division of the kingdom,
+and in 1475 actually crossed the sea with a splendid host; but while
+Charles was prevented from joining him by the siege of Neuss, a city in
+alliance with Sigismund of Austria, Louis met Edward on the bridge of
+Pecquigny, and by cajolery, bribery, and accusations of Charles,
+contrived to persuade him to carry home his army without striking a
+blow. That meeting was a curious one. A wooden barrier, like a wild
+beast's cage, was erected in the middle of the bridge, through which the
+two kings kissed one another. Edward was the tallest and handsomest man
+present, and splendidly attired. Louis was small and mean-looking, and
+clad in an old blue suit, with a hat decorated with little leaden images
+of the saints, but his smooth tongue quite overcame the duller intellect
+of Edward; and in the mean time the English soldiers were feasted and
+allowed their full swing, the French being strictly watched to prevent
+all quarrels. So skilfully did Louis manage, that Edward consented to
+make peace and return home.
+
+
+4. The Fall of Charles the Bold (1477).--Charles had become entangled
+in many difficulties. He was a harsh, stern man, much disliked; and his
+governors in Elsass were fierce, violent men, who used every pretext for
+preying upon travellers. The Governor of Breisach, Hagenbach, had been
+put to death in a popular rising, aided by the Swiss of Berne, in 1474;
+and the men of Elsass themselves raised part of the sum for which the
+country had been pledged, and revolted against Charles. The Swiss were
+incited by Louis to join them; René of Lorraine made common cause with
+them. In two great battles, Granson and Morat, Charles and all his
+chivalry were beaten by the Swiss pikemen; but he pushed on the war.
+Nancy, the chief city of Lorraine, had risen against him, and he
+besieged it. On the night of the 5th of January, 1477, René led the
+Swiss to relieve the town by falling in early morning on the besiegers'
+camp. There was a terrible fight; the Burgundians were routed, and after
+long search the corpse of Duke Charles was found in a frozen pool,
+stripped, plundered, and covered with blood. He was the last of the male
+line of Burgundy, and its great possessions broke up with his death. His
+only child, Marie, did not inherit the French dukedom nor the county,
+though most of the fiefs in the Low Countries, which could descend to
+the female line, were her undisputed portion. Louis tried, by stirring
+up her subjects, to force her into a marriage with his son Charles; but
+she threw herself on the protection of the house of Austria, and
+marrying Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., carried her
+border lands to swell the power of his family.
+
+
+5. Louis's Home Government.--Louis's system of repression of the
+nobles went on all this time. His counsellors were of low birth (Oliver
+le Daim, his barber, was the man he most trusted), his habits frugal,
+his manners reserved and ironical; he was dreaded, hated, and
+distrusted, and he became constantly more bitter, suspicious, and
+merciless. Those who fell under his displeasure were imprisoned in iron
+cages, or put to death; and the more turbulent families, such as the
+house of Armagnac, were treated with frightful severity. But his was not
+wanton violence. He acted on a regular system of depressing the lawless
+nobility and increasing the royal authority, by bringing the power of
+the cities forward, by trusting for protection to the standing army,
+chiefly of hired Scots, Swiss, and Italians, and by saving money. By
+this means he was able to purchase the counties of Roussillon and
+Perpignan from the King of Aragon, thus making the Pyrenees his
+frontier, and on several occasions he made his treasury fight his
+battles instead of the swords of his knights. He lived in the castle of
+Plessis les Tours, guarded by the utmost art of fortification, and
+filled with hired Scottish archers of his guard, whom he preferred as
+defenders to his own nobles. He was exceedingly unpopular with his
+nobles; but the statesman and historian, Philip de Comines, who had gone
+over to him from Charles of Burgundy, viewed him as the best and ablest
+of kings. He did much to promote trade and manufacture, improved the
+cities, fostered the university, and was in truth the first king since
+Philip Augustus who had any real sense of statesmanship. But though the
+burghers throve under him, and the lawless nobles were depressed, the
+state of the peasants was not improved; feudal rights pressed heavily on
+them, and they were little better than savages, ground down by burthens
+imposed by their lords.
+
+
+6. Provence and Brittany.--Louis had added much to the French
+monarchy. He had won back Artois; he had seized the duchy and county of
+Burgundy; he had bought Roussillon. His last acquisition was the county
+of Provence. The second Angevin family, beginning with Louis, the son of
+King John, had never succeeded in gaining a footing in Naples, though
+they bore the royal title. They held, however, the imperial fief of
+Provence, and Louis XI., whose mother had been of this family, obtained
+from her two brothers, René and Charles, that Provence should be
+bequeathed to him instead of passing to René's grandson, the Duke of
+Lorraine. The Kings of France were thenceforth Counts of Provence; and
+though the county was not viewed as part of the kingdom, it was
+practically one with it. A yet greater acquisition was made soon after
+Louis's death in 1483. The great Celtic duchy of Brittany fell to a
+female, Anne of Brittany, and the address of Louis's daughter, the Lady
+of Beaujeu, who was regent of the realm, prevailed to secure the hand of
+the heiress for her brother, Charles VIII. Thus the crown of France had
+by purchase, conquest, or inheritance, obtained all the great feudal
+states that made up the country between the English Channel and the
+Pyrenees; but each still remained a separate state, with different laws
+and customs, and a separate parliament in each to register laws, and to
+act as a court of justice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ITALIAN WARS.
+
+
+1. Campaign of Charles VIII. (1493).--From grasping at province after
+province on their own border, however, the French kings were now to turn
+to wider dreams of conquest abroad. Together with the county of
+Provence, Louis XI. had bought from King René all the claims of the
+house of Anjou. Among these was included a claim to the kingdom of
+Naples. Louis's son, _Charles VIII._, a vain and shallow lad, was
+tempted by the possession of large treasures and a fine army to listen
+to the persuasions of an Italian intriguer, Ludovico Sforza, Duke of
+Milan, and put forward these pretensions, thus beginning a war which
+lasted nearly as long as the Hundred Years' War with England. But it was
+a war of aggression instead of a war of self-defence. Charles crossed
+the Alps in 1493, marched the whole length of Italy without opposition,
+and was crowned at Naples; while its royal family, an illegitimate
+offshoot from the Kings of Aragon, fled into Sicily, and called on
+Spain for help. But the insolent exactions of the French soldiery caused
+the people to rise against them; and when Charles returned, he was beset
+at Fornovo by a great league of Italians, over whom he gained a complete
+victory. Small and puny though he was, he fought like a lion, and seemed
+quite inspired by the ardour of combat. The "French fury," _la furia
+Francese_, became a proverb among the Italians. Charles neglected,
+however, to send any supplies or reinforcements to the garrisons he had
+left behind him in Naples, and they all perished under want, sickness,
+and the sword of the Spaniards. He was meditating another expedition,
+when he struck his head against the top of a doorway, and died in 1498.
+
+
+2. Campaign of Louis XII.--His cousin, _Louis XII._, married his
+widow, and thus prevented Brittany from again parting from the crown.
+Louis not only succeeded to the Angevin right to Naples, but through his
+grandmother he viewed himself as heir of Milan. She was Valentina
+Visconti, wife to that Duke of Orleans who had been murdered by John the
+Fearless. Louis himself never advanced further than to Milan, whose
+surrender made him master of Lombardy, which he held for the greater
+part of his reign. But after a while the Spanish king, Ferdinand, agreed
+with him to throw over the cause of the unfortunate royal family of
+Naples, and divide that kingdom between them. Louis XII. sent a
+brilliant army to take possession of his share, but the bounds of each
+portion had not been defined, and the French and Spanish troops began a
+war even while their kings were still treating with one another. The
+individual French knights did brilliant exploits, for indeed it was the
+time of the chief blossom of fanciful chivalry, a knight of Dauphiné,
+named Bayard, called the Fearless and Stainless Knight, and honoured by
+friend and foe; but the Spaniards were under Gonzalo de Cordova, called
+the Great Captain, and after the battles of Cerignola and the Garigliano
+drove the French out of the kingdom of Naples, though the war continued
+in Lombardy.
+
+
+3. The Holy League.--It was an age of leagues. The Italians, hating
+French and Spaniards both alike, were continually forming combinations
+among themselves and with foreign powers against whichever happened to
+be the strongest. The chief of these was called the Holy League, because
+it was formed by Pope Julius II., who drew into it Maximilian, then head
+of the German Empire, Ferdinand of Spain, and Henry VIII. of England.
+The French troops were attacked in Milan; and though they gained the
+battle of Ravenna in 1512, it was with the loss of their general, Gaston
+de Foix, Duke of Nemours, whose death served as an excuse to Ferdinand
+of Spain for setting up a claim to the kingdom of Navarre. He cunningly
+persuaded Henry VIII. to aid him in the attack, by holding out the vain
+idea of going on to regain Gascony; and while one troop of English were
+attacking Pampeluna, Henry himself landed at Calais and took Tournay and
+Terouenne. The French forces were at the same time being chased out of
+Italy. However, when Pampeluna had been taken, and the French finally
+driven out of Lombardy, the Pope and king, who had gained their ends,
+left Henry to fight his own battles. He thus was induced to make peace,
+giving his young sister Mary as second wife to Louis; but that king
+over-exerted himself at the banquets, and died six weeks after the
+marriage, in 1515. During this reign the waste of blood and treasure on
+wars of mere ambition was frightful, and the country had been heavily
+taxed; but a brilliant soldiery had been trained up, and national vanity
+had much increased. The king, though without deserving much love, was so
+kindly in manner that he was a favourite, and was called the Father of
+the People. His first wife, Anne of Brittany, was an excellent and
+high-spirited woman, who kept the court of France in a better state than
+ever before or since.
+
+
+4. Campaigns of Francis I.--Louis left only two daughters, the elder
+of whom, Claude, carried Brittany to his male heir, Francis, Count of
+Angoulêine. Anne of Brittany had been much averse to the match; but
+Louis said he kept his mice for his own cats, and gave his daughter and
+her duchy to Francis as soon as Anne was dead. _Francis I._ was one of
+the vainest, falsest, and most dashing of Frenchmen. In fact, he was an
+exaggeration in every way of the national character, and thus became a
+national hero, much overpraised. He at once resolved to recover
+Lombardy; and after crossing the Alps encountered an army of Swiss
+troops, who had been hired to defend the Milanese duchy, on the field of
+Marignano. Francis had to fight a desperate battle with them; after
+which he caused Bayard to dub him knight, though French kings were said
+to be born knights. In gaining the victory over these mercenaries, who
+had been hitherto deemed invincible, he opened for himself a way into
+Italy, and had all Lombardy at his feet. The Pope, Leo X., met him at
+Bologna, and a concordat took place, by which the French Church became
+more entirely subject to the Pope, while in return all patronage was
+given up to the crown. The effects were soon seen in the increased
+corruption of the clergy and people. Francis brought home from this
+expedition much taste for Italian art and literature, and all matters of
+elegance and ornament made great progress from this time. The great
+Italian masters worked for him; Raphael painted some of his most
+beautiful pictures for him, and Leonardo da Vinci came to his court, and
+there died in his arms. His palaces, especially that of Blois, were
+exceedingly beautiful, in the new classic style, called the Renaissance.
+Great richness and splendour reigned at court, and set off his
+pretensions to romance and chivalry. Learning and scholarship,
+especially classical, increased much; and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, was an excellent and highly cultivated woman, but even
+her writings prove that the whole tone of feeling was terribly coarse,
+when not vicious.
+
+
+5. Charles V.--The conquest of Lombardy made France the greatest power
+in Christendom; but its king was soon to find a mighty and active rival.
+The old hatred between France and Burgundy again awoke. Mary of
+Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, had married Maximilian,
+Archduke of Austria and King of the Romans, though never actually
+crowned Emperor. Their son, Philip, married Juana, the daughter of
+Ferdinand, and heiress of Spain, who lost her senses from grief on
+Philip's untimely death; and thus the direct heir to Spain, Austria, and
+the Netherlands, was Charles, her eldest son. On the death of Maximilian
+in 1518, Francis proposed himself to the electors as Emperor, but
+failed, in spite of bribery. Charles was chosen, and from that time
+Francis pursued him with unceasing hatred. The claims to Milan and
+Naples were renewed. Francis sent troops to occupy Milan, and was
+following them himself; but the most powerful of all his nobles, the
+Duke of Bourbon, Constable of France, had been alienated by an injustice
+perpetrated on him in favour of the king's mother, and deserted to the
+Spaniards, offering to assist them and the English in dividing France,
+while he reserved for himself Provence. His desertion hindered Francis
+from sending support to the troops in Milan, who were forced to retreat.
+Bayard was shot in the spine while defending the rear-guard, and was
+left to die under a tree. The utmost honour was shown him by the
+Spaniards; but when Bourbon came near him, he bade him take pity, not on
+one who was dying as a true soldier, but on himself as a traitor to king
+and country. When the French, in 1525, invaded Lombardy, Francis
+suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia, and was carried a prisoner to
+Madrid, where he remained for a year, and was only set free on making a
+treaty by which he was to give up all claims in Italy both to Naples and
+Milan, also the county of Burgundy and the suzerainty of those Flemish
+counties which had been fiefs of the French crown, as well as to
+surrender his two sons as hostages for the performance of the
+conditions.
+
+
+6. Wars of Francis and Charles.--All the rest of the king's life was
+an attempt to elude or break these conditions, against which he had
+protested in his prison, but when there was no Spaniard present to hear
+him do so. The county of Burgundy refused to be transferred; and the
+Pope, Clement VII., hating the Spanish power in Italy, contrived a fresh
+league against Charles, in which Francis joined, but was justly rewarded
+by the miserable loss of another army. His mother and Charles's aunt met
+at Cambrai, and concluded, in 1529, what was called the Ladies' Peace,
+which bore as hardly on France as the peace of Madrid, excepting that
+Charles gave up his claim to Burgundy. Still Francis's plans were not at
+an end. He married his second son, Henry, to Catherine, the only
+legitimate child of the great Florentine house of Medici, and tried to
+induce Charles to set up an Italian dukedom of Milan for the young pair;
+but when the dauphin died, and Henry became heir of France, Charles
+would not give him any footing in Italy. Francis never let any occasion
+pass of harassing the Emperor, but was always defeated. Charles once
+actually invaded Provence, but was forced to retreat through the
+devastation of the country before him by Montmorençy, afterwards
+Constable of France. Francis, by loud complaints, and by talking much of
+his honour, contrived to make the world fancy him the injured man, while
+he was really breaking oaths in a shameless manner. At last, in 1537,
+the king and Emperor met at Aigues Mortes, and came to terms. Francis
+married, as his second wife, Charles's sister Eleanor, and in 1540, when
+Charles was in haste to quell a revolt in the Low Countries, he asked a
+safe conduct through France, and was splendidly entertained at Paris.
+Yet so low was the honour of the French, that Francis scarcely withstood
+the temptation of extorting the duchy of Milan from him when in his
+power, and gave so many broad hints that Charles was glad to be past the
+frontier. The war was soon renewed. Francis set up a claim to Savoy, as
+the key of Italy, allied himself with the Turks and Moors, and slaves
+taken by them on the coasts of Italy and Spain were actually brought
+into Marseilles. Nice was burnt; but the citadel held out, and as Henry
+VIII. had allied himself with the Emperor, and had taken Boulogne,
+Francis made a final peace at Crespy in 1545. He died only two years
+later, in 1547.
+
+
+7. Henry II.--His only surviving son, _Henry II._, followed the same
+policy. The rise of Protestantism was now dividing the Empire in
+Germany; and Henry took advantage of the strife which broke out between
+Charles and the Protestant princes to attack the Emperor, and make
+conquests across the German border. He called himself Protector of the
+Liberties of the Germans, and leagued himself with them, seizing Metz,
+which the Duke of Guise bravely defended when the Emperor tried to
+retake it. This seizure of Metz was the first attempt of France to make
+conquests in Germany, and the beginning of a contest between the French
+and German peoples which has gone on to the present day. After the siege
+a five years' truce was made, during which Charles V. resigned his
+crowns. His brother had been already elected to the Empire, but his son
+Philip II. became King of Spain and Naples, and also inherited the Low
+Countries. The Pope, Paul IV., who was a Neapolitan, and hated the
+Spanish rule, incited Henry, a vain, weak man, to break the truce and
+send one army to Italy, under the Duke of Guise, while another attacked
+the frontier of the Netherlands. Philip, assisted by the forces of his
+wife, Mary I. of England, met this last attack with an army commanded by
+the Duke of Savoy. It advanced into France, and besieged St. Quentin.
+The French, under the Constable of Montmorençy, came to relieve the
+city, and were utterly defeated, the Constable himself being made
+prisoner. His nephew, the Admiral de Coligny, held out St. Quentin to
+the last, and thus gave the country time to rally against the invader;
+and Guise was recalled in haste from Italy. He soon after surprised
+Calais, which was thus restored to the French, after having been held
+by the English for two hundred years. This was the only conquest the
+French retained when the final peace of Cateau Cambresis was made in the
+year 1558, for all else that had been taken on either side was then
+restored. Savoy was given back to its duke, together with the hand of
+Henry's sister, Margaret. During a tournament held in honour of the
+wedding, Henry II. was mortally injured by the splinter of a lance, in
+1559; and in the home troubles that followed, all pretensions to Italian
+power were dropped by France, after wars which had lasted sixty-four
+years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WARS OF RELIGION.
+
+
+1. The Bourbons and Guises.--Henry II. had left four sons, the eldest
+of whom, _Francis II._, was only fifteen years old; and the country was
+divided by two great factions--one headed by the Guise family, an
+offshoot of the house of Lorraine; the other by the Bourbons, who, being
+descended in a direct male line from a younger son of St. Louis, were
+the next heirs to the throne in case the house of Valois should become
+extinct. Antony, the head of the Bourbon family, was called King of
+Navarre, because of his marriage with Jeanne d'Albrêt, the queen, in her
+own right, of this Pyrenean kingdom, which was in fact entirely in the
+hands of the Spaniards, so that her only actual possession consisted of
+the little French counties of Foix and Béarn. Antony himself was dull
+and indolent, but his wife was a woman of much ability; and his brother,
+Louis, Prince of Condé, was full of spirit and fire, and little
+inclined to brook the ascendancy which the Duke of Guise and his
+brothers enjoyed at court, partly in consequence of his exploit at
+Calais, and partly from being uncle to the young Queen Mary of Scotland,
+wife of Francis II. The Bourbons likewise headed the party among the
+nobles who hoped to profit by the king's youth to recover the privileges
+of which they had been gradually deprived, while the house of Guise were
+ready to maintain the power of the crown, as long as that meant their
+own power.
+
+
+2. The Reformation.--The enmity of these two parties was much
+increased by the reaction against the prevalent doctrines and the
+corruptions of the clergy. This reaction had begun in the reign of
+Francis I., when the Bible had been translated into French by two
+students at the University of Paris, and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, had encouraged the Reformers. Francis had leagued with
+the German Protestants because they were foes to the Emperor, while he
+persecuted the like opinions at home to satisfy the Pope. John Calvin, a
+native of Picardy, the foremost French reformer, was invited to the free
+city of Geneva, and there was made chief pastor, while the scheme of
+theology called his "Institutes" became the text-book of the Reformed in
+France, Scotland, and Holland. His doctrine was harsh and stern, aiming
+at the utmost simplicity of worship, and denouncing the existing
+practices so fiercely, that the people, who held themselves to have been
+wilfully led astray by their clergy, committed such violence in the
+churches that the Catholics loudly called for punishment on them. The
+shameful lives of many of the clergy and the wickedness of the Court had
+caused a strong reaction against them, and great numbers of both nobles
+and burghers became Calvinists. They termed themselves Sacramentarians
+or Reformers, but their nickname was Huguenots; probably from the Swiss,
+"_Eidgenossen_" or oath comrades. Henry II., like his father, protected
+German Lutherans and persecuted French Calvinists; but the lawyers of
+the Parliament of Paris interposed, declaring that men ought not to be
+burnt for heresy until a council of the Church should have condemned
+their opinions, and it was in the midst of this dispute that Henry was
+slain.
+
+
+3. The Conspiracy of Amboise.--The Guise family were strong Catholics;
+the Bourbons were the heads of the Huguenot party, chiefly from policy;
+but Admiral Coligny and his brother, the Sieur D'Andelot, were sincere
+and earnest Reformers. A third party, headed by the old Constable De
+Montmorençy, was Catholic in faith, but not unwilling to join with the
+Huguenots in pulling down the Guises, and asserting the power of the
+nobility. A conspiracy for seizing the person of the king and
+destroying the Guises at the castle of Amboise was detected in time to
+make it fruitless. The two Bourbon princes kept in the background,
+though Condé was universally known to have been the true head and mover
+in it, and he was actually brought to trial. The discovery only
+strengthened the hands of Guise.
+
+
+4. Regency of Catherine de' Medici.--Even then, however, Francis II.
+was dying, and his brother, _Charles IX._, who succeeded him in 1560,
+was but ten years old. The regency passed to his mother, the Florentine
+Catherine, a wily, cat-like woman, who had always hitherto been kept in
+the background, and whose chief desire was to keep things quiet by
+playing off one party against the other. She at once released Condé, and
+favoured the Bourbons and the Huguenots to keep down the Guises, even
+permitting conferences to see whether the French Church could be
+reformed so as to satisfy the Calvinists. Proposals were sent by Guise's
+brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, to the council then sitting at Trent,
+for vernacular services, the marriage of the clergy, and other
+alterations which might win back the Reformers. But an attack by the
+followers of Guise on a meeting of Calvinists at Vassy, of whose ringing
+of bells his mother had complained, led to the first bloodshed and the
+outbreak of a civil war.
+
+
+5. The Religious War.--To trace each stage of the war would be
+impossible within these limits. It was a war often lulled for a short
+time, and often breaking out again, and in which the actors grew more
+and more cruel. The Reformed influence was in the south, the Catholic in
+the east. Most of the provincial cities at first held with the Bourbons,
+for the sake of civil and religious freedom; though the Guise family
+succeeded to the popularity of the Burgundian dukes in Paris. Still
+Catherine persuaded Antony of Bourbon to return to court just as his
+wife, Queen Jeanne of Navarre, had become a staunch Calvinist, and while
+dreaming of exchanging his claim on Navarre for the kingdom of Sardinia,
+he was killed on the Catholic side while besieging Rouen. At the first
+outbreak the Huguenots seemed to have by far the greatest influence. An
+endeavour was made to seize the king's person, and this led to a battle
+at Dreux. While it was doubtful Catherine actually declared, "We shall
+have to say our prayers in French." Guise, however, retrieved the day,
+and though Montmorençy was made prisoner on the one side, Condé was
+taken on the other. Orleans was the Huguenot rallying-place, and while
+besieging it Guise himself was assassinated. His death was believed by
+his family to be due to the Admiral de Coligny. The city of Rochelle,
+fortified by Jeanne of Navarre, became the stronghold of the Huguenots.
+Leader after leader fell--Montmorençy, on the one hand, was killed at
+Montcontour; Condé, on the other, was shot in cold blood after the fight
+of Jarnac. A truce followed, but was soon broken again, and in 1571
+Coligny was the only man of age and standing at the head of the Huguenot
+party; while the Catholics had as leaders Henry, Duke of Anjou, the
+king's brother, and Henry, Duke of Guise, both young men of little more
+than twenty. The Huguenots had been beaten at all points, but were still
+strong enough to have wrung from their enemies permission to hold
+meetings for public worship within unwalled towns and on the estates of
+such nobles as held with them.
+
+
+6. Catherine's Policy.--Catherine made use of the suspension of arms
+to try to detach the Huguenot leaders, by entangling them in the
+pleasures of the court and lowering their sense of duty. The court was
+studiously brilliant. Catherine surrounded herself with a bevy of
+ladies, called the Queen-Mother's Squadron, whose amusements were found
+for the whole day. The ladies sat at their tapestry frames, while
+Italian poetry and romance was read or love-songs sung by the gentlemen;
+they had garden games and hunting-parties, with every opening for the
+ladies to act as sirens to any whom the queen wished to detach from the
+principles of honour and virtue, and bind to her service. Balls,
+pageants, and theatricals followed in the evening, and there was hardly
+a prince or noble in France who was not carried away by these seductions
+into darker habits of profligacy. Jeanne of Navarre dreaded them for her
+son Henry, whom she kept as long as possible under training in religion,
+learning, and hardy habits, in the mountains of Béarn; and when
+Catherine tried to draw him to court by proposing a marriage between him
+and her youngest daughter Margaret, Jeanne left him at home, and went
+herself to court. Catherine tried in vain to bend her will or discover
+her secrets, and her death, early in 1572, while still at court, was
+attributed to the queen-mother.
+
+
+7. Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572).--Jeanne's son Henry was
+immediately summoned to conclude the marriage, and came attended by all
+the most distinguished Huguenots, though the more wary of them remained
+at home, and the Baron of Rosny said, "If that wedding takes place the
+favours will be crimson." The Duke of Guise seems to have resolved on
+taking this opportunity of revenging himself for his father's murder,
+but the queen-mother was undecided until she found that her son Charles,
+who had been bidden to cajole and talk over the Huguenot chiefs, had
+been attracted by their honesty and uprightness, and was ready to throw
+himself into their hands, and escape from hers. An abortive attempt on
+Guise's part to murder the Admiral Coligny led to all the Huguenots
+going about armed, and making demonstrations which alarmed both the
+queen and the people of Paris. Guise and the Duke of Anjou were,
+therefore, allowed to work their will, and to rouse the bloodthirstiness
+of the Paris mob. At midnight of the 24th of August, 1572, St.
+Bartholomew's night, the bell of the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois
+began to ring, and the slaughter was begun by men distinguished by a
+white sleeve. The king sheltered his Huguenot surgeon and nurse in his
+room. The young King of Navarre and Prince of Condé were threatened into
+conforming to the Church, but every other Huguenot who could be found
+was massacred, from Coligny, who was slain kneeling in his bedroom by
+the followers of Guise, down to the poorest and youngest, and the
+streets resounded with the cry, "Kill! kill!" In every city where royal
+troops and Guisard partisans had been living among Huguenots, the same
+hideous work took place for three days, sparing neither age nor sex. How
+many thousands died, it is impossible to reckon, but the work was so
+wholesale that none were left except those in the southern cities, where
+the Huguenots had been too strong to be attacked, and in those castles
+where the seigneur was of "the religion." The Catholic party thought the
+destruction complete, the court went in state to return thanks for
+deliverance from a supposed plot, while Coligny's body was hung on a
+gibbet. The Pope ordered public thanksgivings, while Queen Elizabeth put
+on mourning, and the Emperor Maximilian II., alone among Catholic
+princes, showed any horror or indignation. But the heart of the unhappy
+young king was broken by the guilt he had incurred. Charles IX. sank
+into a decline, and died in 1574, finding no comfort save in the surgeon
+and nurse he had saved.
+
+
+8. The League.--His brother, _Henry III._, who had been elected King
+of Poland, threw up that crown in favour of that of France. He was of a
+vain, false, weak character, superstitiously devout, and at the same
+time ferocious, so as to alienate every one. All were ashamed of a man
+who dressed in the extreme of foppery, with a rosary of death's heads at
+his girdle, and passed from wild dissipation to abject penance. He was
+called "the Paris Church-warden and the Queen's Hairdresser," for he
+passed from her toilette to the decoration of the walls of churches with
+illuminations cut out of old service-books. Sometimes he went about
+surrounded with little dogs, sometimes flogged himself walking barefoot
+in a procession, and his _mignons_, or favourites, were the scandal of
+the country by their pride, license, and savage deeds. The war broke out
+again, and his only remaining brother, Francis, Duke of Alençon, an
+equally hateful and contemptible being, fled from court to the Huguenot
+army, hoping to force his brother into buying his submission; but when
+the King of Navarre had followed him and begun the struggle in earnest,
+he accepted the duchy of Anjou, and returned to his allegiance. Francis
+was invited by the insurgent Dutch to become their chief, and spent some
+time in Holland, but returned, unsuccessful and dying. As the king was
+childless, the next male heir was Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, who
+had fled from court soon after Alençon returned to the Huguenot faith,
+and was reigning in his two counties of Béarn and Foix, the head of the
+Huguenots. In the resolve never to permit a heretic to wear the French
+crown, Guise and his party formed a Catholic league, to force Henry III.
+to choose another successor. Paris was devoted to Guise, and the king,
+finding himself almost a prisoner there, left the city, but was again
+mastered by the duke at Blois, and could so ill brook his arrogance, as
+to have recourse to assassination. He caused him to be slain at the
+palace at Blois in 1588. The fury of the League was so great that Henry
+III. was driven to take refuge with the King of Navarre, and they were
+together besieging Paris, when Henry III. was in his turn murdered by a
+monk, named Clement, in 1589.
+
+
+9. Henry IV.--The Leaguers proclaimed as king an old uncle of the
+King of Navarre, the Cardinal of Bourbon, but all the more moderate
+Catholics rallied round Henry of Navarre, who took the title of _Henry
+IV._ At Ivry, in Normandy, Henry met the force of Leaguers, and defeated
+them by his brilliant courage. "Follow my white plume," his last order
+to his troops, became one of the sayings the French love to remember.
+But his cause was still not won--Paris held out against him, animated by
+almost fanatical fury, and while he was besieging it France was invaded
+from the Netherlands. The old Cardinal of Bourbon was now dead, and
+Philip II. considered his daughter Isabel, whose mother was the eldest
+daughter of Henry II., to be rightful Queen of France. He sent therefore
+his ablest general, the Duke of Parma, to co-operate with the Leaguers
+and place her on the throne. A war of strategy was carried on, during
+which Henry kept the enemy at bay, but could do no more, since the
+larger number of his people, though intending to have no king but
+himself, did not wish him to gain too easy a victory, lest in that case
+he should remain a Calvinist. However, he was only waiting to recant
+till he could do so with a good grace. He really preferred Catholicism,
+and had only been a political Huguenot; and his best and most faithful
+adviser, the Baron of Rosny, better known as Duke of Sully, though a
+staunch Calvinist himself, recommended the change as the only means of
+restoring peace to the kingdom. There was little more resistance to
+Henry after he had again been received by the Church in 1592. Paris,
+weary of the long war, opened its gates in 1593, and the inhabitants
+crowded round him with ecstasy, so that he said, "Poor people, they are
+hungry for the sight of a king!" The Leaguers made their peace, and when
+Philip of Spain again attacked Henry, the young Duke of Guise was one of
+the first to hasten to the defence. Philip saw that there were no
+further hopes for his daughter, and peace was made in 1596.
+
+
+10. The Edict of Nantes.--Two years later, in 1598, Henry put forth
+what was called the Edict of Nantes, because first registered in that
+parliament. It secured to the Huguenots equal civil rights with those of
+the Catholics, accepted their marriages, gave them, under restrictions,
+permission to meet for worship and for consultations, and granted them
+cities for the security of their rights, of which La Rochelle was the
+chief. The Calvinists had been nearly exterminated in the north, but
+there were still a large number in the south of France, and the burghers
+of the chief southern cities were mostly Huguenot. The war had been from
+the first a very horrible one; there had been savage slaughter, and
+still more savage reprisals on each side. The young nobles had been
+trained into making a fashion of ferocity, and practising graceful ways
+of striking death-blows. Whole districts had been laid waste, churches
+and abbeys destroyed, tombs rifled, and the whole population accustomed
+to every sort of horror and suffering; while nobody but Henry IV.
+himself, and the Duke of Sully, had any notion either of statesmanship
+or of religious toleration.
+
+
+11. Henry's Plans.--Just as the reign of Louis XI. had been a period
+of rest and recovery from the English wars, so that of Henry IV. was one
+of restoration from the ravages of thirty years of intermittent civil
+war. The king himself not only had bright and engaging manners, but was
+a man of large heart and mind; and Sully did much for the welfare of the
+country. Roads, canals, bridges, postal communications, manufactures,
+extended commerce, all owed their promotion to him, and brought
+prosperity to the burgher class; and the king was especially endeared to
+the peasantry by his saying that he hoped for the time when no cottage
+would be without a good fowl in its pot. The great silk manufactories of
+southern France chiefly arose under his encouragement, and there was
+prosperity of every kind. The Church itself was in a far better state
+than before. Some of the best men of any time were then living--in
+especial Vincent de Paul, who did much to improve the training of the
+parochial clergy, and who founded the order of Sisters of Charity, who
+prevented the misery of the streets of Paris from ever being so
+frightful as in those days when deserted children became the prey of
+wolves, dogs, and pigs. The nobles, who had grown into insolence during
+the wars, either as favourites of Henry III. or as zealous supporters of
+the Huguenot cause, were subdued and tamed. The most noted of these were
+the Duke of Bouillon, the owner of the small principality of Sedan, who
+was reduced to obedience by the sight of Sully's formidable train of
+artillery; and the Marshal Duke of Biron, who, thinking that Henry had
+not sufficiently rewarded his services, intrigued with Spain and Savoy,
+and was beheaded for his treason. Hatred to the house of Austria in
+Spain and Germany was as keen as ever in France; and in 1610 Henry IV.
+was prepared for another war on the plea of a disputed succession to the
+duchy of Cleves. The old fanaticism still lingered in Paris, and Henry
+had been advised to beware of pageants there; but it was necessary that
+his second wife, Mary de' Medici, should be crowned before he went to
+the war, as she was to be left regent. Two days after the coronation, as
+Henry was going to the arsenal to visit his old friend Sully, he was
+stabbed to the heart in his coach, in the streets of Paris, by a fanatic
+named Ravaillac. The French call him Le Grand Monarque; and he was one
+of the most attractive and benevolent of men, winning the hearts of all
+who approached him, but the immorality of his life did much to confirm
+the already low standard that prevailed among princes and nobles in
+France.
+
+
+12. The States-General of 1614.--Henry's second wife, Mary de' Medici,
+became regent, for her son, _Louis XIII._, was only ten years old, and
+indeed his character was so weak that his whole reign was only one long
+minority. Mary de' Medici was entirely under the dominion of an Italian
+favourite named Concini, and his wife, and their whole endeavour was to
+amass riches for themselves and keep the young king in helpless
+ignorance, while they undid all that Sully had effected, and took bribes
+shamelessly. The Prince of Condé tried to overthrow them, and, in hopes
+of strengthening herself, in 1614 Mary summoned together the
+States-General. There came 464 members, 132 for the nobles, 140 for the
+clergy, and 192 for the third estate, _i.e._ the burghers, and these,
+being mostly lawyers and magistrates from the provinces, were resolved
+to make their voices heard. Taxation was growing worse and worse. Not
+only was it confined to the burgher and peasant class, exempting the
+clergy and the nobles, among which last were included their families to
+the remotest generation, but it had become the court custom to multiply
+offices, in order to pension the nobles, and keep them quiet; and this,
+together with the expenses of the army, made the weight of taxation
+ruinous. Moreover, the presentation to the civil offices held by
+lawyers was made hereditary in their families, on payment of a sum down,
+and of fees at the death of each holder. All these abuses were
+complained of; and one of the deputies even told the nobility that if
+they did not learn to treat the despised classes below them as younger
+brothers, they would lay up a terrible store of retribution for
+themselves. A petition to the king was drawn up, and was received, but
+never answered. The doors of the house of assembly were closed--the
+members were told it was by order of the king--and the States-General
+never met again for 177 years, when the storm was just ready to fall.
+
+
+13. The Siege of Rochelle.--The rottenness of the State was chiefly
+owing to the nobility, who, as long as they were allowed to grind down
+their peasants and shine at court, had no sense of duty or public
+spirit, and hated the burghers and lawyers far too much to make common
+cause with them against the constantly increasing power of the throne.
+They only intrigued and struggled for personal advantages and rivalries,
+and never thought of the good of the State. They bitterly hated Concini,
+the Marshal d'Ancre, as he had been created, but he remained in power
+till 1614, when one of the king's gentlemen, Albert de Luynes, plotted
+with the king himself and a few of his guards for his deliverance.
+Nothing could be easier than the execution. The king ordered the
+captain of the guards to arrest Concini, and kill him if he resisted;
+and this was done. Concini was cut down on the steps of the Louvre, and
+Louis exclaimed, "At last I am a king." But it was not in him to be a
+king, and he never was one all his life. He only passed under the
+dominion of De Luynes, who was a high-spirited young noble. The
+Huguenots had been holding assemblies, which were considered more
+political than religious, and their towns of security were a grievance
+to royalty. War broke out again, and Louis himself went with De Luynes
+to besiege Montauban. The place was taken, but disease broke out in the
+army, and De Luynes died. There was a fresh struggle for power between
+the queen-mother and the Prince of Condé, ending in both being set aside
+by the queen's almoner, Armand de Richelieu, Bishop of Luçon, and
+afterwards a cardinal, the ablest statesman then in Europe, who gained
+complete dominion over the king and country, and ruled them both with a
+rod of iron. The Huguenots were gradually driven out of all their
+strongholds, till only Rochelle remained to them. This city was bravely
+and patiently defended by the magistrates and the Duke of Rohan, with
+hopes of succour from England, until these being disconcerted by the
+murder of the Duke of Buckingham, they were forced to surrender, after
+having held out for more than a year. Louis XIII. entered in triumph,
+deprived the city of all its privileges, and thus in 1628 concluded the
+war that had begun by the attack of the Guisards on the congregation at
+Vassy, in 1561. The lives and properties of the Huguenots were still
+secure, but all favour was closed against them, and every encouragement
+held out to them to join the Church. Many of the worst scandals had been
+removed, and the clergy were much improved; and, from whatever motive it
+might be, many of the more influential Huguenots began to conform to the
+State religion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POWER OF THE CROWN.
+
+
+1. Richelieu's Administration.--Cardinal de Richelieu's whole idea of
+statesmanship consisted in making the King of France the greatest of
+princes at home and abroad. To make anything great of Louis XIII., who
+was feeble alike in mind and body, was beyond any one's power, and
+Richelieu kept him in absolute subjection, allowing him a favourite with
+whom to hunt, talk, and amuse himself, but if the friend attempted to
+rouse the king to shake off the yoke, crushing him ruthlessly. It was
+the crown rather than the king that the cardinal exalted, putting down
+whatever resisted. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the king's only brother,
+made a futile struggle for power, and freedom of choice in marriage, but
+was soon overcome. He was spared, as being the only heir to the kingdom,
+but the Duke of Montmorency, who had been led into his rebellion, was
+brought to the block, amid the pity and terror of all France. Whoever
+seemed dangerous to the State, or showed any spirit of independence,
+was marked by the cardinal, and suffered a hopeless imprisonment, if
+nothing worse; but at the same time his government was intelligent and
+able, and promoted prosperity, as far as was possible where there was
+such a crushing of individual spirit and enterprise. Richelieu's plan,
+in fact, was to found a despotism, though a wise and well-ordered
+despotism, at home, while he made France great by conquests abroad. And
+at this time the ambition of France found a favourable field in the
+state both of Germany and of Spain.
+
+
+2. The War in Flanders and Italy.--The Thirty Years' War had been
+raging in Germany for many years, and France had taken no part in it,
+beyond encouraging the Swedes and the Protestant Germans, as the enemies
+of the Emperor. But the policy of Richelieu required that the disunion
+between its Catholic and Protestant states should be maintained, and
+when things began to tend towards peace from mutual exhaustion, the
+cardinal interfered, and induced the Protestant party to continue the
+war by giving them money and reinforcements. A war had already begun in
+Italy on behalf of the Duke of Nevers, who had become heir to the duchy
+of Mantua, but whose family had lived in France so long that the Emperor
+and the King of Spain supported a more distant claim of the Duke of
+Savoy to part of the duchy, rather than admit a French prince into
+Italy. Richelieu was quick to seize this pretext for attacking Spain,
+for Spain was now dying into a weak power, and he saw in the war a means
+of acquiring the Netherlands, which belonged to the Spanish crown. At
+first nothing important was done, but the Spaniards and Germans were
+worn out, while two young and able captains were growing up among the
+French--the Viscount of Turenne, younger son to the Duke of Bouillon,
+and the Duke of Enghien, eldest son of the Prince of Condé--and
+Richelieu's policy soon secured a brilliant career of success. Elsass,
+Lorraine, Artois, Catalonia, and Savoy, all fell into the hands of the
+French, and from a chamber of sickness the cardinal directed the affairs
+of three armies, as well as made himself feared and respected by the
+whole kingdom. Cinq Mars, the last favourite he had given the king,
+plotted his overthrow, with the help of the Spaniards, but was detected
+and executed, when the great minister was already at death's door.
+Richelieu recommended an Italian priest, Julius Mazarin, whom he had
+trained to work under him, to carry on the government, and died in the
+December of 1642. The king only survived him five months, dying on the
+14th of May, 1643. The war was continued on the lines Richelieu had laid
+down, and four days after the death of Louis XIII. the army in the Low
+Countries gained a splendid victory at Rocroy, under the Duke of
+Enghien, entirely destroying the old Spanish infantry. The battles of
+Freiburg, Nordlingen, and Lens raised the fame of the French generals to
+the highest pitch, and in 1649 reduced the Emperor to make peace in the
+treaty of Münster. France obtained as her spoil the three bishoprics,
+Metz, Toul, and Verdun, ten cities in Elsass, Brisach, and the Sundgau,
+with the Savoyard town of Pignerol; but the war with Spain continued
+till 1659, when Louis XIV. engaged to marry Maria Theresa, a daughter of
+the King of Spain.
+
+
+3. The Fronde.--When an heir had long been despaired of, Anne of
+Austria, the wife of Louis XIII., had become the mother of two sons, the
+eldest of whom, _Louis XIV._, was only five years old at the time of his
+father's death. The queen-mother became regent, and trusted entirely to
+Mazarin, who had become a cardinal, and pursued the policy of Richelieu.
+But what had been endured from a man by birth a French noble, was
+intolerable from a low-born Italian. "After the lion comes the fox," was
+the saying, and the Parliament of Paris made a last stand by refusing to
+register the royal edict for fresh taxes, being supported both by the
+burghers of Paris, and by a great number of the nobility, who were
+personally jealous of Mazarin. This party was called the Fronde, because
+in their discussions each man stood forth, launched his speech, and
+retreated, just as the boys did with slings (_fronde_) and stones in the
+streets. The struggle became serious, but only a few of the lawyers in
+the parliament had any real principle or public spirit; all the other
+actors caballed out of jealousy and party spirit, making tools of "the
+men of the gown," whom they hated and despised, though mostly far their
+superiors in worth and intelligence. Anne of Austria held fast by
+Mazarin, and was supported by the Duke of Enghien, whom his father's
+death had made Prince of Condé. Condé's assistance enabled her to
+blockade Paris and bring the parliament to terms, which concluded the
+first act of the Fronde, with the banishment of Mazarin as a peace
+offering. Condé, however, became so arrogant and overbearing that the
+queen caused him to be imprisoned, whereupon his wife and his other
+friends began a fresh war for his liberation, and the queen was forced
+to yield; but he again showed himself so tyrannical that the queen and
+the parliament became reconciled and united to put him down, giving the
+command of the troops to Turenne. Again there was a battle at the gates
+of Paris, in which all Condé's friends were wounded, and he himself so
+entirely worsted that he had to go into exile, when he entered the
+Spanish service, while Mazarin returned to power at home.
+
+
+4. The Court of Anne of Austria.--The court of France, though never
+pure, was much improved during the reign of Louis XIII. and the regency
+of Anne of Austria. There was a spirit of romance and grace about it,
+somewhat cumbrous and stately, but outwardly pure and refined, and quite
+a step out of the gross and open vice of the former reigns. The Duchess
+de Rambouillet, a lady of great grace and wit, made her house the centre
+of a brilliant society, which set itself to raise and refine the
+manners, literature, and language of the time. No word that was
+considered vulgar or coarse was allowed to pass muster; and though in
+process of time this censorship became pedantic and petty, there is no
+doubt that much was done to purify both the language and the tone of
+thought. Poems, plays, epigrams, eulogiums, and even sermons were
+rehearsed before the committee of taste in the Hôtel de Rambouillet, and
+a wonderful new stimulus was there given, not only to ornamental but to
+solid literature. Many of the great men who made France illustrious were
+either ending or beginning their careers at this time. Memoir writing
+specially flourished, and the characters of the men and women of the
+court are known to us on all sides. Cardinal de Retz and the Duke of
+Rochefoucauld, both deeply engaged in the Fronde, have left, the one
+memoirs, the other maxims of great power of irony. Mme. de Motteville,
+one of the queen's ladies, wrote a full history of the court. Blaise
+Pascal, one of the greatest geniuses of all times, was attaching
+himself to the Jansenists. This religious party, so called from Jansen,
+a Dutch priest, whose opinions were imputed to them, had sprung up
+around the reformed convent of Port Royal, and numbered among them some
+of the ablest and best men of the time; but the Jesuits considered them
+to hold false doctrine, and there was a continual debate, ending at
+length in the persecution of the Jansenists. Pascal's "Provincial
+Letters," exposing the Jesuit system, were among the ablest writings of
+the age. Philosophy, poetry, science, history, art, were all making
+great progress, though there was a stateliness and formality in all that
+was said and done, redolent of the Spanish queen's etiquette and the
+fastidious refinement of the Hôtel Rambouillet.
+
+
+5. Court of Louis XIV.--The attempt from the earliest times of the
+French monarchy had been to draw all government into the hands of the
+sovereign, and the suppression of the Fronde completed the work. Louis
+XIV., though ill educated, was a man of considerable ability, much
+industry, and great force of character, arising from a profound belief
+that France was the first country in the world, and himself the first of
+Frenchmen; and he had a magnificent courtesy of demeanour, which so
+impressed all who came near him as to make them his willing slaves.
+"There is enough in him to make four kings and one respectable man
+besides" was what Mazarin said of him; and when in 1661 the cardinal
+died, the king showed himself fully equal to becoming his own prime
+minister. "The State is myself," he said, and all centred upon him so
+that no room was left for statesmen. The court was, however, in a most
+brilliant state. There had been an unusual outburst of talent of every
+kind in the lull after the Wars of Religion, and in generals, thinkers,
+artists, and men of literature, France was unusually rich. The king had
+a wonderful power of self-assertion, which attached them all to him
+almost as if he were a sort of divinity. The stately, elaborate Spanish
+etiquette brought in by his mother, Anne of Austria, became absolutely
+an engine of government. Henry IV. had begun the evil custom of keeping
+the nobles quiet by giving them situations at court, with pensions
+attached, and these offices were multiplied to the most enormous and
+absurd degree, so that every royal personage had some hundreds of
+personal attendants. Princes of the blood and nobles of every degree
+were contented to hang about the court, crowding into the most narrow
+lodgings at Versailles, and thronging its anterooms; and to be ordered
+to remain in the country was a most severe punishment.
+
+
+6. France under Louis XIV.--There was, in fact, nothing but the chase
+to occupy a gentleman on his own estate, for he was allowed no duties
+or responsibilities. Each province had a governor or _intendant_, a sort
+of viceroy, and the administration of the cities was managed chiefly on
+the part of the king, even the mayors obtaining their posts by purchase.
+The unhappy peasants had to pay in the first place the taxes to
+Government, out of which were defrayed an intolerable number of
+pensions, many for useless offices; next, the rents and dues which
+supported their lord's expenditure at court; and, thirdly, the tithes
+and fees of the clergy. Besides which, they were called off from the
+cultivation of their own fields for a certain number of days to work at
+the roads; their horses might be used by royal messengers; their lord's
+crops had to be got in by their labour gratis, while their own were
+spoiling; and, in short, the only wonder is how they existed at all.
+Their hovels and their food were wretched, and any attempt to amend
+their condition on the part of their lord would have been looked on as
+betokening dangerous designs, and probably have landed him in the
+Bastille. The peasants of Brittany--where the old constitution had been
+less entirely ruined--and those of Anjou were in a less oppressed
+condition, and in the cities trade flourished. Colbert, the
+comptroller-general of the finances, was so excellent a manager that the
+pressure of taxation was endurable in his time, and he promoted new
+manufactures, such as glass at Cherbourg, cloth at Abbeville, silk at
+Lyons; he also tried to promote commerce and colonization, and to create
+a navy. There was a great appearance of prosperity, and in every
+department there was wonderful ability. The Reformation had led to a
+considerable revival among the Roman Catholics themselves. The
+theological colleges established in the last reign had much improved the
+tone of the clergy. Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, was one of the most noted
+preachers who ever existed, and Fénélon, Archbishop of Cambrai, one of
+the best of men. A reform of discipline, begun in the convent of Port
+Royal, ended by attracting and gathering together some of the most
+excellent and able persons in France--among them Blaise Pascal, a man of
+marvellous genius and depth of thought, and Racine, the chief French
+dramatic poet. Their chief director, the Abbot of St. Cyran, was
+however, a pupil of Jansen, a Dutch ecclesiastic, whose views on
+abstruse questions of grace were condemned by the Jesuits; and as the
+Port-Royalists would not disown the doctrines attributed to him, they
+were discouraged and persecuted throughout Louis's reign, more because
+he was jealous of what would not bend to his will than for any real want
+of conformity. Pascal's famous "Provincial Letters" were put forth
+during this controversy; and in fact, the literature of France reached
+its Augustan age during this reign, and the language acquired its
+standard perfection.
+
+
+7. War in the Low Countries.--Maria Theresa, the queen of Louis XIV.,
+was the child of the first marriage of Philip IV. of Spain; and on her
+father's death in 1661, Louis, on pretext of an old law in Brabant,
+which gave the daughters of a first marriage the preference over the
+sons of a second, claimed the Low Countries from the young Charles II.
+of Spain. He thus began a war which was really a continuance of the old
+struggle between France and Burgundy, and of the endeavour of France to
+stretch her frontier to the Rhine. At first England, Holland, and Sweden
+united against him, and obliged him to make the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 1668; but he then succeeded in bribing Charles II. of England to
+forsake the cause of the Dutch, and the war was renewed in 1672.
+William, Prince of Orange, Louis's most determined enemy through life,
+kept up the spirits of the Dutch, and they obtained aid from Germany and
+Spain, through a six years' terrible war, in which the great Turenne was
+killed at Saltzbach, in Germany. At last, from exhaustion, all parties
+were compelled to conclude the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Taking
+advantage of undefined terms in this treaty, Louis seized various cities
+belonging to German princes, and likewise the free imperial city of
+Strassburg, when all Germany was too much worn out by the long war to
+offer resistance. France was full of self-glorification, the king was
+viewed almost as a demi-god, and the splendour of his court and of his
+buildings, especially the palace at Versailles, with its gardens and
+fountains, kept up the delusion of his greatness.
+
+
+8. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.--In 1685 Louis supposed that the
+Huguenots had been so reduced in numbers that the Edict of Nantes could
+be repealed. All freedom of worship was denied them; their ministers
+were banished, but their flocks were not allowed to follow them. If
+taken while trying to escape, men were sent to the galleys, women to
+captivity, and children to convents for education. Dragoons were
+quartered on families to torment them into going to mass. A few made
+head in the wild moors of the Cevennes under a brave youth named
+Cavalier, and others endured severe persecution in the south of France.
+Dragoons were quartered on them, who made it their business to torment
+and insult them; their marriages were declared invalid, their children
+taken from them to be educated in the Roman Catholic faith. A great
+number, amounting to at least 100,000, succeeded in escaping, chiefly to
+Prussia, Holland, and England, whither they carried many of the
+manufactures that Colbert had taken so much pains to establish. Many of
+those who settled in England were silk weavers, and a large colony was
+thus established at Spitalfields, which long kept up its French
+character.
+
+
+9. The War of the Palatinate.--This brutal act of tyranny was followed
+by a fresh attack on Germany. On the plea of a supposed inheritance of
+his sister-in-law, the Duchess of Orleans, Louis invaded the Palatinate
+on the Rhine, and carried on one of the most ferocious wars in history,
+while he was at the same time supporting the cause of his cousin, James
+II. of England, after he had fled and abdicated on the arrival of
+William of Orange. During this war, however, that generation of able men
+who had grown up with Louis began to pass away, and his success was not
+so uniform; while, Colbert being dead, taxation began to be more felt by
+the exhausted people, and peace was made at Ryswick in 1697.
+
+
+10. The War of the Succession in Spain.--The last of the four great
+wars of Louis's reign was far more unfortunate. Charles II. of Spain
+died childless, naming as his successor a French prince, Philip, Duke of
+Anjou, the second son of the only son of Charles's eldest sister, the
+queen of Louis XIV. But the Powers of Europe, at the Peace of Ryswick,
+had agreed that the crown of Spain should go to Charles of Austria,
+second son of the Emperor Leopold, who was the descendant of younger
+sisters of the royal Spanish line, but did not excite the fear and
+jealousy of Europe, as did a scion of the already overweening house of
+Bourbon. This led to the War of the Spanish Succession, England and
+Holland supporting Charles, and fighting with Louis in Spain, Savoy, and
+the Low Countries. In Spain Louis was ultimately successful, and his
+grandson Philip V. retained the throne; but the troops which his ally,
+the Elector of Bavaria, introduced into Germany were totally overthrown
+at Blenheim by the English army under the Duke of Marlborough, and the
+Austrian under Prince Eugene, a son of a younger branch of the house of
+Savoy. Eugene had been bred up in France, but, having bitterly offended
+Louis by calling him a stage king for show and a chess king for use, had
+entered the Emperor's service, and was one of his chief enemies. He
+aided his cousin, Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in repulsing the French
+attacks in that quarter, gained a great victory at Turin, and advanced
+into Provence. Marlborough was likewise in full career of victory in the
+Low Countries, and gained there the battle of Ramillies.
+
+
+11. Peace of Utrecht.--Louis had outlived his good fortune. His great
+generals and statesmen had passed away. The country was exhausted,
+famine was preying on the wretched peasantry, supplies could not be
+found, and one city after another, of those Louis had seized, was
+retaken. New victories at Oudenarde and Malplaquet were gained over the
+French armies; and, though Louis was as resolute and undaunted as ever,
+his affairs were in a desperate state, when he was saved by a sudden
+change of policy on the part of Queen Anne of England, who recalled her
+army and left her allies to continue the contest alone. Eugene was not a
+match for France without Marlborough, and the Archduke Charles, having
+succeeded his brother the Emperor, gave up his pretensions to the crown
+of Spain, so that it became possible to conclude a general peace at
+Utrecht in 1713. By this time Louis was seventy-five years of age, and
+had suffered grievous family losses--first by the death of his only son,
+and then of his eldest grandson, a young man of much promise of
+excellence, who, with his wife died of malignant measles, probably from
+ignorant medical treatment, since their infant, whose illness was
+concealed by his nurses, was the only one of the family who survived.
+The old king, in spite of sorrow and reverse, toiled with indomitable
+energy to the end of his reign, the longest on record, having lasted
+seventy-two years, when he died in 1715. He had raised the French crown
+to its greatest splendour, but had sacrificed the country to himself and
+his false notions of greatness.
+
+
+12. The Regency.--The crown now descended to _Louis XV._, a weakly
+child of four years old. His great-grandfather had tried to provide for
+his good by leaving the chief seat in the council of regency to his own
+illegitimate son, the Duke of Maine, the most honest and conscientious
+man then in the family, but, though clever, unwise and very unpopular.
+His birth caused the appointment to be viewed as an outrage by the
+nobility, and the king's will was set aside. The first prince of the
+blood royal, Philip, Duke of Orleans, the late king's nephew, became
+sole regent--a man of good ability, but of easy, indolent nature; and
+who, in the enforced idleness of his life, had become dissipated and
+vicious beyond all imagination or description. He was kindly and
+gracious, and his mother said of him that he was like the prince in a
+fable whom all the fairies had endowed with gifts, except one malignant
+sprite who had prevented any favour being of use to him. In the general
+exhaustion produced by the wars of Louis XIV., a Scotchman named James
+Law began the great system of hollow speculation which has continued
+ever since to tempt people to their ruin. He tried raising sums of money
+on national credit, and also devised a company who were to lend money to
+found a great settlement on the Mississippi, the returns from which were
+to be enormous. Every one speculated in shares, and the wildest
+excitement prevailed. Law's house was mobbed by people seeking
+interviews with him, and nobles disguised themselves in liveries to get
+access to him. Fortunes were made one week and lost the next, and
+finally the whole plan proved to have been a mere baseless scheme; ruin
+followed, and the misery of the country increased. The Duke of Orleans
+died suddenly in 1723. The king was now legally of age; but he was dull
+and backward, and little fitted for government, and the country was
+really ruled by the Duke of Bourbon, and after him by Cardinal Fleury,
+an aged statesman, but filled with the same schemes of ambition as
+Richelieu or Mazarin.
+
+
+13. War of the Austrian Succession.--Thus France plunged into new
+wars. Louis XV. married the daughter of Stanislas Lecksinsky, a Polish
+noble, who, after being raised to the throne, was expelled by Austrian
+intrigues and violence. Louis was obliged to take up arms on behalf of
+his father-in-law, but was bought off by a gift from the Emperor Charles
+VI. of the duchy of Lorraine to Stanislas, to revert to his daughter
+after his death and thus become united to France. Lorraine belonged to
+Duke Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, eldest daughter to the
+Emperor, and Francis received instead the duchy of Tuscany; while all
+the chief Powers in Europe agreed to the so-called Pragmatic Sanction,
+by which Charles decreed that Maria Theresa should inherit Austria and
+Hungary and the other hereditary states on her father's death, to the
+exclusion of the daughters of his elder brother, Joseph. When Charles
+VI. died, however, in 1740, a great European war began on this matter.
+Frederick II. of Prussia would neither allow Maria Theresa's claim to
+the hereditary states, nor join in electing her husband to the Empire;
+and France took part against her, sending Marshal Belleisle to support
+the Elector of Bavaria, who had been chosen Emperor. George II. of
+England held with Maria Theresa, and gained a victory over the French at
+Dettingen, in 1744. Louis XV. then joined his army, and the battle of
+Fontenoy, in 1745, was one of the rare victories of France over England.
+Another victory followed at Laufeldt, but elsewhere France had had heavy
+losses, and in 1748, after the death of Charles VII., peace was made at
+Aix-la-Chapelle.
+
+
+14. The Seven Years' War.--Louis, dull and selfish by nature, had been
+absolutely led into vice by his courtiers, especially the Duke of
+Bourbon, who feared his becoming active in public affairs. He had no
+sense of duty to his people; and whereas his great-grandfather had
+sought display and so-called glory, he cared solely for pleasure, and
+that of the grossest and most sensual order, so that his court was a
+hotbed of shameless vice. All that could be wrung from the impoverished
+country was lavished on the overgrown establishments of every member of
+the royal family, in pensions to nobles, and in shameful amusements of
+the king. In 1756 another war broke out, in consequence of the hatreds
+left between Prussia and Austria by the former struggle. Maria Theresa
+had, by flatteries she ought to have disdained, gained over France to
+take part with her, and England was allied with Frederick II. In this
+war France and England chiefly fought in their distant possessions,
+where the English were uniformly successful; and after seven years
+another peace followed, leaving the boundaries of the German states just
+where they were before, after a frightful amount of bloodshed. But
+France had had terrible losses. She was driven from India, and lost all
+her settlements in America and Canada.
+
+
+15. France under Louis XV.--Meantime the gross vice and licentiousness
+of the king was beyond description, and the nobility retained about the
+court by the system established by Louis XIV. were, if not his equals in
+crime, equally callous to the suffering caused by the reckless
+expensiveness of the court, the whole cost of which was defrayed by the
+burghers and peasants. No taxes were asked from clergy or nobles, and
+this latter term included all sprung of a noble line to the utmost
+generation. The owner of an estate had no means of benefiting his
+tenants, even if he wished it; for all matters, even of local
+government, depended on the crown. All he could do was to draw his
+income from them, and he was often forced, either by poverty or by his
+expensive life, to strain to the utmost the old feudal system. If he
+lived at court, his expenses were heavy, and only partly met by his
+pension, likewise raised from the taxes paid by the poor farmer; if he
+lived in the country, he was a still greater tyrant, and was called by
+the people a _hobereau_, or kite. No career was open to his younger
+sons, except in the court, the Church, or the army, and here they
+monopolized the prizes, obtaining all the richer dioceses and abbeys,
+and all the promotion in the army. The magistracies were almost all
+hereditary among lawyers, who had bought them for their families from
+the crown, and paid for the appointment of each son. The officials
+attached to each member of the royal family were almost incredible in
+number, and all paid by the taxes. The old _gabelle_, or salt-tax, had
+gone on ever since the English wars, and every member of a family had to
+pay it, not according to what they used, but what they were supposed to
+need. Every pig was rated at what he ought to require for salting. Every
+cow, sheep, or hen had a toll to pay to king, lord, bishop--sometimes
+also to priest and abbey. The peasant was called off from his own work
+to give the dues of labour to the roads or to his lord. He might not
+spread manure that could interfere with the game, nor drive away the
+partridges that ate his corn. So scanty were his crops that famines
+slaying thousands passed unnoticed, and even if, by any wonder,
+prosperity smiled on the peasant, he durst not live in any kind of
+comfort, lest the stewards of his lord or of Government should pounce on
+his wealth.
+
+
+16. Reaction.--Meantime there was a strong feeling that change must
+come. Classical literature was studied, and Greek and Roman manners and
+institutions were thought ideal perfection. There was great disgust at
+the fetters of a highly artificial life in which every one was bound,
+and at the institutions which had been so misused. Writers arose, among
+whom Voltaire and Rousseau were the most eminent, who aimed at the
+overthrow of all the ideas which had come to be thus abused. The one by
+his caustic wit, the other by his enthusiastic simplicity, gained
+willing ears, and, the writers in a great Encyclopædia then in course of
+publication, contrived to attack most of the notions which had been
+hitherto taken for granted, and were closely connected with faith and
+with government. The king himself was dully aware that he was living on
+the crust of a volcano, but he said it would last his time; and so it
+did. Louis XV. died of smallpox in 1774, leaving his grandsons to reap
+the harvest that generations had been sowing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE REVOLUTION.
+
+
+1. Attempts at Reform.--It was evident that a change must be made.
+_Louis XVI._ himself knew it, and slurred over the words in his
+coronation oath that bound him to extirpate heresy; but he was a slow,
+dull man, and affairs had come to such a pass that a far abler man than
+he could hardly have dealt with the dead-lock above, without causing a
+frightful outbreak of the pent-up masses below. His queen, Marie
+Antoinette, was hated for being of Austrian birth, and, though a
+spotless and noble woman, her most trivial actions gave occasion to
+calumnies founded on the crimes of the last generation. Unfortunately,
+the king, though an honest and well-intentioned man, was totally unfit
+to guide a country through a dangerous crisis. His courage was passive,
+his manners were heavy, dull, and shy, and, though steadily industrious,
+he was slow of comprehension and unready in action; and reformation was
+the more difficult because to abolish the useless court offices would
+have been utter starvation to many of their holders, who had nothing but
+their pensions to live upon. Yet there was a general passion for reform;
+all ranks alike looked to some change to free them from the dead-lock
+which made improvement impossible. The Government was bankrupt, while
+the taxes were intolerable, and the first years of the reign were spent
+in experiments. Necker, a Swiss banker, was invited to take the charge
+of the finances, and large loans were made to Government, for which he
+contrived to pay interest regularly; some reduction was made in the
+expenditure; but the king's old minister, Maurepas, grew jealous of his
+popularity, and obtained his dismissal. The French took the part of the
+American colonies in their revolt from England, and the war thus
+occasioned brought on an increase of the load of debt, the general
+distress increased, and it became necessary to devise some mode of
+taxing which might divide the burthens between the whole nation, instead
+of making the peasants pay all and the nobles and clergy nothing. Louis
+decided on calling together the Notables, or higher nobility; but they
+were by no means disposed to tax themselves, and only abused his
+ministers. He then resolved on convoking the whole States-General of the
+kingdom, which had never met since the reign of Louis XIII.
+
+
+2. The States-General.--No one exactly knew the limits of the powers
+of the States-General when it met in 1789. Nobles, clergy, and the
+deputies who represented the commonalty, all formed the assembly at
+Versailles; and though the king would have kept apart these last, who
+were called the _Tiers Etât_, or third estate, they refused to withdraw
+from the great hall of Versailles. The Count of Mirabeau, the younger
+son of a noble family, who sat as a deputy, declared that nothing short
+of bayonets should drive out those who sat by the will of the people,
+and Louis yielded. Thenceforth the votes of a noble, a bishop, or a
+deputy all counted alike. The party names of democrat for those who
+wanted to exalt the power of the people, and of aristocrat for those who
+maintained the privileges of the nobles, came into use, and the most
+extreme democrats were called Jacobins, from an old convent of Jacobin
+friars, where they used to meet. The mob of Paris, always eager, fickle,
+and often blood-thirsty, were excited to the last degree by the debates;
+and, full of the remembrance of the insolence and cruelty of the nobles,
+sometimes rose and hunted down persons whom they deemed aristocrats,
+hanging them to the iron rods by which lamps were suspended over the
+streets. The king in alarm drew the army nearer, and it was supposed
+that he was going to prevent all change by force of arms. Thereupon the
+citizens enrolled themselves as a National Guard, wearing cockades of
+red, blue, and white, and commanded by La Fayette, a noble of democratic
+opinions, who had run away at seventeen to serve in the American War. On
+a report that the cannon of the Bastille had been pointed upon Paris,
+the mob rose in a frenzy, rushed upon it, hanged the guard, and
+absolutely tore down the old castle to its foundations, though they did
+not find a single prisoner in it. "This is a revolt," said Louis, when
+he heard of it. "Sire, it is a revolution," was the answer.
+
+
+3. The New Constitution.--The mob had found out its power. The
+fishwomen of the markets, always a peculiar and privileged class, were
+frantically excited, and were sure to be foremost in all the
+demonstrations stirred up by Jacobins. There was a great scarcity of
+provisions in Paris, and this, together with the continual dread that
+reforms would be checked by violence, maddened the people. On a report
+that the Guards had shown enthusiasm for the king, the whole populace
+came pouring out of Paris to Versailles, and, after threatening the life
+of the queen, brought the family back with them to Paris, and kept them
+almost as prisoners while the Assembly, which followed them to Paris,
+debated on the new constitution. The nobles were viewed as the worst
+enemies of the nation, and all over the country there were risings of
+the peasants, headed by democrats from the towns, who sacked their
+castles, and often seized their persons. Many fled to England and
+Germany, and the dread that these would unite and return to bring back
+the old system continually increased the fury of the people. The
+Assembly, now known as the Constituent Assembly, swept away all titles
+and privileges, and no one was henceforth to bear any prefix to his name
+but citizen; while at the same time the clergy were to renounce all the
+property of the Church, and to swear that their office and commission
+was derived from the will of the people alone, and that they owed no
+obedience save to the State. The estates thus yielded up were supposed
+to be enough to supply all State expenses without taxes; but as they
+could not at once be turned into money, promissory notes, or assignats,
+were issued. But, as coin was scarce, these were not worth nearly their
+professed value, and the general distress was thus much increased. The
+other oath the great body of the clergy utterly refused, and they were
+therefore driven out of their benefices, and became objects of great
+suspicion to the democrats. All the old boundaries and other
+distinctions between the provinces were destroyed, and France was
+divided into departments, each of which was to elect deputies, in whose
+assembly all power was to be vested, except that the king retained a
+right of veto, _i.e._, of refusing his sanction to any measure. He swore
+on the 13th of August, 1791, to observe this new constitution.
+
+
+4. The Republic.--The Constituent Assembly now dissolved itself, and a
+fresh Assembly, called the Legislative, took its place. For a time
+things went on more peacefully. Distrust was, however, deeply sown. The
+king was closely watched as an enemy; and those of the nobles who had
+emigrated began to form armies, aided by the Germans, on the frontier
+for his rescue. This enraged the people, who expected that their newly
+won liberties would be overthrown. The first time the king exercised his
+right of _veto_ the mob rose in fury; and though they then did no more
+than threaten, on the advance of the emigrant army on the 10th of
+August, 1792, a more terrible rising took place. The Tuilleries was
+sacked, the guards slaughtered, the unresisting king and his family
+deposed and imprisoned in the tower of the Temple. In terror lest the
+nobles in the prisons should unite with the emigrants, they were
+massacred by wholesale; while, with a vigour born of the excitement, the
+emigrant armies were repulsed and beaten. The monarchy came to an end;
+and France became a Republic, in which the National Convention, which
+followed the Legislative Assembly, was supreme. The more moderate
+members of this were called Girondins from the Gironde, the estuary of
+the Garonne, from the neighbourhood of which many of them came. They
+were able men, scholars and philosophers, full of schemes for reviving
+classical times, but wishing to stop short of the plans of the
+Jacobins, of whom the chief was Robespierre, a lawyer from Artois,
+filled with fanatical notions of the rights of man. He, with a party of
+other violent republicans, called the Mountain, of whom Danton and Marat
+were most noted, set to work to destroy all that interfered with their
+plans of general equality. The guillotine, a recently invented machine
+for beheading, was set in all the chief market-places, and hundreds were
+put to death on the charge of "conspiring against the nation." Louis
+XVI. was executed early in 1793; and it was enough to have any sort of
+birthright to be thought dangerous and put to death.
+
+
+5. The Reign of Terror.--Horror at the bloodshed perpetrated by the
+Mountain led a young girl, named Charlotte Corday, to assassinate Marat,
+whom she supposed to be the chief cause of the cruelties that were
+taking place; but his death only added to the dread of reaction. A
+Committee of Public Safety was appointed by the Convention, and
+endeavoured to sweep away every being who either seemed adverse to
+equality, or who might inherit any claim to rank. The queen was put to
+death nine months after her husband; and the Girondins, who had begun to
+try to stem the tide of slaughter, soon fell under the denunciation of
+the more violent. To be accused of "conspiring against the State" was
+instantly fatal, and no one's life was safe. Danton was denounced by
+Robespierre, and perished; and for three whole years the Reign of Terror
+lasted. The emigrants, by forming an army and advancing on France,
+assisted by the forces of Germany, only made matters worse. There was
+such a dread of the old oppressions coming back, that the peasants were
+ready to fight to the death against the return of the nobles. The army,
+where promotion used to go by rank instead of merit, were so glad of the
+change, that they were full of fresh spirit, and repulsed the army of
+Germans and emigrants all along the frontier. The city of Lyons, which
+had tried to resist the changes, was taken, and frightfully used by
+Collot d'Herbois, a member of the Committee of Public Safety. The
+guillotine was too slow for him, and he had the people mown down with
+grape-shot, declaring that of this great city nothing should be left but
+a monument inscribed, "Lyons resisted liberty--Lyons is no more!" In La
+Vendée--a district of Anjou, where the peasants were much attached to
+their clergy and nobles--they rose and gained such successes, that they
+dreamt for a little while of rescuing and restoring the little captive
+son of Louis XVI.; but they were defeated and put down by fire and
+sword, and at Nantes an immense number of executions took place, chiefly
+by drowning. It was reckoned that no less than 18,600 persons were
+guillotined in the three years between 1790 and 1794, besides those who
+died by other means. Everything was changed. Religion was to be done
+away with; the churches were closed; the tenth instead of the seventh
+day appointed for rest. "Death is an eternal sleep" was inscribed on the
+schools; and Reason, represented by a classically dressed woman, was
+enthroned in the cathedral of Notre Dâme. At the same time a new era was
+invented, the 22nd of September, 1792; the months had new names, and the
+decimal measures of length, weight, and capacity, which are based on the
+proportions of the earth, were planned. All this time Robespierre really
+seems to have thought himself the benefactor of the human race; but at
+last the other members of the Convention took courage to denounce him,
+and he, with five more, was arrested and sent to the guillotine. The
+bloodthirsty fever was over, the Committee of Public Safety was
+overthrown, and people breathed again.
+
+
+6. The Directory.--The chief executive power was placed in the hands
+of a Directory, consisting of more moderate men, and a time of much
+prosperity set in. Already in the new vigour born of the strong emotions
+of the country the armies won great victories, not only repelling the
+Germans and the emigrants, but uniting Holland to France. Napoleon
+Buonaparte, a Corsican officer, who was called on to protect the
+Directory from being again overawed by the mob, became the leading
+spirit in France, through his Italian victories. He conquered Lombardy
+and Tuscany, and forced the Emperor to let them become republics under
+French protection, also to resign Flanders to France by the Treaty of
+Campo Formio. Buonaparte then made a descent on Egypt, hoping to attack
+India from that side, but he was foiled by Nelson, who destroyed his
+fleet in the battle of the Nile, and Sir Sydney Smith, who held out Acre
+against him. He hurried home to France on finding that the Directory had
+begun a fresh European war, seizing Switzerland, and forcing it to give
+up its treasures and become a republic on their model, and carrying the
+Pope off into captivity. All the European Powers had united against
+them, and Lombardy had been recovered chiefly by Russian aid; so that
+Buonaparte, on the ground that a nation at war needed a less cumbrous
+government than a Directory, contrived to get himself chosen First
+Consul, with two inferiors, in 1799.
+
+
+7. The Consulate.--A great course of victories followed in Italy,
+where Buonaparte commanded in person, and in Germany under Moreau.
+Austria and Russia were forced to make peace, and England was the only
+country that still resisted him, till a general peace was made at Amiens
+in 1803; but it only lasted for a year, for the French failed to
+perform the conditions, and began the war afresh. In the mean time
+Buonaparte had restored religion and order, and so entirely mastered
+France that, in 1804, he was able to form the republic into an empire,
+and affecting to be another Charles the Great, he caused the Pope to say
+mass at his coronation, though he put the crown on his own head. A
+concordat with the Pope reinstated the clergy, but altered the division
+of the dioceses, and put the bishops and priests in the pay of the
+State.
+
+
+8. The Empire.--The union of Italy to this new French Empire caused a
+fresh war with all Europe. The Austrian army, however, was defeated at
+Ulm and Austerlitz, the Prussians were entirely crushed at Jena, and the
+Russians fought two terrible but almost drawn battles at Eylau and
+Friedland. Peace was then made with all three at Tilsit, in 1807, the
+terms pressing exceedingly hard upon Prussia. Schemes of invading
+England were entertained by the Emperor, but were disconcerted by the
+destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by Nelson at Trafalgar.
+Spain was then in alliance with France; but Napoleon, treacherously
+getting the royal family into his hands, seized their kingdom, making
+his brother Joseph its king. But the Spaniards would not submit, and
+called in the English to their aid. The Peninsular War resulted in a
+series of victories on the part of the English under Wellington, while
+Austria, beginning another war, was again so crushed that the Emperor
+durst not refuse to give his daughter in marriage to Napoleon. However,
+in 1812, the conquest of Russia proved an exploit beyond Napoleon's
+powers. He reached Moscow with his Grand Army, but the city was burnt
+down immediately after his arrival, and he had no shelter or means of
+support. He was forced to retreat, through a fearful winter, without
+provisions and harassed by the Cossacks, who hung on the rear and cut
+off the stragglers, so that his whole splendid army had become a mere
+miserable, broken, straggling remnant by the time the survivors reached
+the Prussian frontier. He himself had hurried back to Paris as soon as
+he found their case hopeless, to arrange his resistance to all
+Europe--for every country rose against him on his first disaster--and
+the next year was spent in a series of desperate battles in Germany
+between him and the Allied Powers. Lützen and Bautzen were doubtful, but
+the two days' battle of Leipzic was a terrible defeat. In the year 1814,
+four armies--those of Austria, Russia, England, and Prussia--entered
+France at once; and though Napoleon resisted, stood bravely and
+skilfully, and gained single battles against Austria and Prussia, he
+could not stand against all Europe. In April the Allies entered Paris,
+and he was forced to abdicate, being sent under a strong guard to the
+little Mediterranean isle of Elba. He had drained France of men by his
+constant call for soldiers, who were drawn by conscription from the
+whole country, till there were not enough to do the work in the fields,
+and foreign prisoners had to be employed; but he had conferred on her
+one great benefit in the great code of laws called the "_Code
+Napoléon_," which has ever since continued in force.
+
+
+9. France under Napoleon.--The old laws and customs, varying in
+different provinces, had been swept away, so that the field was clear;
+and the system of government which Napoleon devised has remained
+practically unchanged from that time to this. Everything was made to
+depend upon the central government. The Ministers of Religion, of
+Justice, of Police, of Education, etc., have the regulation of all
+interior affairs, and appoint all who work under them, so that nobody
+learns how to act alone; and as the Government has been in fact ever
+since dependent on the will of the people of Paris, the whole country is
+helplessly in their hands. The army, as in almost all foreign nations,
+is raised by conscription--that is, by drawing lots among the young men
+liable to serve, and who can only escape by paying a substitute to serve
+in their stead; and this is generally the first object of the savings of
+a family. All feudal claims had been done away with, and with them the
+right of primogeniture; and, indeed, it is not possible for a testator
+to avoid leaving his property to be shared among his family, though he
+can make some small differences in the amount each receives, and thus
+estates are continually freshly divided, and some portions become very
+small indeed. French peasants are, however, most eager to own land, and
+are usually very frugal, sober, and saving; and the country has gone on
+increasing in prosperity and comfort. It is true that, probably from the
+long habit of concealing any wealth they might possess, the French
+farmers and peasantry care little for display, or what we should call
+comfort, and live rough hard-working lives even while well off and with
+large hoards of wealth; but their condition has been wonderfully changed
+for the better ever since the Revolution. All this has continued under
+the numerous changes that have taken place in the forms of government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION.
+
+
+1. The Restoration.--The Allies left the people of France free to
+choose their Government, and they accepted the old royal family, who
+were on their borders awaiting a recall. The son of Louis XVI. had
+perished in the hands of his jailers, and thus the king's next brother,
+_Louis XVIII._, succeeded to the throne, bringing back a large emigrant
+following. Things were not settled down, when Napoleon, in the spring of
+1815, escaped from Elba. The army welcomed him with delight, and Louis
+was forced to flee to Ghent. However, the Allies immediately rose in
+arms, and the troops of England and Prussia crushed Napoleon entirely at
+Waterloo, on the 18th of June, 1815. He was sent to the lonely rock of
+St. Helena, in the Atlantic, whence he could not again return to trouble
+the peace of Europe. There he died in 1821. Louis XVIII. was restored,
+and a charter was devised by which a limited monarchy was established, a
+king at the head, and two chambers--one of peers, the other of
+deputies, but with a very narrow franchise. It did not, however, work
+amiss; till, after Louis's death in 1824, his brother, _Charles X._,
+tried to fall back on the old system. He checked the freedom of the
+press, and interfered with the freedom of elections. The consequence was
+a fresh revolution in July, 1830, happily with little bloodshed, but
+which forced Charles X. to go into exile with his grandchild Henry,
+whose father, the Duke of Berry, had been assassinated in 1820.
+
+
+2. Reign of Louis Philippe.--The chambers of deputies offered the
+crown to _Louis Philippe_, Duke of Orleans. He was descended from the
+regent; his father had been one of the democratic party in the
+Revolution, and, when titles were abolished, had called himself Philip
+_Egalité_ (Equality). This had not saved his head under the Reign of
+Terror, and his son had been obliged to flee and lead a wandering life,
+at one time gaining his livelihood by teaching mathematics at a school
+in Switzerland. He had recovered his family estates at the Restoration,
+and, as the head of the Liberal party, was very popular. He was elected
+King of the French, not of France, with a chamber of peers nominated for
+life only, and another of deputies elected by voters, whose
+qualification was two hundred francs, or eight pounds a year. He did his
+utmost to gain the good will of the people, living a simple, friendly
+family life, and trying to merit the term of the "citizen king," and in
+the earlier years of his reign he was successful. The country was
+prosperous, and a great colony was settled in Algiers, and endured a
+long and desperate war with the wild Arab tribes. A colony was also
+established in New Caledonia, in the Pacific, and attempts were carried
+out to compensate thus for the losses of colonial possessions which
+France had sustained in wars with England. Discontents, however, began
+to arise, on the one hand from those who remembered only the successes
+of Buonaparte, and not the miseries they had caused, and on the other
+from the working-classes, who declared that the _bourgeois_, or
+tradespeople, had gained everything by the revolution of July, but they
+themselves nothing. Louis Philippe did his best to gratify and amuse the
+people by sending for the remains of Napoleon, and giving him a
+magnificent funeral and splendid monument among his old soldiers--the
+Invalides; but his popularity was waning. In 1842 his eldest son, the
+Duke of Orleans, a favourite with the people, was killed by a fall from
+his carriage, and this was another shock to his throne. Two young
+grandsons were left; and the king had also several sons, one of whom,
+the Duke of Montpensier, he gave in marriage to Louise, the sister and
+heiress presumptive to the Queen of Spain; though, by treaty with the
+other European Powers, it had been agreed that she should not marry a
+French prince unless the queen had children of her own. Ambition for
+his family was a great offence to his subjects, and at the same time a
+nobleman, the Duke de Praslin, who had murdered his wife, committed
+suicide in prison to avoid public execution; and the republicans
+declared, whether justly or unjustly, that this had been allowed rather
+than let a noble die a felon's death.
+
+
+3. The Revolution of 1848.--In spite of the increased prosperity of
+the country, there was general disaffection. There were four
+parties--the Orleanists, who held by Louis Philippe and his minister
+Guizot, and whose badge was the tricolour; the Legitimists, who retained
+their loyalty to the exiled Henry, and whose symbol was the white
+Bourbon flag; the Buonapartists; and the Republicans, whose badge was
+the red cap and flag. A demand for a franchise that should include the
+mass of the people was rejected, and the general displeasure poured
+itself out in speeches at political banquets. An attempt to stop one of
+these led to an uproar. The National Guard refused to fire on the
+people, and their fury rose unchecked; so that the king, thinking
+resistance vain, signed an abdication, and fled to England in February,
+1848. A provisional Government was formed, and a new constitution was to
+be arranged; but the Paris mob, who found their condition unchanged, and
+really wanted equality of wealth, not of rights, made disturbances again
+and again, and barricaded the streets, till they were finally put down
+by General Cavaignac, while the rest of France was entirely dependent on
+the will of the capital. After some months, a republic was determined
+on, which was to have a president at its head, chosen every five years
+by universal suffrage. Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, nephew to the great
+Napoleon, was the first president thus chosen; and, after some
+struggles, he not only mastered Paris, but, by the help of the army,
+which was mostly Buonapartist, he dismissed the chamber of deputies, and
+imprisoned or exiled all the opponents whom the troops had not put to
+death, on the plea of an expected rising of the mob. This was called a
+_coup d'état_, and Louis Napoleon was then declared president for ten
+years.
+
+
+4. The Second Empire.--In December, 1852, the president took the title
+of Emperor, calling himself Napoleon III., as successor to the young son
+of the great Napoleon. He kept up a splendid and expensive court, made
+Paris more than ever the toy-shop of the world, and did much to improve
+it by the widening of streets and removal of old buildings. Treaties
+were made which much improved trade, and the country advanced in
+prosperity. The reins of government were, however, tightly held, and
+nothing was so much avoided as the letting men think or act for
+themselves, while their eyes were to be dazzled with splendour and
+victory. In 1853, when Russia was attacking Turkey, the Emperor united
+with England in opposition, and the two armies together besieged
+Sebastopol, and fought the battles of Alma and Inkermann, taking the
+city after nearly a year's siege; and then making what is known as the
+Treaty of Paris, which guaranteed the safety of Turkey so long as the
+subject Christian nations were not misused. In 1859 Napoleon III. joined
+in an attack on the Austrian power in Italy, and together with Victor
+Emanuel, King of Sardinia, and the Italians, gained two great victories
+at Magenta and Solferino; but made peace as soon as it was convenient to
+him, without regard to his promises to the King of Sardinia, who was
+obliged to purchase his consent to becoming King of United Italy by
+yielding up to France his old inheritance of Savoy and Nice. Meantime
+discontent began to spring up at home, and the Red Republican spirit was
+working on. The huge fortunes made by the successful only added to the
+sense of contrast; secret societies were at work, and the Emperor, after
+twenty years of success, felt his popularity waning.
+
+
+5. The Franco-German War.--In 1870 the Spaniards, who had deposed
+their queen, Isabel II., made choice of a relation of the King of
+Prussia as their king. There had long been bitter jealousy between
+France and Prussia, and, though the prince refused the offer of Spain,
+the French showed such an overbearing spirit that a war broke out. The
+real desire of France was to obtain the much-coveted frontier of the
+Rhine, and the Emperor heated their armies with boastful proclamations
+which were but the prelude to direful defeats, at Weissenburg, Wörth,
+and Forbach. At Sedan, the Emperor was forced to surrender himself as a
+prisoner, and the tidings no sooner arrived at Paris than the whole of
+the people turned their wrath on him and his family. His wife, the
+Empress Eugènie, had to flee, a republic was declared, and the city
+prepared to stand a siege. The Germans advanced, and put down all
+resistance in other parts of France. Great part of the army had been
+made prisoners, and, though there was much bravado, there was little
+steadiness or courage left among those who now took up arms. Paris,
+which was blockaded, after suffering much from famine, surrendered in
+February, 1871; and peace was purchased in a treaty by which great part
+of Elsass and Lorraine, and the city of Metz, were given back to
+Germany.
+
+
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+A.M., Instructor in Elocution, Yale College.
+
+APPLETONS' FIRST READER.
+APPLETONS' SECOND READER.
+APPLETONS' THIRD READER.
+APPLETONS' FOURTH READER.
+APPLETONS' FIFTH READER.
+APPLETONS' PRIMARY READING CHARTS.
+
+
+STANDARD SUPPLEMENTARY READERS.
+
+  I. Easy Steps for Little Feet                      $0 30
+ II. Golden Book of Choice Reading                      35
+III. Book of Tales                                      60
+ IV. Readings in Nature's Book                          80
+  V. Seven American Classics                            60
+ VI. Seven British Classics                             60
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY.
+
+Appletons' New Elementary Geography                     65
+Appletons' Higher Geography                           1 50
+Cornell's Primary Geography                             61
+Cornell's Intermediate Geography                      1 20
+Cornell's Physical Geography                          1 30
+Cornell's Grammar-School Geography                    1 40
+Cornell's First Steps in Geography                      36
+Cornell's High-School Geography                         80
+Cornell's High-School Atlas                           1 60
+Cornell's Outline Maps             per set, 13 Maps, 13 25
+Cornell's Map-Drawing Cards                 per set,    45
+Patton's Natural Resources of the United States.        45
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+Appletons' Primary Arithmetic                           20
+Appletons' Elementary Arithmetic                        35
+Appletons' Mental Arithmetic                            32
+Appletons' Practical Arithmetic                         72
+Appletons' Higher Arithmetic                          1 00
+Colin's Metric System                                   50
+Gillespie's Land Surveying                            2 60
+Gillespie's Leveling and Higher Surveying             2 20
+Inventional Geometry (Spencer's)                        45
+Richards's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,
+  with applications                                   1 75
+
+
+GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND LITERATURE.
+
+Bain's Composition and Rhetoric                       1 50
+Ballard's Words, and how to put them together           40
+Ballard's Word-writer                                   10
+Ballard's Pieces to Speak                   per part,   20
+Covell's Digest                                         80
+Gilmore's English Language and Literature               60
+Literature Primers: English Grammar--English
+Literature--Philology--Classical
+Geography--Shakespeare--Studies
+in Bryant--Greek Literature--English
+Grammar Exercises--Homer--English
+Composition                                     each,   45
+Morris's Historical English Grammar                   1 00
+Northend's Memory Gems                                  20
+Northend's Choice Thoughts                              30
+Northend's Gems of Thought                              75
+Quackenbos's Primary Grammar                            40
+Quackenbos's English Grammar                            72
+Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in our Language        50
+Quackenbos's First Lessons in Composition               80
+Quackenbos's Composition and Rhetoric                 1 30
+Spalding's English Literature                         1 30
+Stickney's Child's Book of Language. 4 numbers  each,   10
+Teacher's edition of same                               35
+Stickney's Letters and Lessons                  each,   20
+
+
+HISTORY.
+
+Bayard Taylor's History of Germany                    1 50
+History Primers: Rome--Greece--Europe--Old Greek
+Life--Geography--Roman Antiquities              each,   45
+Markham's History of England                          1 30
+Morris's History of England                           1 25
+Quackenbos's Elementary History of the United States    60
+Quackenbos's School History of the United States      1 20
+Quackenbos's American History                         1 15
+Quackenbos's Illustrated School History of the World  1 50
+Sewell's Child's History of Rome                        65
+  "        "        "     " Greece                      65
+Willard's Synopsis of General History                 2 00
+Timayenis's History of Greece. Two vols               3 50
+
+
+SCIENCE.
+
+Alden's Intellectual Philosophy                       1 10
+Arnott's Physics                                      3 00
+Atkinson's Ganot's Physics                            3 00
+Bain's Mental Science                                 1 50
+Bain's Moral Science                                  1 50
+Bain's Logic                                          2 00
+Coming's Physiology                                   1 50
+Deschanel's Natural Philosophy. One vol               5 70
+  In four parts                                 each, 1 50
+Gilmore's Logic                                         75
+Henslow's Botanical Charts                           15 75
+Huxley and Youmans's Physiology                       1 50
+Le Conte's Geology                                    4 00
+Lockyer's Astronomy                                   1 50
+Lupton's Scientific Agriculture                         45
+Morse's First Book of Zoölogy                         1 10
+Munsell's Psychology                                  1 70
+Nicholson's Geology                                   1 30
+Nicholson's Zoölogy                                   1 50
+Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy                       1 50
+Rains's Chemical Analysis                               50
+Science Primers: Introductory--Chemistry--Physics--
+Physical Geography--Geology--Physiology--Astronomy--
+Botany--Logic--Inventional Geometry--
+Pianoforte-Playing--Political Economy           each,   45
+Wilson's Logic                                        1 30
+Winslow's Moral Philosophy                            1 30
+Youmans's New Chemistry                               1 50
+Youmans's (Miss) First Book of Botany                   85
+Youmans's (Miss) Second Book of Botany                1 30
+
+
+FREE-HAND AND INDUSTRIAL DRAWING.
+
+Krüsi's Easy Drawing Lessons, for Kindergarten and
+Primary Schools. Three Parts                     each,  14
+  Synthetic Series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4          each,  15
+  Analytic Series. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10    each,  18
+  Perspective Series. Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14    each,  25
+  Advanced Perspective. Nos. 15 and 16           each,  25
+  Nos. 17 and 18                                 each,  35
+  Manuals. 1 to each Series. Paper,              each,  45
+    cloth,                                       each,  60
+  Textile Designs. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4           each,  30
+  Nos. 5 and 6                                   each,  40
+  Outline and Relief Designs. No. 1                     30
+  Nos. 2 and 3                                   each,  45
+  Nos. 4, 5, and 6                               each,  40
+  Mechanical Drawing. Nos. 1, 4, and 6           each,  45
+  Nos. 2, 3, and 5                               each,  25
+  Architectural Drawing. Nine Parts              each,  45
+Green's Slate Drawing Cards. Two Parts           each,  12
+
+
+PENMANSHIP.
+
+Model Copy-Books, Sliding Copies           per copy,    12
+  "       "   Primary Series               per copy,     9
+Model Practice-Book                        per copy,    10
+
+
+LATIN.
+
+Arnold's First and Second Latin Book                  1 10
+Arnold's Latin Prose Composition                      1 10
+Arnold's Cornelius Nepos                              1 30
+Butler's Sallust's Jugurtha and Catiline              1 50
+Cicero de Officiis                                    1 10
+Crosby's Quintus Curtius Rufus                        1 30
+Crosby's Sophocles's Å’dipus Tyrannus                  1 30
+Frieze's Quintilian                                   1 30
+Frieze's Virgil's Æneid                               1 70
+Frieze's Six Books of Virgil, with Vocabulary
+Harkness's Arnold's First Latin Book                  1 30
+Harkness's Second Latin Book                          1 10
+Harkness's Introductory Latin Book                    1 10
+Harkness's Latin Grammar                              1 30
+Harkness's Elements of Latin Grammar                  1 10
+Harkness's Latin Reader                               1 10
+Harkness's New Latin Reader                           1 10
+Harkness's Latin Reader, with Exercises               1 30
+Harkness's Latin Prose Composition                    1 30
+Harkness's Cæsar, with Dictionary                     1 30
+Harkness's Cicero                                     1 30
+Harkness's Cicero, with Dictionary                    1 50
+Harkness's Sallust's Catiline, with Dictionary        1 15
+Harkness's Course in Cæsar, Sallust, and Cicero,
+  with Dictionary                                     1 75
+Johnson's Cicero's Select Orations                    1 50
+Lincoln's Horace                                      1 50
+Lincoln's Livy                                        1 50
+Sewall's Latin Speaker                                1 00
+Tyler's Tacitus                                       1 50
+Tyler's Germania and Agricola                         1 10
+
+
+BOOK-KEEPING.
+
+Marsh's Single-Entry Book-keeping                     1 70
+Marsh's Double-Entry Book-keeping                     2 20
+Blanks to above, 6 books to each set        per set,  1 30
+
+
+GERMAN.
+
+Adler's Progressive German Reader                     1 30
+Adler's Hand-book of German Literature                1 30
+Adler's German Dictionary, 8vo                        4 50
+  "        "       "       12mo                       2 25
+Ahn's German Grammar                                    85
+Kroeh's First German Reader                             35
+Oehlschlaeger's Pronouncing German Reader             1 10
+Ollendorff's New Method of Learning German            1 10
+Prendergast's Mastery Series--German                    45
+Roemer's Polyglot Reader--German                      1 30
+Schulte's Elementary German Course                      85
+Wrage's Practical German Grammar                      1 30
+Wrage's German Primer                                   35
+Wrage's First German Reader                             45
+
+
+GREEK.
+
+Arnold's First Greek Book                             1 10
+Arnold's Greek Prose Composition                      1 30
+Arnold's Second Greek Prose Composition               1 30
+Arnold's Greek Reading Book                           1 30
+Boise's Three Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon     1 30
+Boise's Five Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon      1 70
+Boise's Greek Prose Composition                       1 30
+Boise's Anabasis                                      1 70
+Coy's Mayor's Greek for Beginners                     1 25
+Hadley's Greek Grammar                                1 70
+Hadley's Elements of Greek Grammar                    1 30
+Hadley's Greek Verbs                                    25
+Harkness's First Greek Book                           1 30
+Johnson's Three Books of the Iliad                    1 25
+Johnson's Herodotus                                   1 30
+Kendrick's Greek Ollendorff                           1 50
+Kühner's Greek Grammar                                1 70
+Owen's Xenophon's Anabasis                            1 70
+Owen's Homer's Iliad                                  1 70
+Owen's Greek Reader                                   1 70
+Owen's Acts of the Apostles                           1 50
+Owen's Homer's Odyssey                                1 70
+Owen's Thucydides                                     2 20
+Owen's Xenophon's Cyropædia                           2 20
+Robbins's Xenophon's Memorabilia                      1 70
+Silber's Progressive Lessons in Greek                 1 10
+Smead's Antigone                                      1 50
+Smead's Philippics of Demosthenes                     1 30
+Tyler's Plato's Apology and Crito                     1 30
+Tyler's Plutarch                                      1 30
+Whiton's First Lessons in Greek                       1 30
+
+
+FRENCH.
+
+Ahn's French Method                                     65
+Badois's Grammaire Anglaise                           1 30
+Barbauld's Lessons for Children                         65
+De Fivas's Elementary French Reader                     65
+De Fivas's Classic French Reader                      1 30
+De Fivas's New Grammar of French Grammars             1 10
+De Peyrac's French Children at Home                     80
+De Peyrac's Comment on Parle à Paris                  1 30
+Havet's French Manual                                 1 10
+Jewett's Spiers's French Dictionary, 8vo              2 60
+   "        "        "      "      School edition     1 70
+Marcel's Rational Method--French                        45
+Ollendorff's New Method of Learning French            1 10
+Ollendorff's First Lessons in French                    65
+Roemer's French Readers                               1 30
+Rowan's Modern French Reader                          1 30
+Simonné's Treatise on French Verbs                      65
+Spiers and Surenne's French Dictionary, 8vo           4 50
+   "          "         "       "      12mo           2 25
+
+
+ITALIAN.
+
+Fontana's Elementary Grammar of the Italian Language.
+  12mo                                                1 30
+Foresti's Italian Reader. 12mo                        1 30
+Meadows's Italian-English Dictionary. A new revised
+  edition                                half bound,  2 50
+Millhouse's New English-and-Italian Pronouncing and
+  Explanatory Dictionary. Second edition, revised
+  and improved. 2 thick vols., small 8vo  half bound, 5 25
+Nuovo Tesoro di Scherzi, Massime, Proverbi, etc. 1
+  vol., 12mo                                  Cloth,  1 50
+Ollendorffs New Method of Learning Italian. Edited
+    by F. Foresti. 12mo                               1 30
+  Key to do                                             85
+  Primary Lessons. 18mo                                 65
+Roemer's Polyglot Reader (in Italian). Translated by
+    Dr. Botta                                         1 30
+  Key to same, in English                             1 30
+
+
+SPANISH.
+
+Ahn's Spanish Grammar                                   85
+De Tornos's Spanish Method                            1 25
+Ollendorff's Spanish Grammar                          1 00
+Prendergast's Mastery Series--Spanish                   45
+Schele de Vere's Spanish Grammar                      1 00
+Velázquez's New Spanish Reader                        1 25
+Velázquez's Pronouncing Spanish Dictionary. 8vo.      5 00
+    "           "           "        "      12mo.     1 50
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of France
+
+Author: Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+Editor: J.R. Green
+
+Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17287]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the
+Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+History Primers. _Edited by_ J.R. GREEN.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE.
+
+BY
+
+CHARLOTTE M. YONGE.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.
+1882.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                     PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE             1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR                 25
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY             43
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ITALIAN WARS                       52
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WARS OF RELIGION                   63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POWER OF THE CROWN                     81
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE REVOLUTION                        102
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION           116
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF FRANCE.
+
+_Shewing the Provinces._]
+
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF FRANCE.
+
+_Shewing the Departments._]
+
+
+
+
+FRANCE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+1. France.--The country we now know as France is the tract of land
+shut in by the British Channel, the Bay of Biscay, the Pyrenees, the
+Mediterranean, and the Alps. But this country only gained the name of
+France by degrees. In the earliest days of which we have any account, it
+was peopled by the Celts, and it was known to the Romans as part of a
+larger country which bore the name of Gaul. After all of it, save the
+north-western moorlands, or what we now call Brittany, had been
+conquered and settled by the Romans, it was overrun by tribes of the
+great Teutonic race, the same family to which Englishmen belong. Of
+these tribes, the Goths settled in the provinces to the south; the
+Burgundians, in the east, around the Jura; while the Franks, coming
+over the rivers in its unprotected north-eastern corner, and making
+themselves masters of a far wider territory, broke up into two
+kingdoms--that of the Eastern Franks in what is now Germany, and that of
+the Western Franks reaching from the Rhine to the Atlantic. These Franks
+subdued all the other Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, while they adopted
+the religion, the language, and some of the civilization of the
+Romanized Gauls who became their subjects. Under the second Frankish
+dynasty, the Empire was renewed in the West, where it had been for a
+time put an end to by these Teutonic invasions, and the then Frankish
+king, Charles the Great, took his place as Emperor at its head. But in
+the time of his grandsons the various kingdoms and nations of which the
+Empire was composed, fell apart again under different descendants of
+his. One of these, _Charles the Bald_, was made King of the Western
+Franks in what was termed the Neustrian, or "not eastern," kingdom, from
+which the present France has sprung. This kingdom in name covered all
+the country west of the Upper Meuse, but practically the Neustrian king
+had little power south of the Loire; and the Celts of Brittany were
+never included in it.
+
+
+2. The House of Paris.--The great danger which this Neustrian kingdom
+had to meet came from the Northmen, or as they were called in England
+the Danes. These ravaged in Neustria as they ravaged in England; and a
+large part of the northern coast, including the mouth of the Seine, was
+given by Charles the Bald to Rolf or Rollo, one of their leaders, whose
+land became known as the Northman's land, or Normandy. What most checked
+the ravages of these pirates was the resistance of Paris, a town which
+commanded the road along the river Seine; and it was in defending the
+city of Paris from the Northmen, that a warrior named Robert the Strong
+gained the trust and affection of the inhabitants of the Neustrian
+kingdom. He and his family became Counts (_i.e._, judges and protectors)
+of Paris, and Dukes (or leaders) of the Franks. Three generations of
+them were really great men--Robert the Strong, Odo, and Hugh the White;
+and when the descendants of Charles the Great had died out, a Duke of
+the Franks, _Hugh Capet_, was in 987 crowned King of the Franks. All the
+after kings of France down to Louis Philippe were descendants of Hugh
+Capet. By this change, however, he gained little in real power; for,
+though he claimed to rule over the whole country of the Neustrian
+Franks, his authority was little heeded, save in the domain which he had
+possessed as Count of Paris, including the cities of Paris, Orleans,
+Amiens, and Rheims (the coronation place). He was guardian, too, of the
+great Abbeys of St. Denys and St. Martin of Tours. The Duke of Normandy
+and the Count of Anjou to the west, the Count of Flanders to the north,
+the Count of Champagne to the east, and the Duke of Aquitaine to the
+south, paid him homage, but were the only actual rulers in their own
+domains.
+
+
+3. The Kingdom of Hugh Capet.--The language of Hugh's kingdom was
+clipped Latin; the peasantry and townsmen were mostly Gaulish; the
+nobles were almost entirely Frank. There was an understanding that the
+king could only act by their consent, and must be chosen by them; but
+matters went more by old custom and the right of the strongest than by
+any law. A Salic law, so called from the place whence the Franks had
+come, was supposed to exist; but this had never been used by their
+subjects, whose law remained that of the old Roman Empire. Both of these
+systems of law, however, fell into disuse, and were replaced by rude
+bodies of "customs," which gradually grew up. The habits of the time
+were exceedingly rude and ferocious. The Franks had been the fiercest
+and most untamable of all the Teutonic nations, and only submitted
+themselves to the influence of Christianity and civilization from the
+respect which the Roman Empire inspired. Charles the Great had tried to
+bring in Roman cultivation, but we find him reproaching the young Franks
+in his schools with letting themselves be surpassed by the Gauls, whom
+they despised; and in the disorders that followed his death, barbarism
+increased again. The convents alone kept up any remnants of culture; but
+as the fury of the Northmen was chiefly directed to them, numbers had
+been destroyed, and there was more ignorance and wretchedness than at
+any other time. In the duchy of Aquitaine, much more of the old Roman
+civilization survived, both among the cities and the nobility; and the
+Normans, newly settled in the north, had brought with them the vigour of
+their race. They had taken up such dead or dying culture as they found
+in France, and were carrying it further, so as in some degree to awaken
+their neighbours. Kings and their great vassals could generally read and
+write, and understand the Latin in which all records were made, but few
+except the clergy studied at all. There were schools in convents, and
+already at Paris a university was growing up for the study of theology,
+grammar, law, philosophy, and music, the sciences which were held to
+form a course of education. The doctors of these sciences lectured; the
+scholars of low degree lived, begged, and struggled as best they could;
+and gentlemen were lodged with clergy, who served as a sort of private
+tutors.
+
+
+4. Earlier Kings of the House of Paris.--Neither Hugh nor the next
+three kings (_Robert_, 996-1031; _Henry_, 1031-1060; _Philip_,
+1060-1108) were able men, and they were almost helpless among the
+fierce nobles of their own domain, and the great counts and dukes around
+them. Castles were built of huge strength, and served as nests of
+plunderers, who preyed on travellers and made war on each other,
+grievously tormenting one another's "villeins"--as the peasants were
+termed. Men could travel nowhere in safety, and horrid ferocity and
+misery prevailed. The first three kings were good and pious men, but too
+weak to deal with their ruffian nobles. _Robert, called the Pious_, was
+extremely devout, but weak. He became embroiled with the Pope on account
+of having married Bertha--a lady pronounced to be within the degrees of
+affinity prohibited by the Church. He was excommunicated, but held out
+till there was a great religious reaction, produced by the belief that
+the world would end in 1000. In this expectation many persons left their
+land untilled, and the consequence was a terrible famine, followed by a
+pestilence; and the misery of France was probably unequalled in this
+reign, when it was hardly possible to pass safely from one to another of
+the three royal cities, Paris, Orleans, and Tours. Beggars swarmed, and
+the king gave to them everything he could lay his hands on, and even
+winked at their stealing gold off his dress, to the great wrath of a
+second wife, the imperious Constance of Provence, who, coming from the
+more luxurious and corrupt south, hated and despised the roughness and
+asceticism of her husband. She was a fierce and passionate woman, and
+brought an element of cruelty into the court. In this reign the first
+instance of persecution to the death for heresy took place. The victim
+had been the queen's confessor; but so far was she from pitying him that
+she struck out one of his eyes with her staff, as he was led past her to
+the hut where he was shut in and burnt. On Robert's death Constance took
+part against her son, _Henry I._, on behalf of his younger brother, but
+Henry prevailed. During his reign the clergy succeeded in proclaiming
+what was called the Truce of God, which forbade war and bloodshed at
+certain seasons of the year and on certain days of the week, and made
+churches and clerical lands places of refuge and sanctuary, which often
+indeed protected the lawless, but which also saved the weak and
+oppressed. It was during these reigns that the Papacy was beginning the
+great struggle for temporal power, and freedom from the influence of the
+Empire, which resulted in the increased independence and power of the
+clergy. The religious fervour which had begun with the century led to
+the foundation of many monasteries, and to much grand church
+architecture. In the reign of _Philip I._, William, Duke of Normandy,
+obtained the kingdom of England, and thus became far more powerful than
+his suzerain, the King of France, a weak man of vicious habits, who lay
+for many years of his life under sentence of excommunication for an
+adulterous marriage with Bertrade de Montfort, Countess of Anjou. The
+power of the king and of the law was probably at the very lowest ebb
+during the time of Philip I., though minds and manners were less debased
+than in the former century.
+
+
+5. The First Crusade (1095--1100).--Pilgrimage to the Holy Land had
+now become one great means by which the men of the West sought pardon
+for their sins. Jerusalem had long been held by the Arabs, who had
+treated the pilgrims well; but these had been conquered by a fierce
+Turcoman tribe, who robbed and oppressed the pilgrims. Peter the Hermit,
+returning from a pilgrimage, persuaded Pope Urban II. that it would be
+well to stir up Christendom to drive back the Moslem power, and deliver
+Jerusalem and the holy places. Urban II. accordingly, when holding a
+council at Clermont, in Auvergne, permitted Peter to describe in glowing
+words the miseries of pilgrims and the profanation of the holy places.
+Cries broke out, "God wills it!" and multitudes thronged to receive
+crosses cut out in cloth, which were fastened to the shoulder, and
+pledged the wearer to the holy war or crusade, as it was called. Philip
+I. took no interest in the cause, but his brother Hugh, Count of
+Vermandois, Stephen, Count of Blois, Robert, Duke of Normandy, and
+Raymond, Count of Toulouse, joined the expedition, which was made under
+Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, or what we now call the
+Netherlands. The crusade proved successful; Jerusalem was gained, and a
+kingdom of detached cities and forts was founded in Palestine, of which
+Godfrey became the first king. The whole of the West was supposed to
+keep up the defence of the Holy Land, but, in fact, most of those who
+went as armed pilgrims were either French, Normans, or Aquitanians; and
+the men of the East called all alike Franks. Two orders of monks, who
+were also knights, became the permanent defenders of the kingdom--the
+Knights of St. John, also called Hospitallers, because they also lodged
+pilgrims and tended the sick; and the Knights Templars. Both had
+establishments in different countries in Europe, where youths were
+trained to the rules of their order. The old custom of solemnly girding
+a young warrior with his sword was developing into a system by which the
+nobly born man was trained through the ranks of page and squire to full
+knighthood, and made to take vows which bound him to honourable customs
+to equals, though, unhappily, no account was taken of his inferiors.
+
+
+6. Louis VI. and VII.--Philip's son, _Louis VI., or the Fat_, was the
+first able man whom the line of Hugh Capet had produced since it mounted
+the throne. He made the first attempt at curbing the nobles, assisted by
+Suger, the Abbot of St. Denys. The only possibility of doing this was to
+obtain the aid of one party of nobles against another; and when any
+unusually flagrant offence had been committed, Louis called together the
+nobles, bishops, and abbots of his domain, and obtained their consent
+and assistance in making war on the guilty man, and overthrowing his
+castle, thus, in some degree, lessening the sense of utter impunity
+which had caused so many violences and such savage recklessness. He also
+permitted a few of the cities to purchase the right of self-government,
+and freedom from the ill usage of the counts, who, from their guardians,
+had become their tyrants; but in this he seems not to have been so much
+guided by any fixed principle, as by his private interests and feelings
+towards the individual city or lord in question. However, the royal
+authority had begun to be respected by 1137, when Louis VI. died, having
+just effected the marriage of his son, _Louis VII._, with Eleanor, the
+heiress of the Dukes of Aquitaine--thus hoping to make the crown really
+more powerful than the great princes who owed it homage. At this time
+lived the great St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, who had a wonderful
+influence over men's minds. It was a time of much thought and
+speculation, and Peter Abailard, an able student of the Paris
+University, held a controversy with Bernard, in which we see the first
+struggle between intellect and authority. Bernard roused the young king,
+Louis VII., to go on the second crusade, which was undertaken by the
+Emperor and the other princes of Europe to relieve the distress of the
+kingdom of Palestine. France had no navy, so the war was by land,
+through the rugged hills of Asia Minor, where the army was almost
+destroyed by the Saracens. Though Louis did reach Palestine, it was with
+weakened forces; he could effect nothing by his campaign, and Eleanor,
+who had accompanied him, seems to have been entirely corrupted by the
+evil habits of the Franks settled in the East. Soon after his return,
+Louis dissolved his marriage; and Eleanor became the wife of Henry,
+Count of Anjou, who soon after inherited the kingdom of England as our
+Henry II., as well as the duchy of Normandy, and betrothed his third son
+to the heiress of Brittany. Eleanor's marriage seemed to undo all that
+Louis VI. had done in raising the royal power; for Henry completely
+overshadowed Louis, whose only resource was in feeble endeavours to take
+part against him in his many family quarrels. The whole reign of Louis
+the Young, the title that adhered to him on account of his simple,
+childish nature, is only a record of weakness and disaster, till he died
+in 1180. What life went on in France, went on principally in the south.
+The lands of Aquitaine and Provence had never dropped the old classical
+love of poetry and art. A softer form of broken Latin was then spoken,
+and the art of minstrelsy was frequent among all ranks. Poets were
+called troubadours and _trouvères_ (finders). Courts of love were held,
+where there were competitions in poetry, the prize being a golden
+violet; and many of the bravest warriors were also distinguished
+troubadours--among them the elder sons of Queen Eleanor. There was much
+license of manners, much turbulence; and as the Aquitanians hated
+Angevin rule, the troubadours never ceased to stir up the sons of Henry
+II. against him.
+
+
+7. Philip II. (1180--1223).--Powerful in fact as Henry II. was, it was
+his gathering so large a part of France under his rule which was, in the
+end, to build up the greatness of the French kings. What had held them
+in check was the existence of the great fiefs or provinces, each with
+its own line of dukes or counts, and all practically independent of the
+king. But now nearly all the provinces of southern and western France
+were gathered into the hand of a single ruler; and though he was a
+Frenchman in blood, yet, as he was King of England, this ruler seemed to
+his French subjects no Frenchman, but a foreigner. They began therefore
+to look to the French king to free them from a foreign ruler; and the
+son of Louis VII., called _Philip Augustus_, was ready to take advantage
+of their disposition. Philip was a really able man, making up by address
+for want of personal courage. He set himself to lower the power of the
+house of Anjou and increase that of the house of Paris. As a boy he had
+watched conferences between his father and Henry under the great elm of
+Gisors, on the borders of Normandy, and seeing his father overreached,
+he laid up a store of hatred to the rival king. As soon as he had the
+power, he cut down the elm, which was so large that 300 horsemen could
+be sheltered under its branches. He supported the sons of Henry II. in
+their rebellions, and was always the bitter foe of the head of the
+family. Philip assumed the cross in 1187, on the tidings of the loss of
+Jerusalem, and in 1190 joined Richard I. of England at Messina, where
+they wintered, and then sailed for St. Jean d'Acre. After this city was
+taken, Philip returned to France, where he continued to profit by the
+crimes and dissensions of the Angevins, and gained, both as their enemy
+and as King of France. When Richard's successor, John, murdered Arthur,
+the heir of the dukedom of Brittany and claimant of both Anjou and
+Normandy, Philip took advantage of the general indignation to hold a
+court of peers, in which John, on his non-appearance, was adjudged to
+have forfeited his fiefs. In the war which followed and ended in 1204,
+Philip not only gained the great Norman dukedom, which gave him the
+command of Rouen and of the mouth of the Seine, as well as Anjou, Maine,
+and Poitou, the countries which held the Loire in their power, but
+established the precedent that a crown vassal was amenable to justice,
+and might be made to forfeit his lands. What he had won by the sword he
+held by wisdom and good government. Seeing that the cities were capable
+of being made to balance the power of the nobles, he granted them
+privileges which caused him to be esteemed their best friend, and he
+promoted all improvements. Though once laid under an interdict by Pope
+Innocent III. for an unlawful marriage, Philip usually followed the
+policy which gained for the Kings of France the title of "Most Christian
+King." The real meaning of this was that he should always support the
+Pope against the Emperor, and in return be allowed more than ordinary
+power over his clergy. The great feudal vassals of eastern France, with
+a strong instinct that he was their enemy, made a league with the
+Emperor Otto IV. and his uncle King John, against Philip Augustus. John
+attacked him in the south, and was repulsed by Philip's son, Louis,
+called the "Lion;" while the king himself, backed by the burghers of his
+chief cities, gained at Bouvines, over Otto, the first real French
+victory, in 1214, thus establishing the power of the crown. Two years
+later, Louis the Lion, who had married John's niece, Blanche of Castile,
+was invited by the English barons to become their king on John's
+refusing to be bound by the Great Charter; and Philip saw his son
+actually in possession of London at the time of the death of the last
+of the sons of his enemy, Henry II. On John's death, however, the barons
+preferred his child to the French prince, and fell away from Louis, who
+was forced to return to France.
+
+
+8. The Albigenses (1203--1240).--The next great step in the building
+up of the French kingdom was made by taking advantage of a religious
+strife in the south. The lands near the Mediterranean still had much of
+the old Roman cultivation, and also of the old corruption, and here
+arose a sect called the Albigenses, who held opinions other than those
+of the Church on the origin of evil. Pope Innocent III., after sending
+some of the order of friars freshly established by the Spaniard,
+Dominic, to preach to them in vain, declared them as great enemies of
+the faith as Mahometans, and proclaimed a crusade against them and their
+chief supporter, Raymond, Count of Toulouse. Shrewd old King Philip
+merely permitted this crusade; but the dislike of the north of France to
+the south made hosts of adventurers flock to the banner of its leader,
+Simon de Montfort, a Norman baron, devout and honourable, but harsh and
+pitiless. Dreadful execution was done; the whole country was laid waste,
+and Raymond reduced to such distress that Peter I., King of Aragon, who
+was regarded as the natural head of the southern races, came to his
+aid, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Muret. After this
+Raymond was forced to submit, but such hard terms were forced on him
+that his people revolted. His country was granted to De Montfort, who
+laid siege to Toulouse, and was killed before he could take the city.
+The war was then carried on by _Louis the Lion_, who had succeeded his
+father as Louis VIII. in 1223, though only to reign three years, as he
+died of a fever caught in a southern campaign in 1226. His widow,
+Blanche, made peace in the name of her son, _Louis IX._, and Raymond was
+forced to give his only daughter in marriage to one of her younger sons.
+On their death, the county of Toulouse lapsed to the crown, which thus
+became possessor of all southern France, save Guienne, which still
+remained to the English kings. But the whole of the district once
+peopled by the Albigenses had been so much wasted as never to recover
+its prosperity, and any cropping up of their opinions was guarded
+against by the establishment of the Inquisition, which appointed
+Dominican friars to _inquire_ into and exterminate all that differed
+from the Church. At the same time the order of St. Francis did much to
+instruct and quicken the consciences of the people; and at the
+universities--especially that of Paris--a great advance both in thought
+and learning was made. Louis IX.'s confessor, Henry de Sorbonne,
+founded, for the study of divinity, the college which was known by his
+name, and whose decisions were afterwards received as of paramount
+authority.
+
+
+9. The Parliament of Paris.--France had a wise ruler in Blanche, and a
+still better one in her son, _Louis IX._, who is better known as _St.
+Louis_, and who was a really good and great man. He was the first to
+establish the Parliament of Paris--a court consisting of the great
+feudal vassals, lay and ecclesiastical, who held of the king direct, and
+who had to try all causes. They much disliked giving such attendance,
+and a certain number of men trained to the law were added to them to
+guide the decisions. The Parliament was thus only a court of justice and
+an office for registering wills and edicts. The representative assembly
+of France was called the States-General, and consisted of all estates of
+the realm, but was only summoned in time of emergency. Louis IX. was the
+first king to bring nobles of the highest rank to submit to the judgment
+of Parliament when guilty of a crime. Enguerrand de Coucy, one of the
+proudest nobles of France, who had hung two Flemish youths for killing a
+rabbit, was sentenced to death. The penalty was commuted, but the
+principle was established. Louis's uprightness and wisdom gained him
+honour and love everywhere, and he was always remembered as sitting
+under the great oak at Vincennes, doing equal justice to rich and poor.
+Louis was equally upright in his dealings with foreign powers. He would
+not take advantage of the weakness of Henry III. of England to attack
+his lands in Guienne, though he maintained the right of France to
+Normandy as having been forfeited by King John. So much was he respected
+that he was called in to judge between Henry and his barons, respecting
+the oaths exacted from the king by the Mad Parliament. His decision in
+favour of Henry was probably an honest one; but he was misled by the
+very different relations of the French and English kings to their
+nobles, who in France maintained lawlessness and violence, while in
+England they were struggling for law and order. Throughout the struggles
+between the Popes and the Emperor Frederick II., Louis would not be
+induced to assist in a persecution of the Emperor which he considered
+unjust, nor permit one of his sons to accept the kingdom of Apulia and
+Sicily, when the Pope declared that Frederick had forfeited it. He could
+not, however, prevent his brother Charles, Count of Anjou, from
+accepting it; for Charles had married Beatrice, heiress of the imperial
+fief of Provence, and being thus independent of his brother Louis, was
+able to establish a branch of the French royal family on the throne at
+Naples. The reign of St. Louis was a time of much progress and
+improvement. There were great scholars and thinkers at all the
+universities. Romance and poetry were flourishing, and influencing
+people's habits, so that courtesy, _i.e._ the manners taught in castle
+courts, was softening the demeanour of knights and nobles. Architecture
+was at its most beautiful period, as is seen, above all, in the Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris. This was built by Louis IX. to receive a gift of the
+Greek Emperor, namely, a thorn, which was believed to be from the crown
+of thorns. It is one of the most perfect buildings in existence.
+
+
+10. Crusade of Louis IX.--Unfortunately, Louis, during a severe
+illness, made a vow to go on a crusade. His first fulfilment of this vow
+was made early in his reign, in 1250, when his mother was still alive to
+undertake the regency. His attempt was to attack the heart of the
+Saracen power in Egypt, and he effected a landing and took the city of
+Damietta. There he left his queen, and advanced on Cairo; but near
+Mansourah he found himself entangled in the canals of the Nile, and with
+a great army of Mamelukes in front. A ford was found, and the English
+Earl of Salisbury, who had brought a troop to join the crusade, advised
+that the first to cross should wait and guard the passage of the next.
+But the king's brother, Robert, Count of Artois, called this cowardice.
+The earl was stung, and declared he would be as forward among the foe as
+any Frenchman. They both charged headlong, were enclosed by the enemy,
+and slain; and though the king at last put the Mamelukes to flight, his
+loss was dreadful. The Nile rose and cut off his return. He lost great
+part of his troops from sickness, and was horribly harassed by the
+Mamelukes, who threw among his host a strange burning missile, called
+Greek fire; and he was finally forced to surrender himself as a prisoner
+at Mansourah, with all his army. He obtained his release by giving up
+Damietta, and paying a heavy ransom. After twenty years, in 1270, he
+attempted another crusade, which was still more unfortunate, for he
+landed at Tunis to wait for his brother to arrive from Sicily,
+apparently on some delusion of favourable dispositions on the part of
+the Bey. Sickness broke out in the camp, and the king, his daughter, and
+his third son all died of fever; and so fatal was the expedition, that
+his son Philip III. returned to France escorting five coffins, those of
+his father, his brother, his sister and her husband, and his own wife
+and child.
+
+
+11. Philip the Fair.--The reign of _Philip III._ was very short. The
+insolence and cruelty of the Provençals in Sicily had provoked the
+natives to a massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers, and they then
+called in the King of Aragon, who finally obtained the island, as a
+separate kingdom from that on the Italian mainland where Charles of
+Anjou and his descendants still reigned. While fighting his uncle's
+battles on the Pyrenees, and besieging Gerona, Philip III. caught a
+fever, and died on his way home in 1285. His successor, _Philip IV.,
+called the Fair_, was crafty, cruel, and greedy, and made the Parliament
+of Paris the instrument of his violence and exactions, which he carried
+out in the name of the law. To prevent Guy de Dampierre, Count of
+Flanders, from marrying his daughter to the son of Edward I. of England,
+he invited her and her father to his court, and threw them both into
+prison, while he offered his own daughter Isabel to Edward of Carnarvon
+in her stead. The Scottish wars prevented Edward I. from taking up the
+cause of Guy; but the Pope, Boniface VIII., a man of a fierce temper,
+though of a great age, loudly called on Philip to do justice to
+Flanders, and likewise blamed in unmeasured terms his exactions from the
+clergy, his debasement of the coinage, and his foul and vicious life.
+Furious abuse passed on both sides. Philip availed himself of a flaw in
+the Pope's election to threaten him with deposition, and in return was
+excommunicated. He then sent a French knight named William de Nogaret,
+with Sciarra Colonna, a turbulent Roman, the hereditary enemy of
+Boniface, and a band of savage mercenary soldiers to Anagni, where the
+Pope then was, to force him to recall the sentence, apparently intending
+them to act like the murderers of Becket. The old man's dignity,
+however, overawed them at the moment, and they retired without laying
+hands on him, but the shock he had undergone caused his death a few days
+later. His successor was poisoned almost immediately on his election,
+being known to be adverse to Philip. Parties were equally balanced in
+the conclave; but Philip's friends advised him to buy over to his
+interest one of his supposed foes, whom they would then unite in
+choosing. Bertrand de Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was the man, and in
+a secret interview promised Philip to fulfil six conditions if he were
+made Pope by his interest. These were: 1st, the reconciliation of Philip
+with the Church; 2nd, that of his agents; 3rd, a grant to the king of a
+tenth of all clerical property for five years; 4th, the restoration of
+the Colonna family to Rome; 5th, the censure of Boniface's memory. These
+five were carried out by Clement V., as he called himself, as soon as he
+was on the Papal throne; the sixth remained a secret, but was probably
+the destruction of the Knights Templars. This order of military monks
+had been created for the defence of the crusading kingdom of Jerusalem,
+and had acquired large possessions in Europe. Now that their occupation
+in the East was gone, they were hated and dreaded by the kings, and
+Philip was resolved on their wholesale destruction.
+
+
+12. The Papacy at Avignon.--Clement had never quitted France, but had
+gone through the ceremonies of his installation at Lyons; and Philip,
+fearing that in Italy he would avoid carrying out the scheme for the
+ruin of the Templars, had him conducted to Avignon, a city of the Empire
+which belonged to the Angevin King of Naples, as Count of Provence, and
+there for eighty years the Papal court remained. As they were thus
+settled close to the French frontier, the Popes became almost vassals of
+France; and this added greatly to the power and renown of the French
+kings. How real their hold on the Papacy was, was shown in the ruin of
+the Templars. The order was now abandoned by the Pope, and its knights
+were invited in large numbers to Paris, under pretence of arranging a
+crusade. Having been thus entrapped, they were accused of horrible and
+monstrous crimes, and torture elicited a few supposed confessions. They
+were then tried by the Inquisition, and the greater number were put to
+death by fire, the Grand Master last of all, while their lands were
+seized by the king. They seem to have been really a fierce, arrogant,
+and oppressive set of men, or else there must have been some endeavour
+to save them, belonging, as most of them did, to noble French families.
+The "Pest of France," as Dante calls Philip the Fair, was now the most
+formidable prince in Europe. He contrived to annex to his dominions the
+city of Lyons, hitherto an imperial city under its archbishop. Philip
+died in 1314; and his three sons--_Louis X._, _Philip V._, and _Charles
+IV._,--were as cruel and harsh as himself, but without his talent, and
+brought the crown and people to disgrace and misery. Each reigned a few
+years and then died, leaving only daughters, and the question arose
+whether the inheritance should go to females. When Louis X. died, in
+1316, his brother Philip, after waiting for the birth of a posthumous
+child who only lived a few days, took the crown, and the Parliament then
+declared that the law of the old Salian Franks had been against the
+inheritance of women. By this newly discovered Salic law, Charles IV.,
+the third brother, reigned on Philip's death; but the kingdom of Navarre
+having accrued to the family through their grandmother, and not being
+subject to the Salic law, went to the eldest daughter of Louis X., Jane,
+wife of the Count of Evreux.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.
+
+
+1. Wars of Edward III.--By the Salic law, as the lawyers called it,
+the crown was given, on the death of Charles IV., to _Philip, Count of
+Valois_, son to a brother of Philip IV., but it was claimed by Edward
+III. of England as son of the daughter of Philip IV. Edward contented
+himself, however, with the mere assertion of his pretensions, until
+Philip exasperated him by attacks on the borders of Guienne, which the
+French kings had long been coveting to complete their possession of the
+south, and by demanding the surrender of Robert of Artois, who, being
+disappointed in his claim to the county of Artois by the judgment of the
+Parliament of Paris, was practising by sorcery on the life of the King
+of France. Edward then declared war, and his supposed right caused a
+century of warfare between France and England, in which the broken,
+down-trodden state of the French peasantry gave England an immense
+advantage. The knights and squires were fairly matched; but while the
+English yeomen were strong, staunch, and trustworthy, the French were
+useless, and only made a defeat worse by plundering the fallen on each
+side alike. The war began in Flanders, where Philip took the part of the
+count, whose tyrannies had caused his expulsion. Edward was called in to
+the aid of the citizens of Ghent by their leader Jacob van Arteveldt;
+and gained a great victory over the French fleet at Sluys, but with no
+important result. At the same time the two kings took opposite sides in
+the war of the succession in Brittany, each defending the claim most
+inconsistent with his own pretensions to the French crown--Edward
+upholding the male heir, John de Montfort, and Philip the direct female
+representative, the wife of Charles de Blois.
+
+
+2. Creçy and Poitiers.--Further difficulties arose through Charles the
+Bad, King of Navarre and Count of Evreux, who was always on the watch to
+assert his claim to the French throne through his mother, the daughter
+of Louis X., and was much hated and distrusted by Philip VI. and his son
+John, Duke of Normandy. Fearing the disaffection of the Norman and
+Breton nobles, Philip invited a number of them to a tournament at Paris,
+and there had them put to death after a hasty form of trial, thus
+driving their kindred to join his enemies. One of these offended
+Normans, Godfrey of Harcourt, invited Edward to Normandy, where he
+landed, and having consumed his supplies was on his march to Flanders,
+when Philip, with the whole strength of the kingdom, endeavoured to
+intercept him at _Creçy_ in Picardy, in 1348. Philip was utterly
+incapable as a general; his knights were wrong-headed and turbulent, and
+absolutely cut down their own Genoese hired archers for being in their
+way. The defeat was total. Philip rode away to Amiens, and Edward laid
+siege to Calais. The place was so strong that he was forced to blockade
+it, and Philip had time to gather another army to attempt its relief;
+but the English army were so posted that he could not attack them
+without great loss. He retreated, and the men of Calais surrendered,
+Edward insisting that six burghers should bring him the keys with ropes
+round their necks, to submit themselves to him. Six offered themselves,
+but their lives were spared, and they were honourably treated. Edward
+expelled all the French, and made Calais an English settlement. A truce
+followed, chiefly in consequence of the ravages of the Black Death,
+which swept off multitudes throughout Europe, a pestilence apparently
+bred by filth, famine, and all the miseries of war and lawlessness, but
+which spared no ranks. It had scarcely ceased before Philip died, in
+1350. His son, _John_, was soon involved in a fresh war with England by
+the intrigues of Charles the Bad, and in 1356 advanced southwards to
+check the Prince of Wales, who had come out of Guienne on a plundering
+expedition. The French were again totally routed at Poitiers, and the
+king himself, with his third son, Philip, were made prisoners and
+carried to London with most of the chief nobles.
+
+
+3. The Jacquerie.--The calls made on their vassals by these captive
+nobles to supply their ransoms brought the misery to a height. The salt
+tax, or _gabelle_, which was first imposed to meet the expenses of the
+war, was only paid by those who were neither clergy nor nobles, and the
+general saying was--"Jacques Bonhomme (the nickname for the peasant) has
+a broad back, let him bear all the burthens." Either by the king, the
+feudal lords, the clergy, or the bands of men-at-arms who roved through
+the country, selling themselves to any prince who would employ them, the
+wretched people were stripped of everything, and used to hide in holes
+and caves from ill-usage or insult, till they broke out in a rebellion
+called the Jacquerie, and whenever they could seize a castle revenged
+themselves, like the brutes they had been made, on those within it.
+Taxation was so levied by the king's officers as to be frightfully
+oppressive, and corruption reigned everywhere. As the king was in
+prison, and his heir, Charles, had fled ignominiously from Poitiers,
+the citizens of Paris hoped to effect a reform, and rose with their
+provost-marshal, Stephen Marcel, at their head, threatened Charles, and
+slew two of his officers before his eyes. On their demand the
+States-General were convoked, and made wholesome regulations as to the
+manner of collecting the taxes, but no one, except perhaps Marcel, had
+any real zeal or public spirit. Charles the Bad, of Navarre, who had
+pretended to espouse their cause, betrayed it; the king declared the
+decisions of the States-General null and void; and the crafty management
+of his son prevented any union between the malcontents. The gentry
+rallied, and put down the Jacquerie with horrible cruelty and revenge.
+The burghers of Paris found that Charles the Bad only wanted to gain the
+throne, and Marcel would have proclaimed him; but those who thought him
+even worse than his cousins of Valois admitted the other Charles, by
+whom Marcel and his partisans were put to death. The attempt at reform
+thus ended in talk and murder, and all fell back into the same state of
+misery and oppression.
+
+
+4. The Peace of Bretigny.--This Charles, eldest son of John, obtained
+by purchase the imperial fief of Vienne, of which the counts had always
+been called Dauphins, a title thenceforth borne by the heir apparent of
+the kingdom. His father's captivity and the submission of Paris left
+him master of the realm; but he did little to defend it when Edward III.
+again attacked it, and in 1360 he was forced to bow to the terms which
+the English king demanded as the price of peace. The Peace of Bretigny
+permitted King John to ransom himself, but resigned to England the
+sovereignty over the duchy of Aquitaine, and left Calais and Ponthieu in
+the hands of Edward III. John died in 1364, before his ransom was paid,
+and his son mounted the throne as _Charles V_. Charles showed himself
+from this time a wary, able man, and did much to regain what had been
+lost by craftily watching his opportunity. The war went on between the
+allies of each party, though the French and English kings professed to
+be at peace; and at the battle of Cocherel, in 1364, Charles the Bad was
+defeated, and forced to make peace with France. On the other hand, the
+French party in Brittany, led by Charles de Blois and the gallant Breton
+knight, Bertrand du Guesclin, were routed, the same year, by the English
+party under Sir John Chandos; Charles de Blois was killed, and the house
+of Montfort established in the duchy. These years of war had created a
+dreadful class of men, namely, hired soldiers of all nations, who, under
+some noted leader, sold their services to whatever prince might need
+them, under the name of Free Companies, and when unemployed lived by
+plunder. The peace had only let these wretches loose on the peasants.
+Some had seized castles, whence they could plunder travellers; others
+roamed the country, preying on the miserable peasants, who, fleeced as
+they were by king, barons, and clergy, were tortured and murdered by
+these ruffians, so that many lived in holes in the ground that their
+dwellings might not attract attention. Bertrand du Guesclin offered the
+king to relieve the country from these Free Companies by leading them to
+assist the Castilians against their tyrannical king, Peter the Cruel.
+Edward, the Black Prince, who was then acting as Governor of Aquitaine,
+took, however, the part of Peter, and defeated Du Guesclin at the battle
+of Navarete, on the Ebro, in 1367.
+
+
+5. Renewal of the War.--This expedition ruined the prince's health,
+and exhausted his treasury. A hearth-tax was laid on the inhabitants of
+Aquitaine, and they appealed against it to the King of France, although,
+by the Peace of Bretigny, he had given up all right to hear appeals as
+suzerain. The treaty, however, was still not formally settled, and on
+this ground Charles received their complaint. The war thus began again,
+and the sword of the Constable of France--the highest military dignity
+of the realm--was given to Du Guesclin, but only on condition that he
+would avoid pitched battles, and merely harass the English and take
+their castles. This policy was so strictly followed, that the Duke of
+Lancaster was allowed to march from Brittany to Gascony without meeting
+an enemy in the field; and when King Edward III. made his sixth and last
+invasion, nearly to the walls of Paris, he was only turned back by
+famine, and by a tremendous thunderstorm, which made him believe that
+Heaven was against him. Du Guesclin died while besieging a castle, and
+such was his fame that the English captain would place the keys in no
+hand but that of his corpse. The Constable's sword was given to Oliver
+de Clisson, also a Breton, and called the "Butcher," because he gave no
+quarter to the English in revenge for the death of his brother. The
+Bretons were, almost to a man, of the French party, having been offended
+by the insolence and oppression of the English; and John de Montfort,
+after clinging to the King of England as long as possible, was forced to
+make his peace at length with Charles. Charles V. had nearly regained
+all that had been lost, when, in 1380 his death left the kingdom to his
+son.
+
+
+6. House of Burgundy.--_Charles VI._ was a boy of nine years old,
+motherless, and beset with ambitious uncles. These uncles were Louis,
+Duke of Anjou, to whom Queen Joanna, the last of the earlier Angevin
+line in Naples, bequeathed her rights; John, Duke of Berry, a weak
+time-server; and Philip, the ablest and most honest of the three. His
+grandmother Joan, the wife of Philip VI., had been heiress of the duchy
+and county of Burgundy, and these now became his inheritance, giving him
+the richest part of France. By still better fortune he had married
+Margaret, the only child of Louis, Count of Flanders. Flanders contained
+the great cloth-manufacturing towns of Europe--Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
+etc., all wealthy and independent, and much inclined to close alliance
+with England, whence they obtained their wool, while their counts were
+equally devoted to France. Just as Count Louis II. had, for his lawless
+rapacity, been driven out of Ghent by Jacob van Arteveldt, so his son,
+Louis III., was expelled by Philip van Arteveldt, son to Jacob. Charles
+had been disgusted by Louis's coarse violence, and would not help him;
+but after the old king's death, Philip of Burgundy used his influence in
+the council to conduct the whole power of France to Flanders, where
+Arteveldt was defeated and trodden to death in the battle of Rosbecque,
+in 1382. On the count's death, Philip succeeded him as Count of Flanders
+in right of his wife; and thus was laid the foundation of the powerful
+and wealthy house of Burgundy, which for four generations almost
+overshadowed the crown of France.
+
+
+7. Insanity of Charles VI.--The Constable, Clisson, was much hated by
+the Duke of Brittany, and an attack which was made on him in the
+streets of Paris was clearly traced to Montfort. The young king, who was
+much attached to Clisson, set forth to exact punishment. On his way, a
+madman rushed out of a forest and called out, "King, you are betrayed!"
+Charles was much frightened, and further seems to have had a sunstroke,
+for he at once became insane. He recovered for a time; but at Christmas,
+while he and five others were dancing, disguised as wild men, their
+garments of pitched flax caught fire. Four were burnt, and the shock
+brought back the king's madness. He became subject to fits of insanity
+of longer or shorter duration, and in their intervals he seems to have
+been almost imbecile. No provision had then been made for the
+contingency of a mad king. The condition of the country became worse
+than ever, and power was grasped at by whoever could obtain it. Of the
+king's three uncles, the Duke of Anjou and his sons were generally
+engrossed by a vain struggle to obtain Naples; the Duke of Berry was
+dull and weak; and the chief struggle for influence was between Philip
+of Burgundy and his son, John the Fearless, on the one hand, and on the
+other the king's wife, Isabel of Bavaria, and his brother Louis, Duke of
+Orleans, who was suspected of being her lover; while the unhappy king
+and his little children were left in a wretched state, often scarcely
+provided with clothes or food.
+
+
+8. Burgundians and Armagnacs.--Matters grew worse after the death of
+Duke Philip in 1404; and in 1407, just after a seeming reconciliation,
+the Duke of Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris by servants of
+John the Fearless. Louis of Orleans had been a vain, foolish man,
+heedless of all save his own pleasure, but his death increased the
+misery of France through the long and deadly struggle for vengeance that
+followed. The king was helpless, and the children of the Duke of Orleans
+were young; but their cause was taken up by a Gascon noble, Bernard,
+Count of Armagnac, whose name the party took. The Duke of Burgundy was
+always popular in Paris, where the people, led by the Guild of Butchers,
+were so devoted to him that he ventured to have a sermon preached at the
+university, justifying the murder. There was again a feeble attempt at
+reform made by the burghers; but, as before, the more violent and
+lawless were guilty of such excesses that the opposite party were called
+in to put them down. The Armagnacs were admitted into Paris, and took a
+terrible vengeance on the Butchers and on all adherents of Burgundy, in
+the name of the Dauphin Louis, the king's eldest son, a weak, dissipated
+youth, who was entirely led by the Count of Armagnac.
+
+
+9. Invasion of Henry V.--All this time the war with England had
+smouldered on, only broken by brief truces; and when France was in this
+wretched state Henry V. renewed the claim of Edward III., and in 1415
+landed before Harfleur. After delaying till he had taken the city, the
+dauphin called together the whole nobility of the kingdom, and advanced
+against Henry, who, like Edward III., had been obliged to leave Normandy
+and march towards Calais in search of supplies. The armies met at
+Agincourt, where, though the French greatly outnumbered the English, the
+skill of Henry and the folly and confusion of the dauphin's army led to
+a total defeat, and the captivity of half the chief men in France of the
+Armagnac party--among them the young Duke of Orleans. It was Henry V.'s
+policy to treat France, not as a conquest, but as an inheritance; and he
+therefore refused to let these captives be ransomed till he should have
+reduced the country to obedience, while he treated all the places that
+submitted to him with great kindness. The Duke of Burgundy held aloof
+from the contest, and the Armagnacs, who ruled in Paris, were too weak
+or too careless to send aid to Rouen, which was taken by Henry after a
+long siege. The Dauphin Louis died in 1417; his next brother, John, who
+was more inclined to Burgundy, did not survive him a year; and the third
+brother, Charles, a mere boy, was in the hands of the Armagnacs. In 1418
+their reckless misuse of power provoked the citizens of Paris into
+letting in the Burgundians, when an unspeakably horrible massacre took
+place. Bernard of Armagnac himself was killed; his naked corpse, scored
+with his red cross, was dragged about the streets; and men, women, and
+even infants of his party were slaughtered pitilessly. Tanneguy
+Duchatel, one of his partisans, carried off the dauphin; but the queen,
+weary of Armagnac insolence, had joined the Burgundian party.
+
+
+10. Treaty of Troyes.--Meanwhile Henry V. continued to advance, and
+John of Burgundy felt the need of joining the whole strength of France
+against him, and made overtures to the dauphin. Duchatel, either fearing
+to be overshadowed by his power, or else in revenge for Orleans and
+Armagnac, no sooner saw that a reconciliation was likely to take place,
+than he murdered John the Fearless before the dauphin's eyes, at a
+conference on the bridge of Montereau-sur-Yonne (1419). John's wound was
+said to be the hole which let the English into France. His son Philip,
+the new Duke of Burgundy, viewing the dauphin as guilty of his death,
+went over with all his forces to Henry V., taking with him the queen and
+the poor helpless king. At the treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Henry was
+declared regent, and heir of the kingdom, at the same time as he
+received the hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. This gave him
+Paris and all the chief cities in northern France; but the Armagnacs
+held the south, with the Dauphin Charles at their head. Charles was
+declared an outlaw by his father's court, but he was in truth the leader
+of what had become the national and patriotic cause. During this time,
+after a long struggle and schism, the Pope again returned to Rome.
+
+
+11. The Maid of Orleans.--When Henry V. died in 1422, and the unhappy
+Charles a few weeks later, the infant Henry VI. was proclaimed King of
+France as well as of England, at both Paris and London, while _Charles
+VII._ was only proclaimed at Bourges, and a few other places in the
+south. Charles was of a slow, sluggish nature, and the men around him
+were selfish and pleasure-loving intriguers, who kept aloof all the
+bolder spirits from him. The brother of Henry V., John, Duke of Bedford,
+ruled all the country north of the Loire, with Rouen as his
+head-quarters. For seven years little was done; but in 1429 he caused
+Orleans to be besieged. The city held out bravely, all France looked on
+anxiously, and a young peasant girl, named Joan d'Arc, believed herself
+called by voices from the saints to rescue the city, and lead the king
+to his coronation at Rheims. With difficulty she obtained a hearing of
+the king, and was allowed to proceed to Orleans. Leading the army with a
+consecrated sword, which she never stained with blood, she filled the
+French with confidence, the English with fear as of a witch, and thus
+she gained the day wherever she appeared. Orleans was saved, and she
+then conducted Charles VII. to Rheims, and stood beside his throne when
+he was crowned. Then she said her work was done, and would have returned
+home; but, though the wretched king and his court never appreciated her,
+they thought her useful with the soldiers, and would not let her leave
+them. She had lost her heart and hope, and the men began to be angered
+at her for putting down all vice and foul language. The captains were
+envious of her; and at last, when she had led a sally out of the
+besieged town of Compiègne, the gates were shut, and she was made
+prisoner by a Burgundian, John of Luxembourg. The Burgundians hated her
+even more than the English. The inquisitor was of their party, and a
+court was held at Rouen, which condemned her to die as a witch. Bedford
+consented, but left the city before the execution. Her own king made no
+effort to save her, though, many years later, he caused enquiries to be
+made, established her innocence, ennobled her family, and freed her
+village from taxation.
+
+12. Recovery of France (1434--1450).--But though Joan was gone, her
+work lasted. The Constable, Artur of Richmond, the Count of Dunois, and
+other brave leaders, continued to attack the English. After seventeen
+years' vengeance for his father's death, the Duke of Burgundy made his
+peace with Charles by a treaty at Arras, on condition of paying no more
+homage, in 1434. Bedford died soon after, and there were nothing but
+disputes among the English. Paris opened its gates to the king, and
+Charles, almost in spite of himself, was restored. An able merchant,
+named Jacques Coeur, lent him money which equipped his men for the
+recovery of Normandy, and he himself, waking into activity, took Rouen
+and the other cities on the coast.
+
+
+13. Conquest of Aquitaine (1450).--By these successes Charles had
+recovered all, save Calais, that Henry V. or Edward III. had taken from
+France. But he was now able to do more. The one province of the south
+which the French kings had never been able to win was Guienne, the duchy
+on the river Garonne. Guienne had been a part of Eleanor's inheritance,
+and passed through her to the English kings; but though they had lost
+all else, the hatred of its inhabitants to the French enabled them to
+retain this, and Guienne had never yet passed under French rule. It was
+wrested, however, from Eleanor's descendants in this flood-tide of
+conquest. Bordeaux held out as long as it could, but Henry VI. could
+send no aid, and it was forced to yield. Two years later, brave old Lord
+Talbot led 5000 men to recover the duchy, and was gladly welcomed; but
+he was slain in the battle of Castillon, fighting like a lion. His two
+sons fell beside him, and his army was broken. Bordeaux again
+surrendered, and the French kings at last found themselves master of the
+great fief of the south. Calais was, at the close of the great Hundred
+Years' War, the only possession left to England south of the Channel.
+
+
+14. The Standing Army (1452).--As at the end of the first act in the
+Hundred Years' War, the great difficulty in time of peace was the
+presence of the bands of free companions, or mercenary soldiers, who,
+when war and plunder failed them, lived by violence and robbery of the
+peasants. Charles VII., who had awakened into vigour, thereupon took
+into regular pay all who would submit to discipline, and the rest were
+led off on two futile expeditions into Switzerland and Germany, and
+there left to their fate. The princes and nobles were at first so much
+disgusted at the regulations which bound the soldiery to respect the
+magistracy, that they raised a rebellion, which was fostered by the
+Dauphin Louis, who was ready to do anything that could annoy his father.
+But he was soon detached from them; the Duke of Burgundy would not
+assist them, and the league fell to pieces. Charles VII. by thus
+retaining companies of hired troops in his pay laid the foundation of
+the first standing army in Europe, and enabled the monarchy to tread
+down the feudal force of the nobles. His government was firm and wise;
+and with his reign began better times for France. But it was long before
+it recovered from the miseries of the long strife. The war had kept back
+much of progress. There had been grievous havoc of buildings in the
+north and centre of France; much lawlessness and cruelty prevailed; and
+yet there was a certain advance in learning, and much love of romance
+and the theory of chivalry. Pages of noble birth were bred up in castles
+to be first squires and then knights. There was immense formality and
+stateliness, the order of precedence was most minute, and pomp and
+display were wonderful. Strange alternations took place. One month the
+streets of Paris would be a scene of horrible famine, where hungry dogs,
+and even wolves, put an end to the miseries of starving, homeless
+children of slaughtered parents; another, the people would be gazing at
+royal banquets, lasting a whole day, with allegorical "subtleties" of
+jelly on the table, and pageants coming between the courses, where all
+the Virtues harangued in turn, or where knights delivered maidens from
+giants and "salvage men." In the south there was less misery and more
+progress. Jacques Coeur's house at Bourges is still a marvel of
+household architecture; and René, Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence,
+was an excellent painter on glass, and also a poet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY.
+
+
+1. Power of Burgundy.--All the troubles of France, for the last 80
+years, had gone to increase the strength of the Dukes of Burgundy. The
+county and duchy, of which Dijon was the capital, lay in the most
+fertile district of France, and had, as we have seen, been conferred on
+Philip the Bold. His marriage had given to him Flanders, with a gallant
+nobility, and with the chief manufacturing cities of Northern Europe.
+Philip's son, John the Fearless, had married a lady who ultimately
+brought into the family the great imperial counties of Holland and
+Zealand; and her son, Duke Philip the Good, by purchase or inheritance,
+obtained possession of all the adjoining little fiefs forming the
+country called the Netherlands, some belonging to the Empire, some to
+France. Philip had turned the scale in the struggle between England and
+France, and, as his reward, had won the cities on the Somme. He had
+thus become the richest and most powerful prince in Europe, and seemed
+on the point of founding a middle state lying between France and
+Germany, his weak point being that the imperial fiefs in Lorraine and
+Elsass lay between his dukedom of Burgundy and his counties in the
+Netherlands. No European court equalled in splendour that of Philip. The
+great cities of Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and the rest, though full of
+fierce and resolute men, paid him dues enough to make him the richest of
+princes, and the Flemish knights were among the boldest in Europe. All
+the arts of life, above all painting and domestic architecture,
+nourished at Brussels; and nowhere were troops so well equipped,
+burghers more prosperous, learning more widespread, than in his domains.
+Here, too, were the most ceremonious courtesy, the most splendid
+banquets, and the most wonderful display of jewels, plate, and
+cloth-of-gold. Charles VII., a clever though a cold-hearted, indolent
+man, let Philip alone, already seeing how the game would go for the
+future; for when the dauphin had quarrelled with the reigning favourite,
+and was kindly received on his flight to Burgundy, the old king sneered,
+saying that the duke was fostering the fox who would steal his chickens.
+
+
+2. Louis XI.'s Policy.--_Louis XI._ succeeded his father Charles in
+1461. He was a man of great skill and craft, with an iron will, and
+subtle though pitiless nature, who knew in what the greatness of a king
+consisted, and worked out his ends mercilessly and unscrupulously. The
+old feudal dukes and counts had all passed away, except the Duke of
+Brittany; but the Dukes of Orleans, Burgundy, and Anjou held princely
+appanages, and there was a turbulent nobility who had grown up during
+the wars, foreign and civil, and been encouraged by the favouritism of
+Charles VI. All these, feeling that Louis was their natural foe, united
+against him in what was called the "League of the Public Good," with his
+own brother, the Duke of Berry, and Count Charles of Charolais, who was
+known as Charles the Bold, the son of Duke Philip of Burgundy, at their
+head. Louis was actually defeated by Charles of Charolais in the battle
+of Montlhéry; but he contrived so cleverly to break up the league, by
+promises to each member and by sowing dissension among them, that he
+ended by becoming more powerful than before.
+
+
+3. Charles the Bold.--On the death of Philip the Good, in 1467,
+Charles the Bold succeeded to the duchy of Burgundy. He pursued more
+ardently the plan of forming a new kingdom of Burgundy, and had even
+hopes of being chosen Emperor. First, however, he had to consolidate his
+dominions, by making himself master of the countries which parted
+Burgundy from the Netherlands. With this view he obtained Elsass in
+pledge from its owner, a needy son of the house of Austria, who was
+never likely to redeem it. Lorraine had been inherited by Yolande, the
+wife of René, Duke of Anjou and titular King of Sicily, and had passed
+from her to her daughter, who had married the nearest heir in the male
+line, the Count of Vaudémont; but Charles the Bold unjustly seized the
+dukedom, driving out the lawful heir, René de Vaudémont, son of this
+marriage. Louis, meantime, was on the watch for every error of Charles,
+and constantly sowing dangers in his path. Sometimes his mines exploded
+too soon, as when he had actually put himself into Charles's power by
+visiting him at Peronne at the very moment when his emissaries had
+encouraged the city of Liège to rise in revolt against their bishop, an
+ally of the duke; and he only bought his freedom by profuse promises,
+and by aiding Charles in a most savage destruction of Liège. But after
+this his caution prevailed. He gave secret support to the adherents of
+René de Vaudémont, and intrigued with the Swiss, who were often at issue
+with the Burgundian bailiffs and soldiery in Elsass--greedy, reckless
+men, from whom the men of Elsass revolted in favour of their former
+Austrian lord. Meantime Edward IV. of England, Charles's brother-in-law,
+had planned with him an invasion of France and division of the kingdom,
+and in 1475 actually crossed the sea with a splendid host; but while
+Charles was prevented from joining him by the siege of Neuss, a city in
+alliance with Sigismund of Austria, Louis met Edward on the bridge of
+Pecquigny, and by cajolery, bribery, and accusations of Charles,
+contrived to persuade him to carry home his army without striking a
+blow. That meeting was a curious one. A wooden barrier, like a wild
+beast's cage, was erected in the middle of the bridge, through which the
+two kings kissed one another. Edward was the tallest and handsomest man
+present, and splendidly attired. Louis was small and mean-looking, and
+clad in an old blue suit, with a hat decorated with little leaden images
+of the saints, but his smooth tongue quite overcame the duller intellect
+of Edward; and in the mean time the English soldiers were feasted and
+allowed their full swing, the French being strictly watched to prevent
+all quarrels. So skilfully did Louis manage, that Edward consented to
+make peace and return home.
+
+
+4. The Fall of Charles the Bold (1477).--Charles had become entangled
+in many difficulties. He was a harsh, stern man, much disliked; and his
+governors in Elsass were fierce, violent men, who used every pretext for
+preying upon travellers. The Governor of Breisach, Hagenbach, had been
+put to death in a popular rising, aided by the Swiss of Berne, in 1474;
+and the men of Elsass themselves raised part of the sum for which the
+country had been pledged, and revolted against Charles. The Swiss were
+incited by Louis to join them; René of Lorraine made common cause with
+them. In two great battles, Granson and Morat, Charles and all his
+chivalry were beaten by the Swiss pikemen; but he pushed on the war.
+Nancy, the chief city of Lorraine, had risen against him, and he
+besieged it. On the night of the 5th of January, 1477, René led the
+Swiss to relieve the town by falling in early morning on the besiegers'
+camp. There was a terrible fight; the Burgundians were routed, and after
+long search the corpse of Duke Charles was found in a frozen pool,
+stripped, plundered, and covered with blood. He was the last of the male
+line of Burgundy, and its great possessions broke up with his death. His
+only child, Marie, did not inherit the French dukedom nor the county,
+though most of the fiefs in the Low Countries, which could descend to
+the female line, were her undisputed portion. Louis tried, by stirring
+up her subjects, to force her into a marriage with his son Charles; but
+she threw herself on the protection of the house of Austria, and
+marrying Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., carried her
+border lands to swell the power of his family.
+
+
+5. Louis's Home Government.--Louis's system of repression of the
+nobles went on all this time. His counsellors were of low birth (Oliver
+le Daim, his barber, was the man he most trusted), his habits frugal,
+his manners reserved and ironical; he was dreaded, hated, and
+distrusted, and he became constantly more bitter, suspicious, and
+merciless. Those who fell under his displeasure were imprisoned in iron
+cages, or put to death; and the more turbulent families, such as the
+house of Armagnac, were treated with frightful severity. But his was not
+wanton violence. He acted on a regular system of depressing the lawless
+nobility and increasing the royal authority, by bringing the power of
+the cities forward, by trusting for protection to the standing army,
+chiefly of hired Scots, Swiss, and Italians, and by saving money. By
+this means he was able to purchase the counties of Roussillon and
+Perpignan from the King of Aragon, thus making the Pyrenees his
+frontier, and on several occasions he made his treasury fight his
+battles instead of the swords of his knights. He lived in the castle of
+Plessis les Tours, guarded by the utmost art of fortification, and
+filled with hired Scottish archers of his guard, whom he preferred as
+defenders to his own nobles. He was exceedingly unpopular with his
+nobles; but the statesman and historian, Philip de Comines, who had gone
+over to him from Charles of Burgundy, viewed him as the best and ablest
+of kings. He did much to promote trade and manufacture, improved the
+cities, fostered the university, and was in truth the first king since
+Philip Augustus who had any real sense of statesmanship. But though the
+burghers throve under him, and the lawless nobles were depressed, the
+state of the peasants was not improved; feudal rights pressed heavily on
+them, and they were little better than savages, ground down by burthens
+imposed by their lords.
+
+
+6. Provence and Brittany.--Louis had added much to the French
+monarchy. He had won back Artois; he had seized the duchy and county of
+Burgundy; he had bought Roussillon. His last acquisition was the county
+of Provence. The second Angevin family, beginning with Louis, the son of
+King John, had never succeeded in gaining a footing in Naples, though
+they bore the royal title. They held, however, the imperial fief of
+Provence, and Louis XI., whose mother had been of this family, obtained
+from her two brothers, René and Charles, that Provence should be
+bequeathed to him instead of passing to René's grandson, the Duke of
+Lorraine. The Kings of France were thenceforth Counts of Provence; and
+though the county was not viewed as part of the kingdom, it was
+practically one with it. A yet greater acquisition was made soon after
+Louis's death in 1483. The great Celtic duchy of Brittany fell to a
+female, Anne of Brittany, and the address of Louis's daughter, the Lady
+of Beaujeu, who was regent of the realm, prevailed to secure the hand of
+the heiress for her brother, Charles VIII. Thus the crown of France had
+by purchase, conquest, or inheritance, obtained all the great feudal
+states that made up the country between the English Channel and the
+Pyrenees; but each still remained a separate state, with different laws
+and customs, and a separate parliament in each to register laws, and to
+act as a court of justice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ITALIAN WARS.
+
+
+1. Campaign of Charles VIII. (1493).--From grasping at province after
+province on their own border, however, the French kings were now to turn
+to wider dreams of conquest abroad. Together with the county of
+Provence, Louis XI. had bought from King René all the claims of the
+house of Anjou. Among these was included a claim to the kingdom of
+Naples. Louis's son, _Charles VIII._, a vain and shallow lad, was
+tempted by the possession of large treasures and a fine army to listen
+to the persuasions of an Italian intriguer, Ludovico Sforza, Duke of
+Milan, and put forward these pretensions, thus beginning a war which
+lasted nearly as long as the Hundred Years' War with England. But it was
+a war of aggression instead of a war of self-defence. Charles crossed
+the Alps in 1493, marched the whole length of Italy without opposition,
+and was crowned at Naples; while its royal family, an illegitimate
+offshoot from the Kings of Aragon, fled into Sicily, and called on
+Spain for help. But the insolent exactions of the French soldiery caused
+the people to rise against them; and when Charles returned, he was beset
+at Fornovo by a great league of Italians, over whom he gained a complete
+victory. Small and puny though he was, he fought like a lion, and seemed
+quite inspired by the ardour of combat. The "French fury," _la furia
+Francese_, became a proverb among the Italians. Charles neglected,
+however, to send any supplies or reinforcements to the garrisons he had
+left behind him in Naples, and they all perished under want, sickness,
+and the sword of the Spaniards. He was meditating another expedition,
+when he struck his head against the top of a doorway, and died in 1498.
+
+
+2. Campaign of Louis XII.--His cousin, _Louis XII._, married his
+widow, and thus prevented Brittany from again parting from the crown.
+Louis not only succeeded to the Angevin right to Naples, but through his
+grandmother he viewed himself as heir of Milan. She was Valentina
+Visconti, wife to that Duke of Orleans who had been murdered by John the
+Fearless. Louis himself never advanced further than to Milan, whose
+surrender made him master of Lombardy, which he held for the greater
+part of his reign. But after a while the Spanish king, Ferdinand, agreed
+with him to throw over the cause of the unfortunate royal family of
+Naples, and divide that kingdom between them. Louis XII. sent a
+brilliant army to take possession of his share, but the bounds of each
+portion had not been defined, and the French and Spanish troops began a
+war even while their kings were still treating with one another. The
+individual French knights did brilliant exploits, for indeed it was the
+time of the chief blossom of fanciful chivalry, a knight of Dauphiné,
+named Bayard, called the Fearless and Stainless Knight, and honoured by
+friend and foe; but the Spaniards were under Gonzalo de Cordova, called
+the Great Captain, and after the battles of Cerignola and the Garigliano
+drove the French out of the kingdom of Naples, though the war continued
+in Lombardy.
+
+
+3. The Holy League.--It was an age of leagues. The Italians, hating
+French and Spaniards both alike, were continually forming combinations
+among themselves and with foreign powers against whichever happened to
+be the strongest. The chief of these was called the Holy League, because
+it was formed by Pope Julius II., who drew into it Maximilian, then head
+of the German Empire, Ferdinand of Spain, and Henry VIII. of England.
+The French troops were attacked in Milan; and though they gained the
+battle of Ravenna in 1512, it was with the loss of their general, Gaston
+de Foix, Duke of Nemours, whose death served as an excuse to Ferdinand
+of Spain for setting up a claim to the kingdom of Navarre. He cunningly
+persuaded Henry VIII. to aid him in the attack, by holding out the vain
+idea of going on to regain Gascony; and while one troop of English were
+attacking Pampeluna, Henry himself landed at Calais and took Tournay and
+Terouenne. The French forces were at the same time being chased out of
+Italy. However, when Pampeluna had been taken, and the French finally
+driven out of Lombardy, the Pope and king, who had gained their ends,
+left Henry to fight his own battles. He thus was induced to make peace,
+giving his young sister Mary as second wife to Louis; but that king
+over-exerted himself at the banquets, and died six weeks after the
+marriage, in 1515. During this reign the waste of blood and treasure on
+wars of mere ambition was frightful, and the country had been heavily
+taxed; but a brilliant soldiery had been trained up, and national vanity
+had much increased. The king, though without deserving much love, was so
+kindly in manner that he was a favourite, and was called the Father of
+the People. His first wife, Anne of Brittany, was an excellent and
+high-spirited woman, who kept the court of France in a better state than
+ever before or since.
+
+
+4. Campaigns of Francis I.--Louis left only two daughters, the elder
+of whom, Claude, carried Brittany to his male heir, Francis, Count of
+Angoulêine. Anne of Brittany had been much averse to the match; but
+Louis said he kept his mice for his own cats, and gave his daughter and
+her duchy to Francis as soon as Anne was dead. _Francis I._ was one of
+the vainest, falsest, and most dashing of Frenchmen. In fact, he was an
+exaggeration in every way of the national character, and thus became a
+national hero, much overpraised. He at once resolved to recover
+Lombardy; and after crossing the Alps encountered an army of Swiss
+troops, who had been hired to defend the Milanese duchy, on the field of
+Marignano. Francis had to fight a desperate battle with them; after
+which he caused Bayard to dub him knight, though French kings were said
+to be born knights. In gaining the victory over these mercenaries, who
+had been hitherto deemed invincible, he opened for himself a way into
+Italy, and had all Lombardy at his feet. The Pope, Leo X., met him at
+Bologna, and a concordat took place, by which the French Church became
+more entirely subject to the Pope, while in return all patronage was
+given up to the crown. The effects were soon seen in the increased
+corruption of the clergy and people. Francis brought home from this
+expedition much taste for Italian art and literature, and all matters of
+elegance and ornament made great progress from this time. The great
+Italian masters worked for him; Raphael painted some of his most
+beautiful pictures for him, and Leonardo da Vinci came to his court, and
+there died in his arms. His palaces, especially that of Blois, were
+exceedingly beautiful, in the new classic style, called the Renaissance.
+Great richness and splendour reigned at court, and set off his
+pretensions to romance and chivalry. Learning and scholarship,
+especially classical, increased much; and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, was an excellent and highly cultivated woman, but even
+her writings prove that the whole tone of feeling was terribly coarse,
+when not vicious.
+
+
+5. Charles V.--The conquest of Lombardy made France the greatest power
+in Christendom; but its king was soon to find a mighty and active rival.
+The old hatred between France and Burgundy again awoke. Mary of
+Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, had married Maximilian,
+Archduke of Austria and King of the Romans, though never actually
+crowned Emperor. Their son, Philip, married Juana, the daughter of
+Ferdinand, and heiress of Spain, who lost her senses from grief on
+Philip's untimely death; and thus the direct heir to Spain, Austria, and
+the Netherlands, was Charles, her eldest son. On the death of Maximilian
+in 1518, Francis proposed himself to the electors as Emperor, but
+failed, in spite of bribery. Charles was chosen, and from that time
+Francis pursued him with unceasing hatred. The claims to Milan and
+Naples were renewed. Francis sent troops to occupy Milan, and was
+following them himself; but the most powerful of all his nobles, the
+Duke of Bourbon, Constable of France, had been alienated by an injustice
+perpetrated on him in favour of the king's mother, and deserted to the
+Spaniards, offering to assist them and the English in dividing France,
+while he reserved for himself Provence. His desertion hindered Francis
+from sending support to the troops in Milan, who were forced to retreat.
+Bayard was shot in the spine while defending the rear-guard, and was
+left to die under a tree. The utmost honour was shown him by the
+Spaniards; but when Bourbon came near him, he bade him take pity, not on
+one who was dying as a true soldier, but on himself as a traitor to king
+and country. When the French, in 1525, invaded Lombardy, Francis
+suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia, and was carried a prisoner to
+Madrid, where he remained for a year, and was only set free on making a
+treaty by which he was to give up all claims in Italy both to Naples and
+Milan, also the county of Burgundy and the suzerainty of those Flemish
+counties which had been fiefs of the French crown, as well as to
+surrender his two sons as hostages for the performance of the
+conditions.
+
+
+6. Wars of Francis and Charles.--All the rest of the king's life was
+an attempt to elude or break these conditions, against which he had
+protested in his prison, but when there was no Spaniard present to hear
+him do so. The county of Burgundy refused to be transferred; and the
+Pope, Clement VII., hating the Spanish power in Italy, contrived a fresh
+league against Charles, in which Francis joined, but was justly rewarded
+by the miserable loss of another army. His mother and Charles's aunt met
+at Cambrai, and concluded, in 1529, what was called the Ladies' Peace,
+which bore as hardly on France as the peace of Madrid, excepting that
+Charles gave up his claim to Burgundy. Still Francis's plans were not at
+an end. He married his second son, Henry, to Catherine, the only
+legitimate child of the great Florentine house of Medici, and tried to
+induce Charles to set up an Italian dukedom of Milan for the young pair;
+but when the dauphin died, and Henry became heir of France, Charles
+would not give him any footing in Italy. Francis never let any occasion
+pass of harassing the Emperor, but was always defeated. Charles once
+actually invaded Provence, but was forced to retreat through the
+devastation of the country before him by Montmorençy, afterwards
+Constable of France. Francis, by loud complaints, and by talking much of
+his honour, contrived to make the world fancy him the injured man, while
+he was really breaking oaths in a shameless manner. At last, in 1537,
+the king and Emperor met at Aigues Mortes, and came to terms. Francis
+married, as his second wife, Charles's sister Eleanor, and in 1540, when
+Charles was in haste to quell a revolt in the Low Countries, he asked a
+safe conduct through France, and was splendidly entertained at Paris.
+Yet so low was the honour of the French, that Francis scarcely withstood
+the temptation of extorting the duchy of Milan from him when in his
+power, and gave so many broad hints that Charles was glad to be past the
+frontier. The war was soon renewed. Francis set up a claim to Savoy, as
+the key of Italy, allied himself with the Turks and Moors, and slaves
+taken by them on the coasts of Italy and Spain were actually brought
+into Marseilles. Nice was burnt; but the citadel held out, and as Henry
+VIII. had allied himself with the Emperor, and had taken Boulogne,
+Francis made a final peace at Crespy in 1545. He died only two years
+later, in 1547.
+
+
+7. Henry II.--His only surviving son, _Henry II._, followed the same
+policy. The rise of Protestantism was now dividing the Empire in
+Germany; and Henry took advantage of the strife which broke out between
+Charles and the Protestant princes to attack the Emperor, and make
+conquests across the German border. He called himself Protector of the
+Liberties of the Germans, and leagued himself with them, seizing Metz,
+which the Duke of Guise bravely defended when the Emperor tried to
+retake it. This seizure of Metz was the first attempt of France to make
+conquests in Germany, and the beginning of a contest between the French
+and German peoples which has gone on to the present day. After the siege
+a five years' truce was made, during which Charles V. resigned his
+crowns. His brother had been already elected to the Empire, but his son
+Philip II. became King of Spain and Naples, and also inherited the Low
+Countries. The Pope, Paul IV., who was a Neapolitan, and hated the
+Spanish rule, incited Henry, a vain, weak man, to break the truce and
+send one army to Italy, under the Duke of Guise, while another attacked
+the frontier of the Netherlands. Philip, assisted by the forces of his
+wife, Mary I. of England, met this last attack with an army commanded by
+the Duke of Savoy. It advanced into France, and besieged St. Quentin.
+The French, under the Constable of Montmorençy, came to relieve the
+city, and were utterly defeated, the Constable himself being made
+prisoner. His nephew, the Admiral de Coligny, held out St. Quentin to
+the last, and thus gave the country time to rally against the invader;
+and Guise was recalled in haste from Italy. He soon after surprised
+Calais, which was thus restored to the French, after having been held
+by the English for two hundred years. This was the only conquest the
+French retained when the final peace of Cateau Cambresis was made in the
+year 1558, for all else that had been taken on either side was then
+restored. Savoy was given back to its duke, together with the hand of
+Henry's sister, Margaret. During a tournament held in honour of the
+wedding, Henry II. was mortally injured by the splinter of a lance, in
+1559; and in the home troubles that followed, all pretensions to Italian
+power were dropped by France, after wars which had lasted sixty-four
+years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WARS OF RELIGION.
+
+
+1. The Bourbons and Guises.--Henry II. had left four sons, the eldest
+of whom, _Francis II._, was only fifteen years old; and the country was
+divided by two great factions--one headed by the Guise family, an
+offshoot of the house of Lorraine; the other by the Bourbons, who, being
+descended in a direct male line from a younger son of St. Louis, were
+the next heirs to the throne in case the house of Valois should become
+extinct. Antony, the head of the Bourbon family, was called King of
+Navarre, because of his marriage with Jeanne d'Albrêt, the queen, in her
+own right, of this Pyrenean kingdom, which was in fact entirely in the
+hands of the Spaniards, so that her only actual possession consisted of
+the little French counties of Foix and Béarn. Antony himself was dull
+and indolent, but his wife was a woman of much ability; and his brother,
+Louis, Prince of Condé, was full of spirit and fire, and little
+inclined to brook the ascendancy which the Duke of Guise and his
+brothers enjoyed at court, partly in consequence of his exploit at
+Calais, and partly from being uncle to the young Queen Mary of Scotland,
+wife of Francis II. The Bourbons likewise headed the party among the
+nobles who hoped to profit by the king's youth to recover the privileges
+of which they had been gradually deprived, while the house of Guise were
+ready to maintain the power of the crown, as long as that meant their
+own power.
+
+
+2. The Reformation.--The enmity of these two parties was much
+increased by the reaction against the prevalent doctrines and the
+corruptions of the clergy. This reaction had begun in the reign of
+Francis I., when the Bible had been translated into French by two
+students at the University of Paris, and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, had encouraged the Reformers. Francis had leagued with
+the German Protestants because they were foes to the Emperor, while he
+persecuted the like opinions at home to satisfy the Pope. John Calvin, a
+native of Picardy, the foremost French reformer, was invited to the free
+city of Geneva, and there was made chief pastor, while the scheme of
+theology called his "Institutes" became the text-book of the Reformed in
+France, Scotland, and Holland. His doctrine was harsh and stern, aiming
+at the utmost simplicity of worship, and denouncing the existing
+practices so fiercely, that the people, who held themselves to have been
+wilfully led astray by their clergy, committed such violence in the
+churches that the Catholics loudly called for punishment on them. The
+shameful lives of many of the clergy and the wickedness of the Court had
+caused a strong reaction against them, and great numbers of both nobles
+and burghers became Calvinists. They termed themselves Sacramentarians
+or Reformers, but their nickname was Huguenots; probably from the Swiss,
+"_Eidgenossen_" or oath comrades. Henry II., like his father, protected
+German Lutherans and persecuted French Calvinists; but the lawyers of
+the Parliament of Paris interposed, declaring that men ought not to be
+burnt for heresy until a council of the Church should have condemned
+their opinions, and it was in the midst of this dispute that Henry was
+slain.
+
+
+3. The Conspiracy of Amboise.--The Guise family were strong Catholics;
+the Bourbons were the heads of the Huguenot party, chiefly from policy;
+but Admiral Coligny and his brother, the Sieur D'Andelot, were sincere
+and earnest Reformers. A third party, headed by the old Constable De
+Montmorençy, was Catholic in faith, but not unwilling to join with the
+Huguenots in pulling down the Guises, and asserting the power of the
+nobility. A conspiracy for seizing the person of the king and
+destroying the Guises at the castle of Amboise was detected in time to
+make it fruitless. The two Bourbon princes kept in the background,
+though Condé was universally known to have been the true head and mover
+in it, and he was actually brought to trial. The discovery only
+strengthened the hands of Guise.
+
+
+4. Regency of Catherine de' Medici.--Even then, however, Francis II.
+was dying, and his brother, _Charles IX._, who succeeded him in 1560,
+was but ten years old. The regency passed to his mother, the Florentine
+Catherine, a wily, cat-like woman, who had always hitherto been kept in
+the background, and whose chief desire was to keep things quiet by
+playing off one party against the other. She at once released Condé, and
+favoured the Bourbons and the Huguenots to keep down the Guises, even
+permitting conferences to see whether the French Church could be
+reformed so as to satisfy the Calvinists. Proposals were sent by Guise's
+brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, to the council then sitting at Trent,
+for vernacular services, the marriage of the clergy, and other
+alterations which might win back the Reformers. But an attack by the
+followers of Guise on a meeting of Calvinists at Vassy, of whose ringing
+of bells his mother had complained, led to the first bloodshed and the
+outbreak of a civil war.
+
+
+5. The Religious War.--To trace each stage of the war would be
+impossible within these limits. It was a war often lulled for a short
+time, and often breaking out again, and in which the actors grew more
+and more cruel. The Reformed influence was in the south, the Catholic in
+the east. Most of the provincial cities at first held with the Bourbons,
+for the sake of civil and religious freedom; though the Guise family
+succeeded to the popularity of the Burgundian dukes in Paris. Still
+Catherine persuaded Antony of Bourbon to return to court just as his
+wife, Queen Jeanne of Navarre, had become a staunch Calvinist, and while
+dreaming of exchanging his claim on Navarre for the kingdom of Sardinia,
+he was killed on the Catholic side while besieging Rouen. At the first
+outbreak the Huguenots seemed to have by far the greatest influence. An
+endeavour was made to seize the king's person, and this led to a battle
+at Dreux. While it was doubtful Catherine actually declared, "We shall
+have to say our prayers in French." Guise, however, retrieved the day,
+and though Montmorençy was made prisoner on the one side, Condé was
+taken on the other. Orleans was the Huguenot rallying-place, and while
+besieging it Guise himself was assassinated. His death was believed by
+his family to be due to the Admiral de Coligny. The city of Rochelle,
+fortified by Jeanne of Navarre, became the stronghold of the Huguenots.
+Leader after leader fell--Montmorençy, on the one hand, was killed at
+Montcontour; Condé, on the other, was shot in cold blood after the fight
+of Jarnac. A truce followed, but was soon broken again, and in 1571
+Coligny was the only man of age and standing at the head of the Huguenot
+party; while the Catholics had as leaders Henry, Duke of Anjou, the
+king's brother, and Henry, Duke of Guise, both young men of little more
+than twenty. The Huguenots had been beaten at all points, but were still
+strong enough to have wrung from their enemies permission to hold
+meetings for public worship within unwalled towns and on the estates of
+such nobles as held with them.
+
+
+6. Catherine's Policy.--Catherine made use of the suspension of arms
+to try to detach the Huguenot leaders, by entangling them in the
+pleasures of the court and lowering their sense of duty. The court was
+studiously brilliant. Catherine surrounded herself with a bevy of
+ladies, called the Queen-Mother's Squadron, whose amusements were found
+for the whole day. The ladies sat at their tapestry frames, while
+Italian poetry and romance was read or love-songs sung by the gentlemen;
+they had garden games and hunting-parties, with every opening for the
+ladies to act as sirens to any whom the queen wished to detach from the
+principles of honour and virtue, and bind to her service. Balls,
+pageants, and theatricals followed in the evening, and there was hardly
+a prince or noble in France who was not carried away by these seductions
+into darker habits of profligacy. Jeanne of Navarre dreaded them for her
+son Henry, whom she kept as long as possible under training in religion,
+learning, and hardy habits, in the mountains of Béarn; and when
+Catherine tried to draw him to court by proposing a marriage between him
+and her youngest daughter Margaret, Jeanne left him at home, and went
+herself to court. Catherine tried in vain to bend her will or discover
+her secrets, and her death, early in 1572, while still at court, was
+attributed to the queen-mother.
+
+
+7. Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572).--Jeanne's son Henry was
+immediately summoned to conclude the marriage, and came attended by all
+the most distinguished Huguenots, though the more wary of them remained
+at home, and the Baron of Rosny said, "If that wedding takes place the
+favours will be crimson." The Duke of Guise seems to have resolved on
+taking this opportunity of revenging himself for his father's murder,
+but the queen-mother was undecided until she found that her son Charles,
+who had been bidden to cajole and talk over the Huguenot chiefs, had
+been attracted by their honesty and uprightness, and was ready to throw
+himself into their hands, and escape from hers. An abortive attempt on
+Guise's part to murder the Admiral Coligny led to all the Huguenots
+going about armed, and making demonstrations which alarmed both the
+queen and the people of Paris. Guise and the Duke of Anjou were,
+therefore, allowed to work their will, and to rouse the bloodthirstiness
+of the Paris mob. At midnight of the 24th of August, 1572, St.
+Bartholomew's night, the bell of the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois
+began to ring, and the slaughter was begun by men distinguished by a
+white sleeve. The king sheltered his Huguenot surgeon and nurse in his
+room. The young King of Navarre and Prince of Condé were threatened into
+conforming to the Church, but every other Huguenot who could be found
+was massacred, from Coligny, who was slain kneeling in his bedroom by
+the followers of Guise, down to the poorest and youngest, and the
+streets resounded with the cry, "Kill! kill!" In every city where royal
+troops and Guisard partisans had been living among Huguenots, the same
+hideous work took place for three days, sparing neither age nor sex. How
+many thousands died, it is impossible to reckon, but the work was so
+wholesale that none were left except those in the southern cities, where
+the Huguenots had been too strong to be attacked, and in those castles
+where the seigneur was of "the religion." The Catholic party thought the
+destruction complete, the court went in state to return thanks for
+deliverance from a supposed plot, while Coligny's body was hung on a
+gibbet. The Pope ordered public thanksgivings, while Queen Elizabeth put
+on mourning, and the Emperor Maximilian II., alone among Catholic
+princes, showed any horror or indignation. But the heart of the unhappy
+young king was broken by the guilt he had incurred. Charles IX. sank
+into a decline, and died in 1574, finding no comfort save in the surgeon
+and nurse he had saved.
+
+
+8. The League.--His brother, _Henry III._, who had been elected King
+of Poland, threw up that crown in favour of that of France. He was of a
+vain, false, weak character, superstitiously devout, and at the same
+time ferocious, so as to alienate every one. All were ashamed of a man
+who dressed in the extreme of foppery, with a rosary of death's heads at
+his girdle, and passed from wild dissipation to abject penance. He was
+called "the Paris Church-warden and the Queen's Hairdresser," for he
+passed from her toilette to the decoration of the walls of churches with
+illuminations cut out of old service-books. Sometimes he went about
+surrounded with little dogs, sometimes flogged himself walking barefoot
+in a procession, and his _mignons_, or favourites, were the scandal of
+the country by their pride, license, and savage deeds. The war broke out
+again, and his only remaining brother, Francis, Duke of Alençon, an
+equally hateful and contemptible being, fled from court to the Huguenot
+army, hoping to force his brother into buying his submission; but when
+the King of Navarre had followed him and begun the struggle in earnest,
+he accepted the duchy of Anjou, and returned to his allegiance. Francis
+was invited by the insurgent Dutch to become their chief, and spent some
+time in Holland, but returned, unsuccessful and dying. As the king was
+childless, the next male heir was Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, who
+had fled from court soon after Alençon returned to the Huguenot faith,
+and was reigning in his two counties of Béarn and Foix, the head of the
+Huguenots. In the resolve never to permit a heretic to wear the French
+crown, Guise and his party formed a Catholic league, to force Henry III.
+to choose another successor. Paris was devoted to Guise, and the king,
+finding himself almost a prisoner there, left the city, but was again
+mastered by the duke at Blois, and could so ill brook his arrogance, as
+to have recourse to assassination. He caused him to be slain at the
+palace at Blois in 1588. The fury of the League was so great that Henry
+III. was driven to take refuge with the King of Navarre, and they were
+together besieging Paris, when Henry III. was in his turn murdered by a
+monk, named Clement, in 1589.
+
+
+9. Henry IV.--The Leaguers proclaimed as king an old uncle of the
+King of Navarre, the Cardinal of Bourbon, but all the more moderate
+Catholics rallied round Henry of Navarre, who took the title of _Henry
+IV._ At Ivry, in Normandy, Henry met the force of Leaguers, and defeated
+them by his brilliant courage. "Follow my white plume," his last order
+to his troops, became one of the sayings the French love to remember.
+But his cause was still not won--Paris held out against him, animated by
+almost fanatical fury, and while he was besieging it France was invaded
+from the Netherlands. The old Cardinal of Bourbon was now dead, and
+Philip II. considered his daughter Isabel, whose mother was the eldest
+daughter of Henry II., to be rightful Queen of France. He sent therefore
+his ablest general, the Duke of Parma, to co-operate with the Leaguers
+and place her on the throne. A war of strategy was carried on, during
+which Henry kept the enemy at bay, but could do no more, since the
+larger number of his people, though intending to have no king but
+himself, did not wish him to gain too easy a victory, lest in that case
+he should remain a Calvinist. However, he was only waiting to recant
+till he could do so with a good grace. He really preferred Catholicism,
+and had only been a political Huguenot; and his best and most faithful
+adviser, the Baron of Rosny, better known as Duke of Sully, though a
+staunch Calvinist himself, recommended the change as the only means of
+restoring peace to the kingdom. There was little more resistance to
+Henry after he had again been received by the Church in 1592. Paris,
+weary of the long war, opened its gates in 1593, and the inhabitants
+crowded round him with ecstasy, so that he said, "Poor people, they are
+hungry for the sight of a king!" The Leaguers made their peace, and when
+Philip of Spain again attacked Henry, the young Duke of Guise was one of
+the first to hasten to the defence. Philip saw that there were no
+further hopes for his daughter, and peace was made in 1596.
+
+
+10. The Edict of Nantes.--Two years later, in 1598, Henry put forth
+what was called the Edict of Nantes, because first registered in that
+parliament. It secured to the Huguenots equal civil rights with those of
+the Catholics, accepted their marriages, gave them, under restrictions,
+permission to meet for worship and for consultations, and granted them
+cities for the security of their rights, of which La Rochelle was the
+chief. The Calvinists had been nearly exterminated in the north, but
+there were still a large number in the south of France, and the burghers
+of the chief southern cities were mostly Huguenot. The war had been from
+the first a very horrible one; there had been savage slaughter, and
+still more savage reprisals on each side. The young nobles had been
+trained into making a fashion of ferocity, and practising graceful ways
+of striking death-blows. Whole districts had been laid waste, churches
+and abbeys destroyed, tombs rifled, and the whole population accustomed
+to every sort of horror and suffering; while nobody but Henry IV.
+himself, and the Duke of Sully, had any notion either of statesmanship
+or of religious toleration.
+
+
+11. Henry's Plans.--Just as the reign of Louis XI. had been a period
+of rest and recovery from the English wars, so that of Henry IV. was one
+of restoration from the ravages of thirty years of intermittent civil
+war. The king himself not only had bright and engaging manners, but was
+a man of large heart and mind; and Sully did much for the welfare of the
+country. Roads, canals, bridges, postal communications, manufactures,
+extended commerce, all owed their promotion to him, and brought
+prosperity to the burgher class; and the king was especially endeared to
+the peasantry by his saying that he hoped for the time when no cottage
+would be without a good fowl in its pot. The great silk manufactories of
+southern France chiefly arose under his encouragement, and there was
+prosperity of every kind. The Church itself was in a far better state
+than before. Some of the best men of any time were then living--in
+especial Vincent de Paul, who did much to improve the training of the
+parochial clergy, and who founded the order of Sisters of Charity, who
+prevented the misery of the streets of Paris from ever being so
+frightful as in those days when deserted children became the prey of
+wolves, dogs, and pigs. The nobles, who had grown into insolence during
+the wars, either as favourites of Henry III. or as zealous supporters of
+the Huguenot cause, were subdued and tamed. The most noted of these were
+the Duke of Bouillon, the owner of the small principality of Sedan, who
+was reduced to obedience by the sight of Sully's formidable train of
+artillery; and the Marshal Duke of Biron, who, thinking that Henry had
+not sufficiently rewarded his services, intrigued with Spain and Savoy,
+and was beheaded for his treason. Hatred to the house of Austria in
+Spain and Germany was as keen as ever in France; and in 1610 Henry IV.
+was prepared for another war on the plea of a disputed succession to the
+duchy of Cleves. The old fanaticism still lingered in Paris, and Henry
+had been advised to beware of pageants there; but it was necessary that
+his second wife, Mary de' Medici, should be crowned before he went to
+the war, as she was to be left regent. Two days after the coronation, as
+Henry was going to the arsenal to visit his old friend Sully, he was
+stabbed to the heart in his coach, in the streets of Paris, by a fanatic
+named Ravaillac. The French call him Le Grand Monarque; and he was one
+of the most attractive and benevolent of men, winning the hearts of all
+who approached him, but the immorality of his life did much to confirm
+the already low standard that prevailed among princes and nobles in
+France.
+
+
+12. The States-General of 1614.--Henry's second wife, Mary de' Medici,
+became regent, for her son, _Louis XIII._, was only ten years old, and
+indeed his character was so weak that his whole reign was only one long
+minority. Mary de' Medici was entirely under the dominion of an Italian
+favourite named Concini, and his wife, and their whole endeavour was to
+amass riches for themselves and keep the young king in helpless
+ignorance, while they undid all that Sully had effected, and took bribes
+shamelessly. The Prince of Condé tried to overthrow them, and, in hopes
+of strengthening herself, in 1614 Mary summoned together the
+States-General. There came 464 members, 132 for the nobles, 140 for the
+clergy, and 192 for the third estate, _i.e._ the burghers, and these,
+being mostly lawyers and magistrates from the provinces, were resolved
+to make their voices heard. Taxation was growing worse and worse. Not
+only was it confined to the burgher and peasant class, exempting the
+clergy and the nobles, among which last were included their families to
+the remotest generation, but it had become the court custom to multiply
+offices, in order to pension the nobles, and keep them quiet; and this,
+together with the expenses of the army, made the weight of taxation
+ruinous. Moreover, the presentation to the civil offices held by
+lawyers was made hereditary in their families, on payment of a sum down,
+and of fees at the death of each holder. All these abuses were
+complained of; and one of the deputies even told the nobility that if
+they did not learn to treat the despised classes below them as younger
+brothers, they would lay up a terrible store of retribution for
+themselves. A petition to the king was drawn up, and was received, but
+never answered. The doors of the house of assembly were closed--the
+members were told it was by order of the king--and the States-General
+never met again for 177 years, when the storm was just ready to fall.
+
+
+13. The Siege of Rochelle.--The rottenness of the State was chiefly
+owing to the nobility, who, as long as they were allowed to grind down
+their peasants and shine at court, had no sense of duty or public
+spirit, and hated the burghers and lawyers far too much to make common
+cause with them against the constantly increasing power of the throne.
+They only intrigued and struggled for personal advantages and rivalries,
+and never thought of the good of the State. They bitterly hated Concini,
+the Marshal d'Ancre, as he had been created, but he remained in power
+till 1614, when one of the king's gentlemen, Albert de Luynes, plotted
+with the king himself and a few of his guards for his deliverance.
+Nothing could be easier than the execution. The king ordered the
+captain of the guards to arrest Concini, and kill him if he resisted;
+and this was done. Concini was cut down on the steps of the Louvre, and
+Louis exclaimed, "At last I am a king." But it was not in him to be a
+king, and he never was one all his life. He only passed under the
+dominion of De Luynes, who was a high-spirited young noble. The
+Huguenots had been holding assemblies, which were considered more
+political than religious, and their towns of security were a grievance
+to royalty. War broke out again, and Louis himself went with De Luynes
+to besiege Montauban. The place was taken, but disease broke out in the
+army, and De Luynes died. There was a fresh struggle for power between
+the queen-mother and the Prince of Condé, ending in both being set aside
+by the queen's almoner, Armand de Richelieu, Bishop of Luçon, and
+afterwards a cardinal, the ablest statesman then in Europe, who gained
+complete dominion over the king and country, and ruled them both with a
+rod of iron. The Huguenots were gradually driven out of all their
+strongholds, till only Rochelle remained to them. This city was bravely
+and patiently defended by the magistrates and the Duke of Rohan, with
+hopes of succour from England, until these being disconcerted by the
+murder of the Duke of Buckingham, they were forced to surrender, after
+having held out for more than a year. Louis XIII. entered in triumph,
+deprived the city of all its privileges, and thus in 1628 concluded the
+war that had begun by the attack of the Guisards on the congregation at
+Vassy, in 1561. The lives and properties of the Huguenots were still
+secure, but all favour was closed against them, and every encouragement
+held out to them to join the Church. Many of the worst scandals had been
+removed, and the clergy were much improved; and, from whatever motive it
+might be, many of the more influential Huguenots began to conform to the
+State religion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POWER OF THE CROWN.
+
+
+1. Richelieu's Administration.--Cardinal de Richelieu's whole idea of
+statesmanship consisted in making the King of France the greatest of
+princes at home and abroad. To make anything great of Louis XIII., who
+was feeble alike in mind and body, was beyond any one's power, and
+Richelieu kept him in absolute subjection, allowing him a favourite with
+whom to hunt, talk, and amuse himself, but if the friend attempted to
+rouse the king to shake off the yoke, crushing him ruthlessly. It was
+the crown rather than the king that the cardinal exalted, putting down
+whatever resisted. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the king's only brother,
+made a futile struggle for power, and freedom of choice in marriage, but
+was soon overcome. He was spared, as being the only heir to the kingdom,
+but the Duke of Montmorency, who had been led into his rebellion, was
+brought to the block, amid the pity and terror of all France. Whoever
+seemed dangerous to the State, or showed any spirit of independence,
+was marked by the cardinal, and suffered a hopeless imprisonment, if
+nothing worse; but at the same time his government was intelligent and
+able, and promoted prosperity, as far as was possible where there was
+such a crushing of individual spirit and enterprise. Richelieu's plan,
+in fact, was to found a despotism, though a wise and well-ordered
+despotism, at home, while he made France great by conquests abroad. And
+at this time the ambition of France found a favourable field in the
+state both of Germany and of Spain.
+
+
+2. The War in Flanders and Italy.--The Thirty Years' War had been
+raging in Germany for many years, and France had taken no part in it,
+beyond encouraging the Swedes and the Protestant Germans, as the enemies
+of the Emperor. But the policy of Richelieu required that the disunion
+between its Catholic and Protestant states should be maintained, and
+when things began to tend towards peace from mutual exhaustion, the
+cardinal interfered, and induced the Protestant party to continue the
+war by giving them money and reinforcements. A war had already begun in
+Italy on behalf of the Duke of Nevers, who had become heir to the duchy
+of Mantua, but whose family had lived in France so long that the Emperor
+and the King of Spain supported a more distant claim of the Duke of
+Savoy to part of the duchy, rather than admit a French prince into
+Italy. Richelieu was quick to seize this pretext for attacking Spain,
+for Spain was now dying into a weak power, and he saw in the war a means
+of acquiring the Netherlands, which belonged to the Spanish crown. At
+first nothing important was done, but the Spaniards and Germans were
+worn out, while two young and able captains were growing up among the
+French--the Viscount of Turenne, younger son to the Duke of Bouillon,
+and the Duke of Enghien, eldest son of the Prince of Condé--and
+Richelieu's policy soon secured a brilliant career of success. Elsass,
+Lorraine, Artois, Catalonia, and Savoy, all fell into the hands of the
+French, and from a chamber of sickness the cardinal directed the affairs
+of three armies, as well as made himself feared and respected by the
+whole kingdom. Cinq Mars, the last favourite he had given the king,
+plotted his overthrow, with the help of the Spaniards, but was detected
+and executed, when the great minister was already at death's door.
+Richelieu recommended an Italian priest, Julius Mazarin, whom he had
+trained to work under him, to carry on the government, and died in the
+December of 1642. The king only survived him five months, dying on the
+14th of May, 1643. The war was continued on the lines Richelieu had laid
+down, and four days after the death of Louis XIII. the army in the Low
+Countries gained a splendid victory at Rocroy, under the Duke of
+Enghien, entirely destroying the old Spanish infantry. The battles of
+Freiburg, Nordlingen, and Lens raised the fame of the French generals to
+the highest pitch, and in 1649 reduced the Emperor to make peace in the
+treaty of Münster. France obtained as her spoil the three bishoprics,
+Metz, Toul, and Verdun, ten cities in Elsass, Brisach, and the Sundgau,
+with the Savoyard town of Pignerol; but the war with Spain continued
+till 1659, when Louis XIV. engaged to marry Maria Theresa, a daughter of
+the King of Spain.
+
+
+3. The Fronde.--When an heir had long been despaired of, Anne of
+Austria, the wife of Louis XIII., had become the mother of two sons, the
+eldest of whom, _Louis XIV._, was only five years old at the time of his
+father's death. The queen-mother became regent, and trusted entirely to
+Mazarin, who had become a cardinal, and pursued the policy of Richelieu.
+But what had been endured from a man by birth a French noble, was
+intolerable from a low-born Italian. "After the lion comes the fox," was
+the saying, and the Parliament of Paris made a last stand by refusing to
+register the royal edict for fresh taxes, being supported both by the
+burghers of Paris, and by a great number of the nobility, who were
+personally jealous of Mazarin. This party was called the Fronde, because
+in their discussions each man stood forth, launched his speech, and
+retreated, just as the boys did with slings (_fronde_) and stones in the
+streets. The struggle became serious, but only a few of the lawyers in
+the parliament had any real principle or public spirit; all the other
+actors caballed out of jealousy and party spirit, making tools of "the
+men of the gown," whom they hated and despised, though mostly far their
+superiors in worth and intelligence. Anne of Austria held fast by
+Mazarin, and was supported by the Duke of Enghien, whom his father's
+death had made Prince of Condé. Condé's assistance enabled her to
+blockade Paris and bring the parliament to terms, which concluded the
+first act of the Fronde, with the banishment of Mazarin as a peace
+offering. Condé, however, became so arrogant and overbearing that the
+queen caused him to be imprisoned, whereupon his wife and his other
+friends began a fresh war for his liberation, and the queen was forced
+to yield; but he again showed himself so tyrannical that the queen and
+the parliament became reconciled and united to put him down, giving the
+command of the troops to Turenne. Again there was a battle at the gates
+of Paris, in which all Condé's friends were wounded, and he himself so
+entirely worsted that he had to go into exile, when he entered the
+Spanish service, while Mazarin returned to power at home.
+
+
+4. The Court of Anne of Austria.--The court of France, though never
+pure, was much improved during the reign of Louis XIII. and the regency
+of Anne of Austria. There was a spirit of romance and grace about it,
+somewhat cumbrous and stately, but outwardly pure and refined, and quite
+a step out of the gross and open vice of the former reigns. The Duchess
+de Rambouillet, a lady of great grace and wit, made her house the centre
+of a brilliant society, which set itself to raise and refine the
+manners, literature, and language of the time. No word that was
+considered vulgar or coarse was allowed to pass muster; and though in
+process of time this censorship became pedantic and petty, there is no
+doubt that much was done to purify both the language and the tone of
+thought. Poems, plays, epigrams, eulogiums, and even sermons were
+rehearsed before the committee of taste in the Hôtel de Rambouillet, and
+a wonderful new stimulus was there given, not only to ornamental but to
+solid literature. Many of the great men who made France illustrious were
+either ending or beginning their careers at this time. Memoir writing
+specially flourished, and the characters of the men and women of the
+court are known to us on all sides. Cardinal de Retz and the Duke of
+Rochefoucauld, both deeply engaged in the Fronde, have left, the one
+memoirs, the other maxims of great power of irony. Mme. de Motteville,
+one of the queen's ladies, wrote a full history of the court. Blaise
+Pascal, one of the greatest geniuses of all times, was attaching
+himself to the Jansenists. This religious party, so called from Jansen,
+a Dutch priest, whose opinions were imputed to them, had sprung up
+around the reformed convent of Port Royal, and numbered among them some
+of the ablest and best men of the time; but the Jesuits considered them
+to hold false doctrine, and there was a continual debate, ending at
+length in the persecution of the Jansenists. Pascal's "Provincial
+Letters," exposing the Jesuit system, were among the ablest writings of
+the age. Philosophy, poetry, science, history, art, were all making
+great progress, though there was a stateliness and formality in all that
+was said and done, redolent of the Spanish queen's etiquette and the
+fastidious refinement of the Hôtel Rambouillet.
+
+
+5. Court of Louis XIV.--The attempt from the earliest times of the
+French monarchy had been to draw all government into the hands of the
+sovereign, and the suppression of the Fronde completed the work. Louis
+XIV., though ill educated, was a man of considerable ability, much
+industry, and great force of character, arising from a profound belief
+that France was the first country in the world, and himself the first of
+Frenchmen; and he had a magnificent courtesy of demeanour, which so
+impressed all who came near him as to make them his willing slaves.
+"There is enough in him to make four kings and one respectable man
+besides" was what Mazarin said of him; and when in 1661 the cardinal
+died, the king showed himself fully equal to becoming his own prime
+minister. "The State is myself," he said, and all centred upon him so
+that no room was left for statesmen. The court was, however, in a most
+brilliant state. There had been an unusual outburst of talent of every
+kind in the lull after the Wars of Religion, and in generals, thinkers,
+artists, and men of literature, France was unusually rich. The king had
+a wonderful power of self-assertion, which attached them all to him
+almost as if he were a sort of divinity. The stately, elaborate Spanish
+etiquette brought in by his mother, Anne of Austria, became absolutely
+an engine of government. Henry IV. had begun the evil custom of keeping
+the nobles quiet by giving them situations at court, with pensions
+attached, and these offices were multiplied to the most enormous and
+absurd degree, so that every royal personage had some hundreds of
+personal attendants. Princes of the blood and nobles of every degree
+were contented to hang about the court, crowding into the most narrow
+lodgings at Versailles, and thronging its anterooms; and to be ordered
+to remain in the country was a most severe punishment.
+
+
+6. France under Louis XIV.--There was, in fact, nothing but the chase
+to occupy a gentleman on his own estate, for he was allowed no duties
+or responsibilities. Each province had a governor or _intendant_, a sort
+of viceroy, and the administration of the cities was managed chiefly on
+the part of the king, even the mayors obtaining their posts by purchase.
+The unhappy peasants had to pay in the first place the taxes to
+Government, out of which were defrayed an intolerable number of
+pensions, many for useless offices; next, the rents and dues which
+supported their lord's expenditure at court; and, thirdly, the tithes
+and fees of the clergy. Besides which, they were called off from the
+cultivation of their own fields for a certain number of days to work at
+the roads; their horses might be used by royal messengers; their lord's
+crops had to be got in by their labour gratis, while their own were
+spoiling; and, in short, the only wonder is how they existed at all.
+Their hovels and their food were wretched, and any attempt to amend
+their condition on the part of their lord would have been looked on as
+betokening dangerous designs, and probably have landed him in the
+Bastille. The peasants of Brittany--where the old constitution had been
+less entirely ruined--and those of Anjou were in a less oppressed
+condition, and in the cities trade flourished. Colbert, the
+comptroller-general of the finances, was so excellent a manager that the
+pressure of taxation was endurable in his time, and he promoted new
+manufactures, such as glass at Cherbourg, cloth at Abbeville, silk at
+Lyons; he also tried to promote commerce and colonization, and to create
+a navy. There was a great appearance of prosperity, and in every
+department there was wonderful ability. The Reformation had led to a
+considerable revival among the Roman Catholics themselves. The
+theological colleges established in the last reign had much improved the
+tone of the clergy. Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, was one of the most noted
+preachers who ever existed, and Fénélon, Archbishop of Cambrai, one of
+the best of men. A reform of discipline, begun in the convent of Port
+Royal, ended by attracting and gathering together some of the most
+excellent and able persons in France--among them Blaise Pascal, a man of
+marvellous genius and depth of thought, and Racine, the chief French
+dramatic poet. Their chief director, the Abbot of St. Cyran, was
+however, a pupil of Jansen, a Dutch ecclesiastic, whose views on
+abstruse questions of grace were condemned by the Jesuits; and as the
+Port-Royalists would not disown the doctrines attributed to him, they
+were discouraged and persecuted throughout Louis's reign, more because
+he was jealous of what would not bend to his will than for any real want
+of conformity. Pascal's famous "Provincial Letters" were put forth
+during this controversy; and in fact, the literature of France reached
+its Augustan age during this reign, and the language acquired its
+standard perfection.
+
+
+7. War in the Low Countries.--Maria Theresa, the queen of Louis XIV.,
+was the child of the first marriage of Philip IV. of Spain; and on her
+father's death in 1661, Louis, on pretext of an old law in Brabant,
+which gave the daughters of a first marriage the preference over the
+sons of a second, claimed the Low Countries from the young Charles II.
+of Spain. He thus began a war which was really a continuance of the old
+struggle between France and Burgundy, and of the endeavour of France to
+stretch her frontier to the Rhine. At first England, Holland, and Sweden
+united against him, and obliged him to make the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 1668; but he then succeeded in bribing Charles II. of England to
+forsake the cause of the Dutch, and the war was renewed in 1672.
+William, Prince of Orange, Louis's most determined enemy through life,
+kept up the spirits of the Dutch, and they obtained aid from Germany and
+Spain, through a six years' terrible war, in which the great Turenne was
+killed at Saltzbach, in Germany. At last, from exhaustion, all parties
+were compelled to conclude the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Taking
+advantage of undefined terms in this treaty, Louis seized various cities
+belonging to German princes, and likewise the free imperial city of
+Strassburg, when all Germany was too much worn out by the long war to
+offer resistance. France was full of self-glorification, the king was
+viewed almost as a demi-god, and the splendour of his court and of his
+buildings, especially the palace at Versailles, with its gardens and
+fountains, kept up the delusion of his greatness.
+
+
+8. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.--In 1685 Louis supposed that the
+Huguenots had been so reduced in numbers that the Edict of Nantes could
+be repealed. All freedom of worship was denied them; their ministers
+were banished, but their flocks were not allowed to follow them. If
+taken while trying to escape, men were sent to the galleys, women to
+captivity, and children to convents for education. Dragoons were
+quartered on families to torment them into going to mass. A few made
+head in the wild moors of the Cevennes under a brave youth named
+Cavalier, and others endured severe persecution in the south of France.
+Dragoons were quartered on them, who made it their business to torment
+and insult them; their marriages were declared invalid, their children
+taken from them to be educated in the Roman Catholic faith. A great
+number, amounting to at least 100,000, succeeded in escaping, chiefly to
+Prussia, Holland, and England, whither they carried many of the
+manufactures that Colbert had taken so much pains to establish. Many of
+those who settled in England were silk weavers, and a large colony was
+thus established at Spitalfields, which long kept up its French
+character.
+
+
+9. The War of the Palatinate.--This brutal act of tyranny was followed
+by a fresh attack on Germany. On the plea of a supposed inheritance of
+his sister-in-law, the Duchess of Orleans, Louis invaded the Palatinate
+on the Rhine, and carried on one of the most ferocious wars in history,
+while he was at the same time supporting the cause of his cousin, James
+II. of England, after he had fled and abdicated on the arrival of
+William of Orange. During this war, however, that generation of able men
+who had grown up with Louis began to pass away, and his success was not
+so uniform; while, Colbert being dead, taxation began to be more felt by
+the exhausted people, and peace was made at Ryswick in 1697.
+
+
+10. The War of the Succession in Spain.--The last of the four great
+wars of Louis's reign was far more unfortunate. Charles II. of Spain
+died childless, naming as his successor a French prince, Philip, Duke of
+Anjou, the second son of the only son of Charles's eldest sister, the
+queen of Louis XIV. But the Powers of Europe, at the Peace of Ryswick,
+had agreed that the crown of Spain should go to Charles of Austria,
+second son of the Emperor Leopold, who was the descendant of younger
+sisters of the royal Spanish line, but did not excite the fear and
+jealousy of Europe, as did a scion of the already overweening house of
+Bourbon. This led to the War of the Spanish Succession, England and
+Holland supporting Charles, and fighting with Louis in Spain, Savoy, and
+the Low Countries. In Spain Louis was ultimately successful, and his
+grandson Philip V. retained the throne; but the troops which his ally,
+the Elector of Bavaria, introduced into Germany were totally overthrown
+at Blenheim by the English army under the Duke of Marlborough, and the
+Austrian under Prince Eugene, a son of a younger branch of the house of
+Savoy. Eugene had been bred up in France, but, having bitterly offended
+Louis by calling him a stage king for show and a chess king for use, had
+entered the Emperor's service, and was one of his chief enemies. He
+aided his cousin, Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in repulsing the French
+attacks in that quarter, gained a great victory at Turin, and advanced
+into Provence. Marlborough was likewise in full career of victory in the
+Low Countries, and gained there the battle of Ramillies.
+
+
+11. Peace of Utrecht.--Louis had outlived his good fortune. His great
+generals and statesmen had passed away. The country was exhausted,
+famine was preying on the wretched peasantry, supplies could not be
+found, and one city after another, of those Louis had seized, was
+retaken. New victories at Oudenarde and Malplaquet were gained over the
+French armies; and, though Louis was as resolute and undaunted as ever,
+his affairs were in a desperate state, when he was saved by a sudden
+change of policy on the part of Queen Anne of England, who recalled her
+army and left her allies to continue the contest alone. Eugene was not a
+match for France without Marlborough, and the Archduke Charles, having
+succeeded his brother the Emperor, gave up his pretensions to the crown
+of Spain, so that it became possible to conclude a general peace at
+Utrecht in 1713. By this time Louis was seventy-five years of age, and
+had suffered grievous family losses--first by the death of his only son,
+and then of his eldest grandson, a young man of much promise of
+excellence, who, with his wife died of malignant measles, probably from
+ignorant medical treatment, since their infant, whose illness was
+concealed by his nurses, was the only one of the family who survived.
+The old king, in spite of sorrow and reverse, toiled with indomitable
+energy to the end of his reign, the longest on record, having lasted
+seventy-two years, when he died in 1715. He had raised the French crown
+to its greatest splendour, but had sacrificed the country to himself and
+his false notions of greatness.
+
+
+12. The Regency.--The crown now descended to _Louis XV._, a weakly
+child of four years old. His great-grandfather had tried to provide for
+his good by leaving the chief seat in the council of regency to his own
+illegitimate son, the Duke of Maine, the most honest and conscientious
+man then in the family, but, though clever, unwise and very unpopular.
+His birth caused the appointment to be viewed as an outrage by the
+nobility, and the king's will was set aside. The first prince of the
+blood royal, Philip, Duke of Orleans, the late king's nephew, became
+sole regent--a man of good ability, but of easy, indolent nature; and
+who, in the enforced idleness of his life, had become dissipated and
+vicious beyond all imagination or description. He was kindly and
+gracious, and his mother said of him that he was like the prince in a
+fable whom all the fairies had endowed with gifts, except one malignant
+sprite who had prevented any favour being of use to him. In the general
+exhaustion produced by the wars of Louis XIV., a Scotchman named James
+Law began the great system of hollow speculation which has continued
+ever since to tempt people to their ruin. He tried raising sums of money
+on national credit, and also devised a company who were to lend money to
+found a great settlement on the Mississippi, the returns from which were
+to be enormous. Every one speculated in shares, and the wildest
+excitement prevailed. Law's house was mobbed by people seeking
+interviews with him, and nobles disguised themselves in liveries to get
+access to him. Fortunes were made one week and lost the next, and
+finally the whole plan proved to have been a mere baseless scheme; ruin
+followed, and the misery of the country increased. The Duke of Orleans
+died suddenly in 1723. The king was now legally of age; but he was dull
+and backward, and little fitted for government, and the country was
+really ruled by the Duke of Bourbon, and after him by Cardinal Fleury,
+an aged statesman, but filled with the same schemes of ambition as
+Richelieu or Mazarin.
+
+
+13. War of the Austrian Succession.--Thus France plunged into new
+wars. Louis XV. married the daughter of Stanislas Lecksinsky, a Polish
+noble, who, after being raised to the throne, was expelled by Austrian
+intrigues and violence. Louis was obliged to take up arms on behalf of
+his father-in-law, but was bought off by a gift from the Emperor Charles
+VI. of the duchy of Lorraine to Stanislas, to revert to his daughter
+after his death and thus become united to France. Lorraine belonged to
+Duke Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, eldest daughter to the
+Emperor, and Francis received instead the duchy of Tuscany; while all
+the chief Powers in Europe agreed to the so-called Pragmatic Sanction,
+by which Charles decreed that Maria Theresa should inherit Austria and
+Hungary and the other hereditary states on her father's death, to the
+exclusion of the daughters of his elder brother, Joseph. When Charles
+VI. died, however, in 1740, a great European war began on this matter.
+Frederick II. of Prussia would neither allow Maria Theresa's claim to
+the hereditary states, nor join in electing her husband to the Empire;
+and France took part against her, sending Marshal Belleisle to support
+the Elector of Bavaria, who had been chosen Emperor. George II. of
+England held with Maria Theresa, and gained a victory over the French at
+Dettingen, in 1744. Louis XV. then joined his army, and the battle of
+Fontenoy, in 1745, was one of the rare victories of France over England.
+Another victory followed at Laufeldt, but elsewhere France had had heavy
+losses, and in 1748, after the death of Charles VII., peace was made at
+Aix-la-Chapelle.
+
+
+14. The Seven Years' War.--Louis, dull and selfish by nature, had been
+absolutely led into vice by his courtiers, especially the Duke of
+Bourbon, who feared his becoming active in public affairs. He had no
+sense of duty to his people; and whereas his great-grandfather had
+sought display and so-called glory, he cared solely for pleasure, and
+that of the grossest and most sensual order, so that his court was a
+hotbed of shameless vice. All that could be wrung from the impoverished
+country was lavished on the overgrown establishments of every member of
+the royal family, in pensions to nobles, and in shameful amusements of
+the king. In 1756 another war broke out, in consequence of the hatreds
+left between Prussia and Austria by the former struggle. Maria Theresa
+had, by flatteries she ought to have disdained, gained over France to
+take part with her, and England was allied with Frederick II. In this
+war France and England chiefly fought in their distant possessions,
+where the English were uniformly successful; and after seven years
+another peace followed, leaving the boundaries of the German states just
+where they were before, after a frightful amount of bloodshed. But
+France had had terrible losses. She was driven from India, and lost all
+her settlements in America and Canada.
+
+
+15. France under Louis XV.--Meantime the gross vice and licentiousness
+of the king was beyond description, and the nobility retained about the
+court by the system established by Louis XIV. were, if not his equals in
+crime, equally callous to the suffering caused by the reckless
+expensiveness of the court, the whole cost of which was defrayed by the
+burghers and peasants. No taxes were asked from clergy or nobles, and
+this latter term included all sprung of a noble line to the utmost
+generation. The owner of an estate had no means of benefiting his
+tenants, even if he wished it; for all matters, even of local
+government, depended on the crown. All he could do was to draw his
+income from them, and he was often forced, either by poverty or by his
+expensive life, to strain to the utmost the old feudal system. If he
+lived at court, his expenses were heavy, and only partly met by his
+pension, likewise raised from the taxes paid by the poor farmer; if he
+lived in the country, he was a still greater tyrant, and was called by
+the people a _hobereau_, or kite. No career was open to his younger
+sons, except in the court, the Church, or the army, and here they
+monopolized the prizes, obtaining all the richer dioceses and abbeys,
+and all the promotion in the army. The magistracies were almost all
+hereditary among lawyers, who had bought them for their families from
+the crown, and paid for the appointment of each son. The officials
+attached to each member of the royal family were almost incredible in
+number, and all paid by the taxes. The old _gabelle_, or salt-tax, had
+gone on ever since the English wars, and every member of a family had to
+pay it, not according to what they used, but what they were supposed to
+need. Every pig was rated at what he ought to require for salting. Every
+cow, sheep, or hen had a toll to pay to king, lord, bishop--sometimes
+also to priest and abbey. The peasant was called off from his own work
+to give the dues of labour to the roads or to his lord. He might not
+spread manure that could interfere with the game, nor drive away the
+partridges that ate his corn. So scanty were his crops that famines
+slaying thousands passed unnoticed, and even if, by any wonder,
+prosperity smiled on the peasant, he durst not live in any kind of
+comfort, lest the stewards of his lord or of Government should pounce on
+his wealth.
+
+
+16. Reaction.--Meantime there was a strong feeling that change must
+come. Classical literature was studied, and Greek and Roman manners and
+institutions were thought ideal perfection. There was great disgust at
+the fetters of a highly artificial life in which every one was bound,
+and at the institutions which had been so misused. Writers arose, among
+whom Voltaire and Rousseau were the most eminent, who aimed at the
+overthrow of all the ideas which had come to be thus abused. The one by
+his caustic wit, the other by his enthusiastic simplicity, gained
+willing ears, and, the writers in a great Encyclopædia then in course of
+publication, contrived to attack most of the notions which had been
+hitherto taken for granted, and were closely connected with faith and
+with government. The king himself was dully aware that he was living on
+the crust of a volcano, but he said it would last his time; and so it
+did. Louis XV. died of smallpox in 1774, leaving his grandsons to reap
+the harvest that generations had been sowing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE REVOLUTION.
+
+
+1. Attempts at Reform.--It was evident that a change must be made.
+_Louis XVI._ himself knew it, and slurred over the words in his
+coronation oath that bound him to extirpate heresy; but he was a slow,
+dull man, and affairs had come to such a pass that a far abler man than
+he could hardly have dealt with the dead-lock above, without causing a
+frightful outbreak of the pent-up masses below. His queen, Marie
+Antoinette, was hated for being of Austrian birth, and, though a
+spotless and noble woman, her most trivial actions gave occasion to
+calumnies founded on the crimes of the last generation. Unfortunately,
+the king, though an honest and well-intentioned man, was totally unfit
+to guide a country through a dangerous crisis. His courage was passive,
+his manners were heavy, dull, and shy, and, though steadily industrious,
+he was slow of comprehension and unready in action; and reformation was
+the more difficult because to abolish the useless court offices would
+have been utter starvation to many of their holders, who had nothing but
+their pensions to live upon. Yet there was a general passion for reform;
+all ranks alike looked to some change to free them from the dead-lock
+which made improvement impossible. The Government was bankrupt, while
+the taxes were intolerable, and the first years of the reign were spent
+in experiments. Necker, a Swiss banker, was invited to take the charge
+of the finances, and large loans were made to Government, for which he
+contrived to pay interest regularly; some reduction was made in the
+expenditure; but the king's old minister, Maurepas, grew jealous of his
+popularity, and obtained his dismissal. The French took the part of the
+American colonies in their revolt from England, and the war thus
+occasioned brought on an increase of the load of debt, the general
+distress increased, and it became necessary to devise some mode of
+taxing which might divide the burthens between the whole nation, instead
+of making the peasants pay all and the nobles and clergy nothing. Louis
+decided on calling together the Notables, or higher nobility; but they
+were by no means disposed to tax themselves, and only abused his
+ministers. He then resolved on convoking the whole States-General of the
+kingdom, which had never met since the reign of Louis XIII.
+
+
+2. The States-General.--No one exactly knew the limits of the powers
+of the States-General when it met in 1789. Nobles, clergy, and the
+deputies who represented the commonalty, all formed the assembly at
+Versailles; and though the king would have kept apart these last, who
+were called the _Tiers Etât_, or third estate, they refused to withdraw
+from the great hall of Versailles. The Count of Mirabeau, the younger
+son of a noble family, who sat as a deputy, declared that nothing short
+of bayonets should drive out those who sat by the will of the people,
+and Louis yielded. Thenceforth the votes of a noble, a bishop, or a
+deputy all counted alike. The party names of democrat for those who
+wanted to exalt the power of the people, and of aristocrat for those who
+maintained the privileges of the nobles, came into use, and the most
+extreme democrats were called Jacobins, from an old convent of Jacobin
+friars, where they used to meet. The mob of Paris, always eager, fickle,
+and often blood-thirsty, were excited to the last degree by the debates;
+and, full of the remembrance of the insolence and cruelty of the nobles,
+sometimes rose and hunted down persons whom they deemed aristocrats,
+hanging them to the iron rods by which lamps were suspended over the
+streets. The king in alarm drew the army nearer, and it was supposed
+that he was going to prevent all change by force of arms. Thereupon the
+citizens enrolled themselves as a National Guard, wearing cockades of
+red, blue, and white, and commanded by La Fayette, a noble of democratic
+opinions, who had run away at seventeen to serve in the American War. On
+a report that the cannon of the Bastille had been pointed upon Paris,
+the mob rose in a frenzy, rushed upon it, hanged the guard, and
+absolutely tore down the old castle to its foundations, though they did
+not find a single prisoner in it. "This is a revolt," said Louis, when
+he heard of it. "Sire, it is a revolution," was the answer.
+
+
+3. The New Constitution.--The mob had found out its power. The
+fishwomen of the markets, always a peculiar and privileged class, were
+frantically excited, and were sure to be foremost in all the
+demonstrations stirred up by Jacobins. There was a great scarcity of
+provisions in Paris, and this, together with the continual dread that
+reforms would be checked by violence, maddened the people. On a report
+that the Guards had shown enthusiasm for the king, the whole populace
+came pouring out of Paris to Versailles, and, after threatening the life
+of the queen, brought the family back with them to Paris, and kept them
+almost as prisoners while the Assembly, which followed them to Paris,
+debated on the new constitution. The nobles were viewed as the worst
+enemies of the nation, and all over the country there were risings of
+the peasants, headed by democrats from the towns, who sacked their
+castles, and often seized their persons. Many fled to England and
+Germany, and the dread that these would unite and return to bring back
+the old system continually increased the fury of the people. The
+Assembly, now known as the Constituent Assembly, swept away all titles
+and privileges, and no one was henceforth to bear any prefix to his name
+but citizen; while at the same time the clergy were to renounce all the
+property of the Church, and to swear that their office and commission
+was derived from the will of the people alone, and that they owed no
+obedience save to the State. The estates thus yielded up were supposed
+to be enough to supply all State expenses without taxes; but as they
+could not at once be turned into money, promissory notes, or assignats,
+were issued. But, as coin was scarce, these were not worth nearly their
+professed value, and the general distress was thus much increased. The
+other oath the great body of the clergy utterly refused, and they were
+therefore driven out of their benefices, and became objects of great
+suspicion to the democrats. All the old boundaries and other
+distinctions between the provinces were destroyed, and France was
+divided into departments, each of which was to elect deputies, in whose
+assembly all power was to be vested, except that the king retained a
+right of veto, _i.e._, of refusing his sanction to any measure. He swore
+on the 13th of August, 1791, to observe this new constitution.
+
+
+4. The Republic.--The Constituent Assembly now dissolved itself, and a
+fresh Assembly, called the Legislative, took its place. For a time
+things went on more peacefully. Distrust was, however, deeply sown. The
+king was closely watched as an enemy; and those of the nobles who had
+emigrated began to form armies, aided by the Germans, on the frontier
+for his rescue. This enraged the people, who expected that their newly
+won liberties would be overthrown. The first time the king exercised his
+right of _veto_ the mob rose in fury; and though they then did no more
+than threaten, on the advance of the emigrant army on the 10th of
+August, 1792, a more terrible rising took place. The Tuilleries was
+sacked, the guards slaughtered, the unresisting king and his family
+deposed and imprisoned in the tower of the Temple. In terror lest the
+nobles in the prisons should unite with the emigrants, they were
+massacred by wholesale; while, with a vigour born of the excitement, the
+emigrant armies were repulsed and beaten. The monarchy came to an end;
+and France became a Republic, in which the National Convention, which
+followed the Legislative Assembly, was supreme. The more moderate
+members of this were called Girondins from the Gironde, the estuary of
+the Garonne, from the neighbourhood of which many of them came. They
+were able men, scholars and philosophers, full of schemes for reviving
+classical times, but wishing to stop short of the plans of the
+Jacobins, of whom the chief was Robespierre, a lawyer from Artois,
+filled with fanatical notions of the rights of man. He, with a party of
+other violent republicans, called the Mountain, of whom Danton and Marat
+were most noted, set to work to destroy all that interfered with their
+plans of general equality. The guillotine, a recently invented machine
+for beheading, was set in all the chief market-places, and hundreds were
+put to death on the charge of "conspiring against the nation." Louis
+XVI. was executed early in 1793; and it was enough to have any sort of
+birthright to be thought dangerous and put to death.
+
+
+5. The Reign of Terror.--Horror at the bloodshed perpetrated by the
+Mountain led a young girl, named Charlotte Corday, to assassinate Marat,
+whom she supposed to be the chief cause of the cruelties that were
+taking place; but his death only added to the dread of reaction. A
+Committee of Public Safety was appointed by the Convention, and
+endeavoured to sweep away every being who either seemed adverse to
+equality, or who might inherit any claim to rank. The queen was put to
+death nine months after her husband; and the Girondins, who had begun to
+try to stem the tide of slaughter, soon fell under the denunciation of
+the more violent. To be accused of "conspiring against the State" was
+instantly fatal, and no one's life was safe. Danton was denounced by
+Robespierre, and perished; and for three whole years the Reign of Terror
+lasted. The emigrants, by forming an army and advancing on France,
+assisted by the forces of Germany, only made matters worse. There was
+such a dread of the old oppressions coming back, that the peasants were
+ready to fight to the death against the return of the nobles. The army,
+where promotion used to go by rank instead of merit, were so glad of the
+change, that they were full of fresh spirit, and repulsed the army of
+Germans and emigrants all along the frontier. The city of Lyons, which
+had tried to resist the changes, was taken, and frightfully used by
+Collot d'Herbois, a member of the Committee of Public Safety. The
+guillotine was too slow for him, and he had the people mown down with
+grape-shot, declaring that of this great city nothing should be left but
+a monument inscribed, "Lyons resisted liberty--Lyons is no more!" In La
+Vendée--a district of Anjou, where the peasants were much attached to
+their clergy and nobles--they rose and gained such successes, that they
+dreamt for a little while of rescuing and restoring the little captive
+son of Louis XVI.; but they were defeated and put down by fire and
+sword, and at Nantes an immense number of executions took place, chiefly
+by drowning. It was reckoned that no less than 18,600 persons were
+guillotined in the three years between 1790 and 1794, besides those who
+died by other means. Everything was changed. Religion was to be done
+away with; the churches were closed; the tenth instead of the seventh
+day appointed for rest. "Death is an eternal sleep" was inscribed on the
+schools; and Reason, represented by a classically dressed woman, was
+enthroned in the cathedral of Notre Dâme. At the same time a new era was
+invented, the 22nd of September, 1792; the months had new names, and the
+decimal measures of length, weight, and capacity, which are based on the
+proportions of the earth, were planned. All this time Robespierre really
+seems to have thought himself the benefactor of the human race; but at
+last the other members of the Convention took courage to denounce him,
+and he, with five more, was arrested and sent to the guillotine. The
+bloodthirsty fever was over, the Committee of Public Safety was
+overthrown, and people breathed again.
+
+
+6. The Directory.--The chief executive power was placed in the hands
+of a Directory, consisting of more moderate men, and a time of much
+prosperity set in. Already in the new vigour born of the strong emotions
+of the country the armies won great victories, not only repelling the
+Germans and the emigrants, but uniting Holland to France. Napoleon
+Buonaparte, a Corsican officer, who was called on to protect the
+Directory from being again overawed by the mob, became the leading
+spirit in France, through his Italian victories. He conquered Lombardy
+and Tuscany, and forced the Emperor to let them become republics under
+French protection, also to resign Flanders to France by the Treaty of
+Campo Formio. Buonaparte then made a descent on Egypt, hoping to attack
+India from that side, but he was foiled by Nelson, who destroyed his
+fleet in the battle of the Nile, and Sir Sydney Smith, who held out Acre
+against him. He hurried home to France on finding that the Directory had
+begun a fresh European war, seizing Switzerland, and forcing it to give
+up its treasures and become a republic on their model, and carrying the
+Pope off into captivity. All the European Powers had united against
+them, and Lombardy had been recovered chiefly by Russian aid; so that
+Buonaparte, on the ground that a nation at war needed a less cumbrous
+government than a Directory, contrived to get himself chosen First
+Consul, with two inferiors, in 1799.
+
+
+7. The Consulate.--A great course of victories followed in Italy,
+where Buonaparte commanded in person, and in Germany under Moreau.
+Austria and Russia were forced to make peace, and England was the only
+country that still resisted him, till a general peace was made at Amiens
+in 1803; but it only lasted for a year, for the French failed to
+perform the conditions, and began the war afresh. In the mean time
+Buonaparte had restored religion and order, and so entirely mastered
+France that, in 1804, he was able to form the republic into an empire,
+and affecting to be another Charles the Great, he caused the Pope to say
+mass at his coronation, though he put the crown on his own head. A
+concordat with the Pope reinstated the clergy, but altered the division
+of the dioceses, and put the bishops and priests in the pay of the
+State.
+
+
+8. The Empire.--The union of Italy to this new French Empire caused a
+fresh war with all Europe. The Austrian army, however, was defeated at
+Ulm and Austerlitz, the Prussians were entirely crushed at Jena, and the
+Russians fought two terrible but almost drawn battles at Eylau and
+Friedland. Peace was then made with all three at Tilsit, in 1807, the
+terms pressing exceedingly hard upon Prussia. Schemes of invading
+England were entertained by the Emperor, but were disconcerted by the
+destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by Nelson at Trafalgar.
+Spain was then in alliance with France; but Napoleon, treacherously
+getting the royal family into his hands, seized their kingdom, making
+his brother Joseph its king. But the Spaniards would not submit, and
+called in the English to their aid. The Peninsular War resulted in a
+series of victories on the part of the English under Wellington, while
+Austria, beginning another war, was again so crushed that the Emperor
+durst not refuse to give his daughter in marriage to Napoleon. However,
+in 1812, the conquest of Russia proved an exploit beyond Napoleon's
+powers. He reached Moscow with his Grand Army, but the city was burnt
+down immediately after his arrival, and he had no shelter or means of
+support. He was forced to retreat, through a fearful winter, without
+provisions and harassed by the Cossacks, who hung on the rear and cut
+off the stragglers, so that his whole splendid army had become a mere
+miserable, broken, straggling remnant by the time the survivors reached
+the Prussian frontier. He himself had hurried back to Paris as soon as
+he found their case hopeless, to arrange his resistance to all
+Europe--for every country rose against him on his first disaster--and
+the next year was spent in a series of desperate battles in Germany
+between him and the Allied Powers. Lützen and Bautzen were doubtful, but
+the two days' battle of Leipzic was a terrible defeat. In the year 1814,
+four armies--those of Austria, Russia, England, and Prussia--entered
+France at once; and though Napoleon resisted, stood bravely and
+skilfully, and gained single battles against Austria and Prussia, he
+could not stand against all Europe. In April the Allies entered Paris,
+and he was forced to abdicate, being sent under a strong guard to the
+little Mediterranean isle of Elba. He had drained France of men by his
+constant call for soldiers, who were drawn by conscription from the
+whole country, till there were not enough to do the work in the fields,
+and foreign prisoners had to be employed; but he had conferred on her
+one great benefit in the great code of laws called the "_Code
+Napoléon_," which has ever since continued in force.
+
+
+9. France under Napoleon.--The old laws and customs, varying in
+different provinces, had been swept away, so that the field was clear;
+and the system of government which Napoleon devised has remained
+practically unchanged from that time to this. Everything was made to
+depend upon the central government. The Ministers of Religion, of
+Justice, of Police, of Education, etc., have the regulation of all
+interior affairs, and appoint all who work under them, so that nobody
+learns how to act alone; and as the Government has been in fact ever
+since dependent on the will of the people of Paris, the whole country is
+helplessly in their hands. The army, as in almost all foreign nations,
+is raised by conscription--that is, by drawing lots among the young men
+liable to serve, and who can only escape by paying a substitute to serve
+in their stead; and this is generally the first object of the savings of
+a family. All feudal claims had been done away with, and with them the
+right of primogeniture; and, indeed, it is not possible for a testator
+to avoid leaving his property to be shared among his family, though he
+can make some small differences in the amount each receives, and thus
+estates are continually freshly divided, and some portions become very
+small indeed. French peasants are, however, most eager to own land, and
+are usually very frugal, sober, and saving; and the country has gone on
+increasing in prosperity and comfort. It is true that, probably from the
+long habit of concealing any wealth they might possess, the French
+farmers and peasantry care little for display, or what we should call
+comfort, and live rough hard-working lives even while well off and with
+large hoards of wealth; but their condition has been wonderfully changed
+for the better ever since the Revolution. All this has continued under
+the numerous changes that have taken place in the forms of government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION.
+
+
+1. The Restoration.--The Allies left the people of France free to
+choose their Government, and they accepted the old royal family, who
+were on their borders awaiting a recall. The son of Louis XVI. had
+perished in the hands of his jailers, and thus the king's next brother,
+_Louis XVIII._, succeeded to the throne, bringing back a large emigrant
+following. Things were not settled down, when Napoleon, in the spring of
+1815, escaped from Elba. The army welcomed him with delight, and Louis
+was forced to flee to Ghent. However, the Allies immediately rose in
+arms, and the troops of England and Prussia crushed Napoleon entirely at
+Waterloo, on the 18th of June, 1815. He was sent to the lonely rock of
+St. Helena, in the Atlantic, whence he could not again return to trouble
+the peace of Europe. There he died in 1821. Louis XVIII. was restored,
+and a charter was devised by which a limited monarchy was established, a
+king at the head, and two chambers--one of peers, the other of
+deputies, but with a very narrow franchise. It did not, however, work
+amiss; till, after Louis's death in 1824, his brother, _Charles X._,
+tried to fall back on the old system. He checked the freedom of the
+press, and interfered with the freedom of elections. The consequence was
+a fresh revolution in July, 1830, happily with little bloodshed, but
+which forced Charles X. to go into exile with his grandchild Henry,
+whose father, the Duke of Berry, had been assassinated in 1820.
+
+
+2. Reign of Louis Philippe.--The chambers of deputies offered the
+crown to _Louis Philippe_, Duke of Orleans. He was descended from the
+regent; his father had been one of the democratic party in the
+Revolution, and, when titles were abolished, had called himself Philip
+_Egalité_ (Equality). This had not saved his head under the Reign of
+Terror, and his son had been obliged to flee and lead a wandering life,
+at one time gaining his livelihood by teaching mathematics at a school
+in Switzerland. He had recovered his family estates at the Restoration,
+and, as the head of the Liberal party, was very popular. He was elected
+King of the French, not of France, with a chamber of peers nominated for
+life only, and another of deputies elected by voters, whose
+qualification was two hundred francs, or eight pounds a year. He did his
+utmost to gain the good will of the people, living a simple, friendly
+family life, and trying to merit the term of the "citizen king," and in
+the earlier years of his reign he was successful. The country was
+prosperous, and a great colony was settled in Algiers, and endured a
+long and desperate war with the wild Arab tribes. A colony was also
+established in New Caledonia, in the Pacific, and attempts were carried
+out to compensate thus for the losses of colonial possessions which
+France had sustained in wars with England. Discontents, however, began
+to arise, on the one hand from those who remembered only the successes
+of Buonaparte, and not the miseries they had caused, and on the other
+from the working-classes, who declared that the _bourgeois_, or
+tradespeople, had gained everything by the revolution of July, but they
+themselves nothing. Louis Philippe did his best to gratify and amuse the
+people by sending for the remains of Napoleon, and giving him a
+magnificent funeral and splendid monument among his old soldiers--the
+Invalides; but his popularity was waning. In 1842 his eldest son, the
+Duke of Orleans, a favourite with the people, was killed by a fall from
+his carriage, and this was another shock to his throne. Two young
+grandsons were left; and the king had also several sons, one of whom,
+the Duke of Montpensier, he gave in marriage to Louise, the sister and
+heiress presumptive to the Queen of Spain; though, by treaty with the
+other European Powers, it had been agreed that she should not marry a
+French prince unless the queen had children of her own. Ambition for
+his family was a great offence to his subjects, and at the same time a
+nobleman, the Duke de Praslin, who had murdered his wife, committed
+suicide in prison to avoid public execution; and the republicans
+declared, whether justly or unjustly, that this had been allowed rather
+than let a noble die a felon's death.
+
+
+3. The Revolution of 1848.--In spite of the increased prosperity of
+the country, there was general disaffection. There were four
+parties--the Orleanists, who held by Louis Philippe and his minister
+Guizot, and whose badge was the tricolour; the Legitimists, who retained
+their loyalty to the exiled Henry, and whose symbol was the white
+Bourbon flag; the Buonapartists; and the Republicans, whose badge was
+the red cap and flag. A demand for a franchise that should include the
+mass of the people was rejected, and the general displeasure poured
+itself out in speeches at political banquets. An attempt to stop one of
+these led to an uproar. The National Guard refused to fire on the
+people, and their fury rose unchecked; so that the king, thinking
+resistance vain, signed an abdication, and fled to England in February,
+1848. A provisional Government was formed, and a new constitution was to
+be arranged; but the Paris mob, who found their condition unchanged, and
+really wanted equality of wealth, not of rights, made disturbances again
+and again, and barricaded the streets, till they were finally put down
+by General Cavaignac, while the rest of France was entirely dependent on
+the will of the capital. After some months, a republic was determined
+on, which was to have a president at its head, chosen every five years
+by universal suffrage. Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, nephew to the great
+Napoleon, was the first president thus chosen; and, after some
+struggles, he not only mastered Paris, but, by the help of the army,
+which was mostly Buonapartist, he dismissed the chamber of deputies, and
+imprisoned or exiled all the opponents whom the troops had not put to
+death, on the plea of an expected rising of the mob. This was called a
+_coup d'état_, and Louis Napoleon was then declared president for ten
+years.
+
+
+4. The Second Empire.--In December, 1852, the president took the title
+of Emperor, calling himself Napoleon III., as successor to the young son
+of the great Napoleon. He kept up a splendid and expensive court, made
+Paris more than ever the toy-shop of the world, and did much to improve
+it by the widening of streets and removal of old buildings. Treaties
+were made which much improved trade, and the country advanced in
+prosperity. The reins of government were, however, tightly held, and
+nothing was so much avoided as the letting men think or act for
+themselves, while their eyes were to be dazzled with splendour and
+victory. In 1853, when Russia was attacking Turkey, the Emperor united
+with England in opposition, and the two armies together besieged
+Sebastopol, and fought the battles of Alma and Inkermann, taking the
+city after nearly a year's siege; and then making what is known as the
+Treaty of Paris, which guaranteed the safety of Turkey so long as the
+subject Christian nations were not misused. In 1859 Napoleon III. joined
+in an attack on the Austrian power in Italy, and together with Victor
+Emanuel, King of Sardinia, and the Italians, gained two great victories
+at Magenta and Solferino; but made peace as soon as it was convenient to
+him, without regard to his promises to the King of Sardinia, who was
+obliged to purchase his consent to becoming King of United Italy by
+yielding up to France his old inheritance of Savoy and Nice. Meantime
+discontent began to spring up at home, and the Red Republican spirit was
+working on. The huge fortunes made by the successful only added to the
+sense of contrast; secret societies were at work, and the Emperor, after
+twenty years of success, felt his popularity waning.
+
+
+5. The Franco-German War.--In 1870 the Spaniards, who had deposed
+their queen, Isabel II., made choice of a relation of the King of
+Prussia as their king. There had long been bitter jealousy between
+France and Prussia, and, though the prince refused the offer of Spain,
+the French showed such an overbearing spirit that a war broke out. The
+real desire of France was to obtain the much-coveted frontier of the
+Rhine, and the Emperor heated their armies with boastful proclamations
+which were but the prelude to direful defeats, at Weissenburg, Wörth,
+and Forbach. At Sedan, the Emperor was forced to surrender himself as a
+prisoner, and the tidings no sooner arrived at Paris than the whole of
+the people turned their wrath on him and his family. His wife, the
+Empress Eugènie, had to flee, a republic was declared, and the city
+prepared to stand a siege. The Germans advanced, and put down all
+resistance in other parts of France. Great part of the army had been
+made prisoners, and, though there was much bravado, there was little
+steadiness or courage left among those who now took up arms. Paris,
+which was blockaded, after suffering much from famine, surrendered in
+February, 1871; and peace was purchased in a treaty by which great part
+of Elsass and Lorraine, and the city of Metz, were given back to
+Germany.
+
+
+THE END.
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+Physical Geography. For advanced classes and High-Schools. Price, $1.40.
+First Steps in Geography. Child's 4to, 72 pages. Price, 40 cents.
+High-School Geography and Atlas. Geography, 405 pages, 85 cents. Atlas,
+  very large 4to. $1.70.
+Cornell's Outline Maps. 18 Maps, mounted on Muslin, with Key. Price,
+  $13.25.
+Cornell's Map-Drawing Cards. Price, 45 cents.
+Patton's Natural Resources of the United States. 45 cents.
+
+
+
+
+THE ART OF SPEECH.
+
+By L.T. TOWNSEND, D.D., Professor in Boston University; author of
+"Credo," etc.
+
+I.
+
+STUDIES IN POETRY AND PROSE.
+
+CONTENTS: History of Speech; Theories of the Origin of Speech; Laws of
+Speech; Diction and Idiom; Syntax; Grammatical and Rhetorical Rules;
+Style; Figures; Poetic Speech; Prose Speech; Poetic-Prose Speech.
+
+One volume 18mo. Cloth, 60 cents.
+
+II.
+
+STUDIES IN ELOQUENCE AND LOGIC.
+
+CONTENTS: Part I, Studies in Eloquence: Introductory; History of
+Eloquence; Life and Character of Demosthenes; Oration on the Crown;
+Inferences; Inferences (_continued_); Inferences (_continued_);
+Inferences (_concluded_).--Part II, Studies in Logic: Introductory;
+Argumentation; Classification; Practical Observations.--Supplemental
+Notes.
+
+One volume, 18mo. Cloth, 60 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE ORTHOËPIST:
+
+_A PRONOUNCING MANUAL_,
+
+CONTAINING
+
+About Three Thousand Five Hundred Words,
+
+INCLUDING
+
+A Considerable Number of the Names of Foreign Authors, Artists, etc.,
+that are often mispronounced.
+
+By ALFRED AYRES.
+
+"The book is likely to do more for the cause of good speech than any
+work with which we are acquainted."
+
+"The author of 'The Orthoëpist' is a well-known teacher of elocution in
+New York, who has given his best attention during many years to the
+subjects with which his book deals."--_Eclectic Magazine_.
+
+One volume, 18mo. Cloth, $1.00.
+
+
+
+
+THE VERBALIST:
+
+A MANUAL
+
+Devoted to Brief Discussions of the Right and the Wrong Use of Words,
+
+AND TO
+
+_SOME OTHER MATTERS OF INTEREST TO THOSE WHO WOULD SPEAK AND WRITE WITH
+PROPRIETY_.
+
+By ALFRED AYRES.
+
+
+"We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned to speak with
+propriety."--JOHNSON.
+
+"As a man is known by his company, so a man's company may be known by
+his manner of expressing himself."--SWIFT.
+
+
+Uniform with "The Orthoëpist."
+
+
+1 vol., 18mo, cloth. Price, $1.00.
+
+
+
+
+D. APPLETON & CO.'S
+
+LEADING TEXT-BOOKS.
+
+
+READERS.
+
+APPLETONS' SCHOOL READERS consist of Five Books, by William T. Harris,
+LL.D., Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Andrew J. Rickoff,
+A.M., Superintendent of Instruction, Cleveland, O.; and Mark Bailey,
+A.M., Instructor in Elocution, Yale College.
+
+APPLETONS' FIRST READER.
+APPLETONS' SECOND READER.
+APPLETONS' THIRD READER.
+APPLETONS' FOURTH READER.
+APPLETONS' FIFTH READER.
+APPLETONS' PRIMARY READING CHARTS.
+
+
+STANDARD SUPPLEMENTARY READERS.
+
+  I. Easy Steps for Little Feet                      $0 30
+ II. Golden Book of Choice Reading                      35
+III. Book of Tales                                      60
+ IV. Readings in Nature's Book                          80
+  V. Seven American Classics                            60
+ VI. Seven British Classics                             60
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY.
+
+Appletons' New Elementary Geography                     65
+Appletons' Higher Geography                           1 50
+Cornell's Primary Geography                             61
+Cornell's Intermediate Geography                      1 20
+Cornell's Physical Geography                          1 30
+Cornell's Grammar-School Geography                    1 40
+Cornell's First Steps in Geography                      36
+Cornell's High-School Geography                         80
+Cornell's High-School Atlas                           1 60
+Cornell's Outline Maps             per set, 13 Maps, 13 25
+Cornell's Map-Drawing Cards                 per set,    45
+Patton's Natural Resources of the United States.        45
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+Appletons' Primary Arithmetic                           20
+Appletons' Elementary Arithmetic                        35
+Appletons' Mental Arithmetic                            32
+Appletons' Practical Arithmetic                         72
+Appletons' Higher Arithmetic                          1 00
+Colin's Metric System                                   50
+Gillespie's Land Surveying                            2 60
+Gillespie's Leveling and Higher Surveying             2 20
+Inventional Geometry (Spencer's)                        45
+Richards's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,
+  with applications                                   1 75
+
+
+GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND LITERATURE.
+
+Bain's Composition and Rhetoric                       1 50
+Ballard's Words, and how to put them together           40
+Ballard's Word-writer                                   10
+Ballard's Pieces to Speak                   per part,   20
+Covell's Digest                                         80
+Gilmore's English Language and Literature               60
+Literature Primers: English Grammar--English
+Literature--Philology--Classical
+Geography--Shakespeare--Studies
+in Bryant--Greek Literature--English
+Grammar Exercises--Homer--English
+Composition                                     each,   45
+Morris's Historical English Grammar                   1 00
+Northend's Memory Gems                                  20
+Northend's Choice Thoughts                              30
+Northend's Gems of Thought                              75
+Quackenbos's Primary Grammar                            40
+Quackenbos's English Grammar                            72
+Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in our Language        50
+Quackenbos's First Lessons in Composition               80
+Quackenbos's Composition and Rhetoric                 1 30
+Spalding's English Literature                         1 30
+Stickney's Child's Book of Language. 4 numbers  each,   10
+Teacher's edition of same                               35
+Stickney's Letters and Lessons                  each,   20
+
+
+HISTORY.
+
+Bayard Taylor's History of Germany                    1 50
+History Primers: Rome--Greece--Europe--Old Greek
+Life--Geography--Roman Antiquities              each,   45
+Markham's History of England                          1 30
+Morris's History of England                           1 25
+Quackenbos's Elementary History of the United States    60
+Quackenbos's School History of the United States      1 20
+Quackenbos's American History                         1 15
+Quackenbos's Illustrated School History of the World  1 50
+Sewell's Child's History of Rome                        65
+  "        "        "     " Greece                      65
+Willard's Synopsis of General History                 2 00
+Timayenis's History of Greece. Two vols               3 50
+
+
+SCIENCE.
+
+Alden's Intellectual Philosophy                       1 10
+Arnott's Physics                                      3 00
+Atkinson's Ganot's Physics                            3 00
+Bain's Mental Science                                 1 50
+Bain's Moral Science                                  1 50
+Bain's Logic                                          2 00
+Coming's Physiology                                   1 50
+Deschanel's Natural Philosophy. One vol               5 70
+  In four parts                                 each, 1 50
+Gilmore's Logic                                         75
+Henslow's Botanical Charts                           15 75
+Huxley and Youmans's Physiology                       1 50
+Le Conte's Geology                                    4 00
+Lockyer's Astronomy                                   1 50
+Lupton's Scientific Agriculture                         45
+Morse's First Book of Zoölogy                         1 10
+Munsell's Psychology                                  1 70
+Nicholson's Geology                                   1 30
+Nicholson's Zoölogy                                   1 50
+Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy                       1 50
+Rains's Chemical Analysis                               50
+Science Primers: Introductory--Chemistry--Physics--
+Physical Geography--Geology--Physiology--Astronomy--
+Botany--Logic--Inventional Geometry--
+Pianoforte-Playing--Political Economy           each,   45
+Wilson's Logic                                        1 30
+Winslow's Moral Philosophy                            1 30
+Youmans's New Chemistry                               1 50
+Youmans's (Miss) First Book of Botany                   85
+Youmans's (Miss) Second Book of Botany                1 30
+
+
+FREE-HAND AND INDUSTRIAL DRAWING.
+
+Krüsi's Easy Drawing Lessons, for Kindergarten and
+Primary Schools. Three Parts                     each,  14
+  Synthetic Series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4          each,  15
+  Analytic Series. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10    each,  18
+  Perspective Series. Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14    each,  25
+  Advanced Perspective. Nos. 15 and 16           each,  25
+  Nos. 17 and 18                                 each,  35
+  Manuals. 1 to each Series. Paper,              each,  45
+    cloth,                                       each,  60
+  Textile Designs. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4           each,  30
+  Nos. 5 and 6                                   each,  40
+  Outline and Relief Designs. No. 1                     30
+  Nos. 2 and 3                                   each,  45
+  Nos. 4, 5, and 6                               each,  40
+  Mechanical Drawing. Nos. 1, 4, and 6           each,  45
+  Nos. 2, 3, and 5                               each,  25
+  Architectural Drawing. Nine Parts              each,  45
+Green's Slate Drawing Cards. Two Parts           each,  12
+
+
+PENMANSHIP.
+
+Model Copy-Books, Sliding Copies           per copy,    12
+  "       "   Primary Series               per copy,     9
+Model Practice-Book                        per copy,    10
+
+
+LATIN.
+
+Arnold's First and Second Latin Book                  1 10
+Arnold's Latin Prose Composition                      1 10
+Arnold's Cornelius Nepos                              1 30
+Butler's Sallust's Jugurtha and Catiline              1 50
+Cicero de Officiis                                    1 10
+Crosby's Quintus Curtius Rufus                        1 30
+Crosby's Sophocles's Oedipus Tyrannus                 1 30
+Frieze's Quintilian                                   1 30
+Frieze's Virgil's Æneid                               1 70
+Frieze's Six Books of Virgil, with Vocabulary
+Harkness's Arnold's First Latin Book                  1 30
+Harkness's Second Latin Book                          1 10
+Harkness's Introductory Latin Book                    1 10
+Harkness's Latin Grammar                              1 30
+Harkness's Elements of Latin Grammar                  1 10
+Harkness's Latin Reader                               1 10
+Harkness's New Latin Reader                           1 10
+Harkness's Latin Reader, with Exercises               1 30
+Harkness's Latin Prose Composition                    1 30
+Harkness's Cæsar, with Dictionary                     1 30
+Harkness's Cicero                                     1 30
+Harkness's Cicero, with Dictionary                    1 50
+Harkness's Sallust's Catiline, with Dictionary        1 15
+Harkness's Course in Cæsar, Sallust, and Cicero,
+  with Dictionary                                     1 75
+Johnson's Cicero's Select Orations                    1 50
+Lincoln's Horace                                      1 50
+Lincoln's Livy                                        1 50
+Sewall's Latin Speaker                                1 00
+Tyler's Tacitus                                       1 50
+Tyler's Germania and Agricola                         1 10
+
+
+BOOK-KEEPING.
+
+Marsh's Single-Entry Book-keeping                     1 70
+Marsh's Double-Entry Book-keeping                     2 20
+Blanks to above, 6 books to each set        per set,  1 30
+
+
+GERMAN.
+
+Adler's Progressive German Reader                     1 30
+Adler's Hand-book of German Literature                1 30
+Adler's German Dictionary, 8vo                        4 50
+  "        "       "       12mo                       2 25
+Ahn's German Grammar                                    85
+Kroeh's First German Reader                             35
+Oehlschlaeger's Pronouncing German Reader             1 10
+Ollendorff's New Method of Learning German            1 10
+Prendergast's Mastery Series--German                    45
+Roemer's Polyglot Reader--German                      1 30
+Schulte's Elementary German Course                      85
+Wrage's Practical German Grammar                      1 30
+Wrage's German Primer                                   35
+Wrage's First German Reader                             45
+
+
+GREEK.
+
+Arnold's First Greek Book                             1 10
+Arnold's Greek Prose Composition                      1 30
+Arnold's Second Greek Prose Composition               1 30
+Arnold's Greek Reading Book                           1 30
+Boise's Three Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon     1 30
+Boise's Five Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon      1 70
+Boise's Greek Prose Composition                       1 30
+Boise's Anabasis                                      1 70
+Coy's Mayor's Greek for Beginners                     1 25
+Hadley's Greek Grammar                                1 70
+Hadley's Elements of Greek Grammar                    1 30
+Hadley's Greek Verbs                                    25
+Harkness's First Greek Book                           1 30
+Johnson's Three Books of the Iliad                    1 25
+Johnson's Herodotus                                   1 30
+Kendrick's Greek Ollendorff                           1 50
+Kühner's Greek Grammar                                1 70
+Owen's Xenophon's Anabasis                            1 70
+Owen's Homer's Iliad                                  1 70
+Owen's Greek Reader                                   1 70
+Owen's Acts of the Apostles                           1 50
+Owen's Homer's Odyssey                                1 70
+Owen's Thucydides                                     2 20
+Owen's Xenophon's Cyropædia                           2 20
+Robbins's Xenophon's Memorabilia                      1 70
+Silber's Progressive Lessons in Greek                 1 10
+Smead's Antigone                                      1 50
+Smead's Philippics of Demosthenes                     1 30
+Tyler's Plato's Apology and Crito                     1 30
+Tyler's Plutarch                                      1 30
+Whiton's First Lessons in Greek                       1 30
+
+
+FRENCH.
+
+Ahn's French Method                                     65
+Badois's Grammaire Anglaise                           1 30
+Barbauld's Lessons for Children                         65
+De Fivas's Elementary French Reader                     65
+De Fivas's Classic French Reader                      1 30
+De Fivas's New Grammar of French Grammars             1 10
+De Peyrac's French Children at Home                     80
+De Peyrac's Comment on Parle à Paris                  1 30
+Havet's French Manual                                 1 10
+Jewett's Spiers's French Dictionary, 8vo              2 60
+   "        "        "      "      School edition     1 70
+Marcel's Rational Method--French                        45
+Ollendorff's New Method of Learning French            1 10
+Ollendorff's First Lessons in French                    65
+Roemer's French Readers                               1 30
+Rowan's Modern French Reader                          1 30
+Simonné's Treatise on French Verbs                      65
+Spiers and Surenne's French Dictionary, 8vo           4 50
+   "          "         "       "      12mo           2 25
+
+
+ITALIAN.
+
+Fontana's Elementary Grammar of the Italian Language.
+  12mo                                                1 30
+Foresti's Italian Reader. 12mo                        1 30
+Meadows's Italian-English Dictionary. A new revised
+  edition                                half bound,  2 50
+Millhouse's New English-and-Italian Pronouncing and
+  Explanatory Dictionary. Second edition, revised
+  and improved. 2 thick vols., small 8vo  half bound, 5 25
+Nuovo Tesoro di Scherzi, Massime, Proverbi, etc. 1
+  vol., 12mo                                  Cloth,  1 50
+Ollendorffs New Method of Learning Italian. Edited
+    by F. Foresti. 12mo                               1 30
+  Key to do                                             85
+  Primary Lessons. 18mo                                 65
+Roemer's Polyglot Reader (in Italian). Translated by
+    Dr. Botta                                         1 30
+  Key to same, in English                             1 30
+
+
+SPANISH.
+
+Ahn's Spanish Grammar                                   85
+De Tornos's Spanish Method                            1 25
+Ollendorff's Spanish Grammar                          1 00
+Prendergast's Mastery Series--Spanish                   45
+Schele de Vere's Spanish Grammar                      1 00
+Velázquez's New Spanish Reader                        1 25
+Velázquez's Pronouncing Spanish Dictionary. 8vo.      5 00
+    "           "           "        "      12mo.     1 50
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of France
+
+Author: Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+Editor: J.R. Green
+
+Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17287]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the
+Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<h4>History Primers. <i>Edited by</i> J.R. GREEN.</h4>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>HISTORY OF FRANCE.</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>CHARLOTTE M. YONGE.</h2>
+
+
+<h4>
+NEW YORK:<br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br />
+1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.<br />
+1882.<br />
+</h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right'>PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER I.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER II.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER III.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER IV.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>THE ITALIAN WARS</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER V.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>THE WARS OF RELIGION</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VI.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>POWER OF THE CROWN</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>THE REVOLUTION</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VIII.</b></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#page116">116</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a href="images/01large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/01.jpg"
+      alt="MAP OF FRANCE. Shewing the Provinces."
+      title="MAP OF FRANCE. Shewing the Provinces." /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a href="images/02large.jpg">
+   <img src="images/02.jpg"
+      alt="MAP OF FRANCE. Shewing the Departments."
+      title="MAP OF FRANCE. Shewing the Departments." /></a>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FRANCE.</h2><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page1" name="page1"></a>Pg 1</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>France.</b>&mdash;The country we now know as France is the tract of land
+shut in by the British Channel, the Bay of Biscay, the Pyrenees, the
+Mediterranean, and the Alps. But this country only gained the name of
+France by degrees. In the earliest days of which we have any account, it
+was peopled by the Celts, and it was known to the Romans as part of a
+larger country which bore the name of Gaul. After all of it, save the
+north-western moorlands, or what we now call Brittany, had been
+conquered and settled by the Romans, it was overrun by tribes of the
+great Teutonic race, the same family to which Englishmen belong. Of
+these tribes, the Goths settled in the provinces to the south; the
+Burgundians, in the east, around the Jura; while<span class="pagenum"><a id="page2" name="page2"></a>Pg 2</span> the Franks, coming
+over the rivers in its unprotected north-eastern corner, and making
+themselves masters of a far wider territory, broke up into two
+kingdoms&mdash;that of the Eastern Franks in what is now Germany, and that of
+the Western Franks reaching from the Rhine to the Atlantic. These Franks
+subdued all the other Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, while they adopted
+the religion, the language, and some of the civilization of the
+Romanized Gauls who became their subjects. Under the second Frankish
+dynasty, the Empire was renewed in the West, where it had been for a
+time put an end to by these Teutonic invasions, and the then Frankish
+king, Charles the Great, took his place as Emperor at its head. But in
+the time of his grandsons the various kingdoms and nations of which the
+Empire was composed, fell apart again under different descendants of
+his. One of these, <i>Charles the Bald</i>, was made King of the Western
+Franks in what was termed the Neustrian, or "not eastern," kingdom, from
+which the present France has sprung. This kingdom in name covered all
+the country west of the Upper Meuse, but practically the Neustrian king
+had little power south of the Loire; and the Celts of Brittany were
+never included in it.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>The House of Paris.</b>&mdash;The great danger which this Neustrian kingdom
+had to meet came from the Northmen, or as they were called in Eng<span class="pagenum"><a id="page3" name="page3"></a>Pg 3</span>land
+the Danes. These ravaged in Neustria as they ravaged in England; and a
+large part of the northern coast, including the mouth of the Seine, was
+given by Charles the Bald to Rolf or Rollo, one of their leaders, whose
+land became known as the Northman's land, or Normandy. What most checked
+the ravages of these pirates was the resistance of Paris, a town which
+commanded the road along the river Seine; and it was in defending the
+city of Paris from the Northmen, that a warrior named Robert the Strong
+gained the trust and affection of the inhabitants of the Neustrian
+kingdom. He and his family became Counts (<i>i.e.</i>, judges and protectors)
+of Paris, and Dukes (or leaders) of the Franks. Three generations of
+them were really great men&mdash;Robert the Strong, Odo, and Hugh the White;
+and when the descendants of Charles the Great had died out, a Duke of
+the Franks, <i>Hugh Capet</i>, was in 987 crowned King of the Franks. All the
+after kings of France down to Louis Philippe were descendants of Hugh
+Capet. By this change, however, he gained little in real power; for,
+though he claimed to rule over the whole country of the Neustrian
+Franks, his authority was little heeded, save in the domain which he had
+possessed as Count of Paris, including the cities of Paris, Orleans,
+Amiens, and Rheims (the coronation place). He was guardian, too, of the
+great Abbeys of St. Denys and St. Martin of Tours. The Duke of Normandy
+and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page4" name="page4"></a>Pg 4</span> Count of Anjou to the west, the Count of Flanders to the north,
+the Count of Champagne to the east, and the Duke of Aquitaine to the
+south, paid him homage, but were the only actual rulers in their own
+domains.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The Kingdom of Hugh Capet.</b>&mdash;The language of Hugh's kingdom was
+clipped Latin; the peasantry and townsmen were mostly Gaulish; the
+nobles were almost entirely Frank. There was an understanding that the
+king could only act by their consent, and must be chosen by them; but
+matters went more by old custom and the right of the strongest than by
+any law. A Salic law, so called from the place whence the Franks had
+come, was supposed to exist; but this had never been used by their
+subjects, whose law remained that of the old Roman Empire. Both of these
+systems of law, however, fell into disuse, and were replaced by rude
+bodies of "customs," which gradually grew up. The habits of the time
+were exceedingly rude and ferocious. The Franks had been the fiercest
+and most untamable of all the Teutonic nations, and only submitted
+themselves to the influence of Christianity and civilization from the
+respect which the Roman Empire inspired. Charles the Great had tried to
+bring in Roman cultivation, but we find him reproaching the young Franks
+in his schools with letting themselves be surpassed by the Gauls, whom
+they despised; and in the disorders that followed his death, barbarism<span class="pagenum"><a id="page5" name="page5"></a>Pg 5</span>
+increased again. The convents alone kept up any remnants of culture; but
+as the fury of the Northmen was chiefly directed to them, numbers had
+been destroyed, and there was more ignorance and wretchedness than at
+any other time. In the duchy of Aquitaine, much more of the old Roman
+civilization survived, both among the cities and the nobility; and the
+Normans, newly settled in the north, had brought with them the vigour of
+their race. They had taken up such dead or dying culture as they found
+in France, and were carrying it further, so as in some degree to awaken
+their neighbours. Kings and their great vassals could generally read and
+write, and understand the Latin in which all records were made, but few
+except the clergy studied at all. There were schools in convents, and
+already at Paris a university was growing up for the study of theology,
+grammar, law, philosophy, and music, the sciences which were held to
+form a course of education. The doctors of these sciences lectured; the
+scholars of low degree lived, begged, and struggled as best they could;
+and gentlemen were lodged with clergy, who served as a sort of private
+tutors.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>Earlier Kings of the House of Paris.</b>&mdash;Neither Hugh nor the next
+three kings (<i>Robert</i>, 996-1031; <i>Henry</i>, 1031-1060; <i>Philip</i>,
+1060-1108) were able men, and they were almost helpless among the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page6" name="page6"></a>Pg 6</span>
+fierce nobles of their own domain, and the great counts and dukes around
+them. Castles were built of huge strength, and served as nests of
+plunderers, who preyed on travellers and made war on each other,
+grievously tormenting one another's "villeins"&mdash;as the peasants were
+termed. Men could travel nowhere in safety, and horrid ferocity and
+misery prevailed. The first three kings were good and pious men, but too
+weak to deal with their ruffian nobles. <i>Robert, called the Pious</i>, was
+extremely devout, but weak. He became embroiled with the Pope on account
+of having married Bertha&mdash;a lady pronounced to be within the degrees of
+affinity prohibited by the Church. He was excommunicated, but held out
+till there was a great religious reaction, produced by the belief that
+the world would end in 1000. In this expectation many persons left their
+land untilled, and the consequence was a terrible famine, followed by a
+pestilence; and the misery of France was probably unequalled in this
+reign, when it was hardly possible to pass safely from one to another of
+the three royal cities, Paris, Orleans, and Tours. Beggars swarmed, and
+the king gave to them everything he could lay his hands on, and even
+winked at their stealing gold off his dress, to the great wrath of a
+second wife, the imperious Constance of Provence, who, coming from the
+more luxurious and corrupt south, hated and despised the roughness and
+asceticism of her husband. She was a fierce and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page7" name="page7"></a>Pg 7</span> passionate woman, and
+brought an element of cruelty into the court. In this reign the first
+instance of persecution to the death for heresy took place. The victim
+had been the queen's confessor; but so far was she from pitying him that
+she struck out one of his eyes with her staff, as he was led past her to
+the hut where he was shut in and burnt. On Robert's death Constance took
+part against her son, <i>Henry I.</i>, on behalf of his younger brother, but
+Henry prevailed. During his reign the clergy succeeded in proclaiming
+what was called the Truce of God, which forbade war and bloodshed at
+certain seasons of the year and on certain days of the week, and made
+churches and clerical lands places of refuge and sanctuary, which often
+indeed protected the lawless, but which also saved the weak and
+oppressed. It was during these reigns that the Papacy was beginning the
+great struggle for temporal power, and freedom from the influence of the
+Empire, which resulted in the increased independence and power of the
+clergy. The religious fervour which had begun with the century led to
+the foundation of many monasteries, and to much grand church
+architecture. In the reign of <i>Philip I.</i>, William, Duke of Normandy,
+obtained the kingdom of England, and thus became far more powerful than
+his suzerain, the King of France, a weak man of vicious habits, who lay
+for many years of his life under sentence of excommunication for an
+adulterous marriage with Bertrade de<span class="pagenum"><a id="page8" name="page8"></a>Pg 8</span> Montfort, Countess of Anjou. The
+power of the king and of the law was probably at the very lowest ebb
+during the time of Philip I., though minds and manners were less debased
+than in the former century.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>The First Crusade (1095&mdash;1100).</b>&mdash;Pilgrimage to the Holy Land had
+now become one great means by which the men of the West sought pardon
+for their sins. Jerusalem had long been held by the Arabs, who had
+treated the pilgrims well; but these had been conquered by a fierce
+Turcoman tribe, who robbed and oppressed the pilgrims. Peter the Hermit,
+returning from a pilgrimage, persuaded Pope Urban II. that it would be
+well to stir up Christendom to drive back the Moslem power, and deliver
+Jerusalem and the holy places. Urban II. accordingly, when holding a
+council at Clermont, in Auvergne, permitted Peter to describe in glowing
+words the miseries of pilgrims and the profanation of the holy places.
+Cries broke out, "God wills it!" and multitudes thronged to receive
+crosses cut out in cloth, which were fastened to the shoulder, and
+pledged the wearer to the holy war or crusade, as it was called. Philip
+I. took no interest in the cause, but his brother Hugh, Count of
+Vermandois, Stephen, Count of Blois, Robert, Duke of Normandy, and
+Raymond, Count of Toulouse, joined the expedition, which was made under
+Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, or what we now call the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page9" name="page9"></a>Pg 9</span>
+Netherlands. The crusade proved successful; Jerusalem was gained, and a
+kingdom of detached cities and forts was founded in Palestine, of which
+Godfrey became the first king. The whole of the West was supposed to
+keep up the defence of the Holy Land, but, in fact, most of those who
+went as armed pilgrims were either French, Normans, or Aquitanians; and
+the men of the East called all alike Franks. Two orders of monks, who
+were also knights, became the permanent defenders of the kingdom&mdash;the
+Knights of St. John, also called Hospitallers, because they also lodged
+pilgrims and tended the sick; and the Knights Templars. Both had
+establishments in different countries in Europe, where youths were
+trained to the rules of their order. The old custom of solemnly girding
+a young warrior with his sword was developing into a system by which the
+nobly born man was trained through the ranks of page and squire to full
+knighthood, and made to take vows which bound him to honourable customs
+to equals, though, unhappily, no account was taken of his inferiors.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>Louis VI. and VII.</b>&mdash;Philip's son, <i>Louis VI., or the Fat</i>, was the
+first able man whom the line of Hugh Capet had produced since it mounted
+the throne. He made the first attempt at curbing the nobles, assisted by
+Suger, the Abbot of St. Denys. The only possibility of doing this was to
+obtain the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page10" name="page10"></a>Pg 10</span> aid of one party of nobles against another; and when any
+unusually flagrant offence had been committed, Louis called together the
+nobles, bishops, and abbots of his domain, and obtained their consent
+and assistance in making war on the guilty man, and overthrowing his
+castle, thus, in some degree, lessening the sense of utter impunity
+which had caused so many violences and such savage recklessness. He also
+permitted a few of the cities to purchase the right of self-government,
+and freedom from the ill usage of the counts, who, from their guardians,
+had become their tyrants; but in this he seems not to have been so much
+guided by any fixed principle, as by his private interests and feelings
+towards the individual city or lord in question. However, the royal
+authority had begun to be respected by 1137, when Louis VI. died, having
+just effected the marriage of his son, <i>Louis VII.</i>, with Eleanor, the
+heiress of the Dukes of Aquitaine&mdash;thus hoping to make the crown really
+more powerful than the great princes who owed it homage. At this time
+lived the great St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, who had a wonderful
+influence over men's minds. It was a time of much thought and
+speculation, and Peter Abailard, an able student of the Paris
+University, held a controversy with Bernard, in which we see the first
+struggle between intellect and authority. Bernard roused the young king,
+Louis VII., to go on the second crusade, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="page11" name="page11"></a>Pg 11</span> was undertaken by the
+Emperor and the other princes of Europe to relieve the distress of the
+kingdom of Palestine. France had no navy, so the war was by land,
+through the rugged hills of Asia Minor, where the army was almost
+destroyed by the Saracens. Though Louis did reach Palestine, it was with
+weakened forces; he could effect nothing by his campaign, and Eleanor,
+who had accompanied him, seems to have been entirely corrupted by the
+evil habits of the Franks settled in the East. Soon after his return,
+Louis dissolved his marriage; and Eleanor became the wife of Henry,
+Count of Anjou, who soon after inherited the kingdom of England as our
+Henry II., as well as the duchy of Normandy, and betrothed his third son
+to the heiress of Brittany. Eleanor's marriage seemed to undo all that
+Louis VI. had done in raising the royal power; for Henry completely
+overshadowed Louis, whose only resource was in feeble endeavours to take
+part against him in his many family quarrels. The whole reign of Louis
+the Young, the title that adhered to him on account of his simple,
+childish nature, is only a record of weakness and disaster, till he died
+in 1180. What life went on in France, went on principally in the south.
+The lands of Aquitaine and Provence had never dropped the old classical
+love of poetry and art. A softer form of broken Latin was then spoken,
+and the art of minstrelsy was frequent among all ranks.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page12" name="page12"></a>Pg 12</span> Poets were
+called troubadours and <i>trouv&egrave;res</i> (finders). Courts of love were held,
+where there were competitions in poetry, the prize being a golden
+violet; and many of the bravest warriors were also distinguished
+troubadours&mdash;among them the elder sons of Queen Eleanor. There was much
+license of manners, much turbulence; and as the Aquitanians hated
+Angevin rule, the troubadours never ceased to stir up the sons of Henry
+II. against him.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. <b>Philip II. (1180&mdash;1223).</b>&mdash;Powerful in fact as Henry II. was, it was
+his gathering so large a part of France under his rule which was, in the
+end, to build up the greatness of the French kings. What had held them
+in check was the existence of the great fiefs or provinces, each with
+its own line of dukes or counts, and all practically independent of the
+king. But now nearly all the provinces of southern and western France
+were gathered into the hand of a single ruler; and though he was a
+Frenchman in blood, yet, as he was King of England, this ruler seemed to
+his French subjects no Frenchman, but a foreigner. They began therefore
+to look to the French king to free them from a foreign ruler; and the
+son of Louis VII., called <i>Philip Augustus</i>, was ready to take advantage
+of their disposition. Philip was a really able man, making up by address
+for want of personal courage. He set himself to lower the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page13" name="page13"></a>Pg 13</span> power of the
+house of Anjou and increase that of the house of Paris. As a boy he had
+watched conferences between his father and Henry under the great elm of
+Gisors, on the borders of Normandy, and seeing his father overreached,
+he laid up a store of hatred to the rival king. As soon as he had the
+power, he cut down the elm, which was so large that 300 horsemen could
+be sheltered under its branches. He supported the sons of Henry II. in
+their rebellions, and was always the bitter foe of the head of the
+family. Philip assumed the cross in 1187, on the tidings of the loss of
+Jerusalem, and in 1190 joined Richard I. of England at Messina, where
+they wintered, and then sailed for St. Jean d'Acre. After this city was
+taken, Philip returned to France, where he continued to profit by the
+crimes and dissensions of the Angevins, and gained, both as their enemy
+and as King of France. When Richard's successor, John, murdered Arthur,
+the heir of the dukedom of Brittany and claimant of both Anjou and
+Normandy, Philip took advantage of the general indignation to hold a
+court of peers, in which John, on his non-appearance, was adjudged to
+have forfeited his fiefs. In the war which followed and ended in 1204,
+Philip not only gained the great Norman dukedom, which gave him the
+command of Rouen and of the mouth of the Seine, as well as Anjou, Maine,
+and Poitou, the countries which held the Loire in their<span class="pagenum"><a id="page14" name="page14"></a>Pg 14</span> power, but
+established the precedent that a crown vassal was amenable to justice,
+and might be made to forfeit his lands. What he had won by the sword he
+held by wisdom and good government. Seeing that the cities were capable
+of being made to balance the power of the nobles, he granted them
+privileges which caused him to be esteemed their best friend, and he
+promoted all improvements. Though once laid under an interdict by Pope
+Innocent III. for an unlawful marriage, Philip usually followed the
+policy which gained for the Kings of France the title of "Most Christian
+King." The real meaning of this was that he should always support the
+Pope against the Emperor, and in return be allowed more than ordinary
+power over his clergy. The great feudal vassals of eastern France, with
+a strong instinct that he was their enemy, made a league with the
+Emperor Otto IV. and his uncle King John, against Philip Augustus. John
+attacked him in the south, and was repulsed by Philip's son, Louis,
+called the "Lion;" while the king himself, backed by the burghers of his
+chief cities, gained at Bouvines, over Otto, the first real French
+victory, in 1214, thus establishing the power of the crown. Two years
+later, Louis the Lion, who had married John's niece, Blanche of Castile,
+was invited by the English barons to become their king on John's
+refusing to be bound by the Great Charter; and Philip saw his son
+actually in<span class="pagenum"><a id="page15" name="page15"></a>Pg 15</span> possession of London at the time of the death of the last
+of the sons of his enemy, Henry II. On John's death, however, the barons
+preferred his child to the French prince, and fell away from Louis, who
+was forced to return to France.</p>
+
+
+<p>8. <b>The Albigenses (1203&mdash;1240).</b>&mdash;The next great step in the building
+up of the French kingdom was made by taking advantage of a religious
+strife in the south. The lands near the Mediterranean still had much of
+the old Roman cultivation, and also of the old corruption, and here
+arose a sect called the Albigenses, who held opinions other than those
+of the Church on the origin of evil. Pope Innocent III., after sending
+some of the order of friars freshly established by the Spaniard,
+Dominic, to preach to them in vain, declared them as great enemies of
+the faith as Mahometans, and proclaimed a crusade against them and their
+chief supporter, Raymond, Count of Toulouse. Shrewd old King Philip
+merely permitted this crusade; but the dislike of the north of France to
+the south made hosts of adventurers flock to the banner of its leader,
+Simon de Montfort, a Norman baron, devout and honourable, but harsh and
+pitiless. Dreadful execution was done; the whole country was laid waste,
+and Raymond reduced to such distress that Peter I., King of Aragon, who
+was regarded as the natural head of the southern races,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page16" name="page16"></a>Pg 16</span> came to his
+aid, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Muret. After this
+Raymond was forced to submit, but such hard terms were forced on him
+that his people revolted. His country was granted to De Montfort, who
+laid siege to Toulouse, and was killed before he could take the city.
+The war was then carried on by <i>Louis the Lion</i>, who had succeeded his
+father as Louis VIII. in 1223, though only to reign three years, as he
+died of a fever caught in a southern campaign in 1226. His widow,
+Blanche, made peace in the name of her son, <i>Louis IX.</i>, and Raymond was
+forced to give his only daughter in marriage to one of her younger sons.
+On their death, the county of Toulouse lapsed to the crown, which thus
+became possessor of all southern France, save Guienne, which still
+remained to the English kings. But the whole of the district once
+peopled by the Albigenses had been so much wasted as never to recover
+its prosperity, and any cropping up of their opinions was guarded
+against by the establishment of the Inquisition, which appointed
+Dominican friars to <i>inquire</i> into and exterminate all that differed
+from the Church. At the same time the order of St. Francis did much to
+instruct and quicken the consciences of the people; and at the
+universities&mdash;especially that of Paris&mdash;a great advance both in thought
+and learning was made. Louis IX.'s confessor, Henry de Sorbonne,
+founded, for the study of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page17" name="page17"></a>Pg 17</span> divinity, the college which was known by his
+name, and whose decisions were afterwards received as of paramount
+authority.</p>
+
+
+<p>9. <b>The Parliament of Paris.</b>&mdash;France had a wise ruler in Blanche, and a
+still better one in her son, <i>Louis IX.</i>, who is better known as <i>St.
+Louis</i>, and who was a really good and great man. He was the first to
+establish the Parliament of Paris&mdash;a court consisting of the great
+feudal vassals, lay and ecclesiastical, who held of the king direct, and
+who had to try all causes. They much disliked giving such attendance,
+and a certain number of men trained to the law were added to them to
+guide the decisions. The Parliament was thus only a court of justice and
+an office for registering wills and edicts. The representative assembly
+of France was called the States-General, and consisted of all estates of
+the realm, but was only summoned in time of emergency. Louis IX. was the
+first king to bring nobles of the highest rank to submit to the judgment
+of Parliament when guilty of a crime. Enguerrand de Coucy, one of the
+proudest nobles of France, who had hung two Flemish youths for killing a
+rabbit, was sentenced to death. The penalty was commuted, but the
+principle was established. Louis's uprightness and wisdom gained him
+honour and love everywhere, and he was always remembered as sitting
+under the great oak at Vincennes, doing equal justice to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page18" name="page18"></a>Pg 18</span> rich and poor.
+Louis was equally upright in his dealings with foreign powers. He would
+not take advantage of the weakness of Henry III. of England to attack
+his lands in Guienne, though he maintained the right of France to
+Normandy as having been forfeited by King John. So much was he respected
+that he was called in to judge between Henry and his barons, respecting
+the oaths exacted from the king by the Mad Parliament. His decision in
+favour of Henry was probably an honest one; but he was misled by the
+very different relations of the French and English kings to their
+nobles, who in France maintained lawlessness and violence, while in
+England they were struggling for law and order. Throughout the struggles
+between the Popes and the Emperor Frederick II., Louis would not be
+induced to assist in a persecution of the Emperor which he considered
+unjust, nor permit one of his sons to accept the kingdom of Apulia and
+Sicily, when the Pope declared that Frederick had forfeited it. He could
+not, however, prevent his brother Charles, Count of Anjou, from
+accepting it; for Charles had married Beatrice, heiress of the imperial
+fief of Provence, and being thus independent of his brother Louis, was
+able to establish a branch of the French royal family on the throne at
+Naples. The reign of St. Louis was a time of much progress and
+improvement. There were great scholars and thinkers at all the
+universities. Romance and poetry were flourish<span class="pagenum"><a id="page19" name="page19"></a>Pg 19</span>ing, and influencing
+people's habits, so that courtesy, <i>i.e.</i> the manners taught in castle
+courts, was softening the demeanour of knights and nobles. Architecture
+was at its most beautiful period, as is seen, above all, in the Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris. This was built by Louis IX. to receive a gift of the
+Greek Emperor, namely, a thorn, which was believed to be from the crown
+of thorns. It is one of the most perfect buildings in existence.</p>
+
+
+<p>10. <b>Crusade of Louis IX.</b>&mdash;Unfortunately, Louis, during a severe
+illness, made a vow to go on a crusade. His first fulfilment of this vow
+was made early in his reign, in 1250, when his mother was still alive to
+undertake the regency. His attempt was to attack the heart of the
+Saracen power in Egypt, and he effected a landing and took the city of
+Damietta. There he left his queen, and advanced on Cairo; but near
+Mansourah he found himself entangled in the canals of the Nile, and with
+a great army of Mamelukes in front. A ford was found, and the English
+Earl of Salisbury, who had brought a troop to join the crusade, advised
+that the first to cross should wait and guard the passage of the next.
+But the king's brother, Robert, Count of Artois, called this cowardice.
+The earl was stung, and declared he would be as forward among the foe as
+any Frenchman. They both charged headlong, were enclosed by<span class="pagenum"><a id="page20" name="page20"></a>Pg 20</span> the enemy,
+and slain; and though the king at last put the Mamelukes to flight, his
+loss was dreadful. The Nile rose and cut off his return. He lost great
+part of his troops from sickness, and was horribly harassed by the
+Mamelukes, who threw among his host a strange burning missile, called
+Greek fire; and he was finally forced to surrender himself as a prisoner
+at Mansourah, with all his army. He obtained his release by giving up
+Damietta, and paying a heavy ransom. After twenty years, in 1270, he
+attempted another crusade, which was still more unfortunate, for he
+landed at Tunis to wait for his brother to arrive from Sicily,
+apparently on some delusion of favourable dispositions on the part of
+the Bey. Sickness broke out in the camp, and the king, his daughter, and
+his third son all died of fever; and so fatal was the expedition, that
+his son Philip III. returned to France escorting five coffins, those of
+his father, his brother, his sister and her husband, and his own wife
+and child.</p>
+
+
+<p>11. <b>Philip the Fair.</b>&mdash;The reign of <i>Philip III.</i> was very short. The
+insolence and cruelty of the Proven&ccedil;als in Sicily had provoked the
+natives to a massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers, and they then
+called in the King of Aragon, who finally obtained the island, as a
+separate kingdom from that on the Italian mainland where Charles of
+Anjou and his descendants still reigned. While<span class="pagenum"><a id="page21" name="page21"></a>Pg 21</span> fighting his uncle's
+battles on the Pyrenees, and besieging Gerona, Philip III. caught a
+fever, and died on his way home in 1285. His successor, <i>Philip IV.,
+called the Fair</i>, was crafty, cruel, and greedy, and made the Parliament
+of Paris the instrument of his violence and exactions, which he carried
+out in the name of the law. To prevent Guy de Dampierre, Count of
+Flanders, from marrying his daughter to the son of Edward I. of England,
+he invited her and her father to his court, and threw them both into
+prison, while he offered his own daughter Isabel to Edward of Carnarvon
+in her stead. The Scottish wars prevented Edward I. from taking up the
+cause of Guy; but the Pope, Boniface VIII., a man of a fierce temper,
+though of a great age, loudly called on Philip to do justice to
+Flanders, and likewise blamed in unmeasured terms his exactions from the
+clergy, his debasement of the coinage, and his foul and vicious life.
+Furious abuse passed on both sides. Philip availed himself of a flaw in
+the Pope's election to threaten him with deposition, and in return was
+excommunicated. He then sent a French knight named William de Nogaret,
+with Sciarra Colonna, a turbulent Roman, the hereditary enemy of
+Boniface, and a band of savage mercenary soldiers to Anagni, where the
+Pope then was, to force him to recall the sentence, apparently intending
+them to act like the murderers of Becket. The old man's dignity,
+however, overawed<span class="pagenum"><a id="page22" name="page22"></a>Pg 22</span> them at the moment, and they retired without laying
+hands on him, but the shock he had undergone caused his death a few days
+later. His successor was poisoned almost immediately on his election,
+being known to be adverse to Philip. Parties were equally balanced in
+the conclave; but Philip's friends advised him to buy over to his
+interest one of his supposed foes, whom they would then unite in
+choosing. Bertrand de Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was the man, and in
+a secret interview promised Philip to fulfil six conditions if he were
+made Pope by his interest. These were: 1st, the reconciliation of Philip
+with the Church; 2nd, that of his agents; 3rd, a grant to the king of a
+tenth of all clerical property for five years; 4th, the restoration of
+the Colonna family to Rome; 5th, the censure of Boniface's memory. These
+five were carried out by Clement V., as he called himself, as soon as he
+was on the Papal throne; the sixth remained a secret, but was probably
+the destruction of the Knights Templars. This order of military monks
+had been created for the defence of the crusading kingdom of Jerusalem,
+and had acquired large possessions in Europe. Now that their occupation
+in the East was gone, they were hated and dreaded by the kings, and
+Philip was resolved on their wholesale destruction.</p>
+
+
+<p>12. <b>The Papacy at Avignon.</b>&mdash;Clement had never quitted France, but had
+gone through the cere<span class="pagenum"><a id="page23" name="page23"></a>Pg 23</span>monies of his installation at Lyons; and Philip,
+fearing that in Italy he would avoid carrying out the scheme for the
+ruin of the Templars, had him conducted to Avignon, a city of the Empire
+which belonged to the Angevin King of Naples, as Count of Provence, and
+there for eighty years the Papal court remained. As they were thus
+settled close to the French frontier, the Popes became almost vassals of
+France; and this added greatly to the power and renown of the French
+kings. How real their hold on the Papacy was, was shown in the ruin of
+the Templars. The order was now abandoned by the Pope, and its knights
+were invited in large numbers to Paris, under pretence of arranging a
+crusade. Having been thus entrapped, they were accused of horrible and
+monstrous crimes, and torture elicited a few supposed confessions. They
+were then tried by the Inquisition, and the greater number were put to
+death by fire, the Grand Master last of all, while their lands were
+seized by the king. They seem to have been really a fierce, arrogant,
+and oppressive set of men, or else there must have been some endeavour
+to save them, belonging, as most of them did, to noble French families.
+The "Pest of France," as Dante calls Philip the Fair, was now the most
+formidable prince in Europe. He contrived to annex to his dominions the
+city of Lyons, hitherto an imperial city under its archbishop. Philip
+died in 1314; and his three sons&mdash;<i>Louis X.</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page24" name="page24"></a>Pg 24</span> <i>Philip V.</i>, and <i>Charles
+IV.</i>,&mdash;were as cruel and harsh as himself, but without his talent, and
+brought the crown and people to disgrace and misery. Each reigned a few
+years and then died, leaving only daughters, and the question arose
+whether the inheritance should go to females. When Louis X. died, in
+1316, his brother Philip, after waiting for the birth of a posthumous
+child who only lived a few days, took the crown, and the Parliament then
+declared that the law of the old Salian Franks had been against the
+inheritance of women. By this newly discovered Salic law, Charles IV.,
+the third brother, reigned on Philip's death; but the kingdom of Navarre
+having accrued to the family through their grandmother, and not being
+subject to the Salic law, went to the eldest daughter of Louis X., Jane,
+wife of the Count of Evreux.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page25" name="page25"></a>Pg 25</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>Wars of Edward III.</b>&mdash;By the Salic law, as the lawyers called it,
+the crown was given, on the death of Charles IV., to <i>Philip, Count of
+Valois</i>, son to a brother of Philip IV., but it was claimed by Edward
+III. of England as son of the daughter of Philip IV. Edward contented
+himself, however, with the mere assertion of his pretensions, until
+Philip exasperated him by attacks on the borders of Guienne, which the
+French kings had long been coveting to complete their possession of the
+south, and by demanding the surrender of Robert of Artois, who, being
+disappointed in his claim to the county of Artois by the judgment of the
+Parliament of Paris, was practising by sorcery on the life of the King
+of France. Edward then declared war, and his supposed right caused a
+century of warfare between France and England, in which the broken,
+down-trodden state of the French peasantry gave England an immense
+advantage.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page26" name="page26"></a>Pg 26</span> The knights and squires were fairly matched; but while the
+English yeomen were strong, staunch, and trustworthy, the French were
+useless, and only made a defeat worse by plundering the fallen on each
+side alike. The war began in Flanders, where Philip took the part of the
+count, whose tyrannies had caused his expulsion. Edward was called in to
+the aid of the citizens of Ghent by their leader Jacob van Arteveldt;
+and gained a great victory over the French fleet at Sluys, but with no
+important result. At the same time the two kings took opposite sides in
+the war of the succession in Brittany, each defending the claim most
+inconsistent with his own pretensions to the French crown&mdash;Edward
+upholding the male heir, John de Montfort, and Philip the direct female
+representative, the wife of Charles de Blois.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>Cre&ccedil;y and Poitiers.</b>&mdash;Further difficulties arose through Charles the
+Bad, King of Navarre and Count of Evreux, who was always on the watch to
+assert his claim to the French throne through his mother, the daughter
+of Louis X., and was much hated and distrusted by Philip VI. and his son
+John, Duke of Normandy. Fearing the disaffection of the Norman and
+Breton nobles, Philip invited a number of them to a tournament at Paris,
+and there had them put to death after a hasty form of trial, thus
+driving their kindred to join his<span class="pagenum"><a id="page27" name="page27"></a>Pg 27</span> enemies. One of these offended
+Normans, Godfrey of Harcourt, invited Edward to Normandy, where he
+landed, and having consumed his supplies was on his march to Flanders,
+when Philip, with the whole strength of the kingdom, endeavoured to
+intercept him at <i>Cre&ccedil;y</i> in Picardy, in 1348. Philip was utterly
+incapable as a general; his knights were wrong-headed and turbulent, and
+absolutely cut down their own Genoese hired archers for being in their
+way. The defeat was total. Philip rode away to Amiens, and Edward laid
+siege to Calais. The place was so strong that he was forced to blockade
+it, and Philip had time to gather another army to attempt its relief;
+but the English army were so posted that he could not attack them
+without great loss. He retreated, and the men of Calais surrendered,
+Edward insisting that six burghers should bring him the keys with ropes
+round their necks, to submit themselves to him. Six offered themselves,
+but their lives were spared, and they were honourably treated. Edward
+expelled all the French, and made Calais an English settlement. A truce
+followed, chiefly in consequence of the ravages of the Black Death,
+which swept off multitudes throughout Europe, a pestilence apparently
+bred by filth, famine, and all the miseries of war and lawlessness, but
+which spared no ranks. It had scarcely ceased before Philip died, in
+1350. His son, <i>John</i>, was soon involved in a fresh war with England by
+the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page28" name="page28"></a>Pg 28</span> intrigues of Charles the Bad, and in 1356 advanced southwards to
+check the Prince of Wales, who had come out of Guienne on a plundering
+expedition. The French were again totally routed at Poitiers, and the
+king himself, with his third son, Philip, were made prisoners and
+carried to London with most of the chief nobles.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The Jacquerie.</b>&mdash;The calls made on their vassals by these captive
+nobles to supply their ransoms brought the misery to a height. The salt
+tax, or <i>gabelle</i>, which was first imposed to meet the expenses of the
+war, was only paid by those who were neither clergy nor nobles, and the
+general saying was&mdash;"Jacques Bonhomme (the nickname for the peasant) has
+a broad back, let him bear all the burthens." Either by the king, the
+feudal lords, the clergy, or the bands of men-at-arms who roved through
+the country, selling themselves to any prince who would employ them, the
+wretched people were stripped of everything, and used to hide in holes
+and caves from ill-usage or insult, till they broke out in a rebellion
+called the Jacquerie, and whenever they could seize a castle revenged
+themselves, like the brutes they had been made, on those within it.
+Taxation was so levied by the king's officers as to be frightfully
+oppressive, and corruption reigned everywhere. As the king was in
+prison, and his heir,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page29" name="page29"></a>Pg 29</span> Charles, had fled ignominiously from Poitiers,
+the citizens of Paris hoped to effect a reform, and rose with their
+provost-marshal, Stephen Marcel, at their head, threatened Charles, and
+slew two of his officers before his eyes. On their demand the
+States-General were convoked, and made wholesome regulations as to the
+manner of collecting the taxes, but no one, except perhaps Marcel, had
+any real zeal or public spirit. Charles the Bad, of Navarre, who had
+pretended to espouse their cause, betrayed it; the king declared the
+decisions of the States-General null and void; and the crafty management
+of his son prevented any union between the malcontents. The gentry
+rallied, and put down the Jacquerie with horrible cruelty and revenge.
+The burghers of Paris found that Charles the Bad only wanted to gain the
+throne, and Marcel would have proclaimed him; but those who thought him
+even worse than his cousins of Valois admitted the other Charles, by
+whom Marcel and his partisans were put to death. The attempt at reform
+thus ended in talk and murder, and all fell back into the same state of
+misery and oppression.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>The Peace of Bretigny.</b>&mdash;This Charles, eldest son of John, obtained
+by purchase the imperial fief of Vienne, of which the counts had always
+been called Dauphins, a title thenceforth borne by the heir apparent of
+the kingdom. His father's captivity and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page30" name="page30"></a>Pg 30</span> the submission of Paris left
+him master of the realm; but he did little to defend it when Edward III.
+again attacked it, and in 1360 he was forced to bow to the terms which
+the English king demanded as the price of peace. The Peace of Bretigny
+permitted King John to ransom himself, but resigned to England the
+sovereignty over the duchy of Aquitaine, and left Calais and Ponthieu in
+the hands of Edward III. John died in 1364, before his ransom was paid,
+and his son mounted the throne as <i>Charles V</i>. Charles showed himself
+from this time a wary, able man, and did much to regain what had been
+lost by craftily watching his opportunity. The war went on between the
+allies of each party, though the French and English kings professed to
+be at peace; and at the battle of Cocherel, in 1364, Charles the Bad was
+defeated, and forced to make peace with France. On the other hand, the
+French party in Brittany, led by Charles de Blois and the gallant Breton
+knight, Bertrand du Guesclin, were routed, the same year, by the English
+party under Sir John Chandos; Charles de Blois was killed, and the house
+of Montfort established in the duchy. These years of war had created a
+dreadful class of men, namely, hired soldiers of all nations, who, under
+some noted leader, sold their services to whatever prince might need
+them, under the name of Free Companies, and when unemployed lived by
+plunder. The peace had only<span class="pagenum"><a id="page31" name="page31"></a>Pg 31</span> let these wretches loose on the peasants.
+Some had seized castles, whence they could plunder travellers; others
+roamed the country, preying on the miserable peasants, who, fleeced as
+they were by king, barons, and clergy, were tortured and murdered by
+these ruffians, so that many lived in holes in the ground that their
+dwellings might not attract attention. Bertrand du Guesclin offered the
+king to relieve the country from these Free Companies by leading them to
+assist the Castilians against their tyrannical king, Peter the Cruel.
+Edward, the Black Prince, who was then acting as Governor of Aquitaine,
+took, however, the part of Peter, and defeated Du Guesclin at the battle
+of Navarete, on the Ebro, in 1367.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>Renewal of the War.</b>&mdash;This expedition ruined the prince's health,
+and exhausted his treasury. A hearth-tax was laid on the inhabitants of
+Aquitaine, and they appealed against it to the King of France, although,
+by the Peace of Bretigny, he had given up all right to hear appeals as
+suzerain. The treaty, however, was still not formally settled, and on
+this ground Charles received their complaint. The war thus began again,
+and the sword of the Constable of France&mdash;the highest military dignity
+of the realm&mdash;was given to Du Guesclin, but only on condition that he
+would avoid pitched battles, and merely harass the English and take
+their castles. This policy was<span class="pagenum"><a id="page32" name="page32"></a>Pg 32</span> so strictly followed, that the Duke of
+Lancaster was allowed to march from Brittany to Gascony without meeting
+an enemy in the field; and when King Edward III. made his sixth and last
+invasion, nearly to the walls of Paris, he was only turned back by
+famine, and by a tremendous thunderstorm, which made him believe that
+Heaven was against him. Du Guesclin died while besieging a castle, and
+such was his fame that the English captain would place the keys in no
+hand but that of his corpse. The Constable's sword was given to Oliver
+de Clisson, also a Breton, and called the "Butcher," because he gave no
+quarter to the English in revenge for the death of his brother. The
+Bretons were, almost to a man, of the French party, having been offended
+by the insolence and oppression of the English; and John de Montfort,
+after clinging to the King of England as long as possible, was forced to
+make his peace at length with Charles. Charles V. had nearly regained
+all that had been lost, when, in 1380 his death left the kingdom to his
+son.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>House of Burgundy.</b>&mdash;<i>Charles VI.</i> was a boy of nine years old,
+motherless, and beset with ambitious uncles. These uncles were Louis,
+Duke of Anjou, to whom Queen Joanna, the last of the earlier Angevin
+line in Naples, bequeathed her rights; John, Duke of Berry, a weak
+time-server; and Philip, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page33" name="page33"></a>Pg 33</span> ablest and most honest of the three. His
+grandmother Joan, the wife of Philip VI., had been heiress of the duchy
+and county of Burgundy, and these now became his inheritance, giving him
+the richest part of France. By still better fortune he had married
+Margaret, the only child of Louis, Count of Flanders. Flanders contained
+the great cloth-manufacturing towns of Europe&mdash;Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
+etc., all wealthy and independent, and much inclined to close alliance
+with England, whence they obtained their wool, while their counts were
+equally devoted to France. Just as Count Louis II. had, for his lawless
+rapacity, been driven out of Ghent by Jacob van Arteveldt, so his son,
+Louis III., was expelled by Philip van Arteveldt, son to Jacob. Charles
+had been disgusted by Louis's coarse violence, and would not help him;
+but after the old king's death, Philip of Burgundy used his influence in
+the council to conduct the whole power of France to Flanders, where
+Arteveldt was defeated and trodden to death in the battle of Rosbecque,
+in 1382. On the count's death, Philip succeeded him as Count of Flanders
+in right of his wife; and thus was laid the foundation of the powerful
+and wealthy house of Burgundy, which for four generations almost
+overshadowed the crown of France.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. <b>Insanity of Charles VI.</b>&mdash;The Constable, Clisson, was much hated by
+the Duke of Brittany,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page34" name="page34"></a>Pg 34</span> and an attack which was made on him in the
+streets of Paris was clearly traced to Montfort. The young king, who was
+much attached to Clisson, set forth to exact punishment. On his way, a
+madman rushed out of a forest and called out, "King, you are betrayed!"
+Charles was much frightened, and further seems to have had a sunstroke,
+for he at once became insane. He recovered for a time; but at Christmas,
+while he and five others were dancing, disguised as wild men, their
+garments of pitched flax caught fire. Four were burnt, and the shock
+brought back the king's madness. He became subject to fits of insanity
+of longer or shorter duration, and in their intervals he seems to have
+been almost imbecile. No provision had then been made for the
+contingency of a mad king. The condition of the country became worse
+than ever, and power was grasped at by whoever could obtain it. Of the
+king's three uncles, the Duke of Anjou and his sons were generally
+engrossed by a vain struggle to obtain Naples; the Duke of Berry was
+dull and weak; and the chief struggle for influence was between Philip
+of Burgundy and his son, John the Fearless, on the one hand, and on the
+other the king's wife, Isabel of Bavaria, and his brother Louis, Duke of
+Orleans, who was suspected of being her lover; while the unhappy king
+and his little children were left in a wretched state, often scarcely
+provided with clothes or food.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page35" name="page35"></a>Pg 35</span></p>
+
+
+<p>8. <b>Burgundians and Armagnacs.</b>&mdash;Matters grew worse after the death of
+Duke Philip in 1404; and in 1407, just after a seeming reconciliation,
+the Duke of Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris by servants of
+John the Fearless. Louis of Orleans had been a vain, foolish man,
+heedless of all save his own pleasure, but his death increased the
+misery of France through the long and deadly struggle for vengeance that
+followed. The king was helpless, and the children of the Duke of Orleans
+were young; but their cause was taken up by a Gascon noble, Bernard,
+Count of Armagnac, whose name the party took. The Duke of Burgundy was
+always popular in Paris, where the people, led by the Guild of Butchers,
+were so devoted to him that he ventured to have a sermon preached at the
+university, justifying the murder. There was again a feeble attempt at
+reform made by the burghers; but, as before, the more violent and
+lawless were guilty of such excesses that the opposite party were called
+in to put them down. The Armagnacs were admitted into Paris, and took a
+terrible vengeance on the Butchers and on all adherents of Burgundy, in
+the name of the Dauphin Louis, the king's eldest son, a weak, dissipated
+youth, who was entirely led by the Count of Armagnac.</p>
+
+
+<p>9. <b>Invasion of Henry V.</b>&mdash;All this time the war with England had
+smouldered on, only broken by<span class="pagenum"><a id="page36" name="page36"></a>Pg 36</span> brief truces; and when France was in this
+wretched state Henry V. renewed the claim of Edward III., and in 1415
+landed before Harfleur. After delaying till he had taken the city, the
+dauphin called together the whole nobility of the kingdom, and advanced
+against Henry, who, like Edward III., had been obliged to leave Normandy
+and march towards Calais in search of supplies. The armies met at
+Agincourt, where, though the French greatly outnumbered the English, the
+skill of Henry and the folly and confusion of the dauphin's army led to
+a total defeat, and the captivity of half the chief men in France of the
+Armagnac party&mdash;among them the young Duke of Orleans. It was Henry V.'s
+policy to treat France, not as a conquest, but as an inheritance; and he
+therefore refused to let these captives be ransomed till he should have
+reduced the country to obedience, while he treated all the places that
+submitted to him with great kindness. The Duke of Burgundy held aloof
+from the contest, and the Armagnacs, who ruled in Paris, were too weak
+or too careless to send aid to Rouen, which was taken by Henry after a
+long siege. The Dauphin Louis died in 1417; his next brother, John, who
+was more inclined to Burgundy, did not survive him a year; and the third
+brother, Charles, a mere boy, was in the hands of the Armagnacs. In 1418
+their reckless misuse of power provoked the citizens of Paris into
+letting in the Bur<span class="pagenum"><a id="page37" name="page37"></a>Pg 37</span>gundians, when an unspeakably horrible massacre took
+place. Bernard of Armagnac himself was killed; his naked corpse, scored
+with his red cross, was dragged about the streets; and men, women, and
+even infants of his party were slaughtered pitilessly. Tanneguy
+Duchatel, one of his partisans, carried off the dauphin; but the queen,
+weary of Armagnac insolence, had joined the Burgundian party.</p>
+
+
+<p>10. <b>Treaty of Troyes.</b>&mdash;Meanwhile Henry V. continued to advance, and
+John of Burgundy felt the need of joining the whole strength of France
+against him, and made overtures to the dauphin. Duchatel, either fearing
+to be overshadowed by his power, or else in revenge for Orleans and
+Armagnac, no sooner saw that a reconciliation was likely to take place,
+than he murdered John the Fearless before the dauphin's eyes, at a
+conference on the bridge of Montereau-sur-Yonne (1419). John's wound was
+said to be the hole which let the English into France. His son Philip,
+the new Duke of Burgundy, viewing the dauphin as guilty of his death,
+went over with all his forces to Henry V., taking with him the queen and
+the poor helpless king. At the treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Henry was
+declared regent, and heir of the kingdom, at the same time as he
+received the hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. This gave him
+Paris and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page38" name="page38"></a>Pg 38</span> all the chief cities in northern France; but the Armagnacs
+held the south, with the Dauphin Charles at their head. Charles was
+declared an outlaw by his father's court, but he was in truth the leader
+of what had become the national and patriotic cause. During this time,
+after a long struggle and schism, the Pope again returned to Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p>11. <b>The Maid of Orleans.</b>&mdash;When Henry V. died in 1422, and the unhappy
+Charles a few weeks later, the infant Henry VI. was proclaimed King of
+France as well as of England, at both Paris and London, while <i>Charles
+VII.</i> was only proclaimed at Bourges, and a few other places in the
+south. Charles was of a slow, sluggish nature, and the men around him
+were selfish and pleasure-loving intriguers, who kept aloof all the
+bolder spirits from him. The brother of Henry V., John, Duke of Bedford,
+ruled all the country north of the Loire, with Rouen as his
+head-quarters. For seven years little was done; but in 1429 he caused
+Orleans to be besieged. The city held out bravely, all France looked on
+anxiously, and a young peasant girl, named Joan d'Arc, believed herself
+called by voices from the saints to rescue the city, and lead the king
+to his coronation at Rheims. With difficulty she obtained a hearing of
+the king, and was allowed to proceed to Orleans. Leading the army with a
+consecrated sword, which she never stained with<span class="pagenum"><a id="page39" name="page39"></a>Pg 39</span> blood, she filled the
+French with confidence, the English with fear as of a witch, and thus
+she gained the day wherever she appeared. Orleans was saved, and she
+then conducted Charles VII. to Rheims, and stood beside his throne when
+he was crowned. Then she said her work was done, and would have returned
+home; but, though the wretched king and his court never appreciated her,
+they thought her useful with the soldiers, and would not let her leave
+them. She had lost her heart and hope, and the men began to be angered
+at her for putting down all vice and foul language. The captains were
+envious of her; and at last, when she had led a sally out of the
+besieged town of Compi&egrave;gne, the gates were shut, and she was made
+prisoner by a Burgundian, John of Luxembourg. The Burgundians hated her
+even more than the English. The inquisitor was of their party, and a
+court was held at Rouen, which condemned her to die as a witch. Bedford
+consented, but left the city before the execution. Her own king made no
+effort to save her, though, many years later, he caused enquiries to be
+made, established her innocence, ennobled her family, and freed her
+village from taxation.</p>
+
+<p>12. <b>Recovery of France (1434&mdash;1450).</b>&mdash;But though Joan was gone, her
+work lasted. The Constable, Artur of Richmond, the Count of Dunois, and
+other brave leaders, continued to attack the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page40" name="page40"></a>Pg 40</span> English. After seventeen
+years' vengeance for his father's death, the Duke of Burgundy made his
+peace with Charles by a treaty at Arras, on condition of paying no more
+homage, in 1434. Bedford died soon after, and there were nothing but
+disputes among the English. Paris opened its gates to the king, and
+Charles, almost in spite of himself, was restored. An able merchant,
+named Jacques C&#339;ur, lent him money which equipped his men for the
+recovery of Normandy, and he himself, waking into activity, took Rouen
+and the other cities on the coast.</p>
+
+
+<p>13. <b>Conquest of Aquitaine (1450).</b>&mdash;By these successes Charles had
+recovered all, save Calais, that Henry V. or Edward III. had taken from
+France. But he was now able to do more. The one province of the south
+which the French kings had never been able to win was Guienne, the duchy
+on the river Garonne. Guienne had been a part of Eleanor's inheritance,
+and passed through her to the English kings; but though they had lost
+all else, the hatred of its inhabitants to the French enabled them to
+retain this, and Guienne had never yet passed under French rule. It was
+wrested, however, from Eleanor's descendants in this flood-tide of
+conquest. Bordeaux held out as long as it could, but Henry VI. could
+send no aid, and it was forced to yield. Two years later, brave old Lord
+Talbot led<span class="pagenum"><a id="page41" name="page41"></a>Pg 41</span> 5000 men to recover the duchy, and was gladly welcomed; but
+he was slain in the battle of Castillon, fighting like a lion. His two
+sons fell beside him, and his army was broken. Bordeaux again
+surrendered, and the French kings at last found themselves master of the
+great fief of the south. Calais was, at the close of the great Hundred
+Years' War, the only possession left to England south of the Channel.</p>
+
+
+<p>14. <b>The Standing Army (1452).</b>&mdash;As at the end of the first act in the
+Hundred Years' War, the great difficulty in time of peace was the
+presence of the bands of free companions, or mercenary soldiers, who,
+when war and plunder failed them, lived by violence and robbery of the
+peasants. Charles VII., who had awakened into vigour, thereupon took
+into regular pay all who would submit to discipline, and the rest were
+led off on two futile expeditions into Switzerland and Germany, and
+there left to their fate. The princes and nobles were at first so much
+disgusted at the regulations which bound the soldiery to respect the
+magistracy, that they raised a rebellion, which was fostered by the
+Dauphin Louis, who was ready to do anything that could annoy his father.
+But he was soon detached from them; the Duke of Burgundy would not
+assist them, and the league fell to pieces. Charles VII. by thus
+retaining companies of hired troops in his pay laid the foundation of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page42" name="page42"></a>Pg 42</span> first standing army in Europe, and enabled the monarchy to tread
+down the feudal force of the nobles. His government was firm and wise;
+and with his reign began better times for France. But it was long before
+it recovered from the miseries of the long strife. The war had kept back
+much of progress. There had been grievous havoc of buildings in the
+north and centre of France; much lawlessness and cruelty prevailed; and
+yet there was a certain advance in learning, and much love of romance
+and the theory of chivalry. Pages of noble birth were bred up in castles
+to be first squires and then knights. There was immense formality and
+stateliness, the order of precedence was most minute, and pomp and
+display were wonderful. Strange alternations took place. One month the
+streets of Paris would be a scene of horrible famine, where hungry dogs,
+and even wolves, put an end to the miseries of starving, homeless
+children of slaughtered parents; another, the people would be gazing at
+royal banquets, lasting a whole day, with allegorical "subtleties" of
+jelly on the table, and pageants coming between the courses, where all
+the Virtues harangued in turn, or where knights delivered maidens from
+giants and "salvage men." In the south there was less misery and more
+progress. Jacques C&#339;ur's house at Bourges is still a marvel of household
+architecture; and Ren&eacute;, Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence, was an
+excellent painter on glass, and also a poet.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page43" name="page43"></a>Pg 43</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>Power of Burgundy.</b>&mdash;All the troubles of France, for the last 80
+years, had gone to increase the strength of the Dukes of Burgundy. The
+county and duchy, of which Dijon was the capital, lay in the most
+fertile district of France, and had, as we have seen, been conferred on
+Philip the Bold. His marriage had given to him Flanders, with a gallant
+nobility, and with the chief manufacturing cities of Northern Europe.
+Philip's son, John the Fearless, had married a lady who ultimately
+brought into the family the great imperial counties of Holland and
+Zealand; and her son, Duke Philip the Good, by purchase or inheritance,
+obtained possession of all the adjoining little fiefs forming the
+country called the Netherlands, some belonging to the Empire, some to
+France. Philip had turned the scale in the struggle between England and
+France, and, as his reward, had won the cities on the Somme. He<span class="pagenum"><a id="page44" name="page44"></a>Pg 44</span> had
+thus become the richest and most powerful prince in Europe, and seemed
+on the point of founding a middle state lying between France and
+Germany, his weak point being that the imperial fiefs in Lorraine and
+Elsass lay between his dukedom of Burgundy and his counties in the
+Netherlands. No European court equalled in splendour that of Philip. The
+great cities of Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and the rest, though full of
+fierce and resolute men, paid him dues enough to make him the richest of
+princes, and the Flemish knights were among the boldest in Europe. All
+the arts of life, above all painting and domestic architecture,
+nourished at Brussels; and nowhere were troops so well equipped,
+burghers more prosperous, learning more widespread, than in his domains.
+Here, too, were the most ceremonious courtesy, the most splendid
+banquets, and the most wonderful display of jewels, plate, and
+cloth-of-gold. Charles VII., a clever though a cold-hearted, indolent
+man, let Philip alone, already seeing how the game would go for the
+future; for when the dauphin had quarrelled with the reigning favourite,
+and was kindly received on his flight to Burgundy, the old king sneered,
+saying that the duke was fostering the fox who would steal his chickens.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>Louis XI.'s Policy.</b>&mdash;<i>Louis XI.</i> succeeded his father Charles in
+1461. He was a man of great<span class="pagenum"><a id="page45" name="page45"></a>Pg 45</span> skill and craft, with an iron will, and
+subtle though pitiless nature, who knew in what the greatness of a king
+consisted, and worked out his ends mercilessly and unscrupulously. The
+old feudal dukes and counts had all passed away, except the Duke of
+Brittany; but the Dukes of Orleans, Burgundy, and Anjou held princely
+appanages, and there was a turbulent nobility who had grown up during
+the wars, foreign and civil, and been encouraged by the favouritism of
+Charles VI. All these, feeling that Louis was their natural foe, united
+against him in what was called the "League of the Public Good," with his
+own brother, the Duke of Berry, and Count Charles of Charolais, who was
+known as Charles the Bold, the son of Duke Philip of Burgundy, at their
+head. Louis was actually defeated by Charles of Charolais in the battle
+of Montlh&eacute;ry; but he contrived so cleverly to break up the league, by
+promises to each member and by sowing dissension among them, that he
+ended by becoming more powerful than before.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>Charles the Bold.</b>&mdash;On the death of Philip the Good, in 1467,
+Charles the Bold succeeded to the duchy of Burgundy. He pursued more
+ardently the plan of forming a new kingdom of Burgundy, and had even
+hopes of being chosen Emperor. First, however, he had to consolidate his
+dominions, by making himself master of the countries which parted<span class="pagenum"><a id="page46" name="page46"></a>Pg 46</span>
+Burgundy from the Netherlands. With this view he obtained Elsass in
+pledge from its owner, a needy son of the house of Austria, who was
+never likely to redeem it. Lorraine had been inherited by Yolande, the
+wife of Ren&eacute;, Duke of Anjou and titular King of Sicily, and had passed
+from her to her daughter, who had married the nearest heir in the male
+line, the Count of Vaud&eacute;mont; but Charles the Bold unjustly seized the
+dukedom, driving out the lawful heir, Ren&eacute; de Vaud&eacute;mont, son of this
+marriage. Louis, meantime, was on the watch for every error of Charles,
+and constantly sowing dangers in his path. Sometimes his mines exploded
+too soon, as when he had actually put himself into Charles's power by
+visiting him at Peronne at the very moment when his emissaries had
+encouraged the city of Li&egrave;ge to rise in revolt against their bishop, an
+ally of the duke; and he only bought his freedom by profuse promises,
+and by aiding Charles in a most savage destruction of Li&egrave;ge. But after
+this his caution prevailed. He gave secret support to the adherents of
+Ren&eacute; de Vaud&eacute;mont, and intrigued with the Swiss, who were often at issue
+with the Burgundian bailiffs and soldiery in Elsass&mdash;greedy, reckless
+men, from whom the men of Elsass revolted in favour of their former
+Austrian lord. Meantime Edward IV. of England, Charles's brother-in-law,
+had planned with him an invasion of France and division of the kingdom,
+and in 1475<span class="pagenum"><a id="page47" name="page47"></a>Pg 47</span> actually crossed the sea with a splendid host; but while
+Charles was prevented from joining him by the siege of Neuss, a city in
+alliance with Sigismund of Austria, Louis met Edward on the bridge of
+Pecquigny, and by cajolery, bribery, and accusations of Charles,
+contrived to persuade him to carry home his army without striking a
+blow. That meeting was a curious one. A wooden barrier, like a wild
+beast's cage, was erected in the middle of the bridge, through which the
+two kings kissed one another. Edward was the tallest and handsomest man
+present, and splendidly attired. Louis was small and mean-looking, and
+clad in an old blue suit, with a hat decorated with little leaden images
+of the saints, but his smooth tongue quite overcame the duller intellect
+of Edward; and in the mean time the English soldiers were feasted and
+allowed their full swing, the French being strictly watched to prevent
+all quarrels. So skilfully did Louis manage, that Edward consented to
+make peace and return home.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>The Fall of Charles the Bold (1477).</b>&mdash;Charles had become entangled
+in many difficulties. He was a harsh, stern man, much disliked; and his
+governors in Elsass were fierce, violent men, who used every pretext for
+preying upon travellers. The Governor of Breisach, Hagenbach, had been
+put to death in a popular rising, aided by the Swiss of Berne,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page48" name="page48"></a>Pg 48</span> in 1474;
+and the men of Elsass themselves raised part of the sum for which the
+country had been pledged, and revolted against Charles. The Swiss were
+incited by Louis to join them; Ren&eacute; of Lorraine made common cause with
+them. In two great battles, Granson and Morat, Charles and all his
+chivalry were beaten by the Swiss pikemen; but he pushed on the war.
+Nancy, the chief city of Lorraine, had risen against him, and he
+besieged it. On the night of the 5th of January, 1477, Ren&eacute; led the
+Swiss to relieve the town by falling in early morning on the besiegers'
+camp. There was a terrible fight; the Burgundians were routed, and after
+long search the corpse of Duke Charles was found in a frozen pool,
+stripped, plundered, and covered with blood. He was the last of the male
+line of Burgundy, and its great possessions broke up with his death. His
+only child, Marie, did not inherit the French dukedom nor the county,
+though most of the fiefs in the Low Countries, which could descend to
+the female line, were her undisputed portion. Louis tried, by stirring
+up her subjects, to force her into a marriage with his son Charles; but
+she threw herself on the protection of the house of Austria, and
+marrying Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., carried her
+border lands to swell the power of his family.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>Louis's Home Government.</b>&mdash;Louis's<span class="pagenum"><a id="page49" name="page49"></a>Pg 49</span> system of repression of the
+nobles went on all this time. His counsellors were of low birth (Oliver
+le Daim, his barber, was the man he most trusted), his habits frugal,
+his manners reserved and ironical; he was dreaded, hated, and
+distrusted, and he became constantly more bitter, suspicious, and
+merciless. Those who fell under his displeasure were imprisoned in iron
+cages, or put to death; and the more turbulent families, such as the
+house of Armagnac, were treated with frightful severity. But his was not
+wanton violence. He acted on a regular system of depressing the lawless
+nobility and increasing the royal authority, by bringing the power of
+the cities forward, by trusting for protection to the standing army,
+chiefly of hired Scots, Swiss, and Italians, and by saving money. By
+this means he was able to purchase the counties of Roussillon and
+Perpignan from the King of Aragon, thus making the Pyrenees his
+frontier, and on several occasions he made his treasury fight his
+battles instead of the swords of his knights. He lived in the castle of
+Plessis les Tours, guarded by the utmost art of fortification, and
+filled with hired Scottish archers of his guard, whom he preferred as
+defenders to his own nobles. He was exceedingly unpopular with his
+nobles; but the statesman and historian, Philip de Comines, who had gone
+over to him from Charles of Burgundy, viewed him as the best and ablest
+of kings. He did much to promote trade and manufacture, im<span class="pagenum"><a id="page50" name="page50"></a>Pg 50</span>proved the
+cities, fostered the university, and was in truth the first king since
+Philip Augustus who had any real sense of statesmanship. But though the
+burghers throve under him, and the lawless nobles were depressed, the
+state of the peasants was not improved; feudal rights pressed heavily on
+them, and they were little better than savages, ground down by burthens
+imposed by their lords.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>Provence and Brittany.</b>&mdash;Louis had added much to the French
+monarchy. He had won back Artois; he had seized the duchy and county of
+Burgundy; he had bought Roussillon. His last acquisition was the county
+of Provence. The second Angevin family, beginning with Louis, the son of
+King John, had never succeeded in gaining a footing in Naples, though
+they bore the royal title. They held, however, the imperial fief of
+Provence, and Louis XI., whose mother had been of this family, obtained
+from her two brothers, Ren&eacute; and Charles, that Provence should be
+bequeathed to him instead of passing to Ren&eacute;'s grandson, the Duke of
+Lorraine. The Kings of France were thenceforth Counts of Provence; and
+though the county was not viewed as part of the kingdom, it was
+practically one with it. A yet greater acquisition was made soon after
+Louis's death in 1483. The great Celtic duchy of Brittany fell to a
+female, Anne of Brittany, and the address of Louis's<span class="pagenum"><a id="page51" name="page51"></a>Pg 51</span> daughter, the Lady
+of Beaujeu, who was regent of the realm, prevailed to secure the hand of
+the heiress for her brother, Charles VIII. Thus the crown of France had
+by purchase, conquest, or inheritance, obtained all the great feudal
+states that made up the country between the English Channel and the
+Pyrenees; but each still remained a separate state, with different laws
+and customs, and a separate parliament in each to register laws, and to
+act as a court of justice.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page52" name="page52"></a>Pg 52</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ITALIAN WARS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>Campaign of Charles VIII. (1493).</b>&mdash;From grasping at province after
+province on their own border, however, the French kings were now to turn
+to wider dreams of conquest abroad. Together with the county of
+Provence, Louis XI. had bought from King Ren&eacute; all the claims of the
+house of Anjou. Among these was included a claim to the kingdom of
+Naples. Louis's son, <i>Charles VIII.</i>, a vain and shallow lad, was
+tempted by the possession of large treasures and a fine army to listen
+to the persuasions of an Italian intriguer, Ludovico Sforza, Duke of
+Milan, and put forward these pretensions, thus beginning a war which
+lasted nearly as long as the Hundred Years' War with England. But it was
+a war of aggression instead of a war of self-defence. Charles crossed
+the Alps in 1493, marched the whole length of Italy without opposition,
+and was crowned at Naples; while its royal family, an illegitimate
+offshoot from the Kings of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page53" name="page53"></a>Pg 53</span> Aragon, fled into Sicily, and called on
+Spain for help. But the insolent exactions of the French soldiery caused
+the people to rise against them; and when Charles returned, he was beset
+at Fornovo by a great league of Italians, over whom he gained a complete
+victory. Small and puny though he was, he fought like a lion, and seemed
+quite inspired by the ardour of combat. The "French fury," <i>la furia
+Francese</i>, became a proverb among the Italians. Charles neglected,
+however, to send any supplies or reinforcements to the garrisons he had
+left behind him in Naples, and they all perished under want, sickness,
+and the sword of the Spaniards. He was meditating another expedition,
+when he struck his head against the top of a doorway, and died in 1498.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>Campaign of Louis XII.</b>&mdash;His cousin, <i>Louis XII.</i>, married his
+widow, and thus prevented Brittany from again parting from the crown.
+Louis not only succeeded to the Angevin right to Naples, but through his
+grandmother he viewed himself as heir of Milan. She was Valentina
+Visconti, wife to that Duke of Orleans who had been murdered by John the
+Fearless. Louis himself never advanced further than to Milan, whose
+surrender made him master of Lombardy, which he held for the greater
+part of his reign. But after a while the Spanish king, Ferdinand, agreed
+with him to throw over<span class="pagenum"><a id="page54" name="page54"></a>Pg 54</span> the cause of the unfortunate royal family of
+Naples, and divide that kingdom between them. Louis XII. sent a
+brilliant army to take possession of his share, but the bounds of each
+portion had not been defined, and the French and Spanish troops began a
+war even while their kings were still treating with one another. The
+individual French knights did brilliant exploits, for indeed it was the
+time of the chief blossom of fanciful chivalry, a knight of Dauphin&eacute;,
+named Bayard, called the Fearless and Stainless Knight, and honoured by
+friend and foe; but the Spaniards were under Gonzalo de Cordova, called
+the Great Captain, and after the battles of Cerignola and the Garigliano
+drove the French out of the kingdom of Naples, though the war continued
+in Lombardy.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The Holy League.</b>&mdash;It was an age of leagues. The Italians, hating
+French and Spaniards both alike, were continually forming combinations
+among themselves and with foreign powers against whichever happened to
+be the strongest. The chief of these was called the Holy League, because
+it was formed by Pope Julius II., who drew into it Maximilian, then head
+of the German Empire, Ferdinand of Spain, and Henry VIII. of England.
+The French troops were attacked in Milan; and though they gained the
+battle of Ravenna in 1512, it was with the loss of their general, Gaston
+de<span class="pagenum"><a id="page55" name="page55"></a>Pg 55</span> Foix, Duke of Nemours, whose death served as an excuse to Ferdinand
+of Spain for setting up a claim to the kingdom of Navarre. He cunningly
+persuaded Henry VIII. to aid him in the attack, by holding out the vain
+idea of going on to regain Gascony; and while one troop of English were
+attacking Pampeluna, Henry himself landed at Calais and took Tournay and
+Terouenne. The French forces were at the same time being chased out of
+Italy. However, when Pampeluna had been taken, and the French finally
+driven out of Lombardy, the Pope and king, who had gained their ends,
+left Henry to fight his own battles. He thus was induced to make peace,
+giving his young sister Mary as second wife to Louis; but that king
+over-exerted himself at the banquets, and died six weeks after the
+marriage, in 1515. During this reign the waste of blood and treasure on
+wars of mere ambition was frightful, and the country had been heavily
+taxed; but a brilliant soldiery had been trained up, and national vanity
+had much increased. The king, though without deserving much love, was so
+kindly in manner that he was a favourite, and was called the Father of
+the People. His first wife, Anne of Brittany, was an excellent and
+high-spirited woman, who kept the court of France in a better state than
+ever before or since.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>Campaigns of Francis I.</b>&mdash;Louis left only<span class="pagenum"><a id="page56" name="page56"></a>Pg 56</span> two daughters, the elder
+of whom, Claude, carried Brittany to his male heir, Francis, Count of
+Angoul&ecirc;ine. Anne of Brittany had been much averse to the match; but
+Louis said he kept his mice for his own cats, and gave his daughter and
+her duchy to Francis as soon as Anne was dead. <i>Francis I.</i> was one of
+the vainest, falsest, and most dashing of Frenchmen. In fact, he was an
+exaggeration in every way of the national character, and thus became a
+national hero, much overpraised. He at once resolved to recover
+Lombardy; and after crossing the Alps encountered an army of Swiss
+troops, who had been hired to defend the Milanese duchy, on the field of
+Marignano. Francis had to fight a desperate battle with them; after
+which he caused Bayard to dub him knight, though French kings were said
+to be born knights. In gaining the victory over these mercenaries, who
+had been hitherto deemed invincible, he opened for himself a way into
+Italy, and had all Lombardy at his feet. The Pope, Leo X., met him at
+Bologna, and a concordat took place, by which the French Church became
+more entirely subject to the Pope, while in return all patronage was
+given up to the crown. The effects were soon seen in the increased
+corruption of the clergy and people. Francis brought home from this
+expedition much taste for Italian art and literature, and all matters of
+elegance and ornament made great progress from this<span class="pagenum"><a id="page57" name="page57"></a>Pg 57</span> time. The great
+Italian masters worked for him; Raphael painted some of his most
+beautiful pictures for him, and Leonardo da Vinci came to his court, and
+there died in his arms. His palaces, especially that of Blois, were
+exceedingly beautiful, in the new classic style, called the Renaissance.
+Great richness and splendour reigned at court, and set off his
+pretensions to romance and chivalry. Learning and scholarship,
+especially classical, increased much; and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, was an excellent and highly cultivated woman, but even
+her writings prove that the whole tone of feeling was terribly coarse,
+when not vicious.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>Charles V.</b>&mdash;The conquest of Lombardy made France the greatest power
+in Christendom; but its king was soon to find a mighty and active rival.
+The old hatred between France and Burgundy again awoke. Mary of
+Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, had married Maximilian,
+Archduke of Austria and King of the Romans, though never actually
+crowned Emperor. Their son, Philip, married Juana, the daughter of
+Ferdinand, and heiress of Spain, who lost her senses from grief on
+Philip's untimely death; and thus the direct heir to Spain, Austria, and
+the Netherlands, was Charles, her eldest son. On the death of Maximilian
+in 1518, Francis proposed himself to the electors as Emperor, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="page58" name="page58"></a>Pg 58</span>
+failed, in spite of bribery. Charles was chosen, and from that time
+Francis pursued him with unceasing hatred. The claims to Milan and
+Naples were renewed. Francis sent troops to occupy Milan, and was
+following them himself; but the most powerful of all his nobles, the
+Duke of Bourbon, Constable of France, had been alienated by an injustice
+perpetrated on him in favour of the king's mother, and deserted to the
+Spaniards, offering to assist them and the English in dividing France,
+while he reserved for himself Provence. His desertion hindered Francis
+from sending support to the troops in Milan, who were forced to retreat.
+Bayard was shot in the spine while defending the rear-guard, and was
+left to die under a tree. The utmost honour was shown him by the
+Spaniards; but when Bourbon came near him, he bade him take pity, not on
+one who was dying as a true soldier, but on himself as a traitor to king
+and country. When the French, in 1525, invaded Lombardy, Francis
+suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia, and was carried a prisoner to
+Madrid, where he remained for a year, and was only set free on making a
+treaty by which he was to give up all claims in Italy both to Naples and
+Milan, also the county of Burgundy and the suzerainty of those Flemish
+counties which had been fiefs of the French crown, as well as to
+surrender his two sons as hostages for the performance of the
+conditions.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page59" name="page59"></a>Pg 59</span></p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>Wars of Francis and Charles.</b>&mdash;All the rest of the king's life was
+an attempt to elude or break these conditions, against which he had
+protested in his prison, but when there was no Spaniard present to hear
+him do so. The county of Burgundy refused to be transferred; and the
+Pope, Clement VII., hating the Spanish power in Italy, contrived a fresh
+league against Charles, in which Francis joined, but was justly rewarded
+by the miserable loss of another army. His mother and Charles's aunt met
+at Cambrai, and concluded, in 1529, what was called the Ladies' Peace,
+which bore as hardly on France as the peace of Madrid, excepting that
+Charles gave up his claim to Burgundy. Still Francis's plans were not at
+an end. He married his second son, Henry, to Catherine, the only
+legitimate child of the great Florentine house of Medici, and tried to
+induce Charles to set up an Italian dukedom of Milan for the young pair;
+but when the dauphin died, and Henry became heir of France, Charles
+would not give him any footing in Italy. Francis never let any occasion
+pass of harassing the Emperor, but was always defeated. Charles once
+actually invaded Provence, but was forced to retreat through the
+devastation of the country before him by Montmoren&ccedil;y, afterwards
+Constable of France. Francis, by loud complaints, and by talking much of
+his honour, contrived to make the world fancy him the injured man, while
+he was really breaking oaths in a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page60" name="page60"></a>Pg 60</span> shameless manner. At last, in 1537,
+the king and Emperor met at Aigues Mortes, and came to terms. Francis
+married, as his second wife, Charles's sister Eleanor, and in 1540, when
+Charles was in haste to quell a revolt in the Low Countries, he asked a
+safe conduct through France, and was splendidly entertained at Paris.
+Yet so low was the honour of the French, that Francis scarcely withstood
+the temptation of extorting the duchy of Milan from him when in his
+power, and gave so many broad hints that Charles was glad to be past the
+frontier. The war was soon renewed. Francis set up a claim to Savoy, as
+the key of Italy, allied himself with the Turks and Moors, and slaves
+taken by them on the coasts of Italy and Spain were actually brought
+into Marseilles. Nice was burnt; but the citadel held out, and as Henry
+VIII. had allied himself with the Emperor, and had taken Boulogne,
+Francis made a final peace at Crespy in 1545. He died only two years
+later, in 1547.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. <b>Henry II.</b>&mdash;His only surviving son, <i>Henry II.</i>, followed the same
+policy. The rise of Protestantism was now dividing the Empire in
+Germany; and Henry took advantage of the strife which broke out between
+Charles and the Protestant princes to attack the Emperor, and make
+conquests across the German border. He called himself Protector of the
+Liberties<span class="pagenum"><a id="page61" name="page61"></a>Pg 61</span> of the Germans, and leagued himself with them, seizing Metz,
+which the Duke of Guise bravely defended when the Emperor tried to
+retake it. This seizure of Metz was the first attempt of France to make
+conquests in Germany, and the beginning of a contest between the French
+and German peoples which has gone on to the present day. After the siege
+a five years' truce was made, during which Charles V. resigned his
+crowns. His brother had been already elected to the Empire, but his son
+Philip II. became King of Spain and Naples, and also inherited the Low
+Countries. The Pope, Paul IV., who was a Neapolitan, and hated the
+Spanish rule, incited Henry, a vain, weak man, to break the truce and
+send one army to Italy, under the Duke of Guise, while another attacked
+the frontier of the Netherlands. Philip, assisted by the forces of his
+wife, Mary I. of England, met this last attack with an army commanded by
+the Duke of Savoy. It advanced into France, and besieged St. Quentin.
+The French, under the Constable of Montmoren&ccedil;y, came to relieve the
+city, and were utterly defeated, the Constable himself being made
+prisoner. His nephew, the Admiral de Coligny, held out St. Quentin to
+the last, and thus gave the country time to rally against the invader;
+and Guise was recalled in haste from Italy. He soon after surprised
+Calais, which was thus restored to the French, after having been held<span class="pagenum"><a id="page62" name="page62"></a>Pg 62</span>
+by the English for two hundred years. This was the only conquest the
+French retained when the final peace of Cateau Cambresis was made in the
+year 1558, for all else that had been taken on either side was then
+restored. Savoy was given back to its duke, together with the hand of
+Henry's sister, Margaret. During a tournament held in honour of the
+wedding, Henry II. was mortally injured by the splinter of a lance, in
+1559; and in the home troubles that followed, all pretensions to Italian
+power were dropped by France, after wars which had lasted sixty-four
+years.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page63" name="page63"></a>Pg 63</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE WARS OF RELIGION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>The Bourbons and Guises.</b>&mdash;Henry II. had left four sons, the eldest
+of whom, <i>Francis II.</i>, was only fifteen years old; and the country was
+divided by two great factions&mdash;one headed by the Guise family, an
+offshoot of the house of Lorraine; the other by the Bourbons, who, being
+descended in a direct male line from a younger son of St. Louis, were
+the next heirs to the throne in case the house of Valois should become
+extinct. Antony, the head of the Bourbon family, was called King of
+Navarre, because of his marriage with Jeanne d'Albr&ecirc;t, the queen, in her
+own right, of this Pyrenean kingdom, which was in fact entirely in the
+hands of the Spaniards, so that her only actual possession consisted of
+the little French counties of Foix and B&eacute;arn. Antony himself was dull
+and indolent, but his wife was a woman of much ability; and his brother,
+Louis, Prince of Cond&eacute;, was full of spirit and fire, and little
+inclined<span class="pagenum"><a id="page64" name="page64"></a>Pg 64</span> to brook the ascendancy which the Duke of Guise and his
+brothers enjoyed at court, partly in consequence of his exploit at
+Calais, and partly from being uncle to the young Queen Mary of Scotland,
+wife of Francis II. The Bourbons likewise headed the party among the
+nobles who hoped to profit by the king's youth to recover the privileges
+of which they had been gradually deprived, while the house of Guise were
+ready to maintain the power of the crown, as long as that meant their
+own power.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>The Reformation.</b>&mdash;The enmity of these two parties was much
+increased by the reaction against the prevalent doctrines and the
+corruptions of the clergy. This reaction had begun in the reign of
+Francis I., when the Bible had been translated into French by two
+students at the University of Paris, and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, had encouraged the Reformers. Francis had leagued with
+the German Protestants because they were foes to the Emperor, while he
+persecuted the like opinions at home to satisfy the Pope. John Calvin, a
+native of Picardy, the foremost French reformer, was invited to the free
+city of Geneva, and there was made chief pastor, while the scheme of
+theology called his "Institutes" became the text-book of the Reformed in
+France, Scotland, and Holland. His doctrine was harsh and stern, aiming
+at the utmost simplicity of worship, and de<span class="pagenum"><a id="page65" name="page65"></a>Pg 65</span>nouncing the existing
+practices so fiercely, that the people, who held themselves to have been
+wilfully led astray by their clergy, committed such violence in the
+churches that the Catholics loudly called for punishment on them. The
+shameful lives of many of the clergy and the wickedness of the Court had
+caused a strong reaction against them, and great numbers of both nobles
+and burghers became Calvinists. They termed themselves Sacramentarians
+or Reformers, but their nickname was Huguenots; probably from the Swiss,
+"<i>Eidgenossen</i>" or oath comrades. Henry II., like his father, protected
+German Lutherans and persecuted French Calvinists; but the lawyers of
+the Parliament of Paris interposed, declaring that men ought not to be
+burnt for heresy until a council of the Church should have condemned
+their opinions, and it was in the midst of this dispute that Henry was
+slain.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The Conspiracy of Amboise.</b>&mdash;The Guise family were strong Catholics;
+the Bourbons were the heads of the Huguenot party, chiefly from policy;
+but Admiral Coligny and his brother, the Sieur D'Andelot, were sincere
+and earnest Reformers. A third party, headed by the old Constable De
+Montmoren&ccedil;y, was Catholic in faith, but not unwilling to join with the
+Huguenots in pulling down the Guises, and asserting the power of the
+nobility. A con<span class="pagenum"><a id="page66" name="page66"></a>Pg 66</span>spiracy for seizing the person of the king and
+destroying the Guises at the castle of Amboise was detected in time to
+make it fruitless. The two Bourbon princes kept in the background,
+though Cond&eacute; was universally known to have been the true head and mover
+in it, and he was actually brought to trial. The discovery only
+strengthened the hands of Guise.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>Regency of Catherine de' Medici.</b>&mdash;Even then, however, Francis II.
+was dying, and his brother, <i>Charles IX.</i>, who succeeded him in 1560,
+was but ten years old. The regency passed to his mother, the Florentine
+Catherine, a wily, cat-like woman, who had always hitherto been kept in
+the background, and whose chief desire was to keep things quiet by
+playing off one party against the other. She at once released Cond&eacute;, and
+favoured the Bourbons and the Huguenots to keep down the Guises, even
+permitting conferences to see whether the French Church could be
+reformed so as to satisfy the Calvinists. Proposals were sent by Guise's
+brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, to the council then sitting at Trent,
+for vernacular services, the marriage of the clergy, and other
+alterations which might win back the Reformers. But an attack by the
+followers of Guise on a meeting of Calvinists at Vassy, of whose ringing
+of bells his mother had complained, led to the first bloodshed and the
+outbreak of a civil war.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page67" name="page67"></a>Pg 67</span></p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>The Religious War.</b>&mdash;To trace each stage of the war would be
+impossible within these limits. It was a war often lulled for a short
+time, and often breaking out again, and in which the actors grew more
+and more cruel. The Reformed influence was in the south, the Catholic in
+the east. Most of the provincial cities at first held with the Bourbons,
+for the sake of civil and religious freedom; though the Guise family
+succeeded to the popularity of the Burgundian dukes in Paris. Still
+Catherine persuaded Antony of Bourbon to return to court just as his
+wife, Queen Jeanne of Navarre, had become a staunch Calvinist, and while
+dreaming of exchanging his claim on Navarre for the kingdom of Sardinia,
+he was killed on the Catholic side while besieging Rouen. At the first
+outbreak the Huguenots seemed to have by far the greatest influence. An
+endeavour was made to seize the king's person, and this led to a battle
+at Dreux. While it was doubtful Catherine actually declared, "We shall
+have to say our prayers in French." Guise, however, retrieved the day,
+and though Montmoren&ccedil;y was made prisoner on the one side, Cond&eacute; was
+taken on the other. Orleans was the Huguenot rallying-place, and while
+besieging it Guise himself was assassinated. His death was believed by
+his family to be due to the Admiral de Coligny. The city of Rochelle,
+fortified by Jeanne of Navarre, became the stronghold of the Huguenots.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page68" name="page68"></a>Pg 68</span>
+Leader after leader fell&mdash;Montmoren&ccedil;y, on the one hand, was killed at
+Montcontour; Cond&eacute;, on the other, was shot in cold blood after the fight
+of Jarnac. A truce followed, but was soon broken again, and in 1571
+Coligny was the only man of age and standing at the head of the Huguenot
+party; while the Catholics had as leaders Henry, Duke of Anjou, the
+king's brother, and Henry, Duke of Guise, both young men of little more
+than twenty. The Huguenots had been beaten at all points, but were still
+strong enough to have wrung from their enemies permission to hold
+meetings for public worship within unwalled towns and on the estates of
+such nobles as held with them.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>Catherine's Policy.</b>&mdash;Catherine made use of the suspension of arms
+to try to detach the Huguenot leaders, by entangling them in the
+pleasures of the court and lowering their sense of duty. The court was
+studiously brilliant. Catherine surrounded herself with a bevy of
+ladies, called the Queen-Mother's Squadron, whose amusements were found
+for the whole day. The ladies sat at their tapestry frames, while
+Italian poetry and romance was read or love-songs sung by the gentlemen;
+they had garden games and hunting-parties, with every opening for the
+ladies to act as sirens to any whom the queen wished to detach from the
+principles of honour and virtue, and bind to her service. Balls,
+pageants, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page69" name="page69"></a>Pg 69</span> theatricals followed in the evening, and there was hardly
+a prince or noble in France who was not carried away by these seductions
+into darker habits of profligacy. Jeanne of Navarre dreaded them for her
+son Henry, whom she kept as long as possible under training in religion,
+learning, and hardy habits, in the mountains of B&eacute;arn; and when
+Catherine tried to draw him to court by proposing a marriage between him
+and her youngest daughter Margaret, Jeanne left him at home, and went
+herself to court. Catherine tried in vain to bend her will or discover
+her secrets, and her death, early in 1572, while still at court, was
+attributed to the queen-mother.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. <b>Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572).</b>&mdash;Jeanne's son Henry was
+immediately summoned to conclude the marriage, and came attended by all
+the most distinguished Huguenots, though the more wary of them remained
+at home, and the Baron of Rosny said, "If that wedding takes place the
+favours will be crimson." The Duke of Guise seems to have resolved on
+taking this opportunity of revenging himself for his father's murder,
+but the queen-mother was undecided until she found that her son Charles,
+who had been bidden to cajole and talk over the Huguenot chiefs, had
+been attracted by their honesty and uprightness, and was ready to throw
+himself into their hands, and escape from hers. An abortive attempt on<span class="pagenum"><a id="page70" name="page70"></a>Pg 70</span>
+Guise's part to murder the Admiral Coligny led to all the Huguenots
+going about armed, and making demonstrations which alarmed both the
+queen and the people of Paris. Guise and the Duke of Anjou were,
+therefore, allowed to work their will, and to rouse the bloodthirstiness
+of the Paris mob. At midnight of the 24th of August, 1572, St.
+Bartholomew's night, the bell of the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois
+began to ring, and the slaughter was begun by men distinguished by a
+white sleeve. The king sheltered his Huguenot surgeon and nurse in his
+room. The young King of Navarre and Prince of Cond&eacute; were threatened into
+conforming to the Church, but every other Huguenot who could be found
+was massacred, from Coligny, who was slain kneeling in his bedroom by
+the followers of Guise, down to the poorest and youngest, and the
+streets resounded with the cry, "Kill! kill!" In every city where royal
+troops and Guisard partisans had been living among Huguenots, the same
+hideous work took place for three days, sparing neither age nor sex. How
+many thousands died, it is impossible to reckon, but the work was so
+wholesale that none were left except those in the southern cities, where
+the Huguenots had been too strong to be attacked, and in those castles
+where the seigneur was of "the religion." The Catholic party thought the
+destruction complete, the court went in state to return thanks for
+deliver<span class="pagenum"><a id="page71" name="page71"></a>Pg 71</span>ance from a supposed plot, while Coligny's body was hung on a
+gibbet. The Pope ordered public thanksgivings, while Queen Elizabeth put
+on mourning, and the Emperor Maximilian II., alone among Catholic
+princes, showed any horror or indignation. But the heart of the unhappy
+young king was broken by the guilt he had incurred. Charles IX. sank
+into a decline, and died in 1574, finding no comfort save in the surgeon
+and nurse he had saved.</p>
+
+
+<p>8. <b>The League.</b>&mdash;His brother, <i>Henry III.</i>, who had been elected King
+of Poland, threw up that crown in favour of that of France. He was of a
+vain, false, weak character, superstitiously devout, and at the same
+time ferocious, so as to alienate every one. All were ashamed of a man
+who dressed in the extreme of foppery, with a rosary of death's heads at
+his girdle, and passed from wild dissipation to abject penance. He was
+called "the Paris Church-warden and the Queen's Hairdresser," for he
+passed from her toilette to the decoration of the walls of churches with
+illuminations cut out of old service-books. Sometimes he went about
+surrounded with little dogs, sometimes flogged himself walking barefoot
+in a procession, and his <i>mignons</i>, or favourites, were the scandal of
+the country by their pride, license, and savage deeds. The war broke out
+again, and his only remaining brother, Francis, Duke<span class="pagenum"><a id="page72" name="page72"></a>Pg 72</span> of Alen&ccedil;on, an
+equally hateful and contemptible being, fled from court to the Huguenot
+army, hoping to force his brother into buying his submission; but when
+the King of Navarre had followed him and begun the struggle in earnest,
+he accepted the duchy of Anjou, and returned to his allegiance. Francis
+was invited by the insurgent Dutch to become their chief, and spent some
+time in Holland, but returned, unsuccessful and dying. As the king was
+childless, the next male heir was Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, who
+had fled from court soon after Alen&ccedil;on returned to the Huguenot faith,
+and was reigning in his two counties of B&eacute;arn and Foix, the head of the
+Huguenots. In the resolve never to permit a heretic to wear the French
+crown, Guise and his party formed a Catholic league, to force Henry III.
+to choose another successor. Paris was devoted to Guise, and the king,
+finding himself almost a prisoner there, left the city, but was again
+mastered by the duke at Blois, and could so ill brook his arrogance, as
+to have recourse to assassination. He caused him to be slain at the
+palace at Blois in 1588. The fury of the League was so great that Henry
+III. was driven to take refuge with the King of Navarre, and they were
+together besieging Paris, when Henry III. was in his turn murdered by a
+monk, named Clement, in 1589.</p>
+
+
+<p>9. <b>Henry IV.</b>&mdash;The Leaguers proclaimed as king<span class="pagenum"><a id="page73" name="page73"></a>Pg 73</span> an old uncle of the
+King of Navarre, the Cardinal of Bourbon, but all the more moderate
+Catholics rallied round Henry of Navarre, who took the title of <i>Henry
+IV.</i> At Ivry, in Normandy, Henry met the force of Leaguers, and defeated
+them by his brilliant courage. "Follow my white plume," his last order
+to his troops, became one of the sayings the French love to remember.
+But his cause was still not won&mdash;Paris held out against him, animated by
+almost fanatical fury, and while he was besieging it France was invaded
+from the Netherlands. The old Cardinal of Bourbon was now dead, and
+Philip II. considered his daughter Isabel, whose mother was the eldest
+daughter of Henry II., to be rightful Queen of France. He sent therefore
+his ablest general, the Duke of Parma, to co-operate with the Leaguers
+and place her on the throne. A war of strategy was carried on, during
+which Henry kept the enemy at bay, but could do no more, since the
+larger number of his people, though intending to have no king but
+himself, did not wish him to gain too easy a victory, lest in that case
+he should remain a Calvinist. However, he was only waiting to recant
+till he could do so with a good grace. He really preferred Catholicism,
+and had only been a political Huguenot; and his best and most faithful
+adviser, the Baron of Rosny, better known as Duke of Sully, though a
+staunch Calvinist himself, recommended the change as the only means of
+restoring peace to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page74" name="page74"></a>Pg 74</span> kingdom. There was little more resistance to
+Henry after he had again been received by the Church in 1592. Paris,
+weary of the long war, opened its gates in 1593, and the inhabitants
+crowded round him with ecstasy, so that he said, "Poor people, they are
+hungry for the sight of a king!" The Leaguers made their peace, and when
+Philip of Spain again attacked Henry, the young Duke of Guise was one of
+the first to hasten to the defence. Philip saw that there were no
+further hopes for his daughter, and peace was made in 1596.</p>
+
+
+<p>10. <b>The Edict of Nantes.</b>&mdash;Two years later, in 1598, Henry put forth
+what was called the Edict of Nantes, because first registered in that
+parliament. It secured to the Huguenots equal civil rights with those of
+the Catholics, accepted their marriages, gave them, under restrictions,
+permission to meet for worship and for consultations, and granted them
+cities for the security of their rights, of which La Rochelle was the
+chief. The Calvinists had been nearly exterminated in the north, but
+there were still a large number in the south of France, and the burghers
+of the chief southern cities were mostly Huguenot. The war had been from
+the first a very horrible one; there had been savage slaughter, and
+still more savage reprisals on each side. The young nobles had been
+trained into making a fashion of ferocity, and practising graceful ways
+of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page75" name="page75"></a>Pg 75</span> striking death-blows. Whole districts had been laid waste, churches
+and abbeys destroyed, tombs rifled, and the whole population accustomed
+to every sort of horror and suffering; while nobody but Henry IV.
+himself, and the Duke of Sully, had any notion either of statesmanship
+or of religious toleration.</p>
+
+
+<p>11. <b>Henry's Plans.</b>&mdash;Just as the reign of Louis XI. had been a period
+of rest and recovery from the English wars, so that of Henry IV. was one
+of restoration from the ravages of thirty years of intermittent civil
+war. The king himself not only had bright and engaging manners, but was
+a man of large heart and mind; and Sully did much for the welfare of the
+country. Roads, canals, bridges, postal communications, manufactures,
+extended commerce, all owed their promotion to him, and brought
+prosperity to the burgher class; and the king was especially endeared to
+the peasantry by his saying that he hoped for the time when no cottage
+would be without a good fowl in its pot. The great silk manufactories of
+southern France chiefly arose under his encouragement, and there was
+prosperity of every kind. The Church itself was in a far better state
+than before. Some of the best men of any time were then living&mdash;in
+especial Vincent de Paul, who did much to improve the training of the
+parochial clergy, and who founded the order of Sisters of Charity, who
+prevented the misery of the streets of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page76" name="page76"></a>Pg 76</span> Paris from ever being so
+frightful as in those days when deserted children became the prey of
+wolves, dogs, and pigs. The nobles, who had grown into insolence during
+the wars, either as favourites of Henry III. or as zealous supporters of
+the Huguenot cause, were subdued and tamed. The most noted of these were
+the Duke of Bouillon, the owner of the small principality of Sedan, who
+was reduced to obedience by the sight of Sully's formidable train of
+artillery; and the Marshal Duke of Biron, who, thinking that Henry had
+not sufficiently rewarded his services, intrigued with Spain and Savoy,
+and was beheaded for his treason. Hatred to the house of Austria in
+Spain and Germany was as keen as ever in France; and in 1610 Henry IV.
+was prepared for another war on the plea of a disputed succession to the
+duchy of Cleves. The old fanaticism still lingered in Paris, and Henry
+had been advised to beware of pageants there; but it was necessary that
+his second wife, Mary de' Medici, should be crowned before he went to
+the war, as she was to be left regent. Two days after the coronation, as
+Henry was going to the arsenal to visit his old friend Sully, he was
+stabbed to the heart in his coach, in the streets of Paris, by a fanatic
+named Ravaillac. The French call him Le Grand Monarque; and he was one
+of the most attractive and benevolent of men, winning the hearts of all
+who approached him, but the immorality of his life did much to confirm
+the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page77" name="page77"></a>Pg 77</span> already low standard that prevailed among princes and nobles in
+France.</p>
+
+
+<p>12. <b>The States-General of 1614.</b>&mdash;Henry's second wife, Mary de' Medici,
+became regent, for her son, <i>Louis XIII.</i>, was only ten years old, and
+indeed his character was so weak that his whole reign was only one long
+minority. Mary de' Medici was entirely under the dominion of an Italian
+favourite named Concini, and his wife, and their whole endeavour was to
+amass riches for themselves and keep the young king in helpless
+ignorance, while they undid all that Sully had effected, and took bribes
+shamelessly. The Prince of Cond&eacute; tried to overthrow them, and, in hopes
+of strengthening herself, in 1614 Mary summoned together the
+States-General. There came 464 members, 132 for the nobles, 140 for the
+clergy, and 192 for the third estate, <i>i.e.</i> the burghers, and these,
+being mostly lawyers and magistrates from the provinces, were resolved
+to make their voices heard. Taxation was growing worse and worse. Not
+only was it confined to the burgher and peasant class, exempting the
+clergy and the nobles, among which last were included their families to
+the remotest generation, but it had become the court custom to multiply
+offices, in order to pension the nobles, and keep them quiet; and this,
+together with the expenses of the army, made the weight of taxation
+ruinous. Moreover, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page78" name="page78"></a>Pg 78</span> presentation to the civil offices held by
+lawyers was made hereditary in their families, on payment of a sum down,
+and of fees at the death of each holder. All these abuses were
+complained of; and one of the deputies even told the nobility that if
+they did not learn to treat the despised classes below them as younger
+brothers, they would lay up a terrible store of retribution for
+themselves. A petition to the king was drawn up, and was received, but
+never answered. The doors of the house of assembly were closed&mdash;the
+members were told it was by order of the king&mdash;and the States-General
+never met again for 177 years, when the storm was just ready to fall.</p>
+
+
+<p>13. <b>The Siege of Rochelle.</b>&mdash;The rottenness of the State was chiefly
+owing to the nobility, who, as long as they were allowed to grind down
+their peasants and shine at court, had no sense of duty or public
+spirit, and hated the burghers and lawyers far too much to make common
+cause with them against the constantly increasing power of the throne.
+They only intrigued and struggled for personal advantages and rivalries,
+and never thought of the good of the State. They bitterly hated Concini,
+the Marshal d'Ancre, as he had been created, but he remained in power
+till 1614, when one of the king's gentlemen, Albert de Luynes, plotted
+with the king himself and a few of his guards for his deliverance.
+Nothing could be<span class="pagenum"><a id="page79" name="page79"></a>Pg 79</span> easier than the execution. The king ordered the
+captain of the guards to arrest Concini, and kill him if he resisted;
+and this was done. Concini was cut down on the steps of the Louvre, and
+Louis exclaimed, "At last I am a king." But it was not in him to be a
+king, and he never was one all his life. He only passed under the
+dominion of De Luynes, who was a high-spirited young noble. The
+Huguenots had been holding assemblies, which were considered more
+political than religious, and their towns of security were a grievance
+to royalty. War broke out again, and Louis himself went with De Luynes
+to besiege Montauban. The place was taken, but disease broke out in the
+army, and De Luynes died. There was a fresh struggle for power between
+the queen-mother and the Prince of Cond&eacute;, ending in both being set aside
+by the queen's almoner, Armand de Richelieu, Bishop of Lu&ccedil;on, and
+afterwards a cardinal, the ablest statesman then in Europe, who gained
+complete dominion over the king and country, and ruled them both with a
+rod of iron. The Huguenots were gradually driven out of all their
+strongholds, till only Rochelle remained to them. This city was bravely
+and patiently defended by the magistrates and the Duke of Rohan, with
+hopes of succour from England, until these being disconcerted by the
+murder of the Duke of Buckingham, they were forced to surrender, after
+having held out for more than a year. Louis<span class="pagenum"><a id="page80" name="page80"></a>Pg 80</span> XIII. entered in triumph,
+deprived the city of all its privileges, and thus in 1628 concluded the
+war that had begun by the attack of the Guisards on the congregation at
+Vassy, in 1561. The lives and properties of the Huguenots were still
+secure, but all favour was closed against them, and every encouragement
+held out to them to join the Church. Many of the worst scandals had been
+removed, and the clergy were much improved; and, from whatever motive it
+might be, many of the more influential Huguenots began to conform to the
+State religion.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page81" name="page81"></a>Pg 81</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>POWER OF THE CROWN.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>Richelieu's Administration.</b>&mdash;Cardinal de Richelieu's whole idea of
+statesmanship consisted in making the King of France the greatest of
+princes at home and abroad. To make anything great of Louis XIII., who
+was feeble alike in mind and body, was beyond any one's power, and
+Richelieu kept him in absolute subjection, allowing him a favourite with
+whom to hunt, talk, and amuse himself, but if the friend attempted to
+rouse the king to shake off the yoke, crushing him ruthlessly. It was
+the crown rather than the king that the cardinal exalted, putting down
+whatever resisted. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the king's only brother,
+made a futile struggle for power, and freedom of choice in marriage, but
+was soon overcome. He was spared, as being the only heir to the kingdom,
+but the Duke of Montmorency, who had been led into his rebellion, was
+brought to the block, amid the pity and terror of all France. Whoever
+seemed dangerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="page82" name="page82"></a>Pg 82</span> to the State, or showed any spirit of independence,
+was marked by the cardinal, and suffered a hopeless imprisonment, if
+nothing worse; but at the same time his government was intelligent and
+able, and promoted prosperity, as far as was possible where there was
+such a crushing of individual spirit and enterprise. Richelieu's plan,
+in fact, was to found a despotism, though a wise and well-ordered
+despotism, at home, while he made France great by conquests abroad. And
+at this time the ambition of France found a favourable field in the
+state both of Germany and of Spain.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>The War in Flanders and Italy.</b>&mdash;The Thirty Years' War had been
+raging in Germany for many years, and France had taken no part in it,
+beyond encouraging the Swedes and the Protestant Germans, as the enemies
+of the Emperor. But the policy of Richelieu required that the disunion
+between its Catholic and Protestant states should be maintained, and
+when things began to tend towards peace from mutual exhaustion, the
+cardinal interfered, and induced the Protestant party to continue the
+war by giving them money and reinforcements. A war had already begun in
+Italy on behalf of the Duke of Nevers, who had become heir to the duchy
+of Mantua, but whose family had lived in France so long that the Emperor
+and the King of Spain supported a more distant claim of the Duke of
+Savoy to part of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page83" name="page83"></a>Pg 83</span> duchy, rather than admit a French prince into
+Italy. Richelieu was quick to seize this pretext for attacking Spain,
+for Spain was now dying into a weak power, and he saw in the war a means
+of acquiring the Netherlands, which belonged to the Spanish crown. At
+first nothing important was done, but the Spaniards and Germans were
+worn out, while two young and able captains were growing up among the
+French&mdash;the Viscount of Turenne, younger son to the Duke of Bouillon,
+and the Duke of Enghien, eldest son of the Prince of Cond&eacute;&mdash;and
+Richelieu's policy soon secured a brilliant career of success. Elsass,
+Lorraine, Artois, Catalonia, and Savoy, all fell into the hands of the
+French, and from a chamber of sickness the cardinal directed the affairs
+of three armies, as well as made himself feared and respected by the
+whole kingdom. Cinq Mars, the last favourite he had given the king,
+plotted his overthrow, with the help of the Spaniards, but was detected
+and executed, when the great minister was already at death's door.
+Richelieu recommended an Italian priest, Julius Mazarin, whom he had
+trained to work under him, to carry on the government, and died in the
+December of 1642. The king only survived him five months, dying on the
+14th of May, 1643. The war was continued on the lines Richelieu had laid
+down, and four days after the death of Louis XIII. the army in the Low
+Countries gained a splendid victory at Rocroy, under the Duke of
+Enghien, entirely destroying the old<span class="pagenum"><a id="page84" name="page84"></a>Pg 84</span> Spanish infantry. The battles of
+Freiburg, Nordlingen, and Lens raised the fame of the French generals to
+the highest pitch, and in 1649 reduced the Emperor to make peace in the
+treaty of M&uuml;nster. France obtained as her spoil the three bishoprics,
+Metz, Toul, and Verdun, ten cities in Elsass, Brisach, and the Sundgau,
+with the Savoyard town of Pignerol; but the war with Spain continued
+till 1659, when Louis XIV. engaged to marry Maria Theresa, a daughter of
+the King of Spain.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The Fronde.</b>&mdash;When an heir had long been despaired of, Anne of
+Austria, the wife of Louis XIII., had become the mother of two sons, the
+eldest of whom, <i>Louis XIV.</i>, was only five years old at the time of his
+father's death. The queen-mother became regent, and trusted entirely to
+Mazarin, who had become a cardinal, and pursued the policy of Richelieu.
+But what had been endured from a man by birth a French noble, was
+intolerable from a low-born Italian. "After the lion comes the fox," was
+the saying, and the Parliament of Paris made a last stand by refusing to
+register the royal edict for fresh taxes, being supported both by the
+burghers of Paris, and by a great number of the nobility, who were
+personally jealous of Mazarin. This party was called the Fronde, because
+in their discussions each man stood forth, launched his speech, and
+retreated, just as the boys did with slings (<i>fronde</i>) and stones in the
+streets.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page85" name="page85"></a>Pg 85</span> The struggle became serious, but only a few of the lawyers in
+the parliament had any real principle or public spirit; all the other
+actors caballed out of jealousy and party spirit, making tools of "the
+men of the gown," whom they hated and despised, though mostly far their
+superiors in worth and intelligence. Anne of Austria held fast by
+Mazarin, and was supported by the Duke of Enghien, whom his father's
+death had made Prince of Cond&eacute;. Cond&eacute;'s assistance enabled her to
+blockade Paris and bring the parliament to terms, which concluded the
+first act of the Fronde, with the banishment of Mazarin as a peace
+offering. Cond&eacute;, however, became so arrogant and overbearing that the
+queen caused him to be imprisoned, whereupon his wife and his other
+friends began a fresh war for his liberation, and the queen was forced
+to yield; but he again showed himself so tyrannical that the queen and
+the parliament became reconciled and united to put him down, giving the
+command of the troops to Turenne. Again there was a battle at the gates
+of Paris, in which all Cond&eacute;'s friends were wounded, and he himself so
+entirely worsted that he had to go into exile, when he entered the
+Spanish service, while Mazarin returned to power at home.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>The Court of Anne of Austria.</b>&mdash;The court of France, though never
+pure, was much im<span class="pagenum"><a id="page86" name="page86"></a>Pg 86</span>proved during the reign of Louis XIII. and the regency
+of Anne of Austria. There was a spirit of romance and grace about it,
+somewhat cumbrous and stately, but outwardly pure and refined, and quite
+a step out of the gross and open vice of the former reigns. The Duchess
+de Rambouillet, a lady of great grace and wit, made her house the centre
+of a brilliant society, which set itself to raise and refine the
+manners, literature, and language of the time. No word that was
+considered vulgar or coarse was allowed to pass muster; and though in
+process of time this censorship became pedantic and petty, there is no
+doubt that much was done to purify both the language and the tone of
+thought. Poems, plays, epigrams, eulogiums, and even sermons were
+rehearsed before the committee of taste in the H&ocirc;tel de Rambouillet, and
+a wonderful new stimulus was there given, not only to ornamental but to
+solid literature. Many of the great men who made France illustrious were
+either ending or beginning their careers at this time. Memoir writing
+specially flourished, and the characters of the men and women of the
+court are known to us on all sides. Cardinal de Retz and the Duke of
+Rochefoucauld, both deeply engaged in the Fronde, have left, the one
+memoirs, the other maxims of great power of irony. Mme. de Motteville,
+one of the queen's ladies, wrote a full history of the court. Blaise
+Pascal, one of the greatest<span class="pagenum"><a id="page87" name="page87"></a>Pg 87</span> geniuses of all times, was attaching
+himself to the Jansenists. This religious party, so called from Jansen,
+a Dutch priest, whose opinions were imputed to them, had sprung up
+around the reformed convent of Port Royal, and numbered among them some
+of the ablest and best men of the time; but the Jesuits considered them
+to hold false doctrine, and there was a continual debate, ending at
+length in the persecution of the Jansenists. Pascal's "Provincial
+Letters," exposing the Jesuit system, were among the ablest writings of
+the age. Philosophy, poetry, science, history, art, were all making
+great progress, though there was a stateliness and formality in all that
+was said and done, redolent of the Spanish queen's etiquette and the
+fastidious refinement of the H&ocirc;tel Rambouillet.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>Court of Louis XIV.</b>&mdash;The attempt from the earliest times of the
+French monarchy had been to draw all government into the hands of the
+sovereign, and the suppression of the Fronde completed the work. Louis
+XIV., though ill educated, was a man of considerable ability, much
+industry, and great force of character, arising from a profound belief
+that France was the first country in the world, and himself the first of
+Frenchmen; and he had a magnificent courtesy of demeanour, which so
+impressed all who came near him as to make them his willing slaves.
+"There is enough in him to make four kings and one<span class="pagenum"><a id="page88" name="page88"></a>Pg 88</span> respectable man
+besides" was what Mazarin said of him; and when in 1661 the cardinal
+died, the king showed himself fully equal to becoming his own prime
+minister. "The State is myself," he said, and all centred upon him so
+that no room was left for statesmen. The court was, however, in a most
+brilliant state. There had been an unusual outburst of talent of every
+kind in the lull after the Wars of Religion, and in generals, thinkers,
+artists, and men of literature, France was unusually rich. The king had
+a wonderful power of self-assertion, which attached them all to him
+almost as if he were a sort of divinity. The stately, elaborate Spanish
+etiquette brought in by his mother, Anne of Austria, became absolutely
+an engine of government. Henry IV. had begun the evil custom of keeping
+the nobles quiet by giving them situations at court, with pensions
+attached, and these offices were multiplied to the most enormous and
+absurd degree, so that every royal personage had some hundreds of
+personal attendants. Princes of the blood and nobles of every degree
+were contented to hang about the court, crowding into the most narrow
+lodgings at Versailles, and thronging its anterooms; and to be ordered
+to remain in the country was a most severe punishment.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>France under Louis XIV.</b>&mdash;There was, in fact, nothing but the chase
+to occupy a gentleman<span class="pagenum"><a id="page89" name="page89"></a>Pg 89</span> on his own estate, for he was allowed no duties
+or responsibilities. Each province had a governor or <i>intendant</i>, a sort
+of viceroy, and the administration of the cities was managed chiefly on
+the part of the king, even the mayors obtaining their posts by purchase.
+The unhappy peasants had to pay in the first place the taxes to
+Government, out of which were defrayed an intolerable number of
+pensions, many for useless offices; next, the rents and dues which
+supported their lord's expenditure at court; and, thirdly, the tithes
+and fees of the clergy. Besides which, they were called off from the
+cultivation of their own fields for a certain number of days to work at
+the roads; their horses might be used by royal messengers; their lord's
+crops had to be got in by their labour gratis, while their own were
+spoiling; and, in short, the only wonder is how they existed at all.
+Their hovels and their food were wretched, and any attempt to amend
+their condition on the part of their lord would have been looked on as
+betokening dangerous designs, and probably have landed him in the
+Bastille. The peasants of Brittany&mdash;where the old constitution had been
+less entirely ruined&mdash;and those of Anjou were in a less oppressed
+condition, and in the cities trade flourished. Colbert, the
+comptroller-general of the finances, was so excellent a manager that the
+pressure of taxation was endurable in his time, and he promoted new
+manufactures, such as glass at Cherbourg, cloth at Abbeville,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page90" name="page90"></a>Pg 90</span> silk at
+Lyons; he also tried to promote commerce and colonization, and to create
+a navy. There was a great appearance of prosperity, and in every
+department there was wonderful ability. The Reformation had led to a
+considerable revival among the Roman Catholics themselves. The
+theological colleges established in the last reign had much improved the
+tone of the clergy. Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, was one of the most noted
+preachers who ever existed, and F&eacute;n&eacute;lon, Archbishop of Cambrai, one of
+the best of men. A reform of discipline, begun in the convent of Port
+Royal, ended by attracting and gathering together some of the most
+excellent and able persons in France&mdash;among them Blaise Pascal, a man of
+marvellous genius and depth of thought, and Racine, the chief French
+dramatic poet. Their chief director, the Abbot of St. Cyran, was
+however, a pupil of Jansen, a Dutch ecclesiastic, whose views on
+abstruse questions of grace were condemned by the Jesuits; and as the
+Port-Royalists would not disown the doctrines attributed to him, they
+were discouraged and persecuted throughout Louis's reign, more because
+he was jealous of what would not bend to his will than for any real want
+of conformity. Pascal's famous "Provincial Letters" were put forth
+during this controversy; and in fact, the literature of France reached
+its Augustan age during this reign, and the language acquired its
+standard perfection.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page91" name="page91"></a>Pg 91</span></p>
+
+
+<p>7. <b>War in the Low Countries.</b>&mdash;Maria Theresa, the queen of Louis XIV.,
+was the child of the first marriage of Philip IV. of Spain; and on her
+father's death in 1661, Louis, on pretext of an old law in Brabant,
+which gave the daughters of a first marriage the preference over the
+sons of a second, claimed the Low Countries from the young Charles II.
+of Spain. He thus began a war which was really a continuance of the old
+struggle between France and Burgundy, and of the endeavour of France to
+stretch her frontier to the Rhine. At first England, Holland, and Sweden
+united against him, and obliged him to make the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 1668; but he then succeeded in bribing Charles II. of England to
+forsake the cause of the Dutch, and the war was renewed in 1672.
+William, Prince of Orange, Louis's most determined enemy through life,
+kept up the spirits of the Dutch, and they obtained aid from Germany and
+Spain, through a six years' terrible war, in which the great Turenne was
+killed at Saltzbach, in Germany. At last, from exhaustion, all parties
+were compelled to conclude the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Taking
+advantage of undefined terms in this treaty, Louis seized various cities
+belonging to German princes, and likewise the free imperial city of
+Strassburg, when all Germany was too much worn out by the long war to
+offer resistance. France was full of self-glorification, the king was
+viewed almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="page92" name="page92"></a>Pg 92</span> as a demi-god, and the splendour of his court and of his
+buildings, especially the palace at Versailles, with its gardens and
+fountains, kept up the delusion of his greatness.</p>
+
+
+<p>8. <b>Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.</b>&mdash;In 1685 Louis supposed that the
+Huguenots had been so reduced in numbers that the Edict of Nantes could
+be repealed. All freedom of worship was denied them; their ministers
+were banished, but their flocks were not allowed to follow them. If
+taken while trying to escape, men were sent to the galleys, women to
+captivity, and children to convents for education. Dragoons were
+quartered on families to torment them into going to mass. A few made
+head in the wild moors of the Cevennes under a brave youth named
+Cavalier, and others endured severe persecution in the south of France.
+Dragoons were quartered on them, who made it their business to torment
+and insult them; their marriages were declared invalid, their children
+taken from them to be educated in the Roman Catholic faith. A great
+number, amounting to at least 100,000, succeeded in escaping, chiefly to
+Prussia, Holland, and England, whither they carried many of the
+manufactures that Colbert had taken so much pains to establish. Many of
+those who settled in England were silk weavers, and a large colony was
+thus established at Spitalfields, which long kept up its French
+character.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page93" name="page93"></a>Pg 93</span></p>
+
+
+<p>9. <b>The War of the Palatinate.</b>&mdash;This brutal act of tyranny was followed
+by a fresh attack on Germany. On the plea of a supposed inheritance of
+his sister-in-law, the Duchess of Orleans, Louis invaded the Palatinate
+on the Rhine, and carried on one of the most ferocious wars in history,
+while he was at the same time supporting the cause of his cousin, James
+II. of England, after he had fled and abdicated on the arrival of
+William of Orange. During this war, however, that generation of able men
+who had grown up with Louis began to pass away, and his success was not
+so uniform; while, Colbert being dead, taxation began to be more felt by
+the exhausted people, and peace was made at Ryswick in 1697.</p>
+
+
+<p>10. <b>The War of the Succession in Spain.</b>&mdash;The last of the four great
+wars of Louis's reign was far more unfortunate. Charles II. of Spain
+died childless, naming as his successor a French prince, Philip, Duke of
+Anjou, the second son of the only son of Charles's eldest sister, the
+queen of Louis XIV. But the Powers of Europe, at the Peace of Ryswick,
+had agreed that the crown of Spain should go to Charles of Austria,
+second son of the Emperor Leopold, who was the descendant of younger
+sisters of the royal Spanish line, but did not excite the fear and
+jealousy of Europe, as did a scion of the already overweening house of
+Bourbon. This led to the War<span class="pagenum"><a id="page94" name="page94"></a>Pg 94</span> of the Spanish Succession, England and
+Holland supporting Charles, and fighting with Louis in Spain, Savoy, and
+the Low Countries. In Spain Louis was ultimately successful, and his
+grandson Philip V. retained the throne; but the troops which his ally,
+the Elector of Bavaria, introduced into Germany were totally overthrown
+at Blenheim by the English army under the Duke of Marlborough, and the
+Austrian under Prince Eugene, a son of a younger branch of the house of
+Savoy. Eugene had been bred up in France, but, having bitterly offended
+Louis by calling him a stage king for show and a chess king for use, had
+entered the Emperor's service, and was one of his chief enemies. He
+aided his cousin, Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in repulsing the French
+attacks in that quarter, gained a great victory at Turin, and advanced
+into Provence. Marlborough was likewise in full career of victory in the
+Low Countries, and gained there the battle of Ramillies.</p>
+
+
+<p>11. <b>Peace of Utrecht.</b>&mdash;Louis had outlived his good fortune. His great
+generals and statesmen had passed away. The country was exhausted,
+famine was preying on the wretched peasantry, supplies could not be
+found, and one city after another, of those Louis had seized, was
+retaken. New victories at Oudenarde and Malplaquet were gained over the
+French armies; and, though Louis was as resolute and undaunted as<span class="pagenum"><a id="page95" name="page95"></a>Pg 95</span> ever,
+his affairs were in a desperate state, when he was saved by a sudden
+change of policy on the part of Queen Anne of England, who recalled her
+army and left her allies to continue the contest alone. Eugene was not a
+match for France without Marlborough, and the Archduke Charles, having
+succeeded his brother the Emperor, gave up his pretensions to the crown
+of Spain, so that it became possible to conclude a general peace at
+Utrecht in 1713. By this time Louis was seventy-five years of age, and
+had suffered grievous family losses&mdash;first by the death of his only son,
+and then of his eldest grandson, a young man of much promise of
+excellence, who, with his wife died of malignant measles, probably from
+ignorant medical treatment, since their infant, whose illness was
+concealed by his nurses, was the only one of the family who survived.
+The old king, in spite of sorrow and reverse, toiled with indomitable
+energy to the end of his reign, the longest on record, having lasted
+seventy-two years, when he died in 1715. He had raised the French crown
+to its greatest splendour, but had sacrificed the country to himself and
+his false notions of greatness.</p>
+
+
+<p>12. <b>The Regency.</b>&mdash;The crown now descended to <i>Louis XV.</i>, a weakly
+child of four years old. His great-grandfather had tried to provide for
+his good by leaving the chief seat in the council of regency to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page96" name="page96"></a>Pg 96</span> his own
+illegitimate son, the Duke of Maine, the most honest and conscientious
+man then in the family, but, though clever, unwise and very unpopular.
+His birth caused the appointment to be viewed as an outrage by the
+nobility, and the king's will was set aside. The first prince of the
+blood royal, Philip, Duke of Orleans, the late king's nephew, became
+sole regent&mdash;a man of good ability, but of easy, indolent nature; and
+who, in the enforced idleness of his life, had become dissipated and
+vicious beyond all imagination or description. He was kindly and
+gracious, and his mother said of him that he was like the prince in a
+fable whom all the fairies had endowed with gifts, except one malignant
+sprite who had prevented any favour being of use to him. In the general
+exhaustion produced by the wars of Louis XIV., a Scotchman named James
+Law began the great system of hollow speculation which has continued
+ever since to tempt people to their ruin. He tried raising sums of money
+on national credit, and also devised a company who were to lend money to
+found a great settlement on the Mississippi, the returns from which were
+to be enormous. Every one speculated in shares, and the wildest
+excitement prevailed. Law's house was mobbed by people seeking
+interviews with him, and nobles disguised themselves in liveries to get
+access to him. Fortunes were made one week and lost the next, and
+finally the whole plan proved to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page97" name="page97"></a>Pg 97</span> have been a mere baseless scheme; ruin
+followed, and the misery of the country increased. The Duke of Orleans
+died suddenly in 1723. The king was now legally of age; but he was dull
+and backward, and little fitted for government, and the country was
+really ruled by the Duke of Bourbon, and after him by Cardinal Fleury,
+an aged statesman, but filled with the same schemes of ambition as
+Richelieu or Mazarin.</p>
+
+
+<p>13. <b>War of the Austrian Succession.</b>&mdash;Thus France plunged into new
+wars. Louis XV. married the daughter of Stanislas Lecksinsky, a Polish
+noble, who, after being raised to the throne, was expelled by Austrian
+intrigues and violence. Louis was obliged to take up arms on behalf of
+his father-in-law, but was bought off by a gift from the Emperor Charles
+VI. of the duchy of Lorraine to Stanislas, to revert to his daughter
+after his death and thus become united to France. Lorraine belonged to
+Duke Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, eldest daughter to the
+Emperor, and Francis received instead the duchy of Tuscany; while all
+the chief Powers in Europe agreed to the so-called Pragmatic Sanction,
+by which Charles decreed that Maria Theresa should inherit Austria and
+Hungary and the other hereditary states on her father's death, to the
+exclusion of the daughters of his elder brother, Joseph. When Charles
+VI. died,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page98" name="page98"></a>Pg 98</span> however, in 1740, a great European war began on this matter.
+Frederick II. of Prussia would neither allow Maria Theresa's claim to
+the hereditary states, nor join in electing her husband to the Empire;
+and France took part against her, sending Marshal Belleisle to support
+the Elector of Bavaria, who had been chosen Emperor. George II. of
+England held with Maria Theresa, and gained a victory over the French at
+Dettingen, in 1744. Louis XV. then joined his army, and the battle of
+Fontenoy, in 1745, was one of the rare victories of France over England.
+Another victory followed at Laufeldt, but elsewhere France had had heavy
+losses, and in 1748, after the death of Charles VII., peace was made at
+Aix-la-Chapelle.</p>
+
+
+<p>14. <b>The Seven Years' War.</b>&mdash;Louis, dull and selfish by nature, had been
+absolutely led into vice by his courtiers, especially the Duke of
+Bourbon, who feared his becoming active in public affairs. He had no
+sense of duty to his people; and whereas his great-grandfather had
+sought display and so-called glory, he cared solely for pleasure, and
+that of the grossest and most sensual order, so that his court was a
+hotbed of shameless vice. All that could be wrung from the impoverished
+country was lavished on the overgrown establishments of every member of
+the royal family, in pensions to nobles, and in<span class="pagenum"><a id="page99" name="page99"></a>Pg 99</span> shameful amusements of
+the king. In 1756 another war broke out, in consequence of the hatreds
+left between Prussia and Austria by the former struggle. Maria Theresa
+had, by flatteries she ought to have disdained, gained over France to
+take part with her, and England was allied with Frederick II. In this
+war France and England chiefly fought in their distant possessions,
+where the English were uniformly successful; and after seven years
+another peace followed, leaving the boundaries of the German states just
+where they were before, after a frightful amount of bloodshed. But
+France had had terrible losses. She was driven from India, and lost all
+her settlements in America and Canada.</p>
+
+
+<p>15. <b>France under Louis XV.</b>&mdash;Meantime the gross vice and licentiousness
+of the king was beyond description, and the nobility retained about the
+court by the system established by Louis XIV. were, if not his equals in
+crime, equally callous to the suffering caused by the reckless
+expensiveness of the court, the whole cost of which was defrayed by the
+burghers and peasants. No taxes were asked from clergy or nobles, and
+this latter term included all sprung of a noble line to the utmost
+generation. The owner of an estate had no means of benefiting his
+tenants, even if he wished it; for all matters, even of local
+government, depended on the crown. All he could do was to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>Pg 100</span> draw his
+income from them, and he was often forced, either by poverty or by his
+expensive life, to strain to the utmost the old feudal system. If he
+lived at court, his expenses were heavy, and only partly met by his
+pension, likewise raised from the taxes paid by the poor farmer; if he
+lived in the country, he was a still greater tyrant, and was called by
+the people a <i>hobereau</i>, or kite. No career was open to his younger
+sons, except in the court, the Church, or the army, and here they
+monopolized the prizes, obtaining all the richer dioceses and abbeys,
+and all the promotion in the army. The magistracies were almost all
+hereditary among lawyers, who had bought them for their families from
+the crown, and paid for the appointment of each son. The officials
+attached to each member of the royal family were almost incredible in
+number, and all paid by the taxes. The old <i>gabelle</i>, or salt-tax, had
+gone on ever since the English wars, and every member of a family had to
+pay it, not according to what they used, but what they were supposed to
+need. Every pig was rated at what he ought to require for salting. Every
+cow, sheep, or hen had a toll to pay to king, lord, bishop&mdash;sometimes
+also to priest and abbey. The peasant was called off from his own work
+to give the dues of labour to the roads or to his lord. He might not
+spread manure that could interfere with the game, nor drive away the
+partridges that ate his corn. So scanty were his<span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>Pg 101</span> crops that famines
+slaying thousands passed unnoticed, and even if, by any wonder,
+prosperity smiled on the peasant, he durst not live in any kind of
+comfort, lest the stewards of his lord or of Government should pounce on
+his wealth.</p>
+
+
+<p>16. <b>Reaction.</b>&mdash;Meantime there was a strong feeling that change must
+come. Classical literature was studied, and Greek and Roman manners and
+institutions were thought ideal perfection. There was great disgust at
+the fetters of a highly artificial life in which every one was bound,
+and at the institutions which had been so misused. Writers arose, among
+whom Voltaire and Rousseau were the most eminent, who aimed at the
+overthrow of all the ideas which had come to be thus abused. The one by
+his caustic wit, the other by his enthusiastic simplicity, gained
+willing ears, and, the writers in a great Encyclop&aelig;dia then in course of
+publication, contrived to attack most of the notions which had been
+hitherto taken for granted, and were closely connected with faith and
+with government. The king himself was dully aware that he was living on
+the crust of a volcano, but he said it would last his time; and so it
+did. Louis XV. died of smallpox in 1774, leaving his grandsons to reap
+the harvest that generations had been sowing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>Pg 102</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE REVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>Attempts at Reform.</b>&mdash;It was evident that a change must be made.
+<i>Louis XVI.</i> himself knew it, and slurred over the words in his
+coronation oath that bound him to extirpate heresy; but he was a slow,
+dull man, and affairs had come to such a pass that a far abler man than
+he could hardly have dealt with the dead-lock above, without causing a
+frightful outbreak of the pent-up masses below. His queen, Marie
+Antoinette, was hated for being of Austrian birth, and, though a
+spotless and noble woman, her most trivial actions gave occasion to
+calumnies founded on the crimes of the last generation. Unfortunately,
+the king, though an honest and well-intentioned man, was totally unfit
+to guide a country through a dangerous crisis. His courage was passive,
+his manners were heavy, dull, and shy, and, though steadily industrious,
+he was slow of comprehension and unready in action; and reformation was
+the more difficult<span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>Pg 103</span> because to abolish the useless court offices would
+have been utter starvation to many of their holders, who had nothing but
+their pensions to live upon. Yet there was a general passion for reform;
+all ranks alike looked to some change to free them from the dead-lock
+which made improvement impossible. The Government was bankrupt, while
+the taxes were intolerable, and the first years of the reign were spent
+in experiments. Necker, a Swiss banker, was invited to take the charge
+of the finances, and large loans were made to Government, for which he
+contrived to pay interest regularly; some reduction was made in the
+expenditure; but the king's old minister, Maurepas, grew jealous of his
+popularity, and obtained his dismissal. The French took the part of the
+American colonies in their revolt from England, and the war thus
+occasioned brought on an increase of the load of debt, the general
+distress increased, and it became necessary to devise some mode of
+taxing which might divide the burthens between the whole nation, instead
+of making the peasants pay all and the nobles and clergy nothing. Louis
+decided on calling together the Notables, or higher nobility; but they
+were by no means disposed to tax themselves, and only abused his
+ministers. He then resolved on convoking the whole States-General of the
+kingdom, which had never met since the reign of Louis XIII.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>Pg 104</span></p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>The States-General.</b>&mdash;No one exactly knew the limits of the powers
+of the States-General when it met in 1789. Nobles, clergy, and the
+deputies who represented the commonalty, all formed the assembly at
+Versailles; and though the king would have kept apart these last, who
+were called the <i>Tiers Et&acirc;t</i>, or third estate, they refused to withdraw
+from the great hall of Versailles. The Count of Mirabeau, the younger
+son of a noble family, who sat as a deputy, declared that nothing short
+of bayonets should drive out those who sat by the will of the people,
+and Louis yielded. Thenceforth the votes of a noble, a bishop, or a
+deputy all counted alike. The party names of democrat for those who
+wanted to exalt the power of the people, and of aristocrat for those who
+maintained the privileges of the nobles, came into use, and the most
+extreme democrats were called Jacobins, from an old convent of Jacobin
+friars, where they used to meet. The mob of Paris, always eager, fickle,
+and often blood-thirsty, were excited to the last degree by the debates;
+and, full of the remembrance of the insolence and cruelty of the nobles,
+sometimes rose and hunted down persons whom they deemed aristocrats,
+hanging them to the iron rods by which lamps were suspended over the
+streets. The king in alarm drew the army nearer, and it was supposed
+that he was going to prevent all change by force of arms. Thereupon the
+citizens enrolled themselves as a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>Pg 105</span> National Guard, wearing cockades of
+red, blue, and white, and commanded by La Fayette, a noble of democratic
+opinions, who had run away at seventeen to serve in the American War. On
+a report that the cannon of the Bastille had been pointed upon Paris,
+the mob rose in a frenzy, rushed upon it, hanged the guard, and
+absolutely tore down the old castle to its foundations, though they did
+not find a single prisoner in it. "This is a revolt," said Louis, when
+he heard of it. "Sire, it is a revolution," was the answer.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The New Constitution.</b>&mdash;The mob had found out its power. The
+fishwomen of the markets, always a peculiar and privileged class, were
+frantically excited, and were sure to be foremost in all the
+demonstrations stirred up by Jacobins. There was a great scarcity of
+provisions in Paris, and this, together with the continual dread that
+reforms would be checked by violence, maddened the people. On a report
+that the Guards had shown enthusiasm for the king, the whole populace
+came pouring out of Paris to Versailles, and, after threatening the life
+of the queen, brought the family back with them to Paris, and kept them
+almost as prisoners while the Assembly, which followed them to Paris,
+debated on the new constitution. The nobles were viewed as the worst
+enemies of the nation, and all over the country there were risings of
+the peasants, headed by democrats<span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>Pg 106</span> from the towns, who sacked their
+castles, and often seized their persons. Many fled to England and
+Germany, and the dread that these would unite and return to bring back
+the old system continually increased the fury of the people. The
+Assembly, now known as the Constituent Assembly, swept away all titles
+and privileges, and no one was henceforth to bear any prefix to his name
+but citizen; while at the same time the clergy were to renounce all the
+property of the Church, and to swear that their office and commission
+was derived from the will of the people alone, and that they owed no
+obedience save to the State. The estates thus yielded up were supposed
+to be enough to supply all State expenses without taxes; but as they
+could not at once be turned into money, promissory notes, or assignats,
+were issued. But, as coin was scarce, these were not worth nearly their
+professed value, and the general distress was thus much increased. The
+other oath the great body of the clergy utterly refused, and they were
+therefore driven out of their benefices, and became objects of great
+suspicion to the democrats. All the old boundaries and other
+distinctions between the provinces were destroyed, and France was
+divided into departments, each of which was to elect deputies, in whose
+assembly all power was to be vested, except that the king retained a
+right of veto, <i>i.e.</i>, of refusing his sanction to any measure. He swore
+on the 13th of August, 1791, to observe this new constitution.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>Pg 107</span></p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>The Republic.</b>&mdash;The Constituent Assembly now dissolved itself, and a
+fresh Assembly, called the Legislative, took its place. For a time
+things went on more peacefully. Distrust was, however, deeply sown. The
+king was closely watched as an enemy; and those of the nobles who had
+emigrated began to form armies, aided by the Germans, on the frontier
+for his rescue. This enraged the people, who expected that their newly
+won liberties would be overthrown. The first time the king exercised his
+right of <i>veto</i> the mob rose in fury; and though they then did no more
+than threaten, on the advance of the emigrant army on the 10th of
+August, 1792, a more terrible rising took place. The Tuilleries was
+sacked, the guards slaughtered, the unresisting king and his family
+deposed and imprisoned in the tower of the Temple. In terror lest the
+nobles in the prisons should unite with the emigrants, they were
+massacred by wholesale; while, with a vigour born of the excitement, the
+emigrant armies were repulsed and beaten. The monarchy came to an end;
+and France became a Republic, in which the National Convention, which
+followed the Legislative Assembly, was supreme. The more moderate
+members of this were called Girondins from the Gironde, the estuary of
+the Garonne, from the neighbourhood of which many of them came. They
+were able men, scholars and philosophers, full of schemes for reviving
+classical times, but wishing to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>Pg 108</span> stop short of the plans of the
+Jacobins, of whom the chief was Robespierre, a lawyer from Artois,
+filled with fanatical notions of the rights of man. He, with a party of
+other violent republicans, called the Mountain, of whom Danton and Marat
+were most noted, set to work to destroy all that interfered with their
+plans of general equality. The guillotine, a recently invented machine
+for beheading, was set in all the chief market-places, and hundreds were
+put to death on the charge of "conspiring against the nation." Louis
+XVI. was executed early in 1793; and it was enough to have any sort of
+birthright to be thought dangerous and put to death.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>The Reign of Terror.</b>&mdash;Horror at the bloodshed perpetrated by the
+Mountain led a young girl, named Charlotte Corday, to assassinate Marat,
+whom she supposed to be the chief cause of the cruelties that were
+taking place; but his death only added to the dread of reaction. A
+Committee of Public Safety was appointed by the Convention, and
+endeavoured to sweep away every being who either seemed adverse to
+equality, or who might inherit any claim to rank. The queen was put to
+death nine months after her husband; and the Girondins, who had begun to
+try to stem the tide of slaughter, soon fell under the denunciation of
+the more violent. To be accused of "conspiring against the State" was
+instantly fatal, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>Pg 109</span> no one's life was safe. Danton was denounced by
+Robespierre, and perished; and for three whole years the Reign of Terror
+lasted. The emigrants, by forming an army and advancing on France,
+assisted by the forces of Germany, only made matters worse. There was
+such a dread of the old oppressions coming back, that the peasants were
+ready to fight to the death against the return of the nobles. The army,
+where promotion used to go by rank instead of merit, were so glad of the
+change, that they were full of fresh spirit, and repulsed the army of
+Germans and emigrants all along the frontier. The city of Lyons, which
+had tried to resist the changes, was taken, and frightfully used by
+Collot d'Herbois, a member of the Committee of Public Safety. The
+guillotine was too slow for him, and he had the people mown down with
+grape-shot, declaring that of this great city nothing should be left but
+a monument inscribed, "Lyons resisted liberty&mdash;Lyons is no more!" In La
+Vend&eacute;e&mdash;a district of Anjou, where the peasants were much attached to
+their clergy and nobles&mdash;they rose and gained such successes, that they
+dreamt for a little while of rescuing and restoring the little captive
+son of Louis XVI.; but they were defeated and put down by fire and
+sword, and at Nantes an immense number of executions took place, chiefly
+by drowning. It was reckoned that no less than 18,600 persons were
+guillotined in the three years between 1790 and 1794, be<span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>Pg 110</span>sides those who
+died by other means. Everything was changed. Religion was to be done
+away with; the churches were closed; the tenth instead of the seventh
+day appointed for rest. "Death is an eternal sleep" was inscribed on the
+schools; and Reason, represented by a classically dressed woman, was
+enthroned in the cathedral of Notre D&acirc;me. At the same time a new era was
+invented, the 22nd of September, 1792; the months had new names, and the
+decimal measures of length, weight, and capacity, which are based on the
+proportions of the earth, were planned. All this time Robespierre really
+seems to have thought himself the benefactor of the human race; but at
+last the other members of the Convention took courage to denounce him,
+and he, with five more, was arrested and sent to the guillotine. The
+bloodthirsty fever was over, the Committee of Public Safety was
+overthrown, and people breathed again.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. <b>The Directory.</b>&mdash;The chief executive power was placed in the hands
+of a Directory, consisting of more moderate men, and a time of much
+prosperity set in. Already in the new vigour born of the strong emotions
+of the country the armies won great victories, not only repelling the
+Germans and the emigrants, but uniting Holland to France. Napoleon
+Buonaparte, a Corsican officer, who was called on to protect the
+Directory from being again overawed<span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>Pg 111</span> by the mob, became the leading
+spirit in France, through his Italian victories. He conquered Lombardy
+and Tuscany, and forced the Emperor to let them become republics under
+French protection, also to resign Flanders to France by the Treaty of
+Campo Formio. Buonaparte then made a descent on Egypt, hoping to attack
+India from that side, but he was foiled by Nelson, who destroyed his
+fleet in the battle of the Nile, and Sir Sydney Smith, who held out Acre
+against him. He hurried home to France on finding that the Directory had
+begun a fresh European war, seizing Switzerland, and forcing it to give
+up its treasures and become a republic on their model, and carrying the
+Pope off into captivity. All the European Powers had united against
+them, and Lombardy had been recovered chiefly by Russian aid; so that
+Buonaparte, on the ground that a nation at war needed a less cumbrous
+government than a Directory, contrived to get himself chosen First
+Consul, with two inferiors, in 1799.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. <b>The Consulate.</b>&mdash;A great course of victories followed in Italy,
+where Buonaparte commanded in person, and in Germany under Moreau.
+Austria and Russia were forced to make peace, and England was the only
+country that still resisted him, till a general peace was made at Amiens
+in 1803; but it only lasted for a year, for the French failed to
+perform<span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>Pg 112</span> the conditions, and began the war afresh. In the mean time
+Buonaparte had restored religion and order, and so entirely mastered
+France that, in 1804, he was able to form the republic into an empire,
+and affecting to be another Charles the Great, he caused the Pope to say
+mass at his coronation, though he put the crown on his own head. A
+concordat with the Pope reinstated the clergy, but altered the division
+of the dioceses, and put the bishops and priests in the pay of the
+State.</p>
+
+
+<p>8. <b>The Empire.</b>&mdash;The union of Italy to this new French Empire caused a
+fresh war with all Europe. The Austrian army, however, was defeated at
+Ulm and Austerlitz, the Prussians were entirely crushed at Jena, and the
+Russians fought two terrible but almost drawn battles at Eylau and
+Friedland. Peace was then made with all three at Tilsit, in 1807, the
+terms pressing exceedingly hard upon Prussia. Schemes of invading
+England were entertained by the Emperor, but were disconcerted by the
+destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by Nelson at Trafalgar.
+Spain was then in alliance with France; but Napoleon, treacherously
+getting the royal family into his hands, seized their kingdom, making
+his brother Joseph its king. But the Spaniards would not submit, and
+called in the English to their aid. The Peninsular War resulted in a
+series of victories on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>Pg 113</span> part of the English under Wellington, while
+Austria, beginning another war, was again so crushed that the Emperor
+durst not refuse to give his daughter in marriage to Napoleon. However,
+in 1812, the conquest of Russia proved an exploit beyond Napoleon's
+powers. He reached Moscow with his Grand Army, but the city was burnt
+down immediately after his arrival, and he had no shelter or means of
+support. He was forced to retreat, through a fearful winter, without
+provisions and harassed by the Cossacks, who hung on the rear and cut
+off the stragglers, so that his whole splendid army had become a mere
+miserable, broken, straggling remnant by the time the survivors reached
+the Prussian frontier. He himself had hurried back to Paris as soon as
+he found their case hopeless, to arrange his resistance to all
+Europe&mdash;for every country rose against him on his first disaster&mdash;and
+the next year was spent in a series of desperate battles in Germany
+between him and the Allied Powers. L&uuml;tzen and Bautzen were doubtful, but
+the two days' battle of Leipzic was a terrible defeat. In the year 1814,
+four armies&mdash;those of Austria, Russia, England, and Prussia&mdash;entered
+France at once; and though Napoleon resisted, stood bravely and
+skilfully, and gained single battles against Austria and Prussia, he
+could not stand against all Europe. In April the Allies entered Paris,
+and he was forced to abdicate, being sent under a strong guard to the
+little Mediter<span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>Pg 114</span>ranean isle of Elba. He had drained France of men by his
+constant call for soldiers, who were drawn by conscription from the
+whole country, till there were not enough to do the work in the fields,
+and foreign prisoners had to be employed; but he had conferred on her
+one great benefit in the great code of laws called the "<i>Code
+Napol&eacute;on</i>," which has ever since continued in force.</p>
+
+
+<p>9. <b>France under Napoleon.</b>&mdash;The old laws and customs, varying in
+different provinces, had been swept away, so that the field was clear;
+and the system of government which Napoleon devised has remained
+practically unchanged from that time to this. Everything was made to
+depend upon the central government. The Ministers of Religion, of
+Justice, of Police, of Education, etc., have the regulation of all
+interior affairs, and appoint all who work under them, so that nobody
+learns how to act alone; and as the Government has been in fact ever
+since dependent on the will of the people of Paris, the whole country is
+helplessly in their hands. The army, as in almost all foreign nations,
+is raised by conscription&mdash;that is, by drawing lots among the young men
+liable to serve, and who can only escape by paying a substitute to serve
+in their stead; and this is generally the first object of the savings of
+a family. All feudal claims had been done away with, and with them the
+right of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>Pg 115</span> primogeniture; and, indeed, it is not possible for a testator
+to avoid leaving his property to be shared among his family, though he
+can make some small differences in the amount each receives, and thus
+estates are continually freshly divided, and some portions become very
+small indeed. French peasants are, however, most eager to own land, and
+are usually very frugal, sober, and saving; and the country has gone on
+increasing in prosperity and comfort. It is true that, probably from the
+long habit of concealing any wealth they might possess, the French
+farmers and peasantry care little for display, or what we should call
+comfort, and live rough hard-working lives even while well off and with
+large hoards of wealth; but their condition has been wonderfully changed
+for the better ever since the Revolution. All this has continued under
+the numerous changes that have taken place in the forms of government.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>Pg 116</span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. <b>The Restoration.</b>&mdash;The Allies left the people of France free to
+choose their Government, and they accepted the old royal family, who
+were on their borders awaiting a recall. The son of Louis XVI. had
+perished in the hands of his jailers, and thus the king's next brother,
+<i>Louis XVIII.</i>, succeeded to the throne, bringing back a large emigrant
+following. Things were not settled down, when Napoleon, in the spring of
+1815, escaped from Elba. The army welcomed him with delight, and Louis
+was forced to flee to Ghent. However, the Allies immediately rose in
+arms, and the troops of England and Prussia crushed Napoleon entirely at
+Waterloo, on the 18th of June, 1815. He was sent to the lonely rock of
+St. Helena, in the Atlantic, whence he could not again return to trouble
+the peace of Europe. There he died in 1821. Louis XVIII. was restored,
+and a charter was devised by which a limited monarchy was established, a
+king at<span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>Pg 117</span> the head, and two chambers&mdash;one of peers, the other of
+deputies, but with a very narrow franchise. It did not, however, work
+amiss; till, after Louis's death in 1824, his brother, <i>Charles X.</i>,
+tried to fall back on the old system. He checked the freedom of the
+press, and interfered with the freedom of elections. The consequence was
+a fresh revolution in July, 1830, happily with little bloodshed, but
+which forced Charles X. to go into exile with his grandchild Henry,
+whose father, the Duke of Berry, had been assassinated in 1820.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <b>Reign of Louis Philippe.</b>&mdash;The chambers of deputies offered the
+crown to <i>Louis Philippe</i>, Duke of Orleans. He was descended from the
+regent; his father had been one of the democratic party in the
+Revolution, and, when titles were abolished, had called himself Philip
+<i>Egalit&eacute;</i> (Equality). This had not saved his head under the Reign of
+Terror, and his son had been obliged to flee and lead a wandering life,
+at one time gaining his livelihood by teaching mathematics at a school
+in Switzerland. He had recovered his family estates at the Restoration,
+and, as the head of the Liberal party, was very popular. He was elected
+King of the French, not of France, with a chamber of peers nominated for
+life only, and another of deputies elected by voters, whose
+qualification was two hundred francs, or eight pounds a year. He did his
+utmost to gain the good will of the people, living a simple,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>Pg 118</span> friendly
+family life, and trying to merit the term of the "citizen king," and in
+the earlier years of his reign he was successful. The country was
+prosperous, and a great colony was settled in Algiers, and endured a
+long and desperate war with the wild Arab tribes. A colony was also
+established in New Caledonia, in the Pacific, and attempts were carried
+out to compensate thus for the losses of colonial possessions which
+France had sustained in wars with England. Discontents, however, began
+to arise, on the one hand from those who remembered only the successes
+of Buonaparte, and not the miseries they had caused, and on the other
+from the working-classes, who declared that the <i>bourgeois</i>, or
+tradespeople, had gained everything by the revolution of July, but they
+themselves nothing. Louis Philippe did his best to gratify and amuse the
+people by sending for the remains of Napoleon, and giving him a
+magnificent funeral and splendid monument among his old soldiers&mdash;the
+Invalides; but his popularity was waning. In 1842 his eldest son, the
+Duke of Orleans, a favourite with the people, was killed by a fall from
+his carriage, and this was another shock to his throne. Two young
+grandsons were left; and the king had also several sons, one of whom,
+the Duke of Montpensier, he gave in marriage to Louise, the sister and
+heiress presumptive to the Queen of Spain; though, by treaty with the
+other European Powers, it had been agreed that she should not marry a
+French prince<span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>Pg 119</span> unless the queen had children of her own. Ambition for
+his family was a great offence to his subjects, and at the same time a
+nobleman, the Duke de Praslin, who had murdered his wife, committed
+suicide in prison to avoid public execution; and the republicans
+declared, whether justly or unjustly, that this had been allowed rather
+than let a noble die a felon's death.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <b>The Revolution of 1848.</b>&mdash;In spite of the increased prosperity of
+the country, there was general disaffection. There were four
+parties&mdash;the Orleanists, who held by Louis Philippe and his minister
+Guizot, and whose badge was the tricolour; the Legitimists, who retained
+their loyalty to the exiled Henry, and whose symbol was the white
+Bourbon flag; the Buonapartists; and the Republicans, whose badge was
+the red cap and flag. A demand for a franchise that should include the
+mass of the people was rejected, and the general displeasure poured
+itself out in speeches at political banquets. An attempt to stop one of
+these led to an uproar. The National Guard refused to fire on the
+people, and their fury rose unchecked; so that the king, thinking
+resistance vain, signed an abdication, and fled to England in February,
+1848. A provisional Government was formed, and a new constitution was to
+be arranged; but the Paris mob, who found their condition unchanged, and
+really wanted equality of wealth, not of rights, made disturbances again
+and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>Pg 120</span> again, and barricaded the streets, till they were finally put down
+by General Cavaignac, while the rest of France was entirely dependent on
+the will of the capital. After some months, a republic was determined
+on, which was to have a president at its head, chosen every five years
+by universal suffrage. Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, nephew to the great
+Napoleon, was the first president thus chosen; and, after some
+struggles, he not only mastered Paris, but, by the help of the army,
+which was mostly Buonapartist, he dismissed the chamber of deputies, and
+imprisoned or exiled all the opponents whom the troops had not put to
+death, on the plea of an expected rising of the mob. This was called a
+<i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i>, and Louis Napoleon was then declared president for ten
+years.</p>
+
+
+<p>4. <b>The Second Empire.</b>&mdash;In December, 1852, the president took the title
+of Emperor, calling himself Napoleon III., as successor to the young son
+of the great Napoleon. He kept up a splendid and expensive court, made
+Paris more than ever the toy-shop of the world, and did much to improve
+it by the widening of streets and removal of old buildings. Treaties
+were made which much improved trade, and the country advanced in
+prosperity. The reins of government were, however, tightly held, and
+nothing was so much avoided as the letting men think or act for
+themselves, while their eyes were to be dazzled with<span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>Pg 121</span> splendour and
+victory. In 1853, when Russia was attacking Turkey, the Emperor united
+with England in opposition, and the two armies together besieged
+Sebastopol, and fought the battles of Alma and Inkermann, taking the
+city after nearly a year's siege; and then making what is known as the
+Treaty of Paris, which guaranteed the safety of Turkey so long as the
+subject Christian nations were not misused. In 1859 Napoleon III. joined
+in an attack on the Austrian power in Italy, and together with Victor
+Emanuel, King of Sardinia, and the Italians, gained two great victories
+at Magenta and Solferino; but made peace as soon as it was convenient to
+him, without regard to his promises to the King of Sardinia, who was
+obliged to purchase his consent to becoming King of United Italy by
+yielding up to France his old inheritance of Savoy and Nice. Meantime
+discontent began to spring up at home, and the Red Republican spirit was
+working on. The huge fortunes made by the successful only added to the
+sense of contrast; secret societies were at work, and the Emperor, after
+twenty years of success, felt his popularity waning.</p>
+
+
+<p>5. <b>The Franco-German War.</b>&mdash;In 1870 the Spaniards, who had deposed
+their queen, Isabel II., made choice of a relation of the King of
+Prussia as their king. There had long been bitter jealousy between<span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>Pg 122</span>
+France and Prussia, and, though the prince refused the offer of Spain,
+the French showed such an overbearing spirit that a war broke out. The
+real desire of France was to obtain the much-coveted frontier of the
+Rhine, and the Emperor heated their armies with boastful proclamations
+which were but the prelude to direful defeats, at Weissenburg, W&ouml;rth,
+and Forbach. At Sedan, the Emperor was forced to surrender himself as a
+prisoner, and the tidings no sooner arrived at Paris than the whole of
+the people turned their wrath on him and his family. His wife, the
+Empress Eug&egrave;nie, had to flee, a republic was declared, and the city
+prepared to stand a siege. The Germans advanced, and put down all
+resistance in other parts of France. Great part of the army had been
+made prisoners, and, though there was much bravado, there was little
+steadiness or courage left among those who now took up arms. Paris,
+which was blockaded, after suffering much from famine, surrendered in
+February, 1871; and peace was purchased in a treaty by which great part
+of Elsass and Lorraine, and the city of Metz, were given back to
+Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h5>THE END.</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PRIMERS</h2>
+
+<h3><i>IN SCIENCE, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE.</i></h3>
+
+<h4>18mo. Flexible cloth, 45 cents each.</h4>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3>SCIENCE PRIMERS.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">Edited by Professors HUXLEY, ROSCOE, and BALFOUR STEWART.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Introductory</td>
+  <td align='right'>T.H. HUXLEY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Chemistry</td>
+  <td align='right'>H.E. ROSCOE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Physics</td>
+  <td align='right'>BALFOUR STEWART.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Physical Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'>A. GEIKIE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Geology</td>
+  <td align='right'>A. GEIKIE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Physiology</td>
+  <td align='right'>M. FOSTER.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Astronomy</td>
+  <td align='right'>J.N. LOCKYER.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Botany</td>
+  <td align='right'>J.D. HOOKER.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Logic</td>
+  <td align='right'>W.S. JEVONS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Inventional Geometry</td>
+  <td align='right'>W.G. SPENCER.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Pianoforte</td>
+  <td align='right'>FRANKLIN TAYLOR.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Political Economy</td>
+  <td align='right'>W.S. JEVONS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Natural Resources of the United States</td>
+  <td align='right'>J.H. PATTON.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY PRIMERS.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">Edited by J.R. GREEN, M.A., Examiner in the School of Modern History at
+Oxford.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'>C.A. FYFFE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'>M. CREIGHTON.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Europe</td>
+  <td align='right'>E.A. FREEMAN.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Old Greek Life</td>
+  <td align='right'>J.P. MAHAFFY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Roman Antiquities</td>
+  <td align='right'>A.S. WILKINS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'>GEORGE GROVE.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>LITERATURE PRIMERS.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">Edited by J.R. GREEN, M.A.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>English Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'>R. MORRIS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>English Literature</td>
+  <td align='right'>STOPFORD A. BROOKE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Philology</td>
+  <td align='right'>J. PEILE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Classical Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'>M.F. TOZER.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Shakespeare</td>
+  <td align='right'>E. DOWDEN.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Studies in Bryant</td>
+  <td align='right'>J. ALDEN.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Greek Literature</td>
+  <td align='right'>R.C. JEBB.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>English Grammar Exercises</td>
+  <td align='right'>R. MORRIS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Homer</td>
+  <td align='right'>W.E. GLADSTONE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>English Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'>J. NICHOL.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>Others in preparation</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The object of these primers is to convey information in such a manner as
+to make it both intelligible and interesting to very young pupils, and
+so to discipline their minds as to incline them to more systematic
+after-studies. The woodcuts which illustrate them embellish and explain
+the text at the same time.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>APPLETONS' SCHOOL READERS,</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Consisting of Five Books.</i></p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 6em;"><p>
+<b>By WM. T. HARRIS, LL.D.</b>, Sup't of Schools, St. Louis, Mo.<br />
+<b>A.J. RICKOFF, A.M.</b>, Sup't of Instruction, Cleveland, O.<br />
+<b>MARK BAILEY, A.M.</b>, Instructor in Elocution, Yale College.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div style="margin-left: 6em;"><p>
+<b>Appletons' First Reader.</b> 90 pages. Price, 23 cents.<br />
+<b>Appletons' Second Reader.</b> 142 pages. Price, 37 cents.<br />
+<b>Appletons' Third Reader.</b> 214 pages. Price, 48 cents.<br />
+<b>Appletons' Fourth Reader.</b> 248 pages. Price, 64 cents.<br />
+<b>Appletons' Fifth Reader.</b> 471 pages. Price, $1.15.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<h4>SOME OF THE PROMINENT FEATURES.</h4>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 4em;"><p>
+Large and clear type.<br />
+Finest pictorial illustrations.<br />
+Excellence of material, paper, and binding.<br />
+Fresh in matter, philosophical in method.<br />
+A practical system of Language Lessons.<br />
+The combination of the Phonic, Word, and Phrase methods.<br />
+The combination of the Spelling-book with the Reader.<br />
+Full directions and suggestions appended to each lesson.<br />
+The attention given to the use of diacritical marks, silent letters, and phonics.<br />
+The introduction of instruction in Elocution, <i>at internals</i>, through the entire series in an interesting and natural way.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Appletons' Elementary Reading Charts.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center">46 Numbers. Price, complete, with Supporter, $10.00.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4>STANDARD SUPPLEMENTARY READERS.</h4>
+
+<p class="center">Edited by WILLIAM SWINTON and GEORGE R. CATHCART.</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 8em;"><p>
+I. Easy Steps for Little Feet. 30 cents.<br />
+II. Golden Book of Choice Reading. 35 cents.<br />
+III. Book of Tales. 58 cents.<br />
+IV. Readings in Nature's Book. 75 cents.<br />
+V. Seven American Classics. 58 cents.<br />
+VI. Seven British Classics. 58 cents.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>JUST PUBLISHED.</h3>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h1>AN HISTORICAL READER</h1>
+
+<h3>FOR THE USE OF</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Classes in Academies, High Schools, and Grammar Schools.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>By HENRY E. SHEPHERD, M.A.,</b> Superintendent of Public Instruction,
+Baltimore, Maryland.</p>
+
+
+<p>This work consists of a collection of extracts representing the purest
+historical literature that has been produced in the different stages of
+our literary development, from the time of Clarendon to the era of
+Macaulay and Prescott, its design being to present to the minds of young
+pupils typical illustrations of classic historical style, gathered
+mainly from English and American writers, and to create and develop a
+fondness for historical study.</p>
+
+<p>The book is totally devoid of sectarian or partisan tendencies, the aim
+being simply to instill a love for historical reading, and not to
+suggest opinions or inculcate views in regard to any of those great
+civil and religious revolutions whose effects and whose influence must
+remain open questions till the last act in the historical drama shall be
+completed.</p>
+
+<p>The biographical and critical notes are just sufficient to stimulate
+inquiry and independent research. The intention of notes and comments is
+to suggest new lines of thought, and to develop a taste for more
+extended investigation.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Price, post-paid, $1.25.</b></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>AMERICAN STANDARD SERIES.</h3>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2>APPLETONS' GEOGRAPHIES</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Another Signal Improvement.</i></p>
+
+<p>The remarkable success which Appletons' Readers have attained, both
+commercially and educationally, is due to the fact that no effort or
+expense was spared to make them not only mechanically superior, but
+practically and distinctively superior, in their embodiment of modern
+experiences in teaching, and of the methods followed by the most
+successful and intelligent educators of the day.</p>
+
+<p>We now offer a new series of Geographies, in two books, which will as
+far excel all geographical text-books hitherto published as our Readers
+are in advance of the old text-books in Reading.</p>
+
+<h4>THE SERIES.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<b>Appletons' Elementary Geography.</b> Small 4to, 108 pages. Price, 65 cents.<br />
+<b>Appletons' Higher Geography.</b> Large 4to, 128 pages. Price, $1.50.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><i>CORNELL'S GEOGRAPHIES.</i></h3>
+
+<h4>COMMON-SCHOOL SERIES.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<b>1. Primary Geography.</b> Price, 65 cents.<br />
+<b>2. Intermediate Geography.</b> Price, $1.30.<br />
+</p>
+
+<h4>SUPPLEMENTARY.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<b>Grammar-School Geography.</b> Same grade as the Intermediate, but fuller in detail. Price, $1.50.<br />
+<b>Physical Geography.</b> For advanced classes and High-Schools. Price, $1.40.<br />
+<b>First Steps in Geography.</b> Child's 4to, 72 pages. Price, 40 cents.<br />
+<b>High-School Geography and Atlas.</b> Geography, 405 pages, 85 cents. Atlas, very large 4to. $1.70.<br />
+<b>Cornell's Outline Maps.</b> 18 Maps, mounted on Muslin, with Key. Price, $13.25.<br />
+<b>Cornell's Map-Drawing Cards.</b> Price, 45 cents.<br />
+<b>Patton's Natural Resources of the United States.</b> 45 cents.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE ART OF SPEECH.</h1>
+
+<h3>By L.T. TOWNSEND, D.D.,</h3>
+
+<p class="center">Professor in Boston University; author of "Credo," etc.</p>
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<h2>STUDIES IN POETRY AND PROSE.</h2>
+
+<p>CONTENTS: History of Speech; Theories of the Origin of Speech; Laws of
+Speech; Diction and Idiom; Syntax; Grammatical and Rhetorical Rules;
+Style; Figures; Poetic Speech; Prose Speech; Poetic-Prose Speech.</p>
+
+<p class="center">One volume 18mo. Cloth, 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<h2>STUDIES IN ELOQUENCE AND LOGIC.</h2>
+
+<p>CONTENTS: Part I, Studies in Eloquence: Introductory; History of
+Eloquence; Life and Character of Demosthenes; Oration on the Crown;
+Inferences; Inferences (<i>continued</i>); Inferences (<i>continued</i>);
+Inferences (<i>concluded</i>).&mdash;Part II, Studies in Logic: Introductory;
+Argumentation; Classification; Practical Observations.&mdash;Supplemental
+Notes.</p>
+
+<p class="center">One volume, 18mo. Cloth, 60 cents.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h1>THE ORTHO&Euml;PIST:</h1>
+
+<h3><i>A PRONOUNCING MANUAL</i>,</h3>
+
+<h4>CONTAINING</h4>
+
+<h3>About Three Thousand Five Hundred Words,</h3>
+
+<h4>INCLUDING</h4>
+
+<p class="center">A Considerable Number of the Names of Foreign Authors, Artists, etc.,
+that are often mispronounced.</p>
+
+<h3>By ALFRED AYRES.</h3>
+
+<p>"The book is likely to do more for the cause of good speech than any
+work with which we are acquainted."</p>
+
+<p>"The author of 'The Ortho&euml;pist' is a well-known teacher of elocution in
+New York, who has given his best attention during many years to the
+subjects with which his book deals."&mdash;<i>Eclectic Magazine</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">One volume, 18mo. Cloth, $1.00.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE VERBALIST:</h1>
+
+<h3>A MANUAL</h3>
+
+<h4>Devoted to Brief Discussions of the Right and the Wrong Use of Words,</h4>
+
+<h4>AND TO</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><i>SOME OTHER MATTERS OF INTEREST TO THOSE WHO WOULD SPEAK AND WRITE WITH
+PROPRIETY</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>By ALFRED AYRES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>"We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned to speak with
+propriety."&mdash;JOHNSON.</p>
+
+<p>"As a man is known by his company, so a man's company may be known by
+his manner of expressing himself."&mdash;SWIFT.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Uniform with "The Ortho&euml;pist."</h4>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>1 vol., 18mo, cloth. Price, $1.00.</b></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>D. APPLETON &amp; CO.'S</h2>
+
+<h1>LEADING TEXT-BOOKS.</h1>
+
+
+<h3>READERS.</h3>
+
+<p>APPLETONS' SCHOOL READERS consist of Five Books, by William T. Harris,
+LL.D., Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Andrew J. Rickoff,
+A.M., Superintendent of Instruction, Cleveland, O.; and Mark Bailey,
+A.M., Instructor in Elocution, Yale College.</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 8em;"><p>
+APPLETONS' FIRST READER.<br />
+APPLETONS' SECOND READER.<br />
+APPLETONS' THIRD READER.<br />
+APPLETONS' FOURTH READER.<br />
+APPLETONS' FIFTH READER.<br />
+APPLETONS' PRIMARY READING CHARTS.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>STANDARD SUPPLEMENTARY READERS.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>I. Easy Steps for Little Feet</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$0&nbsp;30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>II. Golden Book of Choice Reading</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>III. Book of Tales</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>IV. Readings in Nature's Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>V. Seven American Classics</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>VI. Seven British Classics</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>GEOGRAPHY.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' New Elementary Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' Higher Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's Primary Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>61</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's Intermediate Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's Physical Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's Grammar-School Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's First Steps in Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's High-School Geography</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's High-School Atlas</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's Outline Maps </td>
+  <td align='right'>per&nbsp;set,&nbsp;13&nbsp;Maps,</td>
+  <td align='right'>13 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cornell's Map-Drawing Cards </td>
+  <td align='right'>per set,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Patton's Natural Resources of the United States.</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>MATHEMATICS.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' Primary Arithmetic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' Elementary Arithmetic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' Mental Arithmetic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' Practical Arithmetic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Appletons' Higher Arithmetic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Colin's Metric System</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Gillespie's Land Surveying</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Gillespie's Leveling and Higher Surveying</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Inventional Geometry (Spencer's)</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Richards's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, with applications</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND LITERATURE.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bain's Composition and Rhetoric</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ballard's Words, and how to put them together</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ballard's Word-writer</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ballard's Pieces to Speak</td>
+  <td align='right'>per part,</td>
+  <td align='right'>20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Covell's Digest</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Gilmore's English Language and Literature</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Literature Primers: English Grammar&mdash;English
+Literature&mdash;Philology&mdash;Classical
+Geography&mdash;Shakespeare&mdash;Studies
+in Bryant&mdash;Greek Literature&mdash;English
+Grammar Exercises&mdash;Homer&mdash;English
+Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Morris's Historical English Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Northend's Memory Gems</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Northend's Choice Thoughts</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Northend's Gems of Thought</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's Primary Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's English Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in our Language</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's First Lessons in Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's Composition and Rhetoric</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Spalding's English Literature</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Stickney's Child's Book of Language. 4 numbers</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Teacher's edition of same</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Stickney's Letters and Lessons</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>HISTORY.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bayard Taylor's History of Germany</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>History Primers: Rome&mdash;Greece&mdash;Europe&mdash;Old Greek
+Life&mdash;Geography&mdash;Roman Antiquities</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Markham's History of England</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Morris's History of England</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's Elementary History of the United States</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's School History of the United States</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's American History</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's Illustrated School History of the World</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Sewell's Child's History of Rome</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp; Greece</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Willard's Synopsis of General History</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Timayenis's History of Greece. Two vols</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>3 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>SCIENCE.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Alden's Intellectual Philosophy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnott's Physics</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>3 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Atkinson's Ganot's Physics</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>3 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bain's Mental Science</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bain's Moral Science</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bain's Logic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Coming's Physiology</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Deschanel's Natural Philosophy. One vol</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>5 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">In four parts</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Gilmore's Logic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Henslow's Botanical Charts</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>15 75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Huxley and Youmans's Physiology</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Le Conte's Geology</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>4 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Lockyer's Astronomy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Lupton's Scientific Agriculture</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Morse's First Book of Zo&ouml;logy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Munsell's Psychology</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Nicholson's Geology</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Nicholson's Zo&ouml;logy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Rains's Chemical Analysis</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Science Primers: Introductory&mdash;Chemistry&mdash;Physics&mdash;Physical
+Geography&mdash;Geology&mdash;Physiology&mdash;Astronomy&mdash;Botany&mdash;Logic&mdash;Inventional
+Geometry&mdash;Pianoforte-Playing&mdash;Political Economy</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wilson's Logic</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Winslow's Moral Philosophy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Youmans's New Chemistry</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Youmans's (Miss) First Book of Botany</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Youmans's (Miss) Second Book of Botany</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>FREE-HAND AND INDUSTRIAL DRAWING.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Kr&uuml;si's Easy Drawing Lessons, for Kindergarten and Primary Schools. Three Parts</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Synthetic Series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Analytic Series. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>18</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Perspective Series. Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Advanced Perspective. Nos. 15 and 16</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nos. 17 and 18</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Manuals. 1 to each Series. Paper,</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 6em;">cloth,</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Textile Designs. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nos. 5 and 6</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Outline and Relief Designs. No. 1</span></td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nos. 2 and 3</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nos. 4, 5, and 6</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mechanical Drawing. Nos. 1, 4, and 6</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nos. 2, 3, and 5</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Architectural Drawing. Nine Parts</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Green's Slate Drawing Cards. Two Parts</td>
+  <td align='right'>each,</td>
+  <td align='right'>12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>PENMANSHIP.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Model Copy-Books, Sliding Copies</td>
+  <td align='right'>per copy,</td>
+  <td align='right'>12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Primary Series</td>
+  <td align='right'>per copy,</td>
+  <td align='right'>9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Model Practice-Book</td>
+  <td align='right'>per copy,</td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>LATIN.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's First and Second Latin Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's Latin Prose Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's Cornelius Nepos</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Butler's Sallust's Jugurtha and Catiline</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cicero de Officiis</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Crosby's Quintus Curtius Rufus</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Crosby's Sophocles's &#338;dipus Tyrannus</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Frieze's Quintilian</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Frieze's Virgil's &AElig;neid</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Frieze's Six Books of Virgil, with Vocabulary</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Arnold's First Latin Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Second Latin Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Introductory Latin Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Latin Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Elements of Latin Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Latin Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's New Latin Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Latin Reader, with Exercises</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Latin Prose Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's C&aelig;sar, with Dictionary</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Cicero</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Cicero, with Dictionary</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Sallust's Catiline, with Dictionary</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's Course in C&aelig;sar, Sallust, and Cicero, with Dictionary</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Johnson's Cicero's Select Orations</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Lincoln's Horace</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Lincoln's Livy</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Sewall's Latin Speaker</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Tyler's Tacitus</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Tyler's Germania and Agricola</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>BOOK-KEEPING.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Marsh's Single-Entry Book-keeping</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Marsh's Double-Entry Book-keeping</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blanks to above, 6 books to each set</span></td>
+  <td align='right'>per set,</td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>GERMAN.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Adler's Progressive German Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Adler's Hand-book of German Literature</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Adler's German Dictionary, 8vo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>4 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 12mo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ahn's German Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Kroeh's First German Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Oehlschlaeger's Pronouncing German Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ollendorff's New Method of Learning German</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Prendergast's Mastery Series&mdash;German</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Roemer's Polyglot Reader&mdash;German</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Schulte's Elementary German Course</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wrage's Practical German Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wrage's German Primer</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wrage's First German Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>GREEK.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's First Greek Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's Greek Prose Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's Second Greek Prose Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Arnold's Greek Reading Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Boise's Three Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Boise's Five Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Boise's Greek Prose Composition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Boise's Anabasis</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Coy's Mayor's Greek for Beginners</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hadley's Greek Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hadley's Elements of Greek Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hadley's Greek Verbs</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harkness's First Greek Book</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Johnson's Three Books of the Iliad</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Johnson's Herodotus</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Kendrick's Greek Ollendorff</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>K&uuml;hner's Greek Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Xenophon's Anabasis</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Homer's Iliad</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Greek Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Acts of the Apostles</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Homer's Odyssey</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Thucydides</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Owen's Xenophon's Cyrop&aelig;dia</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Robbins's Xenophon's Memorabilia</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Silber's Progressive Lessons in Greek</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Smead's Antigone</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Smead's Philippics of Demosthenes</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Tyler's Plato's Apology and Crito</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Tyler's Plutarch</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Whiton's First Lessons in Greek</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>FRENCH.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ahn's French Method</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Badois's Grammaire Anglaise</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Barbauld's Lessons for Children</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>De Fivas's Elementary French Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>De Fivas's Classic French Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>De Fivas's New Grammar of French Grammars</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>De Peyrac's French Children at Home</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>De Peyrac's Comment on Parle &agrave; Paris</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Havet's French Manual</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Jewett's Spiers's French Dictionary, 8vo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; School edition</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Marcel's Rational Method&mdash;French</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ollendorff's New Method of Learning French</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ollendorff's First Lessons in French</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Roemer's French Readers</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Rowan's Modern French Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Simonn&eacute;'s Treatise on French Verbs</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Spiers and Surenne's French Dictionary, 8vo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>4 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 12mo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>2 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>ITALIAN.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Fontana's Elementary Grammar of the Italian Language. 12mo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Foresti's Italian Reader. 12mo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Meadows's Italian-English Dictionary. A new revised edition</td>
+  <td align='right'>half bound,</td>
+  <td align='right'>2 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Millhouse's New English-and-Italian Pronouncing and
+Explanatory Dictionary. Second edition, revised
+and improved. 2 thick vols., small 8vo</td>
+  <td align='right'>half bound,</td>
+  <td align='right'>5 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Nuovo Tesoro di Scherzi, Massime, Proverbi, etc. 1 vol., 12mo</td>
+  <td align='right'>Cloth,</td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ollendorffs New Method of Learning Italian. Edited by F. Foresti. 12mo</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Key to do</span></td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Primary Lessons. 18mo</span></td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Roemer's Polyglot Reader (in Italian). Translated by Dr. Botta</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Key to same, in English</span></td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' colspan="3"><h3>SPANISH.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ahn's Spanish Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>De Tornos's Spanish Method</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ollendorff's Spanish Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Prendergast's Mastery Series&mdash;Spanish</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Schele de Vere's Spanish Grammar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Vel&aacute;zquez's New Spanish Reader</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Vel&aacute;zquez's Pronouncing Spanish Dictionary. 8vo.</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>5 00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 12mo.</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='right'>1 50</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3>New York: D. APPLETON &amp; CO., 1, 3, &amp; 5 Bond Street.</h3>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of France
+
+Author: Charlotte M. Yonge
+
+Editor: J.R. Green
+
+Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17287]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the
+Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+History Primers. _Edited by_ J.R. GREEN.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE.
+
+BY
+
+CHARLOTTE M. YONGE.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.
+1882.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                     PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE             1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR                 25
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY             43
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ITALIAN WARS                       52
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WARS OF RELIGION                   63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POWER OF THE CROWN                     81
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE REVOLUTION                        102
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION           116
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF FRANCE.
+
+_Shewing the Provinces._]
+
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF FRANCE.
+
+_Shewing the Departments._]
+
+
+
+
+FRANCE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLIER KINGS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+1. France.--The country we now know as France is the tract of land
+shut in by the British Channel, the Bay of Biscay, the Pyrenees, the
+Mediterranean, and the Alps. But this country only gained the name of
+France by degrees. In the earliest days of which we have any account, it
+was peopled by the Celts, and it was known to the Romans as part of a
+larger country which bore the name of Gaul. After all of it, save the
+north-western moorlands, or what we now call Brittany, had been
+conquered and settled by the Romans, it was overrun by tribes of the
+great Teutonic race, the same family to which Englishmen belong. Of
+these tribes, the Goths settled in the provinces to the south; the
+Burgundians, in the east, around the Jura; while the Franks, coming
+over the rivers in its unprotected north-eastern corner, and making
+themselves masters of a far wider territory, broke up into two
+kingdoms--that of the Eastern Franks in what is now Germany, and that of
+the Western Franks reaching from the Rhine to the Atlantic. These Franks
+subdued all the other Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, while they adopted
+the religion, the language, and some of the civilization of the
+Romanized Gauls who became their subjects. Under the second Frankish
+dynasty, the Empire was renewed in the West, where it had been for a
+time put an end to by these Teutonic invasions, and the then Frankish
+king, Charles the Great, took his place as Emperor at its head. But in
+the time of his grandsons the various kingdoms and nations of which the
+Empire was composed, fell apart again under different descendants of
+his. One of these, _Charles the Bald_, was made King of the Western
+Franks in what was termed the Neustrian, or "not eastern," kingdom, from
+which the present France has sprung. This kingdom in name covered all
+the country west of the Upper Meuse, but practically the Neustrian king
+had little power south of the Loire; and the Celts of Brittany were
+never included in it.
+
+
+2. The House of Paris.--The great danger which this Neustrian kingdom
+had to meet came from the Northmen, or as they were called in England
+the Danes. These ravaged in Neustria as they ravaged in England; and a
+large part of the northern coast, including the mouth of the Seine, was
+given by Charles the Bald to Rolf or Rollo, one of their leaders, whose
+land became known as the Northman's land, or Normandy. What most checked
+the ravages of these pirates was the resistance of Paris, a town which
+commanded the road along the river Seine; and it was in defending the
+city of Paris from the Northmen, that a warrior named Robert the Strong
+gained the trust and affection of the inhabitants of the Neustrian
+kingdom. He and his family became Counts (_i.e._, judges and protectors)
+of Paris, and Dukes (or leaders) of the Franks. Three generations of
+them were really great men--Robert the Strong, Odo, and Hugh the White;
+and when the descendants of Charles the Great had died out, a Duke of
+the Franks, _Hugh Capet_, was in 987 crowned King of the Franks. All the
+after kings of France down to Louis Philippe were descendants of Hugh
+Capet. By this change, however, he gained little in real power; for,
+though he claimed to rule over the whole country of the Neustrian
+Franks, his authority was little heeded, save in the domain which he had
+possessed as Count of Paris, including the cities of Paris, Orleans,
+Amiens, and Rheims (the coronation place). He was guardian, too, of the
+great Abbeys of St. Denys and St. Martin of Tours. The Duke of Normandy
+and the Count of Anjou to the west, the Count of Flanders to the north,
+the Count of Champagne to the east, and the Duke of Aquitaine to the
+south, paid him homage, but were the only actual rulers in their own
+domains.
+
+
+3. The Kingdom of Hugh Capet.--The language of Hugh's kingdom was
+clipped Latin; the peasantry and townsmen were mostly Gaulish; the
+nobles were almost entirely Frank. There was an understanding that the
+king could only act by their consent, and must be chosen by them; but
+matters went more by old custom and the right of the strongest than by
+any law. A Salic law, so called from the place whence the Franks had
+come, was supposed to exist; but this had never been used by their
+subjects, whose law remained that of the old Roman Empire. Both of these
+systems of law, however, fell into disuse, and were replaced by rude
+bodies of "customs," which gradually grew up. The habits of the time
+were exceedingly rude and ferocious. The Franks had been the fiercest
+and most untamable of all the Teutonic nations, and only submitted
+themselves to the influence of Christianity and civilization from the
+respect which the Roman Empire inspired. Charles the Great had tried to
+bring in Roman cultivation, but we find him reproaching the young Franks
+in his schools with letting themselves be surpassed by the Gauls, whom
+they despised; and in the disorders that followed his death, barbarism
+increased again. The convents alone kept up any remnants of culture; but
+as the fury of the Northmen was chiefly directed to them, numbers had
+been destroyed, and there was more ignorance and wretchedness than at
+any other time. In the duchy of Aquitaine, much more of the old Roman
+civilization survived, both among the cities and the nobility; and the
+Normans, newly settled in the north, had brought with them the vigour of
+their race. They had taken up such dead or dying culture as they found
+in France, and were carrying it further, so as in some degree to awaken
+their neighbours. Kings and their great vassals could generally read and
+write, and understand the Latin in which all records were made, but few
+except the clergy studied at all. There were schools in convents, and
+already at Paris a university was growing up for the study of theology,
+grammar, law, philosophy, and music, the sciences which were held to
+form a course of education. The doctors of these sciences lectured; the
+scholars of low degree lived, begged, and struggled as best they could;
+and gentlemen were lodged with clergy, who served as a sort of private
+tutors.
+
+
+4. Earlier Kings of the House of Paris.--Neither Hugh nor the next
+three kings (_Robert_, 996-1031; _Henry_, 1031-1060; _Philip_,
+1060-1108) were able men, and they were almost helpless among the
+fierce nobles of their own domain, and the great counts and dukes around
+them. Castles were built of huge strength, and served as nests of
+plunderers, who preyed on travellers and made war on each other,
+grievously tormenting one another's "villeins"--as the peasants were
+termed. Men could travel nowhere in safety, and horrid ferocity and
+misery prevailed. The first three kings were good and pious men, but too
+weak to deal with their ruffian nobles. _Robert, called the Pious_, was
+extremely devout, but weak. He became embroiled with the Pope on account
+of having married Bertha--a lady pronounced to be within the degrees of
+affinity prohibited by the Church. He was excommunicated, but held out
+till there was a great religious reaction, produced by the belief that
+the world would end in 1000. In this expectation many persons left their
+land untilled, and the consequence was a terrible famine, followed by a
+pestilence; and the misery of France was probably unequalled in this
+reign, when it was hardly possible to pass safely from one to another of
+the three royal cities, Paris, Orleans, and Tours. Beggars swarmed, and
+the king gave to them everything he could lay his hands on, and even
+winked at their stealing gold off his dress, to the great wrath of a
+second wife, the imperious Constance of Provence, who, coming from the
+more luxurious and corrupt south, hated and despised the roughness and
+asceticism of her husband. She was a fierce and passionate woman, and
+brought an element of cruelty into the court. In this reign the first
+instance of persecution to the death for heresy took place. The victim
+had been the queen's confessor; but so far was she from pitying him that
+she struck out one of his eyes with her staff, as he was led past her to
+the hut where he was shut in and burnt. On Robert's death Constance took
+part against her son, _Henry I._, on behalf of his younger brother, but
+Henry prevailed. During his reign the clergy succeeded in proclaiming
+what was called the Truce of God, which forbade war and bloodshed at
+certain seasons of the year and on certain days of the week, and made
+churches and clerical lands places of refuge and sanctuary, which often
+indeed protected the lawless, but which also saved the weak and
+oppressed. It was during these reigns that the Papacy was beginning the
+great struggle for temporal power, and freedom from the influence of the
+Empire, which resulted in the increased independence and power of the
+clergy. The religious fervour which had begun with the century led to
+the foundation of many monasteries, and to much grand church
+architecture. In the reign of _Philip I._, William, Duke of Normandy,
+obtained the kingdom of England, and thus became far more powerful than
+his suzerain, the King of France, a weak man of vicious habits, who lay
+for many years of his life under sentence of excommunication for an
+adulterous marriage with Bertrade de Montfort, Countess of Anjou. The
+power of the king and of the law was probably at the very lowest ebb
+during the time of Philip I., though minds and manners were less debased
+than in the former century.
+
+
+5. The First Crusade (1095--1100).--Pilgrimage to the Holy Land had
+now become one great means by which the men of the West sought pardon
+for their sins. Jerusalem had long been held by the Arabs, who had
+treated the pilgrims well; but these had been conquered by a fierce
+Turcoman tribe, who robbed and oppressed the pilgrims. Peter the Hermit,
+returning from a pilgrimage, persuaded Pope Urban II. that it would be
+well to stir up Christendom to drive back the Moslem power, and deliver
+Jerusalem and the holy places. Urban II. accordingly, when holding a
+council at Clermont, in Auvergne, permitted Peter to describe in glowing
+words the miseries of pilgrims and the profanation of the holy places.
+Cries broke out, "God wills it!" and multitudes thronged to receive
+crosses cut out in cloth, which were fastened to the shoulder, and
+pledged the wearer to the holy war or crusade, as it was called. Philip
+I. took no interest in the cause, but his brother Hugh, Count of
+Vermandois, Stephen, Count of Blois, Robert, Duke of Normandy, and
+Raymond, Count of Toulouse, joined the expedition, which was made under
+Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, or what we now call the
+Netherlands. The crusade proved successful; Jerusalem was gained, and a
+kingdom of detached cities and forts was founded in Palestine, of which
+Godfrey became the first king. The whole of the West was supposed to
+keep up the defence of the Holy Land, but, in fact, most of those who
+went as armed pilgrims were either French, Normans, or Aquitanians; and
+the men of the East called all alike Franks. Two orders of monks, who
+were also knights, became the permanent defenders of the kingdom--the
+Knights of St. John, also called Hospitallers, because they also lodged
+pilgrims and tended the sick; and the Knights Templars. Both had
+establishments in different countries in Europe, where youths were
+trained to the rules of their order. The old custom of solemnly girding
+a young warrior with his sword was developing into a system by which the
+nobly born man was trained through the ranks of page and squire to full
+knighthood, and made to take vows which bound him to honourable customs
+to equals, though, unhappily, no account was taken of his inferiors.
+
+
+6. Louis VI. and VII.--Philip's son, _Louis VI., or the Fat_, was the
+first able man whom the line of Hugh Capet had produced since it mounted
+the throne. He made the first attempt at curbing the nobles, assisted by
+Suger, the Abbot of St. Denys. The only possibility of doing this was to
+obtain the aid of one party of nobles against another; and when any
+unusually flagrant offence had been committed, Louis called together the
+nobles, bishops, and abbots of his domain, and obtained their consent
+and assistance in making war on the guilty man, and overthrowing his
+castle, thus, in some degree, lessening the sense of utter impunity
+which had caused so many violences and such savage recklessness. He also
+permitted a few of the cities to purchase the right of self-government,
+and freedom from the ill usage of the counts, who, from their guardians,
+had become their tyrants; but in this he seems not to have been so much
+guided by any fixed principle, as by his private interests and feelings
+towards the individual city or lord in question. However, the royal
+authority had begun to be respected by 1137, when Louis VI. died, having
+just effected the marriage of his son, _Louis VII._, with Eleanor, the
+heiress of the Dukes of Aquitaine--thus hoping to make the crown really
+more powerful than the great princes who owed it homage. At this time
+lived the great St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, who had a wonderful
+influence over men's minds. It was a time of much thought and
+speculation, and Peter Abailard, an able student of the Paris
+University, held a controversy with Bernard, in which we see the first
+struggle between intellect and authority. Bernard roused the young king,
+Louis VII., to go on the second crusade, which was undertaken by the
+Emperor and the other princes of Europe to relieve the distress of the
+kingdom of Palestine. France had no navy, so the war was by land,
+through the rugged hills of Asia Minor, where the army was almost
+destroyed by the Saracens. Though Louis did reach Palestine, it was with
+weakened forces; he could effect nothing by his campaign, and Eleanor,
+who had accompanied him, seems to have been entirely corrupted by the
+evil habits of the Franks settled in the East. Soon after his return,
+Louis dissolved his marriage; and Eleanor became the wife of Henry,
+Count of Anjou, who soon after inherited the kingdom of England as our
+Henry II., as well as the duchy of Normandy, and betrothed his third son
+to the heiress of Brittany. Eleanor's marriage seemed to undo all that
+Louis VI. had done in raising the royal power; for Henry completely
+overshadowed Louis, whose only resource was in feeble endeavours to take
+part against him in his many family quarrels. The whole reign of Louis
+the Young, the title that adhered to him on account of his simple,
+childish nature, is only a record of weakness and disaster, till he died
+in 1180. What life went on in France, went on principally in the south.
+The lands of Aquitaine and Provence had never dropped the old classical
+love of poetry and art. A softer form of broken Latin was then spoken,
+and the art of minstrelsy was frequent among all ranks. Poets were
+called troubadours and _trouveres_ (finders). Courts of love were held,
+where there were competitions in poetry, the prize being a golden
+violet; and many of the bravest warriors were also distinguished
+troubadours--among them the elder sons of Queen Eleanor. There was much
+license of manners, much turbulence; and as the Aquitanians hated
+Angevin rule, the troubadours never ceased to stir up the sons of Henry
+II. against him.
+
+
+7. Philip II. (1180--1223).--Powerful in fact as Henry II. was, it was
+his gathering so large a part of France under his rule which was, in the
+end, to build up the greatness of the French kings. What had held them
+in check was the existence of the great fiefs or provinces, each with
+its own line of dukes or counts, and all practically independent of the
+king. But now nearly all the provinces of southern and western France
+were gathered into the hand of a single ruler; and though he was a
+Frenchman in blood, yet, as he was King of England, this ruler seemed to
+his French subjects no Frenchman, but a foreigner. They began therefore
+to look to the French king to free them from a foreign ruler; and the
+son of Louis VII., called _Philip Augustus_, was ready to take advantage
+of their disposition. Philip was a really able man, making up by address
+for want of personal courage. He set himself to lower the power of the
+house of Anjou and increase that of the house of Paris. As a boy he had
+watched conferences between his father and Henry under the great elm of
+Gisors, on the borders of Normandy, and seeing his father overreached,
+he laid up a store of hatred to the rival king. As soon as he had the
+power, he cut down the elm, which was so large that 300 horsemen could
+be sheltered under its branches. He supported the sons of Henry II. in
+their rebellions, and was always the bitter foe of the head of the
+family. Philip assumed the cross in 1187, on the tidings of the loss of
+Jerusalem, and in 1190 joined Richard I. of England at Messina, where
+they wintered, and then sailed for St. Jean d'Acre. After this city was
+taken, Philip returned to France, where he continued to profit by the
+crimes and dissensions of the Angevins, and gained, both as their enemy
+and as King of France. When Richard's successor, John, murdered Arthur,
+the heir of the dukedom of Brittany and claimant of both Anjou and
+Normandy, Philip took advantage of the general indignation to hold a
+court of peers, in which John, on his non-appearance, was adjudged to
+have forfeited his fiefs. In the war which followed and ended in 1204,
+Philip not only gained the great Norman dukedom, which gave him the
+command of Rouen and of the mouth of the Seine, as well as Anjou, Maine,
+and Poitou, the countries which held the Loire in their power, but
+established the precedent that a crown vassal was amenable to justice,
+and might be made to forfeit his lands. What he had won by the sword he
+held by wisdom and good government. Seeing that the cities were capable
+of being made to balance the power of the nobles, he granted them
+privileges which caused him to be esteemed their best friend, and he
+promoted all improvements. Though once laid under an interdict by Pope
+Innocent III. for an unlawful marriage, Philip usually followed the
+policy which gained for the Kings of France the title of "Most Christian
+King." The real meaning of this was that he should always support the
+Pope against the Emperor, and in return be allowed more than ordinary
+power over his clergy. The great feudal vassals of eastern France, with
+a strong instinct that he was their enemy, made a league with the
+Emperor Otto IV. and his uncle King John, against Philip Augustus. John
+attacked him in the south, and was repulsed by Philip's son, Louis,
+called the "Lion;" while the king himself, backed by the burghers of his
+chief cities, gained at Bouvines, over Otto, the first real French
+victory, in 1214, thus establishing the power of the crown. Two years
+later, Louis the Lion, who had married John's niece, Blanche of Castile,
+was invited by the English barons to become their king on John's
+refusing to be bound by the Great Charter; and Philip saw his son
+actually in possession of London at the time of the death of the last
+of the sons of his enemy, Henry II. On John's death, however, the barons
+preferred his child to the French prince, and fell away from Louis, who
+was forced to return to France.
+
+
+8. The Albigenses (1203--1240).--The next great step in the building
+up of the French kingdom was made by taking advantage of a religious
+strife in the south. The lands near the Mediterranean still had much of
+the old Roman cultivation, and also of the old corruption, and here
+arose a sect called the Albigenses, who held opinions other than those
+of the Church on the origin of evil. Pope Innocent III., after sending
+some of the order of friars freshly established by the Spaniard,
+Dominic, to preach to them in vain, declared them as great enemies of
+the faith as Mahometans, and proclaimed a crusade against them and their
+chief supporter, Raymond, Count of Toulouse. Shrewd old King Philip
+merely permitted this crusade; but the dislike of the north of France to
+the south made hosts of adventurers flock to the banner of its leader,
+Simon de Montfort, a Norman baron, devout and honourable, but harsh and
+pitiless. Dreadful execution was done; the whole country was laid waste,
+and Raymond reduced to such distress that Peter I., King of Aragon, who
+was regarded as the natural head of the southern races, came to his
+aid, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Muret. After this
+Raymond was forced to submit, but such hard terms were forced on him
+that his people revolted. His country was granted to De Montfort, who
+laid siege to Toulouse, and was killed before he could take the city.
+The war was then carried on by _Louis the Lion_, who had succeeded his
+father as Louis VIII. in 1223, though only to reign three years, as he
+died of a fever caught in a southern campaign in 1226. His widow,
+Blanche, made peace in the name of her son, _Louis IX._, and Raymond was
+forced to give his only daughter in marriage to one of her younger sons.
+On their death, the county of Toulouse lapsed to the crown, which thus
+became possessor of all southern France, save Guienne, which still
+remained to the English kings. But the whole of the district once
+peopled by the Albigenses had been so much wasted as never to recover
+its prosperity, and any cropping up of their opinions was guarded
+against by the establishment of the Inquisition, which appointed
+Dominican friars to _inquire_ into and exterminate all that differed
+from the Church. At the same time the order of St. Francis did much to
+instruct and quicken the consciences of the people; and at the
+universities--especially that of Paris--a great advance both in thought
+and learning was made. Louis IX.'s confessor, Henry de Sorbonne,
+founded, for the study of divinity, the college which was known by his
+name, and whose decisions were afterwards received as of paramount
+authority.
+
+
+9. The Parliament of Paris.--France had a wise ruler in Blanche, and a
+still better one in her son, _Louis IX._, who is better known as _St.
+Louis_, and who was a really good and great man. He was the first to
+establish the Parliament of Paris--a court consisting of the great
+feudal vassals, lay and ecclesiastical, who held of the king direct, and
+who had to try all causes. They much disliked giving such attendance,
+and a certain number of men trained to the law were added to them to
+guide the decisions. The Parliament was thus only a court of justice and
+an office for registering wills and edicts. The representative assembly
+of France was called the States-General, and consisted of all estates of
+the realm, but was only summoned in time of emergency. Louis IX. was the
+first king to bring nobles of the highest rank to submit to the judgment
+of Parliament when guilty of a crime. Enguerrand de Coucy, one of the
+proudest nobles of France, who had hung two Flemish youths for killing a
+rabbit, was sentenced to death. The penalty was commuted, but the
+principle was established. Louis's uprightness and wisdom gained him
+honour and love everywhere, and he was always remembered as sitting
+under the great oak at Vincennes, doing equal justice to rich and poor.
+Louis was equally upright in his dealings with foreign powers. He would
+not take advantage of the weakness of Henry III. of England to attack
+his lands in Guienne, though he maintained the right of France to
+Normandy as having been forfeited by King John. So much was he respected
+that he was called in to judge between Henry and his barons, respecting
+the oaths exacted from the king by the Mad Parliament. His decision in
+favour of Henry was probably an honest one; but he was misled by the
+very different relations of the French and English kings to their
+nobles, who in France maintained lawlessness and violence, while in
+England they were struggling for law and order. Throughout the struggles
+between the Popes and the Emperor Frederick II., Louis would not be
+induced to assist in a persecution of the Emperor which he considered
+unjust, nor permit one of his sons to accept the kingdom of Apulia and
+Sicily, when the Pope declared that Frederick had forfeited it. He could
+not, however, prevent his brother Charles, Count of Anjou, from
+accepting it; for Charles had married Beatrice, heiress of the imperial
+fief of Provence, and being thus independent of his brother Louis, was
+able to establish a branch of the French royal family on the throne at
+Naples. The reign of St. Louis was a time of much progress and
+improvement. There were great scholars and thinkers at all the
+universities. Romance and poetry were flourishing, and influencing
+people's habits, so that courtesy, _i.e._ the manners taught in castle
+courts, was softening the demeanour of knights and nobles. Architecture
+was at its most beautiful period, as is seen, above all, in the Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris. This was built by Louis IX. to receive a gift of the
+Greek Emperor, namely, a thorn, which was believed to be from the crown
+of thorns. It is one of the most perfect buildings in existence.
+
+
+10. Crusade of Louis IX.--Unfortunately, Louis, during a severe
+illness, made a vow to go on a crusade. His first fulfilment of this vow
+was made early in his reign, in 1250, when his mother was still alive to
+undertake the regency. His attempt was to attack the heart of the
+Saracen power in Egypt, and he effected a landing and took the city of
+Damietta. There he left his queen, and advanced on Cairo; but near
+Mansourah he found himself entangled in the canals of the Nile, and with
+a great army of Mamelukes in front. A ford was found, and the English
+Earl of Salisbury, who had brought a troop to join the crusade, advised
+that the first to cross should wait and guard the passage of the next.
+But the king's brother, Robert, Count of Artois, called this cowardice.
+The earl was stung, and declared he would be as forward among the foe as
+any Frenchman. They both charged headlong, were enclosed by the enemy,
+and slain; and though the king at last put the Mamelukes to flight, his
+loss was dreadful. The Nile rose and cut off his return. He lost great
+part of his troops from sickness, and was horribly harassed by the
+Mamelukes, who threw among his host a strange burning missile, called
+Greek fire; and he was finally forced to surrender himself as a prisoner
+at Mansourah, with all his army. He obtained his release by giving up
+Damietta, and paying a heavy ransom. After twenty years, in 1270, he
+attempted another crusade, which was still more unfortunate, for he
+landed at Tunis to wait for his brother to arrive from Sicily,
+apparently on some delusion of favourable dispositions on the part of
+the Bey. Sickness broke out in the camp, and the king, his daughter, and
+his third son all died of fever; and so fatal was the expedition, that
+his son Philip III. returned to France escorting five coffins, those of
+his father, his brother, his sister and her husband, and his own wife
+and child.
+
+
+11. Philip the Fair.--The reign of _Philip III._ was very short. The
+insolence and cruelty of the Provencals in Sicily had provoked the
+natives to a massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers, and they then
+called in the King of Aragon, who finally obtained the island, as a
+separate kingdom from that on the Italian mainland where Charles of
+Anjou and his descendants still reigned. While fighting his uncle's
+battles on the Pyrenees, and besieging Gerona, Philip III. caught a
+fever, and died on his way home in 1285. His successor, _Philip IV.,
+called the Fair_, was crafty, cruel, and greedy, and made the Parliament
+of Paris the instrument of his violence and exactions, which he carried
+out in the name of the law. To prevent Guy de Dampierre, Count of
+Flanders, from marrying his daughter to the son of Edward I. of England,
+he invited her and her father to his court, and threw them both into
+prison, while he offered his own daughter Isabel to Edward of Carnarvon
+in her stead. The Scottish wars prevented Edward I. from taking up the
+cause of Guy; but the Pope, Boniface VIII., a man of a fierce temper,
+though of a great age, loudly called on Philip to do justice to
+Flanders, and likewise blamed in unmeasured terms his exactions from the
+clergy, his debasement of the coinage, and his foul and vicious life.
+Furious abuse passed on both sides. Philip availed himself of a flaw in
+the Pope's election to threaten him with deposition, and in return was
+excommunicated. He then sent a French knight named William de Nogaret,
+with Sciarra Colonna, a turbulent Roman, the hereditary enemy of
+Boniface, and a band of savage mercenary soldiers to Anagni, where the
+Pope then was, to force him to recall the sentence, apparently intending
+them to act like the murderers of Becket. The old man's dignity,
+however, overawed them at the moment, and they retired without laying
+hands on him, but the shock he had undergone caused his death a few days
+later. His successor was poisoned almost immediately on his election,
+being known to be adverse to Philip. Parties were equally balanced in
+the conclave; but Philip's friends advised him to buy over to his
+interest one of his supposed foes, whom they would then unite in
+choosing. Bertrand de Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was the man, and in
+a secret interview promised Philip to fulfil six conditions if he were
+made Pope by his interest. These were: 1st, the reconciliation of Philip
+with the Church; 2nd, that of his agents; 3rd, a grant to the king of a
+tenth of all clerical property for five years; 4th, the restoration of
+the Colonna family to Rome; 5th, the censure of Boniface's memory. These
+five were carried out by Clement V., as he called himself, as soon as he
+was on the Papal throne; the sixth remained a secret, but was probably
+the destruction of the Knights Templars. This order of military monks
+had been created for the defence of the crusading kingdom of Jerusalem,
+and had acquired large possessions in Europe. Now that their occupation
+in the East was gone, they were hated and dreaded by the kings, and
+Philip was resolved on their wholesale destruction.
+
+
+12. The Papacy at Avignon.--Clement had never quitted France, but had
+gone through the ceremonies of his installation at Lyons; and Philip,
+fearing that in Italy he would avoid carrying out the scheme for the
+ruin of the Templars, had him conducted to Avignon, a city of the Empire
+which belonged to the Angevin King of Naples, as Count of Provence, and
+there for eighty years the Papal court remained. As they were thus
+settled close to the French frontier, the Popes became almost vassals of
+France; and this added greatly to the power and renown of the French
+kings. How real their hold on the Papacy was, was shown in the ruin of
+the Templars. The order was now abandoned by the Pope, and its knights
+were invited in large numbers to Paris, under pretence of arranging a
+crusade. Having been thus entrapped, they were accused of horrible and
+monstrous crimes, and torture elicited a few supposed confessions. They
+were then tried by the Inquisition, and the greater number were put to
+death by fire, the Grand Master last of all, while their lands were
+seized by the king. They seem to have been really a fierce, arrogant,
+and oppressive set of men, or else there must have been some endeavour
+to save them, belonging, as most of them did, to noble French families.
+The "Pest of France," as Dante calls Philip the Fair, was now the most
+formidable prince in Europe. He contrived to annex to his dominions the
+city of Lyons, hitherto an imperial city under its archbishop. Philip
+died in 1314; and his three sons--_Louis X._, _Philip V._, and _Charles
+IV._,--were as cruel and harsh as himself, but without his talent, and
+brought the crown and people to disgrace and misery. Each reigned a few
+years and then died, leaving only daughters, and the question arose
+whether the inheritance should go to females. When Louis X. died, in
+1316, his brother Philip, after waiting for the birth of a posthumous
+child who only lived a few days, took the crown, and the Parliament then
+declared that the law of the old Salian Franks had been against the
+inheritance of women. By this newly discovered Salic law, Charles IV.,
+the third brother, reigned on Philip's death; but the kingdom of Navarre
+having accrued to the family through their grandmother, and not being
+subject to the Salic law, went to the eldest daughter of Louis X., Jane,
+wife of the Count of Evreux.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.
+
+
+1. Wars of Edward III.--By the Salic law, as the lawyers called it,
+the crown was given, on the death of Charles IV., to _Philip, Count of
+Valois_, son to a brother of Philip IV., but it was claimed by Edward
+III. of England as son of the daughter of Philip IV. Edward contented
+himself, however, with the mere assertion of his pretensions, until
+Philip exasperated him by attacks on the borders of Guienne, which the
+French kings had long been coveting to complete their possession of the
+south, and by demanding the surrender of Robert of Artois, who, being
+disappointed in his claim to the county of Artois by the judgment of the
+Parliament of Paris, was practising by sorcery on the life of the King
+of France. Edward then declared war, and his supposed right caused a
+century of warfare between France and England, in which the broken,
+down-trodden state of the French peasantry gave England an immense
+advantage. The knights and squires were fairly matched; but while the
+English yeomen were strong, staunch, and trustworthy, the French were
+useless, and only made a defeat worse by plundering the fallen on each
+side alike. The war began in Flanders, where Philip took the part of the
+count, whose tyrannies had caused his expulsion. Edward was called in to
+the aid of the citizens of Ghent by their leader Jacob van Arteveldt;
+and gained a great victory over the French fleet at Sluys, but with no
+important result. At the same time the two kings took opposite sides in
+the war of the succession in Brittany, each defending the claim most
+inconsistent with his own pretensions to the French crown--Edward
+upholding the male heir, John de Montfort, and Philip the direct female
+representative, the wife of Charles de Blois.
+
+
+2. Crecy and Poitiers.--Further difficulties arose through Charles the
+Bad, King of Navarre and Count of Evreux, who was always on the watch to
+assert his claim to the French throne through his mother, the daughter
+of Louis X., and was much hated and distrusted by Philip VI. and his son
+John, Duke of Normandy. Fearing the disaffection of the Norman and
+Breton nobles, Philip invited a number of them to a tournament at Paris,
+and there had them put to death after a hasty form of trial, thus
+driving their kindred to join his enemies. One of these offended
+Normans, Godfrey of Harcourt, invited Edward to Normandy, where he
+landed, and having consumed his supplies was on his march to Flanders,
+when Philip, with the whole strength of the kingdom, endeavoured to
+intercept him at _Crecy_ in Picardy, in 1348. Philip was utterly
+incapable as a general; his knights were wrong-headed and turbulent, and
+absolutely cut down their own Genoese hired archers for being in their
+way. The defeat was total. Philip rode away to Amiens, and Edward laid
+siege to Calais. The place was so strong that he was forced to blockade
+it, and Philip had time to gather another army to attempt its relief;
+but the English army were so posted that he could not attack them
+without great loss. He retreated, and the men of Calais surrendered,
+Edward insisting that six burghers should bring him the keys with ropes
+round their necks, to submit themselves to him. Six offered themselves,
+but their lives were spared, and they were honourably treated. Edward
+expelled all the French, and made Calais an English settlement. A truce
+followed, chiefly in consequence of the ravages of the Black Death,
+which swept off multitudes throughout Europe, a pestilence apparently
+bred by filth, famine, and all the miseries of war and lawlessness, but
+which spared no ranks. It had scarcely ceased before Philip died, in
+1350. His son, _John_, was soon involved in a fresh war with England by
+the intrigues of Charles the Bad, and in 1356 advanced southwards to
+check the Prince of Wales, who had come out of Guienne on a plundering
+expedition. The French were again totally routed at Poitiers, and the
+king himself, with his third son, Philip, were made prisoners and
+carried to London with most of the chief nobles.
+
+
+3. The Jacquerie.--The calls made on their vassals by these captive
+nobles to supply their ransoms brought the misery to a height. The salt
+tax, or _gabelle_, which was first imposed to meet the expenses of the
+war, was only paid by those who were neither clergy nor nobles, and the
+general saying was--"Jacques Bonhomme (the nickname for the peasant) has
+a broad back, let him bear all the burthens." Either by the king, the
+feudal lords, the clergy, or the bands of men-at-arms who roved through
+the country, selling themselves to any prince who would employ them, the
+wretched people were stripped of everything, and used to hide in holes
+and caves from ill-usage or insult, till they broke out in a rebellion
+called the Jacquerie, and whenever they could seize a castle revenged
+themselves, like the brutes they had been made, on those within it.
+Taxation was so levied by the king's officers as to be frightfully
+oppressive, and corruption reigned everywhere. As the king was in
+prison, and his heir, Charles, had fled ignominiously from Poitiers,
+the citizens of Paris hoped to effect a reform, and rose with their
+provost-marshal, Stephen Marcel, at their head, threatened Charles, and
+slew two of his officers before his eyes. On their demand the
+States-General were convoked, and made wholesome regulations as to the
+manner of collecting the taxes, but no one, except perhaps Marcel, had
+any real zeal or public spirit. Charles the Bad, of Navarre, who had
+pretended to espouse their cause, betrayed it; the king declared the
+decisions of the States-General null and void; and the crafty management
+of his son prevented any union between the malcontents. The gentry
+rallied, and put down the Jacquerie with horrible cruelty and revenge.
+The burghers of Paris found that Charles the Bad only wanted to gain the
+throne, and Marcel would have proclaimed him; but those who thought him
+even worse than his cousins of Valois admitted the other Charles, by
+whom Marcel and his partisans were put to death. The attempt at reform
+thus ended in talk and murder, and all fell back into the same state of
+misery and oppression.
+
+
+4. The Peace of Bretigny.--This Charles, eldest son of John, obtained
+by purchase the imperial fief of Vienne, of which the counts had always
+been called Dauphins, a title thenceforth borne by the heir apparent of
+the kingdom. His father's captivity and the submission of Paris left
+him master of the realm; but he did little to defend it when Edward III.
+again attacked it, and in 1360 he was forced to bow to the terms which
+the English king demanded as the price of peace. The Peace of Bretigny
+permitted King John to ransom himself, but resigned to England the
+sovereignty over the duchy of Aquitaine, and left Calais and Ponthieu in
+the hands of Edward III. John died in 1364, before his ransom was paid,
+and his son mounted the throne as _Charles V_. Charles showed himself
+from this time a wary, able man, and did much to regain what had been
+lost by craftily watching his opportunity. The war went on between the
+allies of each party, though the French and English kings professed to
+be at peace; and at the battle of Cocherel, in 1364, Charles the Bad was
+defeated, and forced to make peace with France. On the other hand, the
+French party in Brittany, led by Charles de Blois and the gallant Breton
+knight, Bertrand du Guesclin, were routed, the same year, by the English
+party under Sir John Chandos; Charles de Blois was killed, and the house
+of Montfort established in the duchy. These years of war had created a
+dreadful class of men, namely, hired soldiers of all nations, who, under
+some noted leader, sold their services to whatever prince might need
+them, under the name of Free Companies, and when unemployed lived by
+plunder. The peace had only let these wretches loose on the peasants.
+Some had seized castles, whence they could plunder travellers; others
+roamed the country, preying on the miserable peasants, who, fleeced as
+they were by king, barons, and clergy, were tortured and murdered by
+these ruffians, so that many lived in holes in the ground that their
+dwellings might not attract attention. Bertrand du Guesclin offered the
+king to relieve the country from these Free Companies by leading them to
+assist the Castilians against their tyrannical king, Peter the Cruel.
+Edward, the Black Prince, who was then acting as Governor of Aquitaine,
+took, however, the part of Peter, and defeated Du Guesclin at the battle
+of Navarete, on the Ebro, in 1367.
+
+
+5. Renewal of the War.--This expedition ruined the prince's health,
+and exhausted his treasury. A hearth-tax was laid on the inhabitants of
+Aquitaine, and they appealed against it to the King of France, although,
+by the Peace of Bretigny, he had given up all right to hear appeals as
+suzerain. The treaty, however, was still not formally settled, and on
+this ground Charles received their complaint. The war thus began again,
+and the sword of the Constable of France--the highest military dignity
+of the realm--was given to Du Guesclin, but only on condition that he
+would avoid pitched battles, and merely harass the English and take
+their castles. This policy was so strictly followed, that the Duke of
+Lancaster was allowed to march from Brittany to Gascony without meeting
+an enemy in the field; and when King Edward III. made his sixth and last
+invasion, nearly to the walls of Paris, he was only turned back by
+famine, and by a tremendous thunderstorm, which made him believe that
+Heaven was against him. Du Guesclin died while besieging a castle, and
+such was his fame that the English captain would place the keys in no
+hand but that of his corpse. The Constable's sword was given to Oliver
+de Clisson, also a Breton, and called the "Butcher," because he gave no
+quarter to the English in revenge for the death of his brother. The
+Bretons were, almost to a man, of the French party, having been offended
+by the insolence and oppression of the English; and John de Montfort,
+after clinging to the King of England as long as possible, was forced to
+make his peace at length with Charles. Charles V. had nearly regained
+all that had been lost, when, in 1380 his death left the kingdom to his
+son.
+
+
+6. House of Burgundy.--_Charles VI._ was a boy of nine years old,
+motherless, and beset with ambitious uncles. These uncles were Louis,
+Duke of Anjou, to whom Queen Joanna, the last of the earlier Angevin
+line in Naples, bequeathed her rights; John, Duke of Berry, a weak
+time-server; and Philip, the ablest and most honest of the three. His
+grandmother Joan, the wife of Philip VI., had been heiress of the duchy
+and county of Burgundy, and these now became his inheritance, giving him
+the richest part of France. By still better fortune he had married
+Margaret, the only child of Louis, Count of Flanders. Flanders contained
+the great cloth-manufacturing towns of Europe--Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
+etc., all wealthy and independent, and much inclined to close alliance
+with England, whence they obtained their wool, while their counts were
+equally devoted to France. Just as Count Louis II. had, for his lawless
+rapacity, been driven out of Ghent by Jacob van Arteveldt, so his son,
+Louis III., was expelled by Philip van Arteveldt, son to Jacob. Charles
+had been disgusted by Louis's coarse violence, and would not help him;
+but after the old king's death, Philip of Burgundy used his influence in
+the council to conduct the whole power of France to Flanders, where
+Arteveldt was defeated and trodden to death in the battle of Rosbecque,
+in 1382. On the count's death, Philip succeeded him as Count of Flanders
+in right of his wife; and thus was laid the foundation of the powerful
+and wealthy house of Burgundy, which for four generations almost
+overshadowed the crown of France.
+
+
+7. Insanity of Charles VI.--The Constable, Clisson, was much hated by
+the Duke of Brittany, and an attack which was made on him in the
+streets of Paris was clearly traced to Montfort. The young king, who was
+much attached to Clisson, set forth to exact punishment. On his way, a
+madman rushed out of a forest and called out, "King, you are betrayed!"
+Charles was much frightened, and further seems to have had a sunstroke,
+for he at once became insane. He recovered for a time; but at Christmas,
+while he and five others were dancing, disguised as wild men, their
+garments of pitched flax caught fire. Four were burnt, and the shock
+brought back the king's madness. He became subject to fits of insanity
+of longer or shorter duration, and in their intervals he seems to have
+been almost imbecile. No provision had then been made for the
+contingency of a mad king. The condition of the country became worse
+than ever, and power was grasped at by whoever could obtain it. Of the
+king's three uncles, the Duke of Anjou and his sons were generally
+engrossed by a vain struggle to obtain Naples; the Duke of Berry was
+dull and weak; and the chief struggle for influence was between Philip
+of Burgundy and his son, John the Fearless, on the one hand, and on the
+other the king's wife, Isabel of Bavaria, and his brother Louis, Duke of
+Orleans, who was suspected of being her lover; while the unhappy king
+and his little children were left in a wretched state, often scarcely
+provided with clothes or food.
+
+
+8. Burgundians and Armagnacs.--Matters grew worse after the death of
+Duke Philip in 1404; and in 1407, just after a seeming reconciliation,
+the Duke of Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris by servants of
+John the Fearless. Louis of Orleans had been a vain, foolish man,
+heedless of all save his own pleasure, but his death increased the
+misery of France through the long and deadly struggle for vengeance that
+followed. The king was helpless, and the children of the Duke of Orleans
+were young; but their cause was taken up by a Gascon noble, Bernard,
+Count of Armagnac, whose name the party took. The Duke of Burgundy was
+always popular in Paris, where the people, led by the Guild of Butchers,
+were so devoted to him that he ventured to have a sermon preached at the
+university, justifying the murder. There was again a feeble attempt at
+reform made by the burghers; but, as before, the more violent and
+lawless were guilty of such excesses that the opposite party were called
+in to put them down. The Armagnacs were admitted into Paris, and took a
+terrible vengeance on the Butchers and on all adherents of Burgundy, in
+the name of the Dauphin Louis, the king's eldest son, a weak, dissipated
+youth, who was entirely led by the Count of Armagnac.
+
+
+9. Invasion of Henry V.--All this time the war with England had
+smouldered on, only broken by brief truces; and when France was in this
+wretched state Henry V. renewed the claim of Edward III., and in 1415
+landed before Harfleur. After delaying till he had taken the city, the
+dauphin called together the whole nobility of the kingdom, and advanced
+against Henry, who, like Edward III., had been obliged to leave Normandy
+and march towards Calais in search of supplies. The armies met at
+Agincourt, where, though the French greatly outnumbered the English, the
+skill of Henry and the folly and confusion of the dauphin's army led to
+a total defeat, and the captivity of half the chief men in France of the
+Armagnac party--among them the young Duke of Orleans. It was Henry V.'s
+policy to treat France, not as a conquest, but as an inheritance; and he
+therefore refused to let these captives be ransomed till he should have
+reduced the country to obedience, while he treated all the places that
+submitted to him with great kindness. The Duke of Burgundy held aloof
+from the contest, and the Armagnacs, who ruled in Paris, were too weak
+or too careless to send aid to Rouen, which was taken by Henry after a
+long siege. The Dauphin Louis died in 1417; his next brother, John, who
+was more inclined to Burgundy, did not survive him a year; and the third
+brother, Charles, a mere boy, was in the hands of the Armagnacs. In 1418
+their reckless misuse of power provoked the citizens of Paris into
+letting in the Burgundians, when an unspeakably horrible massacre took
+place. Bernard of Armagnac himself was killed; his naked corpse, scored
+with his red cross, was dragged about the streets; and men, women, and
+even infants of his party were slaughtered pitilessly. Tanneguy
+Duchatel, one of his partisans, carried off the dauphin; but the queen,
+weary of Armagnac insolence, had joined the Burgundian party.
+
+
+10. Treaty of Troyes.--Meanwhile Henry V. continued to advance, and
+John of Burgundy felt the need of joining the whole strength of France
+against him, and made overtures to the dauphin. Duchatel, either fearing
+to be overshadowed by his power, or else in revenge for Orleans and
+Armagnac, no sooner saw that a reconciliation was likely to take place,
+than he murdered John the Fearless before the dauphin's eyes, at a
+conference on the bridge of Montereau-sur-Yonne (1419). John's wound was
+said to be the hole which let the English into France. His son Philip,
+the new Duke of Burgundy, viewing the dauphin as guilty of his death,
+went over with all his forces to Henry V., taking with him the queen and
+the poor helpless king. At the treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Henry was
+declared regent, and heir of the kingdom, at the same time as he
+received the hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. This gave him
+Paris and all the chief cities in northern France; but the Armagnacs
+held the south, with the Dauphin Charles at their head. Charles was
+declared an outlaw by his father's court, but he was in truth the leader
+of what had become the national and patriotic cause. During this time,
+after a long struggle and schism, the Pope again returned to Rome.
+
+
+11. The Maid of Orleans.--When Henry V. died in 1422, and the unhappy
+Charles a few weeks later, the infant Henry VI. was proclaimed King of
+France as well as of England, at both Paris and London, while _Charles
+VII._ was only proclaimed at Bourges, and a few other places in the
+south. Charles was of a slow, sluggish nature, and the men around him
+were selfish and pleasure-loving intriguers, who kept aloof all the
+bolder spirits from him. The brother of Henry V., John, Duke of Bedford,
+ruled all the country north of the Loire, with Rouen as his
+head-quarters. For seven years little was done; but in 1429 he caused
+Orleans to be besieged. The city held out bravely, all France looked on
+anxiously, and a young peasant girl, named Joan d'Arc, believed herself
+called by voices from the saints to rescue the city, and lead the king
+to his coronation at Rheims. With difficulty she obtained a hearing of
+the king, and was allowed to proceed to Orleans. Leading the army with a
+consecrated sword, which she never stained with blood, she filled the
+French with confidence, the English with fear as of a witch, and thus
+she gained the day wherever she appeared. Orleans was saved, and she
+then conducted Charles VII. to Rheims, and stood beside his throne when
+he was crowned. Then she said her work was done, and would have returned
+home; but, though the wretched king and his court never appreciated her,
+they thought her useful with the soldiers, and would not let her leave
+them. She had lost her heart and hope, and the men began to be angered
+at her for putting down all vice and foul language. The captains were
+envious of her; and at last, when she had led a sally out of the
+besieged town of Compiegne, the gates were shut, and she was made
+prisoner by a Burgundian, John of Luxembourg. The Burgundians hated her
+even more than the English. The inquisitor was of their party, and a
+court was held at Rouen, which condemned her to die as a witch. Bedford
+consented, but left the city before the execution. Her own king made no
+effort to save her, though, many years later, he caused enquiries to be
+made, established her innocence, ennobled her family, and freed her
+village from taxation.
+
+12. Recovery of France (1434--1450).--But though Joan was gone, her
+work lasted. The Constable, Artur of Richmond, the Count of Dunois, and
+other brave leaders, continued to attack the English. After seventeen
+years' vengeance for his father's death, the Duke of Burgundy made his
+peace with Charles by a treaty at Arras, on condition of paying no more
+homage, in 1434. Bedford died soon after, and there were nothing but
+disputes among the English. Paris opened its gates to the king, and
+Charles, almost in spite of himself, was restored. An able merchant,
+named Jacques Coeur, lent him money which equipped his men for the
+recovery of Normandy, and he himself, waking into activity, took Rouen
+and the other cities on the coast.
+
+
+13. Conquest of Aquitaine (1450).--By these successes Charles had
+recovered all, save Calais, that Henry V. or Edward III. had taken from
+France. But he was now able to do more. The one province of the south
+which the French kings had never been able to win was Guienne, the duchy
+on the river Garonne. Guienne had been a part of Eleanor's inheritance,
+and passed through her to the English kings; but though they had lost
+all else, the hatred of its inhabitants to the French enabled them to
+retain this, and Guienne had never yet passed under French rule. It was
+wrested, however, from Eleanor's descendants in this flood-tide of
+conquest. Bordeaux held out as long as it could, but Henry VI. could
+send no aid, and it was forced to yield. Two years later, brave old Lord
+Talbot led 5000 men to recover the duchy, and was gladly welcomed; but
+he was slain in the battle of Castillon, fighting like a lion. His two
+sons fell beside him, and his army was broken. Bordeaux again
+surrendered, and the French kings at last found themselves master of the
+great fief of the south. Calais was, at the close of the great Hundred
+Years' War, the only possession left to England south of the Channel.
+
+
+14. The Standing Army (1452).--As at the end of the first act in the
+Hundred Years' War, the great difficulty in time of peace was the
+presence of the bands of free companions, or mercenary soldiers, who,
+when war and plunder failed them, lived by violence and robbery of the
+peasants. Charles VII., who had awakened into vigour, thereupon took
+into regular pay all who would submit to discipline, and the rest were
+led off on two futile expeditions into Switzerland and Germany, and
+there left to their fate. The princes and nobles were at first so much
+disgusted at the regulations which bound the soldiery to respect the
+magistracy, that they raised a rebellion, which was fostered by the
+Dauphin Louis, who was ready to do anything that could annoy his father.
+But he was soon detached from them; the Duke of Burgundy would not
+assist them, and the league fell to pieces. Charles VII. by thus
+retaining companies of hired troops in his pay laid the foundation of
+the first standing army in Europe, and enabled the monarchy to tread
+down the feudal force of the nobles. His government was firm and wise;
+and with his reign began better times for France. But it was long before
+it recovered from the miseries of the long strife. The war had kept back
+much of progress. There had been grievous havoc of buildings in the
+north and centre of France; much lawlessness and cruelty prevailed; and
+yet there was a certain advance in learning, and much love of romance
+and the theory of chivalry. Pages of noble birth were bred up in castles
+to be first squires and then knights. There was immense formality and
+stateliness, the order of precedence was most minute, and pomp and
+display were wonderful. Strange alternations took place. One month the
+streets of Paris would be a scene of horrible famine, where hungry dogs,
+and even wolves, put an end to the miseries of starving, homeless
+children of slaughtered parents; another, the people would be gazing at
+royal banquets, lasting a whole day, with allegorical "subtleties" of
+jelly on the table, and pageants coming between the courses, where all
+the Virtues harangued in turn, or where knights delivered maidens from
+giants and "salvage men." In the south there was less misery and more
+progress. Jacques Coeur's house at Bourges is still a marvel of
+household architecture; and Rene, Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence,
+was an excellent painter on glass, and also a poet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGUNDY.
+
+
+1. Power of Burgundy.--All the troubles of France, for the last 80
+years, had gone to increase the strength of the Dukes of Burgundy. The
+county and duchy, of which Dijon was the capital, lay in the most
+fertile district of France, and had, as we have seen, been conferred on
+Philip the Bold. His marriage had given to him Flanders, with a gallant
+nobility, and with the chief manufacturing cities of Northern Europe.
+Philip's son, John the Fearless, had married a lady who ultimately
+brought into the family the great imperial counties of Holland and
+Zealand; and her son, Duke Philip the Good, by purchase or inheritance,
+obtained possession of all the adjoining little fiefs forming the
+country called the Netherlands, some belonging to the Empire, some to
+France. Philip had turned the scale in the struggle between England and
+France, and, as his reward, had won the cities on the Somme. He had
+thus become the richest and most powerful prince in Europe, and seemed
+on the point of founding a middle state lying between France and
+Germany, his weak point being that the imperial fiefs in Lorraine and
+Elsass lay between his dukedom of Burgundy and his counties in the
+Netherlands. No European court equalled in splendour that of Philip. The
+great cities of Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and the rest, though full of
+fierce and resolute men, paid him dues enough to make him the richest of
+princes, and the Flemish knights were among the boldest in Europe. All
+the arts of life, above all painting and domestic architecture,
+nourished at Brussels; and nowhere were troops so well equipped,
+burghers more prosperous, learning more widespread, than in his domains.
+Here, too, were the most ceremonious courtesy, the most splendid
+banquets, and the most wonderful display of jewels, plate, and
+cloth-of-gold. Charles VII., a clever though a cold-hearted, indolent
+man, let Philip alone, already seeing how the game would go for the
+future; for when the dauphin had quarrelled with the reigning favourite,
+and was kindly received on his flight to Burgundy, the old king sneered,
+saying that the duke was fostering the fox who would steal his chickens.
+
+
+2. Louis XI.'s Policy.--_Louis XI._ succeeded his father Charles in
+1461. He was a man of great skill and craft, with an iron will, and
+subtle though pitiless nature, who knew in what the greatness of a king
+consisted, and worked out his ends mercilessly and unscrupulously. The
+old feudal dukes and counts had all passed away, except the Duke of
+Brittany; but the Dukes of Orleans, Burgundy, and Anjou held princely
+appanages, and there was a turbulent nobility who had grown up during
+the wars, foreign and civil, and been encouraged by the favouritism of
+Charles VI. All these, feeling that Louis was their natural foe, united
+against him in what was called the "League of the Public Good," with his
+own brother, the Duke of Berry, and Count Charles of Charolais, who was
+known as Charles the Bold, the son of Duke Philip of Burgundy, at their
+head. Louis was actually defeated by Charles of Charolais in the battle
+of Montlhery; but he contrived so cleverly to break up the league, by
+promises to each member and by sowing dissension among them, that he
+ended by becoming more powerful than before.
+
+
+3. Charles the Bold.--On the death of Philip the Good, in 1467,
+Charles the Bold succeeded to the duchy of Burgundy. He pursued more
+ardently the plan of forming a new kingdom of Burgundy, and had even
+hopes of being chosen Emperor. First, however, he had to consolidate his
+dominions, by making himself master of the countries which parted
+Burgundy from the Netherlands. With this view he obtained Elsass in
+pledge from its owner, a needy son of the house of Austria, who was
+never likely to redeem it. Lorraine had been inherited by Yolande, the
+wife of Rene, Duke of Anjou and titular King of Sicily, and had passed
+from her to her daughter, who had married the nearest heir in the male
+line, the Count of Vaudemont; but Charles the Bold unjustly seized the
+dukedom, driving out the lawful heir, Rene de Vaudemont, son of this
+marriage. Louis, meantime, was on the watch for every error of Charles,
+and constantly sowing dangers in his path. Sometimes his mines exploded
+too soon, as when he had actually put himself into Charles's power by
+visiting him at Peronne at the very moment when his emissaries had
+encouraged the city of Liege to rise in revolt against their bishop, an
+ally of the duke; and he only bought his freedom by profuse promises,
+and by aiding Charles in a most savage destruction of Liege. But after
+this his caution prevailed. He gave secret support to the adherents of
+Rene de Vaudemont, and intrigued with the Swiss, who were often at issue
+with the Burgundian bailiffs and soldiery in Elsass--greedy, reckless
+men, from whom the men of Elsass revolted in favour of their former
+Austrian lord. Meantime Edward IV. of England, Charles's brother-in-law,
+had planned with him an invasion of France and division of the kingdom,
+and in 1475 actually crossed the sea with a splendid host; but while
+Charles was prevented from joining him by the siege of Neuss, a city in
+alliance with Sigismund of Austria, Louis met Edward on the bridge of
+Pecquigny, and by cajolery, bribery, and accusations of Charles,
+contrived to persuade him to carry home his army without striking a
+blow. That meeting was a curious one. A wooden barrier, like a wild
+beast's cage, was erected in the middle of the bridge, through which the
+two kings kissed one another. Edward was the tallest and handsomest man
+present, and splendidly attired. Louis was small and mean-looking, and
+clad in an old blue suit, with a hat decorated with little leaden images
+of the saints, but his smooth tongue quite overcame the duller intellect
+of Edward; and in the mean time the English soldiers were feasted and
+allowed their full swing, the French being strictly watched to prevent
+all quarrels. So skilfully did Louis manage, that Edward consented to
+make peace and return home.
+
+
+4. The Fall of Charles the Bold (1477).--Charles had become entangled
+in many difficulties. He was a harsh, stern man, much disliked; and his
+governors in Elsass were fierce, violent men, who used every pretext for
+preying upon travellers. The Governor of Breisach, Hagenbach, had been
+put to death in a popular rising, aided by the Swiss of Berne, in 1474;
+and the men of Elsass themselves raised part of the sum for which the
+country had been pledged, and revolted against Charles. The Swiss were
+incited by Louis to join them; Rene of Lorraine made common cause with
+them. In two great battles, Granson and Morat, Charles and all his
+chivalry were beaten by the Swiss pikemen; but he pushed on the war.
+Nancy, the chief city of Lorraine, had risen against him, and he
+besieged it. On the night of the 5th of January, 1477, Rene led the
+Swiss to relieve the town by falling in early morning on the besiegers'
+camp. There was a terrible fight; the Burgundians were routed, and after
+long search the corpse of Duke Charles was found in a frozen pool,
+stripped, plundered, and covered with blood. He was the last of the male
+line of Burgundy, and its great possessions broke up with his death. His
+only child, Marie, did not inherit the French dukedom nor the county,
+though most of the fiefs in the Low Countries, which could descend to
+the female line, were her undisputed portion. Louis tried, by stirring
+up her subjects, to force her into a marriage with his son Charles; but
+she threw herself on the protection of the house of Austria, and
+marrying Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., carried her
+border lands to swell the power of his family.
+
+
+5. Louis's Home Government.--Louis's system of repression of the
+nobles went on all this time. His counsellors were of low birth (Oliver
+le Daim, his barber, was the man he most trusted), his habits frugal,
+his manners reserved and ironical; he was dreaded, hated, and
+distrusted, and he became constantly more bitter, suspicious, and
+merciless. Those who fell under his displeasure were imprisoned in iron
+cages, or put to death; and the more turbulent families, such as the
+house of Armagnac, were treated with frightful severity. But his was not
+wanton violence. He acted on a regular system of depressing the lawless
+nobility and increasing the royal authority, by bringing the power of
+the cities forward, by trusting for protection to the standing army,
+chiefly of hired Scots, Swiss, and Italians, and by saving money. By
+this means he was able to purchase the counties of Roussillon and
+Perpignan from the King of Aragon, thus making the Pyrenees his
+frontier, and on several occasions he made his treasury fight his
+battles instead of the swords of his knights. He lived in the castle of
+Plessis les Tours, guarded by the utmost art of fortification, and
+filled with hired Scottish archers of his guard, whom he preferred as
+defenders to his own nobles. He was exceedingly unpopular with his
+nobles; but the statesman and historian, Philip de Comines, who had gone
+over to him from Charles of Burgundy, viewed him as the best and ablest
+of kings. He did much to promote trade and manufacture, improved the
+cities, fostered the university, and was in truth the first king since
+Philip Augustus who had any real sense of statesmanship. But though the
+burghers throve under him, and the lawless nobles were depressed, the
+state of the peasants was not improved; feudal rights pressed heavily on
+them, and they were little better than savages, ground down by burthens
+imposed by their lords.
+
+
+6. Provence and Brittany.--Louis had added much to the French
+monarchy. He had won back Artois; he had seized the duchy and county of
+Burgundy; he had bought Roussillon. His last acquisition was the county
+of Provence. The second Angevin family, beginning with Louis, the son of
+King John, had never succeeded in gaining a footing in Naples, though
+they bore the royal title. They held, however, the imperial fief of
+Provence, and Louis XI., whose mother had been of this family, obtained
+from her two brothers, Rene and Charles, that Provence should be
+bequeathed to him instead of passing to Rene's grandson, the Duke of
+Lorraine. The Kings of France were thenceforth Counts of Provence; and
+though the county was not viewed as part of the kingdom, it was
+practically one with it. A yet greater acquisition was made soon after
+Louis's death in 1483. The great Celtic duchy of Brittany fell to a
+female, Anne of Brittany, and the address of Louis's daughter, the Lady
+of Beaujeu, who was regent of the realm, prevailed to secure the hand of
+the heiress for her brother, Charles VIII. Thus the crown of France had
+by purchase, conquest, or inheritance, obtained all the great feudal
+states that made up the country between the English Channel and the
+Pyrenees; but each still remained a separate state, with different laws
+and customs, and a separate parliament in each to register laws, and to
+act as a court of justice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ITALIAN WARS.
+
+
+1. Campaign of Charles VIII. (1493).--From grasping at province after
+province on their own border, however, the French kings were now to turn
+to wider dreams of conquest abroad. Together with the county of
+Provence, Louis XI. had bought from King Rene all the claims of the
+house of Anjou. Among these was included a claim to the kingdom of
+Naples. Louis's son, _Charles VIII._, a vain and shallow lad, was
+tempted by the possession of large treasures and a fine army to listen
+to the persuasions of an Italian intriguer, Ludovico Sforza, Duke of
+Milan, and put forward these pretensions, thus beginning a war which
+lasted nearly as long as the Hundred Years' War with England. But it was
+a war of aggression instead of a war of self-defence. Charles crossed
+the Alps in 1493, marched the whole length of Italy without opposition,
+and was crowned at Naples; while its royal family, an illegitimate
+offshoot from the Kings of Aragon, fled into Sicily, and called on
+Spain for help. But the insolent exactions of the French soldiery caused
+the people to rise against them; and when Charles returned, he was beset
+at Fornovo by a great league of Italians, over whom he gained a complete
+victory. Small and puny though he was, he fought like a lion, and seemed
+quite inspired by the ardour of combat. The "French fury," _la furia
+Francese_, became a proverb among the Italians. Charles neglected,
+however, to send any supplies or reinforcements to the garrisons he had
+left behind him in Naples, and they all perished under want, sickness,
+and the sword of the Spaniards. He was meditating another expedition,
+when he struck his head against the top of a doorway, and died in 1498.
+
+
+2. Campaign of Louis XII.--His cousin, _Louis XII._, married his
+widow, and thus prevented Brittany from again parting from the crown.
+Louis not only succeeded to the Angevin right to Naples, but through his
+grandmother he viewed himself as heir of Milan. She was Valentina
+Visconti, wife to that Duke of Orleans who had been murdered by John the
+Fearless. Louis himself never advanced further than to Milan, whose
+surrender made him master of Lombardy, which he held for the greater
+part of his reign. But after a while the Spanish king, Ferdinand, agreed
+with him to throw over the cause of the unfortunate royal family of
+Naples, and divide that kingdom between them. Louis XII. sent a
+brilliant army to take possession of his share, but the bounds of each
+portion had not been defined, and the French and Spanish troops began a
+war even while their kings were still treating with one another. The
+individual French knights did brilliant exploits, for indeed it was the
+time of the chief blossom of fanciful chivalry, a knight of Dauphine,
+named Bayard, called the Fearless and Stainless Knight, and honoured by
+friend and foe; but the Spaniards were under Gonzalo de Cordova, called
+the Great Captain, and after the battles of Cerignola and the Garigliano
+drove the French out of the kingdom of Naples, though the war continued
+in Lombardy.
+
+
+3. The Holy League.--It was an age of leagues. The Italians, hating
+French and Spaniards both alike, were continually forming combinations
+among themselves and with foreign powers against whichever happened to
+be the strongest. The chief of these was called the Holy League, because
+it was formed by Pope Julius II., who drew into it Maximilian, then head
+of the German Empire, Ferdinand of Spain, and Henry VIII. of England.
+The French troops were attacked in Milan; and though they gained the
+battle of Ravenna in 1512, it was with the loss of their general, Gaston
+de Foix, Duke of Nemours, whose death served as an excuse to Ferdinand
+of Spain for setting up a claim to the kingdom of Navarre. He cunningly
+persuaded Henry VIII. to aid him in the attack, by holding out the vain
+idea of going on to regain Gascony; and while one troop of English were
+attacking Pampeluna, Henry himself landed at Calais and took Tournay and
+Terouenne. The French forces were at the same time being chased out of
+Italy. However, when Pampeluna had been taken, and the French finally
+driven out of Lombardy, the Pope and king, who had gained their ends,
+left Henry to fight his own battles. He thus was induced to make peace,
+giving his young sister Mary as second wife to Louis; but that king
+over-exerted himself at the banquets, and died six weeks after the
+marriage, in 1515. During this reign the waste of blood and treasure on
+wars of mere ambition was frightful, and the country had been heavily
+taxed; but a brilliant soldiery had been trained up, and national vanity
+had much increased. The king, though without deserving much love, was so
+kindly in manner that he was a favourite, and was called the Father of
+the People. His first wife, Anne of Brittany, was an excellent and
+high-spirited woman, who kept the court of France in a better state than
+ever before or since.
+
+
+4. Campaigns of Francis I.--Louis left only two daughters, the elder
+of whom, Claude, carried Brittany to his male heir, Francis, Count of
+Angouleine. Anne of Brittany had been much averse to the match; but
+Louis said he kept his mice for his own cats, and gave his daughter and
+her duchy to Francis as soon as Anne was dead. _Francis I._ was one of
+the vainest, falsest, and most dashing of Frenchmen. In fact, he was an
+exaggeration in every way of the national character, and thus became a
+national hero, much overpraised. He at once resolved to recover
+Lombardy; and after crossing the Alps encountered an army of Swiss
+troops, who had been hired to defend the Milanese duchy, on the field of
+Marignano. Francis had to fight a desperate battle with them; after
+which he caused Bayard to dub him knight, though French kings were said
+to be born knights. In gaining the victory over these mercenaries, who
+had been hitherto deemed invincible, he opened for himself a way into
+Italy, and had all Lombardy at his feet. The Pope, Leo X., met him at
+Bologna, and a concordat took place, by which the French Church became
+more entirely subject to the Pope, while in return all patronage was
+given up to the crown. The effects were soon seen in the increased
+corruption of the clergy and people. Francis brought home from this
+expedition much taste for Italian art and literature, and all matters of
+elegance and ornament made great progress from this time. The great
+Italian masters worked for him; Raphael painted some of his most
+beautiful pictures for him, and Leonardo da Vinci came to his court, and
+there died in his arms. His palaces, especially that of Blois, were
+exceedingly beautiful, in the new classic style, called the Renaissance.
+Great richness and splendour reigned at court, and set off his
+pretensions to romance and chivalry. Learning and scholarship,
+especially classical, increased much; and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, was an excellent and highly cultivated woman, but even
+her writings prove that the whole tone of feeling was terribly coarse,
+when not vicious.
+
+
+5. Charles V.--The conquest of Lombardy made France the greatest power
+in Christendom; but its king was soon to find a mighty and active rival.
+The old hatred between France and Burgundy again awoke. Mary of
+Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, had married Maximilian,
+Archduke of Austria and King of the Romans, though never actually
+crowned Emperor. Their son, Philip, married Juana, the daughter of
+Ferdinand, and heiress of Spain, who lost her senses from grief on
+Philip's untimely death; and thus the direct heir to Spain, Austria, and
+the Netherlands, was Charles, her eldest son. On the death of Maximilian
+in 1518, Francis proposed himself to the electors as Emperor, but
+failed, in spite of bribery. Charles was chosen, and from that time
+Francis pursued him with unceasing hatred. The claims to Milan and
+Naples were renewed. Francis sent troops to occupy Milan, and was
+following them himself; but the most powerful of all his nobles, the
+Duke of Bourbon, Constable of France, had been alienated by an injustice
+perpetrated on him in favour of the king's mother, and deserted to the
+Spaniards, offering to assist them and the English in dividing France,
+while he reserved for himself Provence. His desertion hindered Francis
+from sending support to the troops in Milan, who were forced to retreat.
+Bayard was shot in the spine while defending the rear-guard, and was
+left to die under a tree. The utmost honour was shown him by the
+Spaniards; but when Bourbon came near him, he bade him take pity, not on
+one who was dying as a true soldier, but on himself as a traitor to king
+and country. When the French, in 1525, invaded Lombardy, Francis
+suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia, and was carried a prisoner to
+Madrid, where he remained for a year, and was only set free on making a
+treaty by which he was to give up all claims in Italy both to Naples and
+Milan, also the county of Burgundy and the suzerainty of those Flemish
+counties which had been fiefs of the French crown, as well as to
+surrender his two sons as hostages for the performance of the
+conditions.
+
+
+6. Wars of Francis and Charles.--All the rest of the king's life was
+an attempt to elude or break these conditions, against which he had
+protested in his prison, but when there was no Spaniard present to hear
+him do so. The county of Burgundy refused to be transferred; and the
+Pope, Clement VII., hating the Spanish power in Italy, contrived a fresh
+league against Charles, in which Francis joined, but was justly rewarded
+by the miserable loss of another army. His mother and Charles's aunt met
+at Cambrai, and concluded, in 1529, what was called the Ladies' Peace,
+which bore as hardly on France as the peace of Madrid, excepting that
+Charles gave up his claim to Burgundy. Still Francis's plans were not at
+an end. He married his second son, Henry, to Catherine, the only
+legitimate child of the great Florentine house of Medici, and tried to
+induce Charles to set up an Italian dukedom of Milan for the young pair;
+but when the dauphin died, and Henry became heir of France, Charles
+would not give him any footing in Italy. Francis never let any occasion
+pass of harassing the Emperor, but was always defeated. Charles once
+actually invaded Provence, but was forced to retreat through the
+devastation of the country before him by Montmorency, afterwards
+Constable of France. Francis, by loud complaints, and by talking much of
+his honour, contrived to make the world fancy him the injured man, while
+he was really breaking oaths in a shameless manner. At last, in 1537,
+the king and Emperor met at Aigues Mortes, and came to terms. Francis
+married, as his second wife, Charles's sister Eleanor, and in 1540, when
+Charles was in haste to quell a revolt in the Low Countries, he asked a
+safe conduct through France, and was splendidly entertained at Paris.
+Yet so low was the honour of the French, that Francis scarcely withstood
+the temptation of extorting the duchy of Milan from him when in his
+power, and gave so many broad hints that Charles was glad to be past the
+frontier. The war was soon renewed. Francis set up a claim to Savoy, as
+the key of Italy, allied himself with the Turks and Moors, and slaves
+taken by them on the coasts of Italy and Spain were actually brought
+into Marseilles. Nice was burnt; but the citadel held out, and as Henry
+VIII. had allied himself with the Emperor, and had taken Boulogne,
+Francis made a final peace at Crespy in 1545. He died only two years
+later, in 1547.
+
+
+7. Henry II.--His only surviving son, _Henry II._, followed the same
+policy. The rise of Protestantism was now dividing the Empire in
+Germany; and Henry took advantage of the strife which broke out between
+Charles and the Protestant princes to attack the Emperor, and make
+conquests across the German border. He called himself Protector of the
+Liberties of the Germans, and leagued himself with them, seizing Metz,
+which the Duke of Guise bravely defended when the Emperor tried to
+retake it. This seizure of Metz was the first attempt of France to make
+conquests in Germany, and the beginning of a contest between the French
+and German peoples which has gone on to the present day. After the siege
+a five years' truce was made, during which Charles V. resigned his
+crowns. His brother had been already elected to the Empire, but his son
+Philip II. became King of Spain and Naples, and also inherited the Low
+Countries. The Pope, Paul IV., who was a Neapolitan, and hated the
+Spanish rule, incited Henry, a vain, weak man, to break the truce and
+send one army to Italy, under the Duke of Guise, while another attacked
+the frontier of the Netherlands. Philip, assisted by the forces of his
+wife, Mary I. of England, met this last attack with an army commanded by
+the Duke of Savoy. It advanced into France, and besieged St. Quentin.
+The French, under the Constable of Montmorency, came to relieve the
+city, and were utterly defeated, the Constable himself being made
+prisoner. His nephew, the Admiral de Coligny, held out St. Quentin to
+the last, and thus gave the country time to rally against the invader;
+and Guise was recalled in haste from Italy. He soon after surprised
+Calais, which was thus restored to the French, after having been held
+by the English for two hundred years. This was the only conquest the
+French retained when the final peace of Cateau Cambresis was made in the
+year 1558, for all else that had been taken on either side was then
+restored. Savoy was given back to its duke, together with the hand of
+Henry's sister, Margaret. During a tournament held in honour of the
+wedding, Henry II. was mortally injured by the splinter of a lance, in
+1559; and in the home troubles that followed, all pretensions to Italian
+power were dropped by France, after wars which had lasted sixty-four
+years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WARS OF RELIGION.
+
+
+1. The Bourbons and Guises.--Henry II. had left four sons, the eldest
+of whom, _Francis II._, was only fifteen years old; and the country was
+divided by two great factions--one headed by the Guise family, an
+offshoot of the house of Lorraine; the other by the Bourbons, who, being
+descended in a direct male line from a younger son of St. Louis, were
+the next heirs to the throne in case the house of Valois should become
+extinct. Antony, the head of the Bourbon family, was called King of
+Navarre, because of his marriage with Jeanne d'Albret, the queen, in her
+own right, of this Pyrenean kingdom, which was in fact entirely in the
+hands of the Spaniards, so that her only actual possession consisted of
+the little French counties of Foix and Bearn. Antony himself was dull
+and indolent, but his wife was a woman of much ability; and his brother,
+Louis, Prince of Conde, was full of spirit and fire, and little
+inclined to brook the ascendancy which the Duke of Guise and his
+brothers enjoyed at court, partly in consequence of his exploit at
+Calais, and partly from being uncle to the young Queen Mary of Scotland,
+wife of Francis II. The Bourbons likewise headed the party among the
+nobles who hoped to profit by the king's youth to recover the privileges
+of which they had been gradually deprived, while the house of Guise were
+ready to maintain the power of the crown, as long as that meant their
+own power.
+
+
+2. The Reformation.--The enmity of these two parties was much
+increased by the reaction against the prevalent doctrines and the
+corruptions of the clergy. This reaction had begun in the reign of
+Francis I., when the Bible had been translated into French by two
+students at the University of Paris, and the king's sister, Margaret,
+Queen of Navarre, had encouraged the Reformers. Francis had leagued with
+the German Protestants because they were foes to the Emperor, while he
+persecuted the like opinions at home to satisfy the Pope. John Calvin, a
+native of Picardy, the foremost French reformer, was invited to the free
+city of Geneva, and there was made chief pastor, while the scheme of
+theology called his "Institutes" became the text-book of the Reformed in
+France, Scotland, and Holland. His doctrine was harsh and stern, aiming
+at the utmost simplicity of worship, and denouncing the existing
+practices so fiercely, that the people, who held themselves to have been
+wilfully led astray by their clergy, committed such violence in the
+churches that the Catholics loudly called for punishment on them. The
+shameful lives of many of the clergy and the wickedness of the Court had
+caused a strong reaction against them, and great numbers of both nobles
+and burghers became Calvinists. They termed themselves Sacramentarians
+or Reformers, but their nickname was Huguenots; probably from the Swiss,
+"_Eidgenossen_" or oath comrades. Henry II., like his father, protected
+German Lutherans and persecuted French Calvinists; but the lawyers of
+the Parliament of Paris interposed, declaring that men ought not to be
+burnt for heresy until a council of the Church should have condemned
+their opinions, and it was in the midst of this dispute that Henry was
+slain.
+
+
+3. The Conspiracy of Amboise.--The Guise family were strong Catholics;
+the Bourbons were the heads of the Huguenot party, chiefly from policy;
+but Admiral Coligny and his brother, the Sieur D'Andelot, were sincere
+and earnest Reformers. A third party, headed by the old Constable De
+Montmorency, was Catholic in faith, but not unwilling to join with the
+Huguenots in pulling down the Guises, and asserting the power of the
+nobility. A conspiracy for seizing the person of the king and
+destroying the Guises at the castle of Amboise was detected in time to
+make it fruitless. The two Bourbon princes kept in the background,
+though Conde was universally known to have been the true head and mover
+in it, and he was actually brought to trial. The discovery only
+strengthened the hands of Guise.
+
+
+4. Regency of Catherine de' Medici.--Even then, however, Francis II.
+was dying, and his brother, _Charles IX._, who succeeded him in 1560,
+was but ten years old. The regency passed to his mother, the Florentine
+Catherine, a wily, cat-like woman, who had always hitherto been kept in
+the background, and whose chief desire was to keep things quiet by
+playing off one party against the other. She at once released Conde, and
+favoured the Bourbons and the Huguenots to keep down the Guises, even
+permitting conferences to see whether the French Church could be
+reformed so as to satisfy the Calvinists. Proposals were sent by Guise's
+brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, to the council then sitting at Trent,
+for vernacular services, the marriage of the clergy, and other
+alterations which might win back the Reformers. But an attack by the
+followers of Guise on a meeting of Calvinists at Vassy, of whose ringing
+of bells his mother had complained, led to the first bloodshed and the
+outbreak of a civil war.
+
+
+5. The Religious War.--To trace each stage of the war would be
+impossible within these limits. It was a war often lulled for a short
+time, and often breaking out again, and in which the actors grew more
+and more cruel. The Reformed influence was in the south, the Catholic in
+the east. Most of the provincial cities at first held with the Bourbons,
+for the sake of civil and religious freedom; though the Guise family
+succeeded to the popularity of the Burgundian dukes in Paris. Still
+Catherine persuaded Antony of Bourbon to return to court just as his
+wife, Queen Jeanne of Navarre, had become a staunch Calvinist, and while
+dreaming of exchanging his claim on Navarre for the kingdom of Sardinia,
+he was killed on the Catholic side while besieging Rouen. At the first
+outbreak the Huguenots seemed to have by far the greatest influence. An
+endeavour was made to seize the king's person, and this led to a battle
+at Dreux. While it was doubtful Catherine actually declared, "We shall
+have to say our prayers in French." Guise, however, retrieved the day,
+and though Montmorency was made prisoner on the one side, Conde was
+taken on the other. Orleans was the Huguenot rallying-place, and while
+besieging it Guise himself was assassinated. His death was believed by
+his family to be due to the Admiral de Coligny. The city of Rochelle,
+fortified by Jeanne of Navarre, became the stronghold of the Huguenots.
+Leader after leader fell--Montmorency, on the one hand, was killed at
+Montcontour; Conde, on the other, was shot in cold blood after the fight
+of Jarnac. A truce followed, but was soon broken again, and in 1571
+Coligny was the only man of age and standing at the head of the Huguenot
+party; while the Catholics had as leaders Henry, Duke of Anjou, the
+king's brother, and Henry, Duke of Guise, both young men of little more
+than twenty. The Huguenots had been beaten at all points, but were still
+strong enough to have wrung from their enemies permission to hold
+meetings for public worship within unwalled towns and on the estates of
+such nobles as held with them.
+
+
+6. Catherine's Policy.--Catherine made use of the suspension of arms
+to try to detach the Huguenot leaders, by entangling them in the
+pleasures of the court and lowering their sense of duty. The court was
+studiously brilliant. Catherine surrounded herself with a bevy of
+ladies, called the Queen-Mother's Squadron, whose amusements were found
+for the whole day. The ladies sat at their tapestry frames, while
+Italian poetry and romance was read or love-songs sung by the gentlemen;
+they had garden games and hunting-parties, with every opening for the
+ladies to act as sirens to any whom the queen wished to detach from the
+principles of honour and virtue, and bind to her service. Balls,
+pageants, and theatricals followed in the evening, and there was hardly
+a prince or noble in France who was not carried away by these seductions
+into darker habits of profligacy. Jeanne of Navarre dreaded them for her
+son Henry, whom she kept as long as possible under training in religion,
+learning, and hardy habits, in the mountains of Bearn; and when
+Catherine tried to draw him to court by proposing a marriage between him
+and her youngest daughter Margaret, Jeanne left him at home, and went
+herself to court. Catherine tried in vain to bend her will or discover
+her secrets, and her death, early in 1572, while still at court, was
+attributed to the queen-mother.
+
+
+7. Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572).--Jeanne's son Henry was
+immediately summoned to conclude the marriage, and came attended by all
+the most distinguished Huguenots, though the more wary of them remained
+at home, and the Baron of Rosny said, "If that wedding takes place the
+favours will be crimson." The Duke of Guise seems to have resolved on
+taking this opportunity of revenging himself for his father's murder,
+but the queen-mother was undecided until she found that her son Charles,
+who had been bidden to cajole and talk over the Huguenot chiefs, had
+been attracted by their honesty and uprightness, and was ready to throw
+himself into their hands, and escape from hers. An abortive attempt on
+Guise's part to murder the Admiral Coligny led to all the Huguenots
+going about armed, and making demonstrations which alarmed both the
+queen and the people of Paris. Guise and the Duke of Anjou were,
+therefore, allowed to work their will, and to rouse the bloodthirstiness
+of the Paris mob. At midnight of the 24th of August, 1572, St.
+Bartholomew's night, the bell of the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois
+began to ring, and the slaughter was begun by men distinguished by a
+white sleeve. The king sheltered his Huguenot surgeon and nurse in his
+room. The young King of Navarre and Prince of Conde were threatened into
+conforming to the Church, but every other Huguenot who could be found
+was massacred, from Coligny, who was slain kneeling in his bedroom by
+the followers of Guise, down to the poorest and youngest, and the
+streets resounded with the cry, "Kill! kill!" In every city where royal
+troops and Guisard partisans had been living among Huguenots, the same
+hideous work took place for three days, sparing neither age nor sex. How
+many thousands died, it is impossible to reckon, but the work was so
+wholesale that none were left except those in the southern cities, where
+the Huguenots had been too strong to be attacked, and in those castles
+where the seigneur was of "the religion." The Catholic party thought the
+destruction complete, the court went in state to return thanks for
+deliverance from a supposed plot, while Coligny's body was hung on a
+gibbet. The Pope ordered public thanksgivings, while Queen Elizabeth put
+on mourning, and the Emperor Maximilian II., alone among Catholic
+princes, showed any horror or indignation. But the heart of the unhappy
+young king was broken by the guilt he had incurred. Charles IX. sank
+into a decline, and died in 1574, finding no comfort save in the surgeon
+and nurse he had saved.
+
+
+8. The League.--His brother, _Henry III._, who had been elected King
+of Poland, threw up that crown in favour of that of France. He was of a
+vain, false, weak character, superstitiously devout, and at the same
+time ferocious, so as to alienate every one. All were ashamed of a man
+who dressed in the extreme of foppery, with a rosary of death's heads at
+his girdle, and passed from wild dissipation to abject penance. He was
+called "the Paris Church-warden and the Queen's Hairdresser," for he
+passed from her toilette to the decoration of the walls of churches with
+illuminations cut out of old service-books. Sometimes he went about
+surrounded with little dogs, sometimes flogged himself walking barefoot
+in a procession, and his _mignons_, or favourites, were the scandal of
+the country by their pride, license, and savage deeds. The war broke out
+again, and his only remaining brother, Francis, Duke of Alencon, an
+equally hateful and contemptible being, fled from court to the Huguenot
+army, hoping to force his brother into buying his submission; but when
+the King of Navarre had followed him and begun the struggle in earnest,
+he accepted the duchy of Anjou, and returned to his allegiance. Francis
+was invited by the insurgent Dutch to become their chief, and spent some
+time in Holland, but returned, unsuccessful and dying. As the king was
+childless, the next male heir was Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, who
+had fled from court soon after Alencon returned to the Huguenot faith,
+and was reigning in his two counties of Bearn and Foix, the head of the
+Huguenots. In the resolve never to permit a heretic to wear the French
+crown, Guise and his party formed a Catholic league, to force Henry III.
+to choose another successor. Paris was devoted to Guise, and the king,
+finding himself almost a prisoner there, left the city, but was again
+mastered by the duke at Blois, and could so ill brook his arrogance, as
+to have recourse to assassination. He caused him to be slain at the
+palace at Blois in 1588. The fury of the League was so great that Henry
+III. was driven to take refuge with the King of Navarre, and they were
+together besieging Paris, when Henry III. was in his turn murdered by a
+monk, named Clement, in 1589.
+
+
+9. Henry IV.--The Leaguers proclaimed as king an old uncle of the
+King of Navarre, the Cardinal of Bourbon, but all the more moderate
+Catholics rallied round Henry of Navarre, who took the title of _Henry
+IV._ At Ivry, in Normandy, Henry met the force of Leaguers, and defeated
+them by his brilliant courage. "Follow my white plume," his last order
+to his troops, became one of the sayings the French love to remember.
+But his cause was still not won--Paris held out against him, animated by
+almost fanatical fury, and while he was besieging it France was invaded
+from the Netherlands. The old Cardinal of Bourbon was now dead, and
+Philip II. considered his daughter Isabel, whose mother was the eldest
+daughter of Henry II., to be rightful Queen of France. He sent therefore
+his ablest general, the Duke of Parma, to co-operate with the Leaguers
+and place her on the throne. A war of strategy was carried on, during
+which Henry kept the enemy at bay, but could do no more, since the
+larger number of his people, though intending to have no king but
+himself, did not wish him to gain too easy a victory, lest in that case
+he should remain a Calvinist. However, he was only waiting to recant
+till he could do so with a good grace. He really preferred Catholicism,
+and had only been a political Huguenot; and his best and most faithful
+adviser, the Baron of Rosny, better known as Duke of Sully, though a
+staunch Calvinist himself, recommended the change as the only means of
+restoring peace to the kingdom. There was little more resistance to
+Henry after he had again been received by the Church in 1592. Paris,
+weary of the long war, opened its gates in 1593, and the inhabitants
+crowded round him with ecstasy, so that he said, "Poor people, they are
+hungry for the sight of a king!" The Leaguers made their peace, and when
+Philip of Spain again attacked Henry, the young Duke of Guise was one of
+the first to hasten to the defence. Philip saw that there were no
+further hopes for his daughter, and peace was made in 1596.
+
+
+10. The Edict of Nantes.--Two years later, in 1598, Henry put forth
+what was called the Edict of Nantes, because first registered in that
+parliament. It secured to the Huguenots equal civil rights with those of
+the Catholics, accepted their marriages, gave them, under restrictions,
+permission to meet for worship and for consultations, and granted them
+cities for the security of their rights, of which La Rochelle was the
+chief. The Calvinists had been nearly exterminated in the north, but
+there were still a large number in the south of France, and the burghers
+of the chief southern cities were mostly Huguenot. The war had been from
+the first a very horrible one; there had been savage slaughter, and
+still more savage reprisals on each side. The young nobles had been
+trained into making a fashion of ferocity, and practising graceful ways
+of striking death-blows. Whole districts had been laid waste, churches
+and abbeys destroyed, tombs rifled, and the whole population accustomed
+to every sort of horror and suffering; while nobody but Henry IV.
+himself, and the Duke of Sully, had any notion either of statesmanship
+or of religious toleration.
+
+
+11. Henry's Plans.--Just as the reign of Louis XI. had been a period
+of rest and recovery from the English wars, so that of Henry IV. was one
+of restoration from the ravages of thirty years of intermittent civil
+war. The king himself not only had bright and engaging manners, but was
+a man of large heart and mind; and Sully did much for the welfare of the
+country. Roads, canals, bridges, postal communications, manufactures,
+extended commerce, all owed their promotion to him, and brought
+prosperity to the burgher class; and the king was especially endeared to
+the peasantry by his saying that he hoped for the time when no cottage
+would be without a good fowl in its pot. The great silk manufactories of
+southern France chiefly arose under his encouragement, and there was
+prosperity of every kind. The Church itself was in a far better state
+than before. Some of the best men of any time were then living--in
+especial Vincent de Paul, who did much to improve the training of the
+parochial clergy, and who founded the order of Sisters of Charity, who
+prevented the misery of the streets of Paris from ever being so
+frightful as in those days when deserted children became the prey of
+wolves, dogs, and pigs. The nobles, who had grown into insolence during
+the wars, either as favourites of Henry III. or as zealous supporters of
+the Huguenot cause, were subdued and tamed. The most noted of these were
+the Duke of Bouillon, the owner of the small principality of Sedan, who
+was reduced to obedience by the sight of Sully's formidable train of
+artillery; and the Marshal Duke of Biron, who, thinking that Henry had
+not sufficiently rewarded his services, intrigued with Spain and Savoy,
+and was beheaded for his treason. Hatred to the house of Austria in
+Spain and Germany was as keen as ever in France; and in 1610 Henry IV.
+was prepared for another war on the plea of a disputed succession to the
+duchy of Cleves. The old fanaticism still lingered in Paris, and Henry
+had been advised to beware of pageants there; but it was necessary that
+his second wife, Mary de' Medici, should be crowned before he went to
+the war, as she was to be left regent. Two days after the coronation, as
+Henry was going to the arsenal to visit his old friend Sully, he was
+stabbed to the heart in his coach, in the streets of Paris, by a fanatic
+named Ravaillac. The French call him Le Grand Monarque; and he was one
+of the most attractive and benevolent of men, winning the hearts of all
+who approached him, but the immorality of his life did much to confirm
+the already low standard that prevailed among princes and nobles in
+France.
+
+
+12. The States-General of 1614.--Henry's second wife, Mary de' Medici,
+became regent, for her son, _Louis XIII._, was only ten years old, and
+indeed his character was so weak that his whole reign was only one long
+minority. Mary de' Medici was entirely under the dominion of an Italian
+favourite named Concini, and his wife, and their whole endeavour was to
+amass riches for themselves and keep the young king in helpless
+ignorance, while they undid all that Sully had effected, and took bribes
+shamelessly. The Prince of Conde tried to overthrow them, and, in hopes
+of strengthening herself, in 1614 Mary summoned together the
+States-General. There came 464 members, 132 for the nobles, 140 for the
+clergy, and 192 for the third estate, _i.e._ the burghers, and these,
+being mostly lawyers and magistrates from the provinces, were resolved
+to make their voices heard. Taxation was growing worse and worse. Not
+only was it confined to the burgher and peasant class, exempting the
+clergy and the nobles, among which last were included their families to
+the remotest generation, but it had become the court custom to multiply
+offices, in order to pension the nobles, and keep them quiet; and this,
+together with the expenses of the army, made the weight of taxation
+ruinous. Moreover, the presentation to the civil offices held by
+lawyers was made hereditary in their families, on payment of a sum down,
+and of fees at the death of each holder. All these abuses were
+complained of; and one of the deputies even told the nobility that if
+they did not learn to treat the despised classes below them as younger
+brothers, they would lay up a terrible store of retribution for
+themselves. A petition to the king was drawn up, and was received, but
+never answered. The doors of the house of assembly were closed--the
+members were told it was by order of the king--and the States-General
+never met again for 177 years, when the storm was just ready to fall.
+
+
+13. The Siege of Rochelle.--The rottenness of the State was chiefly
+owing to the nobility, who, as long as they were allowed to grind down
+their peasants and shine at court, had no sense of duty or public
+spirit, and hated the burghers and lawyers far too much to make common
+cause with them against the constantly increasing power of the throne.
+They only intrigued and struggled for personal advantages and rivalries,
+and never thought of the good of the State. They bitterly hated Concini,
+the Marshal d'Ancre, as he had been created, but he remained in power
+till 1614, when one of the king's gentlemen, Albert de Luynes, plotted
+with the king himself and a few of his guards for his deliverance.
+Nothing could be easier than the execution. The king ordered the
+captain of the guards to arrest Concini, and kill him if he resisted;
+and this was done. Concini was cut down on the steps of the Louvre, and
+Louis exclaimed, "At last I am a king." But it was not in him to be a
+king, and he never was one all his life. He only passed under the
+dominion of De Luynes, who was a high-spirited young noble. The
+Huguenots had been holding assemblies, which were considered more
+political than religious, and their towns of security were a grievance
+to royalty. War broke out again, and Louis himself went with De Luynes
+to besiege Montauban. The place was taken, but disease broke out in the
+army, and De Luynes died. There was a fresh struggle for power between
+the queen-mother and the Prince of Conde, ending in both being set aside
+by the queen's almoner, Armand de Richelieu, Bishop of Lucon, and
+afterwards a cardinal, the ablest statesman then in Europe, who gained
+complete dominion over the king and country, and ruled them both with a
+rod of iron. The Huguenots were gradually driven out of all their
+strongholds, till only Rochelle remained to them. This city was bravely
+and patiently defended by the magistrates and the Duke of Rohan, with
+hopes of succour from England, until these being disconcerted by the
+murder of the Duke of Buckingham, they were forced to surrender, after
+having held out for more than a year. Louis XIII. entered in triumph,
+deprived the city of all its privileges, and thus in 1628 concluded the
+war that had begun by the attack of the Guisards on the congregation at
+Vassy, in 1561. The lives and properties of the Huguenots were still
+secure, but all favour was closed against them, and every encouragement
+held out to them to join the Church. Many of the worst scandals had been
+removed, and the clergy were much improved; and, from whatever motive it
+might be, many of the more influential Huguenots began to conform to the
+State religion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POWER OF THE CROWN.
+
+
+1. Richelieu's Administration.--Cardinal de Richelieu's whole idea of
+statesmanship consisted in making the King of France the greatest of
+princes at home and abroad. To make anything great of Louis XIII., who
+was feeble alike in mind and body, was beyond any one's power, and
+Richelieu kept him in absolute subjection, allowing him a favourite with
+whom to hunt, talk, and amuse himself, but if the friend attempted to
+rouse the king to shake off the yoke, crushing him ruthlessly. It was
+the crown rather than the king that the cardinal exalted, putting down
+whatever resisted. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the king's only brother,
+made a futile struggle for power, and freedom of choice in marriage, but
+was soon overcome. He was spared, as being the only heir to the kingdom,
+but the Duke of Montmorency, who had been led into his rebellion, was
+brought to the block, amid the pity and terror of all France. Whoever
+seemed dangerous to the State, or showed any spirit of independence,
+was marked by the cardinal, and suffered a hopeless imprisonment, if
+nothing worse; but at the same time his government was intelligent and
+able, and promoted prosperity, as far as was possible where there was
+such a crushing of individual spirit and enterprise. Richelieu's plan,
+in fact, was to found a despotism, though a wise and well-ordered
+despotism, at home, while he made France great by conquests abroad. And
+at this time the ambition of France found a favourable field in the
+state both of Germany and of Spain.
+
+
+2. The War in Flanders and Italy.--The Thirty Years' War had been
+raging in Germany for many years, and France had taken no part in it,
+beyond encouraging the Swedes and the Protestant Germans, as the enemies
+of the Emperor. But the policy of Richelieu required that the disunion
+between its Catholic and Protestant states should be maintained, and
+when things began to tend towards peace from mutual exhaustion, the
+cardinal interfered, and induced the Protestant party to continue the
+war by giving them money and reinforcements. A war had already begun in
+Italy on behalf of the Duke of Nevers, who had become heir to the duchy
+of Mantua, but whose family had lived in France so long that the Emperor
+and the King of Spain supported a more distant claim of the Duke of
+Savoy to part of the duchy, rather than admit a French prince into
+Italy. Richelieu was quick to seize this pretext for attacking Spain,
+for Spain was now dying into a weak power, and he saw in the war a means
+of acquiring the Netherlands, which belonged to the Spanish crown. At
+first nothing important was done, but the Spaniards and Germans were
+worn out, while two young and able captains were growing up among the
+French--the Viscount of Turenne, younger son to the Duke of Bouillon,
+and the Duke of Enghien, eldest son of the Prince of Conde--and
+Richelieu's policy soon secured a brilliant career of success. Elsass,
+Lorraine, Artois, Catalonia, and Savoy, all fell into the hands of the
+French, and from a chamber of sickness the cardinal directed the affairs
+of three armies, as well as made himself feared and respected by the
+whole kingdom. Cinq Mars, the last favourite he had given the king,
+plotted his overthrow, with the help of the Spaniards, but was detected
+and executed, when the great minister was already at death's door.
+Richelieu recommended an Italian priest, Julius Mazarin, whom he had
+trained to work under him, to carry on the government, and died in the
+December of 1642. The king only survived him five months, dying on the
+14th of May, 1643. The war was continued on the lines Richelieu had laid
+down, and four days after the death of Louis XIII. the army in the Low
+Countries gained a splendid victory at Rocroy, under the Duke of
+Enghien, entirely destroying the old Spanish infantry. The battles of
+Freiburg, Nordlingen, and Lens raised the fame of the French generals to
+the highest pitch, and in 1649 reduced the Emperor to make peace in the
+treaty of Muenster. France obtained as her spoil the three bishoprics,
+Metz, Toul, and Verdun, ten cities in Elsass, Brisach, and the Sundgau,
+with the Savoyard town of Pignerol; but the war with Spain continued
+till 1659, when Louis XIV. engaged to marry Maria Theresa, a daughter of
+the King of Spain.
+
+
+3. The Fronde.--When an heir had long been despaired of, Anne of
+Austria, the wife of Louis XIII., had become the mother of two sons, the
+eldest of whom, _Louis XIV._, was only five years old at the time of his
+father's death. The queen-mother became regent, and trusted entirely to
+Mazarin, who had become a cardinal, and pursued the policy of Richelieu.
+But what had been endured from a man by birth a French noble, was
+intolerable from a low-born Italian. "After the lion comes the fox," was
+the saying, and the Parliament of Paris made a last stand by refusing to
+register the royal edict for fresh taxes, being supported both by the
+burghers of Paris, and by a great number of the nobility, who were
+personally jealous of Mazarin. This party was called the Fronde, because
+in their discussions each man stood forth, launched his speech, and
+retreated, just as the boys did with slings (_fronde_) and stones in the
+streets. The struggle became serious, but only a few of the lawyers in
+the parliament had any real principle or public spirit; all the other
+actors caballed out of jealousy and party spirit, making tools of "the
+men of the gown," whom they hated and despised, though mostly far their
+superiors in worth and intelligence. Anne of Austria held fast by
+Mazarin, and was supported by the Duke of Enghien, whom his father's
+death had made Prince of Conde. Conde's assistance enabled her to
+blockade Paris and bring the parliament to terms, which concluded the
+first act of the Fronde, with the banishment of Mazarin as a peace
+offering. Conde, however, became so arrogant and overbearing that the
+queen caused him to be imprisoned, whereupon his wife and his other
+friends began a fresh war for his liberation, and the queen was forced
+to yield; but he again showed himself so tyrannical that the queen and
+the parliament became reconciled and united to put him down, giving the
+command of the troops to Turenne. Again there was a battle at the gates
+of Paris, in which all Conde's friends were wounded, and he himself so
+entirely worsted that he had to go into exile, when he entered the
+Spanish service, while Mazarin returned to power at home.
+
+
+4. The Court of Anne of Austria.--The court of France, though never
+pure, was much improved during the reign of Louis XIII. and the regency
+of Anne of Austria. There was a spirit of romance and grace about it,
+somewhat cumbrous and stately, but outwardly pure and refined, and quite
+a step out of the gross and open vice of the former reigns. The Duchess
+de Rambouillet, a lady of great grace and wit, made her house the centre
+of a brilliant society, which set itself to raise and refine the
+manners, literature, and language of the time. No word that was
+considered vulgar or coarse was allowed to pass muster; and though in
+process of time this censorship became pedantic and petty, there is no
+doubt that much was done to purify both the language and the tone of
+thought. Poems, plays, epigrams, eulogiums, and even sermons were
+rehearsed before the committee of taste in the Hotel de Rambouillet, and
+a wonderful new stimulus was there given, not only to ornamental but to
+solid literature. Many of the great men who made France illustrious were
+either ending or beginning their careers at this time. Memoir writing
+specially flourished, and the characters of the men and women of the
+court are known to us on all sides. Cardinal de Retz and the Duke of
+Rochefoucauld, both deeply engaged in the Fronde, have left, the one
+memoirs, the other maxims of great power of irony. Mme. de Motteville,
+one of the queen's ladies, wrote a full history of the court. Blaise
+Pascal, one of the greatest geniuses of all times, was attaching
+himself to the Jansenists. This religious party, so called from Jansen,
+a Dutch priest, whose opinions were imputed to them, had sprung up
+around the reformed convent of Port Royal, and numbered among them some
+of the ablest and best men of the time; but the Jesuits considered them
+to hold false doctrine, and there was a continual debate, ending at
+length in the persecution of the Jansenists. Pascal's "Provincial
+Letters," exposing the Jesuit system, were among the ablest writings of
+the age. Philosophy, poetry, science, history, art, were all making
+great progress, though there was a stateliness and formality in all that
+was said and done, redolent of the Spanish queen's etiquette and the
+fastidious refinement of the Hotel Rambouillet.
+
+
+5. Court of Louis XIV.--The attempt from the earliest times of the
+French monarchy had been to draw all government into the hands of the
+sovereign, and the suppression of the Fronde completed the work. Louis
+XIV., though ill educated, was a man of considerable ability, much
+industry, and great force of character, arising from a profound belief
+that France was the first country in the world, and himself the first of
+Frenchmen; and he had a magnificent courtesy of demeanour, which so
+impressed all who came near him as to make them his willing slaves.
+"There is enough in him to make four kings and one respectable man
+besides" was what Mazarin said of him; and when in 1661 the cardinal
+died, the king showed himself fully equal to becoming his own prime
+minister. "The State is myself," he said, and all centred upon him so
+that no room was left for statesmen. The court was, however, in a most
+brilliant state. There had been an unusual outburst of talent of every
+kind in the lull after the Wars of Religion, and in generals, thinkers,
+artists, and men of literature, France was unusually rich. The king had
+a wonderful power of self-assertion, which attached them all to him
+almost as if he were a sort of divinity. The stately, elaborate Spanish
+etiquette brought in by his mother, Anne of Austria, became absolutely
+an engine of government. Henry IV. had begun the evil custom of keeping
+the nobles quiet by giving them situations at court, with pensions
+attached, and these offices were multiplied to the most enormous and
+absurd degree, so that every royal personage had some hundreds of
+personal attendants. Princes of the blood and nobles of every degree
+were contented to hang about the court, crowding into the most narrow
+lodgings at Versailles, and thronging its anterooms; and to be ordered
+to remain in the country was a most severe punishment.
+
+
+6. France under Louis XIV.--There was, in fact, nothing but the chase
+to occupy a gentleman on his own estate, for he was allowed no duties
+or responsibilities. Each province had a governor or _intendant_, a sort
+of viceroy, and the administration of the cities was managed chiefly on
+the part of the king, even the mayors obtaining their posts by purchase.
+The unhappy peasants had to pay in the first place the taxes to
+Government, out of which were defrayed an intolerable number of
+pensions, many for useless offices; next, the rents and dues which
+supported their lord's expenditure at court; and, thirdly, the tithes
+and fees of the clergy. Besides which, they were called off from the
+cultivation of their own fields for a certain number of days to work at
+the roads; their horses might be used by royal messengers; their lord's
+crops had to be got in by their labour gratis, while their own were
+spoiling; and, in short, the only wonder is how they existed at all.
+Their hovels and their food were wretched, and any attempt to amend
+their condition on the part of their lord would have been looked on as
+betokening dangerous designs, and probably have landed him in the
+Bastille. The peasants of Brittany--where the old constitution had been
+less entirely ruined--and those of Anjou were in a less oppressed
+condition, and in the cities trade flourished. Colbert, the
+comptroller-general of the finances, was so excellent a manager that the
+pressure of taxation was endurable in his time, and he promoted new
+manufactures, such as glass at Cherbourg, cloth at Abbeville, silk at
+Lyons; he also tried to promote commerce and colonization, and to create
+a navy. There was a great appearance of prosperity, and in every
+department there was wonderful ability. The Reformation had led to a
+considerable revival among the Roman Catholics themselves. The
+theological colleges established in the last reign had much improved the
+tone of the clergy. Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, was one of the most noted
+preachers who ever existed, and Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambrai, one of
+the best of men. A reform of discipline, begun in the convent of Port
+Royal, ended by attracting and gathering together some of the most
+excellent and able persons in France--among them Blaise Pascal, a man of
+marvellous genius and depth of thought, and Racine, the chief French
+dramatic poet. Their chief director, the Abbot of St. Cyran, was
+however, a pupil of Jansen, a Dutch ecclesiastic, whose views on
+abstruse questions of grace were condemned by the Jesuits; and as the
+Port-Royalists would not disown the doctrines attributed to him, they
+were discouraged and persecuted throughout Louis's reign, more because
+he was jealous of what would not bend to his will than for any real want
+of conformity. Pascal's famous "Provincial Letters" were put forth
+during this controversy; and in fact, the literature of France reached
+its Augustan age during this reign, and the language acquired its
+standard perfection.
+
+
+7. War in the Low Countries.--Maria Theresa, the queen of Louis XIV.,
+was the child of the first marriage of Philip IV. of Spain; and on her
+father's death in 1661, Louis, on pretext of an old law in Brabant,
+which gave the daughters of a first marriage the preference over the
+sons of a second, claimed the Low Countries from the young Charles II.
+of Spain. He thus began a war which was really a continuance of the old
+struggle between France and Burgundy, and of the endeavour of France to
+stretch her frontier to the Rhine. At first England, Holland, and Sweden
+united against him, and obliged him to make the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 1668; but he then succeeded in bribing Charles II. of England to
+forsake the cause of the Dutch, and the war was renewed in 1672.
+William, Prince of Orange, Louis's most determined enemy through life,
+kept up the spirits of the Dutch, and they obtained aid from Germany and
+Spain, through a six years' terrible war, in which the great Turenne was
+killed at Saltzbach, in Germany. At last, from exhaustion, all parties
+were compelled to conclude the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Taking
+advantage of undefined terms in this treaty, Louis seized various cities
+belonging to German princes, and likewise the free imperial city of
+Strassburg, when all Germany was too much worn out by the long war to
+offer resistance. France was full of self-glorification, the king was
+viewed almost as a demi-god, and the splendour of his court and of his
+buildings, especially the palace at Versailles, with its gardens and
+fountains, kept up the delusion of his greatness.
+
+
+8. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.--In 1685 Louis supposed that the
+Huguenots had been so reduced in numbers that the Edict of Nantes could
+be repealed. All freedom of worship was denied them; their ministers
+were banished, but their flocks were not allowed to follow them. If
+taken while trying to escape, men were sent to the galleys, women to
+captivity, and children to convents for education. Dragoons were
+quartered on families to torment them into going to mass. A few made
+head in the wild moors of the Cevennes under a brave youth named
+Cavalier, and others endured severe persecution in the south of France.
+Dragoons were quartered on them, who made it their business to torment
+and insult them; their marriages were declared invalid, their children
+taken from them to be educated in the Roman Catholic faith. A great
+number, amounting to at least 100,000, succeeded in escaping, chiefly to
+Prussia, Holland, and England, whither they carried many of the
+manufactures that Colbert had taken so much pains to establish. Many of
+those who settled in England were silk weavers, and a large colony was
+thus established at Spitalfields, which long kept up its French
+character.
+
+
+9. The War of the Palatinate.--This brutal act of tyranny was followed
+by a fresh attack on Germany. On the plea of a supposed inheritance of
+his sister-in-law, the Duchess of Orleans, Louis invaded the Palatinate
+on the Rhine, and carried on one of the most ferocious wars in history,
+while he was at the same time supporting the cause of his cousin, James
+II. of England, after he had fled and abdicated on the arrival of
+William of Orange. During this war, however, that generation of able men
+who had grown up with Louis began to pass away, and his success was not
+so uniform; while, Colbert being dead, taxation began to be more felt by
+the exhausted people, and peace was made at Ryswick in 1697.
+
+
+10. The War of the Succession in Spain.--The last of the four great
+wars of Louis's reign was far more unfortunate. Charles II. of Spain
+died childless, naming as his successor a French prince, Philip, Duke of
+Anjou, the second son of the only son of Charles's eldest sister, the
+queen of Louis XIV. But the Powers of Europe, at the Peace of Ryswick,
+had agreed that the crown of Spain should go to Charles of Austria,
+second son of the Emperor Leopold, who was the descendant of younger
+sisters of the royal Spanish line, but did not excite the fear and
+jealousy of Europe, as did a scion of the already overweening house of
+Bourbon. This led to the War of the Spanish Succession, England and
+Holland supporting Charles, and fighting with Louis in Spain, Savoy, and
+the Low Countries. In Spain Louis was ultimately successful, and his
+grandson Philip V. retained the throne; but the troops which his ally,
+the Elector of Bavaria, introduced into Germany were totally overthrown
+at Blenheim by the English army under the Duke of Marlborough, and the
+Austrian under Prince Eugene, a son of a younger branch of the house of
+Savoy. Eugene had been bred up in France, but, having bitterly offended
+Louis by calling him a stage king for show and a chess king for use, had
+entered the Emperor's service, and was one of his chief enemies. He
+aided his cousin, Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in repulsing the French
+attacks in that quarter, gained a great victory at Turin, and advanced
+into Provence. Marlborough was likewise in full career of victory in the
+Low Countries, and gained there the battle of Ramillies.
+
+
+11. Peace of Utrecht.--Louis had outlived his good fortune. His great
+generals and statesmen had passed away. The country was exhausted,
+famine was preying on the wretched peasantry, supplies could not be
+found, and one city after another, of those Louis had seized, was
+retaken. New victories at Oudenarde and Malplaquet were gained over the
+French armies; and, though Louis was as resolute and undaunted as ever,
+his affairs were in a desperate state, when he was saved by a sudden
+change of policy on the part of Queen Anne of England, who recalled her
+army and left her allies to continue the contest alone. Eugene was not a
+match for France without Marlborough, and the Archduke Charles, having
+succeeded his brother the Emperor, gave up his pretensions to the crown
+of Spain, so that it became possible to conclude a general peace at
+Utrecht in 1713. By this time Louis was seventy-five years of age, and
+had suffered grievous family losses--first by the death of his only son,
+and then of his eldest grandson, a young man of much promise of
+excellence, who, with his wife died of malignant measles, probably from
+ignorant medical treatment, since their infant, whose illness was
+concealed by his nurses, was the only one of the family who survived.
+The old king, in spite of sorrow and reverse, toiled with indomitable
+energy to the end of his reign, the longest on record, having lasted
+seventy-two years, when he died in 1715. He had raised the French crown
+to its greatest splendour, but had sacrificed the country to himself and
+his false notions of greatness.
+
+
+12. The Regency.--The crown now descended to _Louis XV._, a weakly
+child of four years old. His great-grandfather had tried to provide for
+his good by leaving the chief seat in the council of regency to his own
+illegitimate son, the Duke of Maine, the most honest and conscientious
+man then in the family, but, though clever, unwise and very unpopular.
+His birth caused the appointment to be viewed as an outrage by the
+nobility, and the king's will was set aside. The first prince of the
+blood royal, Philip, Duke of Orleans, the late king's nephew, became
+sole regent--a man of good ability, but of easy, indolent nature; and
+who, in the enforced idleness of his life, had become dissipated and
+vicious beyond all imagination or description. He was kindly and
+gracious, and his mother said of him that he was like the prince in a
+fable whom all the fairies had endowed with gifts, except one malignant
+sprite who had prevented any favour being of use to him. In the general
+exhaustion produced by the wars of Louis XIV., a Scotchman named James
+Law began the great system of hollow speculation which has continued
+ever since to tempt people to their ruin. He tried raising sums of money
+on national credit, and also devised a company who were to lend money to
+found a great settlement on the Mississippi, the returns from which were
+to be enormous. Every one speculated in shares, and the wildest
+excitement prevailed. Law's house was mobbed by people seeking
+interviews with him, and nobles disguised themselves in liveries to get
+access to him. Fortunes were made one week and lost the next, and
+finally the whole plan proved to have been a mere baseless scheme; ruin
+followed, and the misery of the country increased. The Duke of Orleans
+died suddenly in 1723. The king was now legally of age; but he was dull
+and backward, and little fitted for government, and the country was
+really ruled by the Duke of Bourbon, and after him by Cardinal Fleury,
+an aged statesman, but filled with the same schemes of ambition as
+Richelieu or Mazarin.
+
+
+13. War of the Austrian Succession.--Thus France plunged into new
+wars. Louis XV. married the daughter of Stanislas Lecksinsky, a Polish
+noble, who, after being raised to the throne, was expelled by Austrian
+intrigues and violence. Louis was obliged to take up arms on behalf of
+his father-in-law, but was bought off by a gift from the Emperor Charles
+VI. of the duchy of Lorraine to Stanislas, to revert to his daughter
+after his death and thus become united to France. Lorraine belonged to
+Duke Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, eldest daughter to the
+Emperor, and Francis received instead the duchy of Tuscany; while all
+the chief Powers in Europe agreed to the so-called Pragmatic Sanction,
+by which Charles decreed that Maria Theresa should inherit Austria and
+Hungary and the other hereditary states on her father's death, to the
+exclusion of the daughters of his elder brother, Joseph. When Charles
+VI. died, however, in 1740, a great European war began on this matter.
+Frederick II. of Prussia would neither allow Maria Theresa's claim to
+the hereditary states, nor join in electing her husband to the Empire;
+and France took part against her, sending Marshal Belleisle to support
+the Elector of Bavaria, who had been chosen Emperor. George II. of
+England held with Maria Theresa, and gained a victory over the French at
+Dettingen, in 1744. Louis XV. then joined his army, and the battle of
+Fontenoy, in 1745, was one of the rare victories of France over England.
+Another victory followed at Laufeldt, but elsewhere France had had heavy
+losses, and in 1748, after the death of Charles VII., peace was made at
+Aix-la-Chapelle.
+
+
+14. The Seven Years' War.--Louis, dull and selfish by nature, had been
+absolutely led into vice by his courtiers, especially the Duke of
+Bourbon, who feared his becoming active in public affairs. He had no
+sense of duty to his people; and whereas his great-grandfather had
+sought display and so-called glory, he cared solely for pleasure, and
+that of the grossest and most sensual order, so that his court was a
+hotbed of shameless vice. All that could be wrung from the impoverished
+country was lavished on the overgrown establishments of every member of
+the royal family, in pensions to nobles, and in shameful amusements of
+the king. In 1756 another war broke out, in consequence of the hatreds
+left between Prussia and Austria by the former struggle. Maria Theresa
+had, by flatteries she ought to have disdained, gained over France to
+take part with her, and England was allied with Frederick II. In this
+war France and England chiefly fought in their distant possessions,
+where the English were uniformly successful; and after seven years
+another peace followed, leaving the boundaries of the German states just
+where they were before, after a frightful amount of bloodshed. But
+France had had terrible losses. She was driven from India, and lost all
+her settlements in America and Canada.
+
+
+15. France under Louis XV.--Meantime the gross vice and licentiousness
+of the king was beyond description, and the nobility retained about the
+court by the system established by Louis XIV. were, if not his equals in
+crime, equally callous to the suffering caused by the reckless
+expensiveness of the court, the whole cost of which was defrayed by the
+burghers and peasants. No taxes were asked from clergy or nobles, and
+this latter term included all sprung of a noble line to the utmost
+generation. The owner of an estate had no means of benefiting his
+tenants, even if he wished it; for all matters, even of local
+government, depended on the crown. All he could do was to draw his
+income from them, and he was often forced, either by poverty or by his
+expensive life, to strain to the utmost the old feudal system. If he
+lived at court, his expenses were heavy, and only partly met by his
+pension, likewise raised from the taxes paid by the poor farmer; if he
+lived in the country, he was a still greater tyrant, and was called by
+the people a _hobereau_, or kite. No career was open to his younger
+sons, except in the court, the Church, or the army, and here they
+monopolized the prizes, obtaining all the richer dioceses and abbeys,
+and all the promotion in the army. The magistracies were almost all
+hereditary among lawyers, who had bought them for their families from
+the crown, and paid for the appointment of each son. The officials
+attached to each member of the royal family were almost incredible in
+number, and all paid by the taxes. The old _gabelle_, or salt-tax, had
+gone on ever since the English wars, and every member of a family had to
+pay it, not according to what they used, but what they were supposed to
+need. Every pig was rated at what he ought to require for salting. Every
+cow, sheep, or hen had a toll to pay to king, lord, bishop--sometimes
+also to priest and abbey. The peasant was called off from his own work
+to give the dues of labour to the roads or to his lord. He might not
+spread manure that could interfere with the game, nor drive away the
+partridges that ate his corn. So scanty were his crops that famines
+slaying thousands passed unnoticed, and even if, by any wonder,
+prosperity smiled on the peasant, he durst not live in any kind of
+comfort, lest the stewards of his lord or of Government should pounce on
+his wealth.
+
+
+16. Reaction.--Meantime there was a strong feeling that change must
+come. Classical literature was studied, and Greek and Roman manners and
+institutions were thought ideal perfection. There was great disgust at
+the fetters of a highly artificial life in which every one was bound,
+and at the institutions which had been so misused. Writers arose, among
+whom Voltaire and Rousseau were the most eminent, who aimed at the
+overthrow of all the ideas which had come to be thus abused. The one by
+his caustic wit, the other by his enthusiastic simplicity, gained
+willing ears, and, the writers in a great Encyclopaedia then in course of
+publication, contrived to attack most of the notions which had been
+hitherto taken for granted, and were closely connected with faith and
+with government. The king himself was dully aware that he was living on
+the crust of a volcano, but he said it would last his time; and so it
+did. Louis XV. died of smallpox in 1774, leaving his grandsons to reap
+the harvest that generations had been sowing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE REVOLUTION.
+
+
+1. Attempts at Reform.--It was evident that a change must be made.
+_Louis XVI._ himself knew it, and slurred over the words in his
+coronation oath that bound him to extirpate heresy; but he was a slow,
+dull man, and affairs had come to such a pass that a far abler man than
+he could hardly have dealt with the dead-lock above, without causing a
+frightful outbreak of the pent-up masses below. His queen, Marie
+Antoinette, was hated for being of Austrian birth, and, though a
+spotless and noble woman, her most trivial actions gave occasion to
+calumnies founded on the crimes of the last generation. Unfortunately,
+the king, though an honest and well-intentioned man, was totally unfit
+to guide a country through a dangerous crisis. His courage was passive,
+his manners were heavy, dull, and shy, and, though steadily industrious,
+he was slow of comprehension and unready in action; and reformation was
+the more difficult because to abolish the useless court offices would
+have been utter starvation to many of their holders, who had nothing but
+their pensions to live upon. Yet there was a general passion for reform;
+all ranks alike looked to some change to free them from the dead-lock
+which made improvement impossible. The Government was bankrupt, while
+the taxes were intolerable, and the first years of the reign were spent
+in experiments. Necker, a Swiss banker, was invited to take the charge
+of the finances, and large loans were made to Government, for which he
+contrived to pay interest regularly; some reduction was made in the
+expenditure; but the king's old minister, Maurepas, grew jealous of his
+popularity, and obtained his dismissal. The French took the part of the
+American colonies in their revolt from England, and the war thus
+occasioned brought on an increase of the load of debt, the general
+distress increased, and it became necessary to devise some mode of
+taxing which might divide the burthens between the whole nation, instead
+of making the peasants pay all and the nobles and clergy nothing. Louis
+decided on calling together the Notables, or higher nobility; but they
+were by no means disposed to tax themselves, and only abused his
+ministers. He then resolved on convoking the whole States-General of the
+kingdom, which had never met since the reign of Louis XIII.
+
+
+2. The States-General.--No one exactly knew the limits of the powers
+of the States-General when it met in 1789. Nobles, clergy, and the
+deputies who represented the commonalty, all formed the assembly at
+Versailles; and though the king would have kept apart these last, who
+were called the _Tiers Etat_, or third estate, they refused to withdraw
+from the great hall of Versailles. The Count of Mirabeau, the younger
+son of a noble family, who sat as a deputy, declared that nothing short
+of bayonets should drive out those who sat by the will of the people,
+and Louis yielded. Thenceforth the votes of a noble, a bishop, or a
+deputy all counted alike. The party names of democrat for those who
+wanted to exalt the power of the people, and of aristocrat for those who
+maintained the privileges of the nobles, came into use, and the most
+extreme democrats were called Jacobins, from an old convent of Jacobin
+friars, where they used to meet. The mob of Paris, always eager, fickle,
+and often blood-thirsty, were excited to the last degree by the debates;
+and, full of the remembrance of the insolence and cruelty of the nobles,
+sometimes rose and hunted down persons whom they deemed aristocrats,
+hanging them to the iron rods by which lamps were suspended over the
+streets. The king in alarm drew the army nearer, and it was supposed
+that he was going to prevent all change by force of arms. Thereupon the
+citizens enrolled themselves as a National Guard, wearing cockades of
+red, blue, and white, and commanded by La Fayette, a noble of democratic
+opinions, who had run away at seventeen to serve in the American War. On
+a report that the cannon of the Bastille had been pointed upon Paris,
+the mob rose in a frenzy, rushed upon it, hanged the guard, and
+absolutely tore down the old castle to its foundations, though they did
+not find a single prisoner in it. "This is a revolt," said Louis, when
+he heard of it. "Sire, it is a revolution," was the answer.
+
+
+3. The New Constitution.--The mob had found out its power. The
+fishwomen of the markets, always a peculiar and privileged class, were
+frantically excited, and were sure to be foremost in all the
+demonstrations stirred up by Jacobins. There was a great scarcity of
+provisions in Paris, and this, together with the continual dread that
+reforms would be checked by violence, maddened the people. On a report
+that the Guards had shown enthusiasm for the king, the whole populace
+came pouring out of Paris to Versailles, and, after threatening the life
+of the queen, brought the family back with them to Paris, and kept them
+almost as prisoners while the Assembly, which followed them to Paris,
+debated on the new constitution. The nobles were viewed as the worst
+enemies of the nation, and all over the country there were risings of
+the peasants, headed by democrats from the towns, who sacked their
+castles, and often seized their persons. Many fled to England and
+Germany, and the dread that these would unite and return to bring back
+the old system continually increased the fury of the people. The
+Assembly, now known as the Constituent Assembly, swept away all titles
+and privileges, and no one was henceforth to bear any prefix to his name
+but citizen; while at the same time the clergy were to renounce all the
+property of the Church, and to swear that their office and commission
+was derived from the will of the people alone, and that they owed no
+obedience save to the State. The estates thus yielded up were supposed
+to be enough to supply all State expenses without taxes; but as they
+could not at once be turned into money, promissory notes, or assignats,
+were issued. But, as coin was scarce, these were not worth nearly their
+professed value, and the general distress was thus much increased. The
+other oath the great body of the clergy utterly refused, and they were
+therefore driven out of their benefices, and became objects of great
+suspicion to the democrats. All the old boundaries and other
+distinctions between the provinces were destroyed, and France was
+divided into departments, each of which was to elect deputies, in whose
+assembly all power was to be vested, except that the king retained a
+right of veto, _i.e._, of refusing his sanction to any measure. He swore
+on the 13th of August, 1791, to observe this new constitution.
+
+
+4. The Republic.--The Constituent Assembly now dissolved itself, and a
+fresh Assembly, called the Legislative, took its place. For a time
+things went on more peacefully. Distrust was, however, deeply sown. The
+king was closely watched as an enemy; and those of the nobles who had
+emigrated began to form armies, aided by the Germans, on the frontier
+for his rescue. This enraged the people, who expected that their newly
+won liberties would be overthrown. The first time the king exercised his
+right of _veto_ the mob rose in fury; and though they then did no more
+than threaten, on the advance of the emigrant army on the 10th of
+August, 1792, a more terrible rising took place. The Tuilleries was
+sacked, the guards slaughtered, the unresisting king and his family
+deposed and imprisoned in the tower of the Temple. In terror lest the
+nobles in the prisons should unite with the emigrants, they were
+massacred by wholesale; while, with a vigour born of the excitement, the
+emigrant armies were repulsed and beaten. The monarchy came to an end;
+and France became a Republic, in which the National Convention, which
+followed the Legislative Assembly, was supreme. The more moderate
+members of this were called Girondins from the Gironde, the estuary of
+the Garonne, from the neighbourhood of which many of them came. They
+were able men, scholars and philosophers, full of schemes for reviving
+classical times, but wishing to stop short of the plans of the
+Jacobins, of whom the chief was Robespierre, a lawyer from Artois,
+filled with fanatical notions of the rights of man. He, with a party of
+other violent republicans, called the Mountain, of whom Danton and Marat
+were most noted, set to work to destroy all that interfered with their
+plans of general equality. The guillotine, a recently invented machine
+for beheading, was set in all the chief market-places, and hundreds were
+put to death on the charge of "conspiring against the nation." Louis
+XVI. was executed early in 1793; and it was enough to have any sort of
+birthright to be thought dangerous and put to death.
+
+
+5. The Reign of Terror.--Horror at the bloodshed perpetrated by the
+Mountain led a young girl, named Charlotte Corday, to assassinate Marat,
+whom she supposed to be the chief cause of the cruelties that were
+taking place; but his death only added to the dread of reaction. A
+Committee of Public Safety was appointed by the Convention, and
+endeavoured to sweep away every being who either seemed adverse to
+equality, or who might inherit any claim to rank. The queen was put to
+death nine months after her husband; and the Girondins, who had begun to
+try to stem the tide of slaughter, soon fell under the denunciation of
+the more violent. To be accused of "conspiring against the State" was
+instantly fatal, and no one's life was safe. Danton was denounced by
+Robespierre, and perished; and for three whole years the Reign of Terror
+lasted. The emigrants, by forming an army and advancing on France,
+assisted by the forces of Germany, only made matters worse. There was
+such a dread of the old oppressions coming back, that the peasants were
+ready to fight to the death against the return of the nobles. The army,
+where promotion used to go by rank instead of merit, were so glad of the
+change, that they were full of fresh spirit, and repulsed the army of
+Germans and emigrants all along the frontier. The city of Lyons, which
+had tried to resist the changes, was taken, and frightfully used by
+Collot d'Herbois, a member of the Committee of Public Safety. The
+guillotine was too slow for him, and he had the people mown down with
+grape-shot, declaring that of this great city nothing should be left but
+a monument inscribed, "Lyons resisted liberty--Lyons is no more!" In La
+Vendee--a district of Anjou, where the peasants were much attached to
+their clergy and nobles--they rose and gained such successes, that they
+dreamt for a little while of rescuing and restoring the little captive
+son of Louis XVI.; but they were defeated and put down by fire and
+sword, and at Nantes an immense number of executions took place, chiefly
+by drowning. It was reckoned that no less than 18,600 persons were
+guillotined in the three years between 1790 and 1794, besides those who
+died by other means. Everything was changed. Religion was to be done
+away with; the churches were closed; the tenth instead of the seventh
+day appointed for rest. "Death is an eternal sleep" was inscribed on the
+schools; and Reason, represented by a classically dressed woman, was
+enthroned in the cathedral of Notre Dame. At the same time a new era was
+invented, the 22nd of September, 1792; the months had new names, and the
+decimal measures of length, weight, and capacity, which are based on the
+proportions of the earth, were planned. All this time Robespierre really
+seems to have thought himself the benefactor of the human race; but at
+last the other members of the Convention took courage to denounce him,
+and he, with five more, was arrested and sent to the guillotine. The
+bloodthirsty fever was over, the Committee of Public Safety was
+overthrown, and people breathed again.
+
+
+6. The Directory.--The chief executive power was placed in the hands
+of a Directory, consisting of more moderate men, and a time of much
+prosperity set in. Already in the new vigour born of the strong emotions
+of the country the armies won great victories, not only repelling the
+Germans and the emigrants, but uniting Holland to France. Napoleon
+Buonaparte, a Corsican officer, who was called on to protect the
+Directory from being again overawed by the mob, became the leading
+spirit in France, through his Italian victories. He conquered Lombardy
+and Tuscany, and forced the Emperor to let them become republics under
+French protection, also to resign Flanders to France by the Treaty of
+Campo Formio. Buonaparte then made a descent on Egypt, hoping to attack
+India from that side, but he was foiled by Nelson, who destroyed his
+fleet in the battle of the Nile, and Sir Sydney Smith, who held out Acre
+against him. He hurried home to France on finding that the Directory had
+begun a fresh European war, seizing Switzerland, and forcing it to give
+up its treasures and become a republic on their model, and carrying the
+Pope off into captivity. All the European Powers had united against
+them, and Lombardy had been recovered chiefly by Russian aid; so that
+Buonaparte, on the ground that a nation at war needed a less cumbrous
+government than a Directory, contrived to get himself chosen First
+Consul, with two inferiors, in 1799.
+
+
+7. The Consulate.--A great course of victories followed in Italy,
+where Buonaparte commanded in person, and in Germany under Moreau.
+Austria and Russia were forced to make peace, and England was the only
+country that still resisted him, till a general peace was made at Amiens
+in 1803; but it only lasted for a year, for the French failed to
+perform the conditions, and began the war afresh. In the mean time
+Buonaparte had restored religion and order, and so entirely mastered
+France that, in 1804, he was able to form the republic into an empire,
+and affecting to be another Charles the Great, he caused the Pope to say
+mass at his coronation, though he put the crown on his own head. A
+concordat with the Pope reinstated the clergy, but altered the division
+of the dioceses, and put the bishops and priests in the pay of the
+State.
+
+
+8. The Empire.--The union of Italy to this new French Empire caused a
+fresh war with all Europe. The Austrian army, however, was defeated at
+Ulm and Austerlitz, the Prussians were entirely crushed at Jena, and the
+Russians fought two terrible but almost drawn battles at Eylau and
+Friedland. Peace was then made with all three at Tilsit, in 1807, the
+terms pressing exceedingly hard upon Prussia. Schemes of invading
+England were entertained by the Emperor, but were disconcerted by the
+destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by Nelson at Trafalgar.
+Spain was then in alliance with France; but Napoleon, treacherously
+getting the royal family into his hands, seized their kingdom, making
+his brother Joseph its king. But the Spaniards would not submit, and
+called in the English to their aid. The Peninsular War resulted in a
+series of victories on the part of the English under Wellington, while
+Austria, beginning another war, was again so crushed that the Emperor
+durst not refuse to give his daughter in marriage to Napoleon. However,
+in 1812, the conquest of Russia proved an exploit beyond Napoleon's
+powers. He reached Moscow with his Grand Army, but the city was burnt
+down immediately after his arrival, and he had no shelter or means of
+support. He was forced to retreat, through a fearful winter, without
+provisions and harassed by the Cossacks, who hung on the rear and cut
+off the stragglers, so that his whole splendid army had become a mere
+miserable, broken, straggling remnant by the time the survivors reached
+the Prussian frontier. He himself had hurried back to Paris as soon as
+he found their case hopeless, to arrange his resistance to all
+Europe--for every country rose against him on his first disaster--and
+the next year was spent in a series of desperate battles in Germany
+between him and the Allied Powers. Luetzen and Bautzen were doubtful, but
+the two days' battle of Leipzic was a terrible defeat. In the year 1814,
+four armies--those of Austria, Russia, England, and Prussia--entered
+France at once; and though Napoleon resisted, stood bravely and
+skilfully, and gained single battles against Austria and Prussia, he
+could not stand against all Europe. In April the Allies entered Paris,
+and he was forced to abdicate, being sent under a strong guard to the
+little Mediterranean isle of Elba. He had drained France of men by his
+constant call for soldiers, who were drawn by conscription from the
+whole country, till there were not enough to do the work in the fields,
+and foreign prisoners had to be employed; but he had conferred on her
+one great benefit in the great code of laws called the "_Code
+Napoleon_," which has ever since continued in force.
+
+
+9. France under Napoleon.--The old laws and customs, varying in
+different provinces, had been swept away, so that the field was clear;
+and the system of government which Napoleon devised has remained
+practically unchanged from that time to this. Everything was made to
+depend upon the central government. The Ministers of Religion, of
+Justice, of Police, of Education, etc., have the regulation of all
+interior affairs, and appoint all who work under them, so that nobody
+learns how to act alone; and as the Government has been in fact ever
+since dependent on the will of the people of Paris, the whole country is
+helplessly in their hands. The army, as in almost all foreign nations,
+is raised by conscription--that is, by drawing lots among the young men
+liable to serve, and who can only escape by paying a substitute to serve
+in their stead; and this is generally the first object of the savings of
+a family. All feudal claims had been done away with, and with them the
+right of primogeniture; and, indeed, it is not possible for a testator
+to avoid leaving his property to be shared among his family, though he
+can make some small differences in the amount each receives, and thus
+estates are continually freshly divided, and some portions become very
+small indeed. French peasants are, however, most eager to own land, and
+are usually very frugal, sober, and saving; and the country has gone on
+increasing in prosperity and comfort. It is true that, probably from the
+long habit of concealing any wealth they might possess, the French
+farmers and peasantry care little for display, or what we should call
+comfort, and live rough hard-working lives even while well off and with
+large hoards of wealth; but their condition has been wonderfully changed
+for the better ever since the Revolution. All this has continued under
+the numerous changes that have taken place in the forms of government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FRANCE SINCE THE REVOLUTION.
+
+
+1. The Restoration.--The Allies left the people of France free to
+choose their Government, and they accepted the old royal family, who
+were on their borders awaiting a recall. The son of Louis XVI. had
+perished in the hands of his jailers, and thus the king's next brother,
+_Louis XVIII._, succeeded to the throne, bringing back a large emigrant
+following. Things were not settled down, when Napoleon, in the spring of
+1815, escaped from Elba. The army welcomed him with delight, and Louis
+was forced to flee to Ghent. However, the Allies immediately rose in
+arms, and the troops of England and Prussia crushed Napoleon entirely at
+Waterloo, on the 18th of June, 1815. He was sent to the lonely rock of
+St. Helena, in the Atlantic, whence he could not again return to trouble
+the peace of Europe. There he died in 1821. Louis XVIII. was restored,
+and a charter was devised by which a limited monarchy was established, a
+king at the head, and two chambers--one of peers, the other of
+deputies, but with a very narrow franchise. It did not, however, work
+amiss; till, after Louis's death in 1824, his brother, _Charles X._,
+tried to fall back on the old system. He checked the freedom of the
+press, and interfered with the freedom of elections. The consequence was
+a fresh revolution in July, 1830, happily with little bloodshed, but
+which forced Charles X. to go into exile with his grandchild Henry,
+whose father, the Duke of Berry, had been assassinated in 1820.
+
+
+2. Reign of Louis Philippe.--The chambers of deputies offered the
+crown to _Louis Philippe_, Duke of Orleans. He was descended from the
+regent; his father had been one of the democratic party in the
+Revolution, and, when titles were abolished, had called himself Philip
+_Egalite_ (Equality). This had not saved his head under the Reign of
+Terror, and his son had been obliged to flee and lead a wandering life,
+at one time gaining his livelihood by teaching mathematics at a school
+in Switzerland. He had recovered his family estates at the Restoration,
+and, as the head of the Liberal party, was very popular. He was elected
+King of the French, not of France, with a chamber of peers nominated for
+life only, and another of deputies elected by voters, whose
+qualification was two hundred francs, or eight pounds a year. He did his
+utmost to gain the good will of the people, living a simple, friendly
+family life, and trying to merit the term of the "citizen king," and in
+the earlier years of his reign he was successful. The country was
+prosperous, and a great colony was settled in Algiers, and endured a
+long and desperate war with the wild Arab tribes. A colony was also
+established in New Caledonia, in the Pacific, and attempts were carried
+out to compensate thus for the losses of colonial possessions which
+France had sustained in wars with England. Discontents, however, began
+to arise, on the one hand from those who remembered only the successes
+of Buonaparte, and not the miseries they had caused, and on the other
+from the working-classes, who declared that the _bourgeois_, or
+tradespeople, had gained everything by the revolution of July, but they
+themselves nothing. Louis Philippe did his best to gratify and amuse the
+people by sending for the remains of Napoleon, and giving him a
+magnificent funeral and splendid monument among his old soldiers--the
+Invalides; but his popularity was waning. In 1842 his eldest son, the
+Duke of Orleans, a favourite with the people, was killed by a fall from
+his carriage, and this was another shock to his throne. Two young
+grandsons were left; and the king had also several sons, one of whom,
+the Duke of Montpensier, he gave in marriage to Louise, the sister and
+heiress presumptive to the Queen of Spain; though, by treaty with the
+other European Powers, it had been agreed that she should not marry a
+French prince unless the queen had children of her own. Ambition for
+his family was a great offence to his subjects, and at the same time a
+nobleman, the Duke de Praslin, who had murdered his wife, committed
+suicide in prison to avoid public execution; and the republicans
+declared, whether justly or unjustly, that this had been allowed rather
+than let a noble die a felon's death.
+
+
+3. The Revolution of 1848.--In spite of the increased prosperity of
+the country, there was general disaffection. There were four
+parties--the Orleanists, who held by Louis Philippe and his minister
+Guizot, and whose badge was the tricolour; the Legitimists, who retained
+their loyalty to the exiled Henry, and whose symbol was the white
+Bourbon flag; the Buonapartists; and the Republicans, whose badge was
+the red cap and flag. A demand for a franchise that should include the
+mass of the people was rejected, and the general displeasure poured
+itself out in speeches at political banquets. An attempt to stop one of
+these led to an uproar. The National Guard refused to fire on the
+people, and their fury rose unchecked; so that the king, thinking
+resistance vain, signed an abdication, and fled to England in February,
+1848. A provisional Government was formed, and a new constitution was to
+be arranged; but the Paris mob, who found their condition unchanged, and
+really wanted equality of wealth, not of rights, made disturbances again
+and again, and barricaded the streets, till they were finally put down
+by General Cavaignac, while the rest of France was entirely dependent on
+the will of the capital. After some months, a republic was determined
+on, which was to have a president at its head, chosen every five years
+by universal suffrage. Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, nephew to the great
+Napoleon, was the first president thus chosen; and, after some
+struggles, he not only mastered Paris, but, by the help of the army,
+which was mostly Buonapartist, he dismissed the chamber of deputies, and
+imprisoned or exiled all the opponents whom the troops had not put to
+death, on the plea of an expected rising of the mob. This was called a
+_coup d'etat_, and Louis Napoleon was then declared president for ten
+years.
+
+
+4. The Second Empire.--In December, 1852, the president took the title
+of Emperor, calling himself Napoleon III., as successor to the young son
+of the great Napoleon. He kept up a splendid and expensive court, made
+Paris more than ever the toy-shop of the world, and did much to improve
+it by the widening of streets and removal of old buildings. Treaties
+were made which much improved trade, and the country advanced in
+prosperity. The reins of government were, however, tightly held, and
+nothing was so much avoided as the letting men think or act for
+themselves, while their eyes were to be dazzled with splendour and
+victory. In 1853, when Russia was attacking Turkey, the Emperor united
+with England in opposition, and the two armies together besieged
+Sebastopol, and fought the battles of Alma and Inkermann, taking the
+city after nearly a year's siege; and then making what is known as the
+Treaty of Paris, which guaranteed the safety of Turkey so long as the
+subject Christian nations were not misused. In 1859 Napoleon III. joined
+in an attack on the Austrian power in Italy, and together with Victor
+Emanuel, King of Sardinia, and the Italians, gained two great victories
+at Magenta and Solferino; but made peace as soon as it was convenient to
+him, without regard to his promises to the King of Sardinia, who was
+obliged to purchase his consent to becoming King of United Italy by
+yielding up to France his old inheritance of Savoy and Nice. Meantime
+discontent began to spring up at home, and the Red Republican spirit was
+working on. The huge fortunes made by the successful only added to the
+sense of contrast; secret societies were at work, and the Emperor, after
+twenty years of success, felt his popularity waning.
+
+
+5. The Franco-German War.--In 1870 the Spaniards, who had deposed
+their queen, Isabel II., made choice of a relation of the King of
+Prussia as their king. There had long been bitter jealousy between
+France and Prussia, and, though the prince refused the offer of Spain,
+the French showed such an overbearing spirit that a war broke out. The
+real desire of France was to obtain the much-coveted frontier of the
+Rhine, and the Emperor heated their armies with boastful proclamations
+which were but the prelude to direful defeats, at Weissenburg, Woerth,
+and Forbach. At Sedan, the Emperor was forced to surrender himself as a
+prisoner, and the tidings no sooner arrived at Paris than the whole of
+the people turned their wrath on him and his family. His wife, the
+Empress Eugenie, had to flee, a republic was declared, and the city
+prepared to stand a siege. The Germans advanced, and put down all
+resistance in other parts of France. Great part of the army had been
+made prisoners, and, though there was much bravado, there was little
+steadiness or courage left among those who now took up arms. Paris,
+which was blockaded, after suffering much from famine, surrendered in
+February, 1871; and peace was purchased in a treaty by which great part
+of Elsass and Lorraine, and the city of Metz, were given back to
+Germany.
+
+
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+ IV. Readings in Nature's Book                          80
+  V. Seven American Classics                            60
+ VI. Seven British Classics                             60
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY.
+
+Appletons' New Elementary Geography                     65
+Appletons' Higher Geography                           1 50
+Cornell's Primary Geography                             61
+Cornell's Intermediate Geography                      1 20
+Cornell's Physical Geography                          1 30
+Cornell's Grammar-School Geography                    1 40
+Cornell's First Steps in Geography                      36
+Cornell's High-School Geography                         80
+Cornell's High-School Atlas                           1 60
+Cornell's Outline Maps             per set, 13 Maps, 13 25
+Cornell's Map-Drawing Cards                 per set,    45
+Patton's Natural Resources of the United States.        45
+
+
+MATHEMATICS.
+
+Appletons' Primary Arithmetic                           20
+Appletons' Elementary Arithmetic                        35
+Appletons' Mental Arithmetic                            32
+Appletons' Practical Arithmetic                         72
+Appletons' Higher Arithmetic                          1 00
+Colin's Metric System                                   50
+Gillespie's Land Surveying                            2 60
+Gillespie's Leveling and Higher Surveying             2 20
+Inventional Geometry (Spencer's)                        45
+Richards's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,
+  with applications                                   1 75
+
+
+GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND LITERATURE.
+
+Bain's Composition and Rhetoric                       1 50
+Ballard's Words, and how to put them together           40
+Ballard's Word-writer                                   10
+Ballard's Pieces to Speak                   per part,   20
+Covell's Digest                                         80
+Gilmore's English Language and Literature               60
+Literature Primers: English Grammar--English
+Literature--Philology--Classical
+Geography--Shakespeare--Studies
+in Bryant--Greek Literature--English
+Grammar Exercises--Homer--English
+Composition                                     each,   45
+Morris's Historical English Grammar                   1 00
+Northend's Memory Gems                                  20
+Northend's Choice Thoughts                              30
+Northend's Gems of Thought                              75
+Quackenbos's Primary Grammar                            40
+Quackenbos's English Grammar                            72
+Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in our Language        50
+Quackenbos's First Lessons in Composition               80
+Quackenbos's Composition and Rhetoric                 1 30
+Spalding's English Literature                         1 30
+Stickney's Child's Book of Language. 4 numbers  each,   10
+Teacher's edition of same                               35
+Stickney's Letters and Lessons                  each,   20
+
+
+HISTORY.
+
+Bayard Taylor's History of Germany                    1 50
+History Primers: Rome--Greece--Europe--Old Greek
+Life--Geography--Roman Antiquities              each,   45
+Markham's History of England                          1 30
+Morris's History of England                           1 25
+Quackenbos's Elementary History of the United States    60
+Quackenbos's School History of the United States      1 20
+Quackenbos's American History                         1 15
+Quackenbos's Illustrated School History of the World  1 50
+Sewell's Child's History of Rome                        65
+  "        "        "     " Greece                      65
+Willard's Synopsis of General History                 2 00
+Timayenis's History of Greece. Two vols               3 50
+
+
+SCIENCE.
+
+Alden's Intellectual Philosophy                       1 10
+Arnott's Physics                                      3 00
+Atkinson's Ganot's Physics                            3 00
+Bain's Mental Science                                 1 50
+Bain's Moral Science                                  1 50
+Bain's Logic                                          2 00
+Coming's Physiology                                   1 50
+Deschanel's Natural Philosophy. One vol               5 70
+  In four parts                                 each, 1 50
+Gilmore's Logic                                         75
+Henslow's Botanical Charts                           15 75
+Huxley and Youmans's Physiology                       1 50
+Le Conte's Geology                                    4 00
+Lockyer's Astronomy                                   1 50
+Lupton's Scientific Agriculture                         45
+Morse's First Book of Zooelogy                         1 10
+Munsell's Psychology                                  1 70
+Nicholson's Geology                                   1 30
+Nicholson's Zooelogy                                   1 50
+Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy                       1 50
+Rains's Chemical Analysis                               50
+Science Primers: Introductory--Chemistry--Physics--
+Physical Geography--Geology--Physiology--Astronomy--
+Botany--Logic--Inventional Geometry--
+Pianoforte-Playing--Political Economy           each,   45
+Wilson's Logic                                        1 30
+Winslow's Moral Philosophy                            1 30
+Youmans's New Chemistry                               1 50
+Youmans's (Miss) First Book of Botany                   85
+Youmans's (Miss) Second Book of Botany                1 30
+
+
+FREE-HAND AND INDUSTRIAL DRAWING.
+
+Kruesi's Easy Drawing Lessons, for Kindergarten and
+Primary Schools. Three Parts                     each,  14
+  Synthetic Series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4          each,  15
+  Analytic Series. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10    each,  18
+  Perspective Series. Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14    each,  25
+  Advanced Perspective. Nos. 15 and 16           each,  25
+  Nos. 17 and 18                                 each,  35
+  Manuals. 1 to each Series. Paper,              each,  45
+    cloth,                                       each,  60
+  Textile Designs. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4           each,  30
+  Nos. 5 and 6                                   each,  40
+  Outline and Relief Designs. No. 1                     30
+  Nos. 2 and 3                                   each,  45
+  Nos. 4, 5, and 6                               each,  40
+  Mechanical Drawing. Nos. 1, 4, and 6           each,  45
+  Nos. 2, 3, and 5                               each,  25
+  Architectural Drawing. Nine Parts              each,  45
+Green's Slate Drawing Cards. Two Parts           each,  12
+
+
+PENMANSHIP.
+
+Model Copy-Books, Sliding Copies           per copy,    12
+  "       "   Primary Series               per copy,     9
+Model Practice-Book                        per copy,    10
+
+
+LATIN.
+
+Arnold's First and Second Latin Book                  1 10
+Arnold's Latin Prose Composition                      1 10
+Arnold's Cornelius Nepos                              1 30
+Butler's Sallust's Jugurtha and Catiline              1 50
+Cicero de Officiis                                    1 10
+Crosby's Quintus Curtius Rufus                        1 30
+Crosby's Sophocles's Oedipus Tyrannus                 1 30
+Frieze's Quintilian                                   1 30
+Frieze's Virgil's AEneid                               1 70
+Frieze's Six Books of Virgil, with Vocabulary
+Harkness's Arnold's First Latin Book                  1 30
+Harkness's Second Latin Book                          1 10
+Harkness's Introductory Latin Book                    1 10
+Harkness's Latin Grammar                              1 30
+Harkness's Elements of Latin Grammar                  1 10
+Harkness's Latin Reader                               1 10
+Harkness's New Latin Reader                           1 10
+Harkness's Latin Reader, with Exercises               1 30
+Harkness's Latin Prose Composition                    1 30
+Harkness's Caesar, with Dictionary                     1 30
+Harkness's Cicero                                     1 30
+Harkness's Cicero, with Dictionary                    1 50
+Harkness's Sallust's Catiline, with Dictionary        1 15
+Harkness's Course in Caesar, Sallust, and Cicero,
+  with Dictionary                                     1 75
+Johnson's Cicero's Select Orations                    1 50
+Lincoln's Horace                                      1 50
+Lincoln's Livy                                        1 50
+Sewall's Latin Speaker                                1 00
+Tyler's Tacitus                                       1 50
+Tyler's Germania and Agricola                         1 10
+
+
+BOOK-KEEPING.
+
+Marsh's Single-Entry Book-keeping                     1 70
+Marsh's Double-Entry Book-keeping                     2 20
+Blanks to above, 6 books to each set        per set,  1 30
+
+
+GERMAN.
+
+Adler's Progressive German Reader                     1 30
+Adler's Hand-book of German Literature                1 30
+Adler's German Dictionary, 8vo                        4 50
+  "        "       "       12mo                       2 25
+Ahn's German Grammar                                    85
+Kroeh's First German Reader                             35
+Oehlschlaeger's Pronouncing German Reader             1 10
+Ollendorff's New Method of Learning German            1 10
+Prendergast's Mastery Series--German                    45
+Roemer's Polyglot Reader--German                      1 30
+Schulte's Elementary German Course                      85
+Wrage's Practical German Grammar                      1 30
+Wrage's German Primer                                   35
+Wrage's First German Reader                             45
+
+
+GREEK.
+
+Arnold's First Greek Book                             1 10
+Arnold's Greek Prose Composition                      1 30
+Arnold's Second Greek Prose Composition               1 30
+Arnold's Greek Reading Book                           1 30
+Boise's Three Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon     1 30
+Boise's Five Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon      1 70
+Boise's Greek Prose Composition                       1 30
+Boise's Anabasis                                      1 70
+Coy's Mayor's Greek for Beginners                     1 25
+Hadley's Greek Grammar                                1 70
+Hadley's Elements of Greek Grammar                    1 30
+Hadley's Greek Verbs                                    25
+Harkness's First Greek Book                           1 30
+Johnson's Three Books of the Iliad                    1 25
+Johnson's Herodotus                                   1 30
+Kendrick's Greek Ollendorff                           1 50
+Kuehner's Greek Grammar                                1 70
+Owen's Xenophon's Anabasis                            1 70
+Owen's Homer's Iliad                                  1 70
+Owen's Greek Reader                                   1 70
+Owen's Acts of the Apostles                           1 50
+Owen's Homer's Odyssey                                1 70
+Owen's Thucydides                                     2 20
+Owen's Xenophon's Cyropaedia                           2 20
+Robbins's Xenophon's Memorabilia                      1 70
+Silber's Progressive Lessons in Greek                 1 10
+Smead's Antigone                                      1 50
+Smead's Philippics of Demosthenes                     1 30
+Tyler's Plato's Apology and Crito                     1 30
+Tyler's Plutarch                                      1 30
+Whiton's First Lessons in Greek                       1 30
+
+
+FRENCH.
+
+Ahn's French Method                                     65
+Badois's Grammaire Anglaise                           1 30
+Barbauld's Lessons for Children                         65
+De Fivas's Elementary French Reader                     65
+De Fivas's Classic French Reader                      1 30
+De Fivas's New Grammar of French Grammars             1 10
+De Peyrac's French Children at Home                     80
+De Peyrac's Comment on Parle a Paris                  1 30
+Havet's French Manual                                 1 10
+Jewett's Spiers's French Dictionary, 8vo              2 60
+   "        "        "      "      School edition     1 70
+Marcel's Rational Method--French                        45
+Ollendorff's New Method of Learning French            1 10
+Ollendorff's First Lessons in French                    65
+Roemer's French Readers                               1 30
+Rowan's Modern French Reader                          1 30
+Simonne's Treatise on French Verbs                      65
+Spiers and Surenne's French Dictionary, 8vo           4 50
+   "          "         "       "      12mo           2 25
+
+
+ITALIAN.
+
+Fontana's Elementary Grammar of the Italian Language.
+  12mo                                                1 30
+Foresti's Italian Reader. 12mo                        1 30
+Meadows's Italian-English Dictionary. A new revised
+  edition                                half bound,  2 50
+Millhouse's New English-and-Italian Pronouncing and
+  Explanatory Dictionary. Second edition, revised
+  and improved. 2 thick vols., small 8vo  half bound, 5 25
+Nuovo Tesoro di Scherzi, Massime, Proverbi, etc. 1
+  vol., 12mo                                  Cloth,  1 50
+Ollendorffs New Method of Learning Italian. Edited
+    by F. Foresti. 12mo                               1 30
+  Key to do                                             85
+  Primary Lessons. 18mo                                 65
+Roemer's Polyglot Reader (in Italian). Translated by
+    Dr. Botta                                         1 30
+  Key to same, in English                             1 30
+
+
+SPANISH.
+
+Ahn's Spanish Grammar                                   85
+De Tornos's Spanish Method                            1 25
+Ollendorff's Spanish Grammar                          1 00
+Prendergast's Mastery Series--Spanish                   45
+Schele de Vere's Spanish Grammar                      1 00
+Velazquez's New Spanish Reader                        1 25
+Velazquez's Pronouncing Spanish Dictionary. 8vo.      5 00
+    "           "           "        "      12mo.     1 50
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of France, by Charlotte M. Yonge
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