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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/17288-0.txt b/17288-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e106c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17288-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6992 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Herzegovina + Or, Omer Pacha and the Christian Rebels + +Author: George Arbuthnot + +Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17288] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. (This file was made using scans of +public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital +Libraries.) + + + + + + + +[Illustration: A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC.] + + + + +HERZEGOVINA; + +OR + +OMER PACHA AND THE CHRISTIAN REBELS. + + +WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF SERVIA, ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL +CONDITION. + + +BY LIEUT. G. ARBUTHNOT, R.H.A., F.R.G.S. + + +[Illustration: Official Seal of Omer Pacha] + + +LONDON: +LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN. +1862. + +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. +NEW-STREET SQUARE + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The wanderings of an unknown in an unknown land may not be a subject of +universal interest, and as such require a few words of apology, or +possibly of defence. + +To convey an accurate idea of a country the inhabitants of which differ +from ourselves in creed, origin, and in all their habits of life, it +would be necessary to have passed a lifetime amongst them. It may +therefore be deemed presumptuous in me to attempt so comprehensive a +task, upon the meagre experience of a few short months. And such it +would be, did I entertain such aspirations. The impossibility, however, +of identifying myself with a people, with whose very language I have but +a slight acquaintance, would banish such a thought. My object is rather +to describe briefly and simply everything that presented itself to my +own notice; upon the evidence of which, coupled with the observations of +the few who have devoted any attention to the condition of these +countries, I have founded my views and opinions. Far be it from me to +assume that they have more claim to be regarded as correct, than the +opinions of others who may differ from me. Above all, if any of my +remarks on the subject of the Greek and Latin religions should appear +somewhat severe, I would have it clearly understood, that nowhere is +allusion intentionally made to these churches, save in the relation +which they bear to the Illyric Provinces of European Turkey. + +[Illustration: Signature of Author in Turkish Characters] + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + +Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian +Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian +Boatmen--French Policy and Austrian Prospects-- +Spalatro--Palace of Diocletian--Lissa--Naval +Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian Hotel--Change of Plans Pages 1--15 + + +CHAPTER II. + +Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of +Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the +Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for +Trade granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian +Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel-- +Dalmatian Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at +Mostar--Omer Pacha--Object of Campaign 16--32 + + +CHAPTER III. + +Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical Features-- +Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali +Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber Company--Saw-Mill-- +Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek Catholics-- +Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan +College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour 33--49 + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic +Element--First Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their +Origin--Tenets--Elect a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, +or Combatants in Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian +Apostasy--Religious Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under +Kiamil Pacha--Servian Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted +Brotherhood--Mahommedan Women--Elopements--Early Marriages 50--64 + + +CHAPTER V. + +Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of +Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural +Capabilities of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian +_Scutors_--Other Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations +with Bosnia--Able Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria +takes alarm--Trade Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier +Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms 65--75 + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis-- +Its Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial +Tribunals--Revenue and Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh-- +Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total Revenue--Police 76--83 + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Omer Pacha--Survey of Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars-- +Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of Prisoners--Roman +Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish Officers--Pacha's +Palace--European Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's +Day--Warlike Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders +to March 84--93 + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. and Ostoya +Christich--Cruel Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His +Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of Santo Saba becomes a Roman +Province--Despotism of Bosnian Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall +of Sultan Selim and Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin +Pacha--Expedition against Montenegro--Death of +Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces reconquered-- +Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of Janissaries-- +Regular Troops organised--Hadji Mustapha--Abdurahim-- +Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh rising--Serayevo +taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of Adrianople--Hussein +Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of Grand Vizier--Ali +Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War with +Montenegro--Amnesty granted 94--117 + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian +Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress +convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer +Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by +Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and +Capture of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass +Bashee--Anecdote of Lame Christian--Omer Pacha invades +Montenegro--Successes--Austria interferes--Mission of +General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change of +Frontier--Faults of new Boundary 118--127 + + +CHAPTER X. + +Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages +burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch +Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by +Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek +Chapels sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to +Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties +to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and +Prince of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha +returns to Mostar--Preparations for Campaign 128--140 + + +CHAPTER XI. + +Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz-- +Castle and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the +Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My +Dalmatian Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of +the Turks--Health of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of +Prisoners--Christian Cruelty 141--164 + + +CHAPTER XII. + +Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks +abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian +Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European +Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of +Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani-- +Bashi Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in +Turkey--Line of March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National +Dance--'La Donna _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki +Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big Head--Old Tower-- +Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem Devotions--Character +of Turkish Troops--System of Drill--Peculation--Turkish +Army--Letters--Scarcity of Provisions--Return of Villagers 155--173 + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer +Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack +Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of +Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish +Women--Defects of Government by Mudir and Medjlis 174--189 + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy +repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish +Soldiers murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched +Camp assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive +Character of Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation-- +Military Uniforms--Return to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum-- +Express Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified Barrack-- +Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European +Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian +Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of +Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The +Meredits--Instincts of Race 190--214 + + +CHAPTER XV. + +Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza-- +Subterraneous Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman +Tombs--Coins and Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry +Trees--Blagai--Source of Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain +of Mostar--Legends--Silver Ore--Mineral Products of +Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley of the Drechnitza 215--226 + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopædia--Feats of +Skill--Legend of Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of +Druga--Excavations--Country Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud +Effendi--Old Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian +Frontier--Vidosa--Parish Priest--National Music--Livno-- +Franciscan Convent--Priestly Incivility--Illness--Quack +Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military Ambulance--Bosna +Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and Bridges--Mussulman +Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman Pacha 227--242 + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo-- +Mineral Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The Bosna--Trout +Fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen +Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the +Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--CÅ«lpa +River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to +Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian +Troops--Probable Policy--Watermills--Semlin--Belgrade 243--258 + + +SERVIA: + +Its Social, Political, and Financial Condition 261--285 + + +CONCLUSION 286 + + +APPENDIX 287--288 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC _Frontispiece._ + +OFFICIAL SEAL OF OMER PACHA _On Title-page._ + +SIGNATURE OF AUTHOR IN TURKISH CHARACTERS _page_ vi + +MAP OF MONTENEGRO _To face page_ 1 + +MAP OF SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY " 288 + + +[Illustration: Map of Montenegro.] + + + + +HERZEGOVINA. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian + Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian Boatmen--French + Policy and Austrian Prospects--Spalatro--Palace of + Diocletian--Lissa--Naval Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian + Hotel--Change of Plans. + + +_'Omer Pacha will proceed with the army of Roumelia to quell the +disturbance in Herzegovina.'_ Such, I believe, was the announcement +which confirmed me in the idea of visiting the Slavonic provinces of +European Turkey. Had any doubts existed in my mind of the importance +attached by the Ottoman government to the pacification of these remote +districts, the recall to favour of Omer Pacha, and the despatch of so +large a force under his command, would have sufficed to remove them. As +it was, the mere desire to keep myself _au courant_ of the events of the +day, together with the interest which all must feel in the condition of +a country for whom England has sacrificed so much blood and treasure, +had made me aware that some extraordinary manifestation of feeling must +have occurred to arouse that apathetic power to so energetic a measure. +Of the nature of this manifestation, little or no reliable information +could be obtained; and so vague a knowledge prevails touching the +condition of these provinces, that I at once perceived that personal +observation alone could put me in possession of it. The opinions of such +as did profess to have devoted any attention to the subject, were most +conflicting. Whilst some pronounced the point at issue to be merely one +between the Turkish government and a few rebellious brigands, others +took a far more gloomy view of the matter, believing that the first shot +fired would prove the signal for a general rising of the Christian +subjects of the Porte, which, in its turn, was to lead to the +destruction of Turkish suzerainty in Europe, and to the consummation of +the great Panslavish scheme. To satisfy myself on these points, then, +was the main object of my travels,--to impart to others the information +which I thus obtained, is the intention of this volume. + +On August 31, 1861, I left Trieste in the Austrian Lloyd's steamer, +bound for Corfu, and touching _en route_ at the ports on the Dalmatian +coast. Having failed in all my endeavours to ascertain the exact +whereabouts of the Turkish head-quarters, I had secured my passage to +Ragusa, reckoning on obtaining the necessary information from the +Ottoman Consul at that town; and in this I was not disappointed. + +It is not my intention to enlarge upon this portion of my travels, which +would indeed be of little interest; still less to tread in the steps of +Sir Gardner Wilkinson, whose valuable work on Dalmatia has rendered such +a course unnecessary; but rather to enter, with log-like simplicity, the +dates of arrival and departure at the various ports, and such-like +interesting details of sea life. If, however, my landsman-like +propensities should evince themselves by a lurking inclination to 'hug +the shore,' I apologise beforehand. + +My fellow-passengers were in no way remarkable, but harmless enough, +even including an unfortunate mad woman, whose mania it was to recount +unceasingly the ill-treatment to which she had been exposed. At times, +her indignation against her imaginary tormentors knew no bounds; at +others, she would grow touchingly plaintive on the subject of her +wrongs. That she was a nuisance, I am fain to confess; but the treatment +she experienced at the hands of her Dalmatian countrymen was +inconsiderate in the extreme. One who professed himself an advocate for +sudden shocks, put his theory into practice by stealing quietly behind +his patient, and cutting short her lugubrious perorations with a deluge +of salt water. This was repeated several times, but no arguments would +induce her to allow her wet clothes to be removed, so it would not be +surprising if this gentleman had succeeded in 'stopping her tongue' +beyond his expectations. The only other lady was young and rather +pretty, but dismally sentimental. She doated on roses, was enamoured of +camelias, and loved the moon and the stars, and in fact everything in +this world or out of it. In vain I tried to persuade her that her cough +betrayed pulmonary symptoms, and that night air in the Adriatic was +injurious to the complexion. + +The man-kind on board included an Austrian officer of engineers, a +French Consul, and a Dalmatian professor. Besides the above, there was +an Italian patriot, whose devotion to the 'Kingmaker' displayed itself +in a somewhat eccentric fashion. With much mystery, he showed me a +portrait of Garibaldi, secreted in a watchkey seal, while his waistcoat +buttons and shirt studs contained heads of those generals who served in +the campaign of the Two Sicilies. It was rather a novel kind of +hero-worship, though, I fear, likely to be little appreciated by him who +inspired the thought. + +_September 1._--Landed at Zara at 6.30 A.M., and passed a few +hours in wandering over the town and ramparts. These last are by no +means formidable, and convey very little idea of the importance which +was attached to the city in the time of the Venetian Republic. The +garrison is small, and, as is the case throughout Dalmatia, the soldiers +are of Italian origin. The Duomo is worthy of a visit; while the +antiquarian may find many objects of interest indicative of the several +phases of Zarantine history. Here, in a partially obliterated +inscription, he may trace mementos of Imperial Rome; there, the +Campanile of Santa Maria tells of the dominion of Croatian kings; while +the winged lion ever reminds him of the glory of the Great Republic, its +triumphs, its losses, and its fall. On leaving we were loudly cheered by +the inhabitants, who had collected in large numbers on the shore. A few +hours' run brought us abreast of Fort St. Nicholas, and ten minutes +later we dropped anchor in the harbour of Sebenico. Here the delight of +the people at our arrival was somewhat overwhelming. It vented itself in +an inordinate amount of hugging and kissing, to say nothing of the most +promiscuous hand-shaking, for a share of which I myself came in. My +first step was to negotiate with four natives to row me to the Falls of +Kerka, about three hours distant. This I had succeeded in doing, when, +having unfortunately let them know that I was English, they demanded +seven florins in place of four, as had been originally agreed. Resolving +not to give way to so gross an imposition, I was returning in quest of +another boat, when I met a troop of some six or seven girls, young, +more than averagely good-looking, and charmingly dressed in their +national costume. I presume that my T.G. appearance must have amused +them; for they fairly laughed,--not a simpering titter, but a good +honest laugh. To them I stated my case, and received a proper amount of +sympathy. One offered to row me herself, while another said something +about 'twenty florins and a life,'--which, whatever it may have meant, +brought a blush to the cheek of the pretty little volunteer. At this +juncture the boatmen arrived, and on my assurance that I was perfectly +satisfied with the company to which they had driven me, which my looks, +I suppose, did not belie, they came to terms. Leaving the bay at its NW. +extremity, where the Kerka flows into it, we proceeded about four miles +up that river. At this point it opens out into the Lake of Scardona, +which is of considerable size, and affords a good anchorage. There is an +outlet for the river to the N., close to which is situated the little +town of Scardona. The banks of the river here begin to lose their rocky +and precipitous appearance, assuming a more marshy character, which +renders it unhealthy in the summer. The Falls are approached by a long +straight reach, at the end of which they form a kind of semicircle, the +entire breadth being about 250 feet. In winter, or after heavy rains, +the effect must be very grand; but at the time of my visit they were, in +consequence of the great drought, unusually small. Below the falls is a +mill worked by a Levantine, who appears to drive a flourishing trade, +grinding corn for Sebenico, Zara, and many other places on the coast. + +The Dalmatian boatmen are a very primitive set in everything save money +matters. One asked, Are the English Christians? while another asserted +most positively, that he had taken an Englishman to see the Falls in the +year _1870_. Their style of rowing resembles that in vogue among the +Maltese and Italians, excepting that they make their passenger sit in +the hows of the boat. This, at any rate, has the advantage of keeping +him to windward of themselves, which is often very desirable. Another +point of difference is, that they wear shoes or slippers,--the latter +being, in some instances, really tasteful and pretty. + +The moon was high ere we reached the ship, where I found all the +passengers assembled upon deck. One after another they disappeared +below, until I was left alone. I know no spot so conducive to reflection +as the deserted deck of a ship at anchor on a lovely night, and in a +genial latitude. In this instance, however, my thoughts assumed more of +a speculative than retrospective character, large as was the field for +the indulgence of the latter. The shades of emperors and doges faded +away, giving place to the more terrestrial forms of living sovereigns; +and the wild shouts of the Moslem conquerors resolved themselves into +the 'Vive l'Empereur' of an army doing battle for an idea. Let Austria +look to herself, that, when the hour of struggle shall arrive, as arrive +it will, she be not found sleeping. Should Napoleon once more espouse +the Italian cause, should he hurl his armies upon the Quadrilateral, who +can doubt but that a diversion of a more or less important character +will be attempted in the rear of the empire? But even though he should +let slip the notable occasion presented to him by a rising among the +Italian subjects of Austria, the evil day will only be postponed. I +believe that, not content with the humiliation of that power at +Villafranca, he will take advantage of any opportunity which disorder in +the neighbouring Turkish provinces may offer him to aim a blow at her on +her Dalmatian frontier, as a means to the gigantic end of crippling her, +and with her ultimately the entire German Confederation. It is a great +scheme, and doubtless one of many in that fertile brain. If Austria +should resolve to defend her Venetian territory, as it may be presumed +she will, she should spare no labour to strengthen her fortresses in the +Adriatic. On the Dalmatian coast, Zara, Lissa, Pola, and Cattaro are all +capable of making a very respectable defence in the event of their being +attacked; while, to quote the words of Rear-Admiral Count Bernhard von +Wüllersdorf and Urban, 'An Austrian squadron at Cattaro would be very +dangerous to any hostile squadron on the Italian coast, as its cruisers +would cut off all transports of coal, provisions, &c. &c.,--in a word, +render the communication of the hostile squadron with the Mediterranean +very difficult.... Lissa is the keystone of the Adriatic. This island, +the importance of which in former times was never denied, commands the +straits which lead from the southern to the northern half of the +Adriatic.... The naval force at Lissa ought to be a local one, +consisting of light fast gun-boats to cruise in the narrow waters, to +which might be added some plated ships to keep open communications, on +the one hand, between Lissa and the mainland, and on the other hand +acting with the gun-boats to bar the passage to hostile vessels.' The +publication of the article from which the above is extracted in the +'Oesterreichische Militar Zeitschrift,' proves sufficiently that the +Austrian government is aware of the necessity which exists for taking +precautionary measures; and the lesson which they learnt in 1859 ought +to have induced them to adopt a more energetic policy in their military +and naval affairs. + +The defences of Sebenico consist of three small forts: St. Nicholas, +containing seventeen mounted guns, is at the entrance of the bay, while +San Giovanni and Santa Anna, situated on rising ground, command the +town, harbour, and land approaches. The precise number of guns which +they contain, I was unable to learn. The very meagre character of the +information which I am in a position to impart on these subjects +requires, I am aware, some apology. The difficulty of obtaining it +during the short stay of a steamer must be my excuse. May it be +accepted! + +_September 2._--Steamed into the port of Spalatro at 10.30 A.M. +There is both an outer and inner harbour, the latter affording a good +anchorage to vessels of any burden; yet, notwithstanding this, we were +compelled, for the first time since leaving Trieste, to lie off at some +distance from the quay. The origin of Spalatro dates from the building +of the palace of Diocletian in 303, A.D. This glorious pile, +however much it may offend against the rules of architecture, is well +entitled to rank among the noblest monuments of imperial Rome. Its +mammoth proportions, the novelty of conception evinced in many parts, +together with its extraordinary state of preservation, render it alike +unique, while the circumstances connected with its building impart to it +an unusual interest. Wearied with the affairs of state, Diocletian +retired to Salona, where he passed the remaining nine years of his life +in profound seclusion. Of the use to which he applied his wealth during +that period, a record still exists in the golden gate and the Corinthian +columns which decorate that regal abode; while we learn what were his +pursuits from his own memorable reply to Maximian, when urged by him to +reassume the purple. 'Utinam Salonis olera nostris manibus insita +invisere posses, de resumando imperio non judicares;' or, as it has been +somewhat freely translated by Gibbon--'If I could show you the cabbages +I have planted with my own hands at Salona, you would no longer urge me +to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power.'[A] + +Nor has nature been less bountiful than man to this most favoured spot. +The description given by Adams conveys a very accurate impression of the +character of the surrounding country. 'The soil is dry and fertile, the +air pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summer +months, the country seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to which +the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views from +the palace are no less beautiful than the soil and climate are inviting. +Towards the W. lies the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, +in which a number of small islands are scattered in such a manner as to +give this part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the N. side +lies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona, and the country +beyond it appearing in sight forms a proper contrast to that more +extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents both to the S. +and the E. Towards the N. the view is terminated by high and irregular +mountains situated at a proper distance, and in many places covered with +villages, woods, and vineyards.'[B] Like most other relics of antiquity, +the time-honoured walls of Spalatro have been witnesses of those varied +emotions to which the human heart is subject. Thither Glycerius the +prelate retired, when driven by Julius Nepos from the imperial throne. +There, too, in a spirit of true Christian charity, he heaped coals of +fire on the head of his enemy, by affording him a sanctuary when +dethroned in his turn by Orestes, the father of Augustulus. Again, a +little while, and within the same walls, where he had deemed himself +secure, Julius Nepos fell a victim to the assassin's knife, and +subsequently we find the houseless Salonites sheltering themselves +within its subterraneous passages, when driven from their homes by the +fury of the invading Avars. The memory of all these is passed away, but +the stones still remain an undying testimony of a happy king. + +Having passed some hours in the town and palace, I adjourned to one of +the few small _cafés_ in the principal street. While sipping my +chocolate, I was accosted by an elderly priest, who most civilly +enquired whether he could help me in any way during my stay at +Spalatro. He proved to be a person of much intelligence, and, +notwithstanding that his knowledge of English extended only to a few +conversational words, he had read Sir Gardner Wilkinson's work on +Dalmatia, and, as his remarks showed, not without profiting thereby. At +4.30 the same afternoon we arrived at Lissa, the military port of +Austria in this part of the Adriatic. It is interesting to English +travellers, its waters having been the scene of a naval action in which +an English squadron, commanded by Captain Hoste, defeated a French +squadron carrying nearly double as many guns. During the great war the +island belonged to England, and indeed a portion of it is called to this +day the Cittá Inglese. It at one time acquired a certain importance in a +mercantile point of view, sardines being the staple article of commerce. + +The same night we touched at Curzola, and at 4 A.M. on +September 3 anchored at Gravosa, the port of debarcation for Ragusa. +Taking leave of my friends on board, I landed at about 5 A.M., +and, having committed my luggage, a small bullock trunk, saddle-bags, +and a saddle, to the shoulders of a sturdy facchino, and myself to a +very rickety and diminutive cart, I proceeded on my way to Ragusa. The +drive, about a mile and a half in distance, abounds with pretty views, +while the town of Ragusa itself is as picturesque in its interior +detail as it is interesting from its early history. The grass-grown +streets, the half-ruined palaces, and the _far niente_ manners of the +people, give little indication of the high position which the Republic +once achieved. Yet, despite all these emblems of decay, there are no +signs of abject poverty, but rather a spirit of frugal contentment is +everywhere apparent. + +Arriving at an hour when, in the more fastidious capitals of Europe, +housemaids and milkmen hold undisputed sway, I found groups of the +wealthier citizens collected under the trees which surround the café, +making their morning meal, and discussing the local news the while. +Later in the day ices and beer were in great demand, and in the evening +the beauty and fashion of Ragusa congregated to hear the beautiful band +of the regiment 'Marmola.' The hotel, if it deserve the name, is scarce +fifty yards distant; it possesses a _cuisine_ which contrasts favourably +with the accommodation which the house affords. + +The _table d'hôte_ dinner is served in a kind of vaulted kitchen, the +walls of which are hung round with scenes illustrative of the Italian +campaign. The series, which comprises desperate cavalry charges, death +wounds of general officers, and infantry advancing amidst perfect +bouquets of shot and shell, closes appropriately with the pacific +meeting of the two Emperors at Villafranca. + +Here, then, I proposed to take up my quarters, making it the +starting-point for expeditions to the Val d'Ombla, the beautiful Bocche +di Cattaro, and Cettigne, the capital of Montenegro; but it was destined +otherwise, and night found me on board a country fishing-boat, the +bearer of despatches to Omer Pacha at Mostar, or wherever he might +happen to be. + +[Footnote A: Gibbon, chap. xiii.] + +[Footnote B: Adams' 'Ruins of Spalatro,' p. 6.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of + Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the + Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for Trade + granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian + Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel--Dalmatian + Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at Mostar--Omer + Pacha--Object of Campaign. + + +The change in my plans, and my precipitate departure from Ragusa, were +the results of information which I there received. From M. Persich, the +Ottoman Consul, whom I take this opportunity of thanking for his +courtesy and kindness, I learned that the Turkish Generalissimo might be +expected to leave Mostar for the frontier at any moment, and that the +disturbed state of the country would render it perilous, if not +impossible, to follow him thither. This determined me to push on at +once, postponing my visit to Montenegro to a more fitting season. To +make some necessary purchases, and to engage a servant, was the work of +a few hours, and, being supplied by the Captano of the Circolo with the +necessary visés and letters of recommendation to the subordinate +officials through whose districts I should have to pass, it only +remained to decide upon the mode of travelling which I should adopt, +and to secure the requisite conveyance. My first point was Metcovich, a +small town on the right bank of the Narenta, and close to the frontier +lines of Dalmatia and Herzegovina. Three modes of performing the journey +were reported practicable,--viz. on horseback, by water, or by carriage. +The first of these I at once discarded, as both slow and tedious; the +choice consequently lay between the remaining two methods: with regard +to economy of time I decided upon the latter. But here a difficulty +arose. The man who possessed a monopoly of carriages, for some reason +best known to himself, demurred at my proceeding, declaring the road to +be impassable. He farther brought a Turkish courier to back his +statement, who at any rate deserved credit, on the +tell-a-good-one-and-stick-to-it principle, for his hard swearing. I +subsequently ascertained that it was untrue; and had I known a little +more of the country, I should not have been so easily deterred, seeing +that the road in question is by far the best which exists in that part +of Europe. It was constructed by the French during their occupation of +Dalmatia in the time of Napoleon, and has been since kept in good order +by the Austrian government. Being thus thwarted in my plans, I made a +virtue of necessity, engaged a country boat, and got under weigh on the +evening of the day on which I had landed at Gravosa. The night was +clear and starry; and as my boat glided along before a light breeze +under the romantic cliffs of the Dalmatian coast, I ceased to regret the +jolting which I should have experienced had I carried out my first +intention. Running along the shore for some ten hours in a +north-westerly direction, we reached Stagno, a town of small importance, +situated at the neck of a tongue of land in the district of Slano, and +which connects the promontory of Sabioncello with the mainland; ten +minutes' walk across the isthmus brought us again to the sea. The +luggage deposited in a boat of somewhat smaller dimensions, and better +adapted for river navigation, we once more proceeded on our journey. + +A little to the north of Stagno is the entrance to the port of Klek, a +striking instance of right constituted by might. The port, which, from +its entrance, belongs indisputably to Turkey, together with the land on +the southern side, is closed by Austria, in violation of every principle +of national law and justice. + +Previous to 1852, many small vessels used to enter it for trading +purposes, and it was not until Omer Pacha in that year attempted to +establish it as an open port that Austria interfered, and stationed a +war-steamer at its mouth. + +In 1860 the restriction was so far removed that Turkish vessels have +since been allowed to enter with provisions for the troops. + +To the isolated condition of these provinces, coupled with the ignorance +which prevails at Constantinople relative to the affairs of the +interior, must be attributed the indifference which the Porte has as yet +manifested regarding the preservation of its just rights. The importance +to be attached to the possession by Turkey of an open port upon the +coast cannot be overrated, since through it she would receive her +imports direct from the producing countries, while her own products +could be exported without being subjected to the rules and caprices of a +foreign state. Nor are the Turkish officials in these quarters at all +blind to the injury that accrues to Turkey, from the line of policy +which Austria is now pursuing; but while they see and deplore the +mildness with which their government permits its rights to be thus +violated, they neglect to take any steps which might induce it to appeal +to the arbitration of Europe. Were this done, there could be little +doubt of the result; for, since the land on one side of the harbour, +without question, belongs to Turkey, it would appear only just that she +should have control over the half of the channel. But even were this to +be accorded (which is most improbable, since it would prove dangerous to +the trade of Trieste), the point at issue would still be far from +settled. Any concessions will be unavailing so long as the present line +of demarcation between the two countries shall exist; for while Turkey +draws the line of limit from a point near the entrance of the harbour to +the village of Dobrogna, Austria maintains the boundary to run from that +village to a point farther within the port, by which arrangement she +includes a small bluff or headland, which commands the entire harbour. +She asserts her right to this frontier, upon the grounds of its having +been the line drawn by the French during their occupation of Dalmatia. +The Turks deny the truth of this, and state that the lines occupied by +the French can still be traced from the remains of huts built for the +protection of their sentries. Moreover, since the Austrians have also +stated that the French, when in Dalmatia, did not respect the rights of +the Sultan, but occupied Suttorina and Klek, the argument that they +assume the frontier left them by the French is hardly entitled to much +consideration. That Austria is very unlikely to open Klek of her own +free will, I have already said; nor can she be blamed for the +determination, since she must be well aware that, in the event of her +doing so, English goods at a moderate price would find a far readier +market than her own high-priced and indifferent manufactures. In a word, +she would lose the monopoly of trade which she at present possesses in +these provinces. But, on the other hand, were Turkey animated by a +spirit of reprisal, she might throw such obstacles in the path of her +more powerful neighbour as would almost compel her to abandon the system +of ultra-protection. + +The military road from Cattaro to Ragusa and Spalatro encroaches upon +Turkish territory, and the telegraphic wire which connects Cattaro with +Trieste passes over both Suttorina and Klek. The Austrian government +would find it very inconvenient were the Porte to dispute the right of +passage at these points. Should Turkey ever be in a position to force +the adoption of the frontier, as defined by herself, the value of Klek +in a military point of view will be immeasurably increased; for, while +the port itself would be protected by her guns, the approach to it is +perfectly secure, although flanked on either side by Austrian territory. +The waters of the harbour open out into the bay of Sabioncello from +seven to eight miles in width, so that a vessel in mid-channel might run +the gauntlet with impunity. + +Towards evening we entered the Narenta, the principal river of Dalmatia +and Herzegovina, by one of the numerous mouths which combine to form its +delta. Its ancient name was the 'Naro,' and it is also called by +Constantine Porphyrogenitus 'Orontium.' Later it acquired an unenviable +notoriety, as being the haunt of the 'Narentine Pirates,' who issued +thence to make forays upon the coast, and plundered or levied tribute on +the trading vessels of the Adriatic. At one time they became so powerful +as to be able to carry on a regular system of warfare, and even gain +victories over the Venetian Republic, and it was not till 997 +A.D. that they were reduced to submission by the Doge Pietro +Orseolo II., and compelled to desist from piracy. + +The valley of the Narenta is but thinly populated, a circumstance easily +accounted for by the noxious vapours which exhale from the alluvial and +reed-covered banks of the stream. + +The lowlands, moreover, which lie around the river's bed are subject to +frequent and rapid inundations. Excepting one party of villagers, who +appeared to be making merry around a large fire close to the bank, I saw +no signs of human habitation. + +The croaking of many frogs, and the whirr of the wild fowl, as they rose +from their marshy bed at our approach, were the only signs of life to be +perceived, though higher up we met a few rowing boats, and one of the +small coasting vessels used for the transport of merchandise. These +boats are generally from twenty to thirty tons burden, and are employed +for the conveyance of ordinary goods from Trieste, whence the imports of +Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Herzegovina are for the most part derived. +Their rates of freight are light, averaging from 10_d._ to 1_s._ per +cwt., chargeable on the bulk. The more valuable or fragile articles are +brought to Macarsca, a port on the Dalmatian coast, near the mouth of +the Narenta, in steamers belonging to the Austrian Lloyd's Company, +whence they are despatched by boat to Metcovich. The expense attendant +on this route prevents its being universally adopted. Insurance can be +effected as far as Metcovich at 1_s._ 4_d._ to 3_s._ 4_d._ per cwt. on +the value declared, according to the season of the year. + +Metcovich may be regarded as the _Ultima Thulé_ of civilisation in this +direction. Once across the frontier, and one may take leave of all one's +preconceived ideas regarding prosperity or comfort. Everything appears +at a standstill, whether it be river navigation or traffic on the land. +The apathy of the Turkish government presents a striking contrast to the +policy of Austria, who clearly sees the value to be attached to the +trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who, while throwing every obstacle +in the way of competition, evinces unwonted energy to secure the +monopoly which she now possesses. During the past few years she has +granted many facilities for the growth of commercial relations between +Herzegovina and her own provinces. Thus, for instance, the transit dues +on the majority of imports and exports have been removed, a few articles +only paying a nominal duty on passing into Turkey. Wool, skins, hides, +wax, honey, fruits, and vegetables, are allowed into Dalmatia free of +duty. A grant of 1,200,000 florins has, moreover, been recently made +for the regulation of the channel of the Narenta, with the view of +rendering it navigable by small steamers, which will doubtless prove a +most profitable outlay. It is to be hoped that the Turkish government +will take steps to continue the line to Mostar, which is quite +practicable, and could be effected at a small expense. + +The Narenta takes its rise at the foot of the small hill called Bolai, a +spur of the Velesh range of mountains. Its route is very circuitous, the +entire distance from the source to its mouth being about one hundred and +thirty miles, while its average width is computed at about one hundred +and forty yards. It is subject to rapid rises between the months of +September and May, caused by rains in the mountains and the melting +snow, and a rise of twelve feet in three or four hours is by no means +uncommon. As a source of communication it might be invaluable to the +province, but in its present state it is perfectly useless, since the +hardness of its waters renders it unfit for irrigation. It has many +tributary streams, amongst the most important of which are the Boona, +Bregava, Rama, Radopolie, Trebitza, and Cruppa. + +On its right bank, and some miles above the mouth, is a small town, +which rejoices in the imposing name of Fort Opus, albeit it possesses +neither walls, fortifications, nor other means of defence. As the night +was already far advanced when we arrived, I resolved to stay there a +few hours before continuing the row to Metcovich, which I should +otherwise have reached before daylight, and have been compelled to lie +off the town during the damp hours of morning. Neither sentry nor health +officer appeared to interdict our landing; and having found a miserable +outhouse, which served as a cabaret, I was preparing to snatch a few +hours' sleep as best I might, when an Hungarian corporal, employed in +the finance department, came to the rescue, and undertook to find me a +bed. Of its quality I will abstain from speaking; but such as it was, it +was freely given, and it took much persuasion to induce the honest +fellow to accept any remuneration. His post can hardly be a pleasant +one, for malaria and fever cause such mortality, that the station is +regarded much in the same light as is the gold coast of Africa by our +own government servants. As a set-off against these disadvantages, my +friend was in receipt of 2_d._ per day additional pay. May he pass +unscathed through the ordeal! + +By 2 A.M. I had again started, and reached Metcovich at 5 +A.M. on September 5. Here M. Grabrich, the principal merchant +of the place, put me in the way of procuring horses to take me to +Mostar, about nine hours distant. My destination becoming known, I was +beset with applications for my good offices with Omer Pacha. Some of +these were petitions for contracts for supplying the army, though the +greater number were demands for arrears of payment due for the supply of +meal, and the transport of horned cattle and other provisions to the +frontier. One of the complainants, a Greek, had a grievance of a +different and much more hopeless nature. He had cashed a bill for a +small amount offered him by an Irish adventurer. This, as well as +several others, proved to be forgeries, and the money was irretrievably +lost. Although travelling under an assumed name, and with a false +passport, I subsequently discovered the identity of the delinquent with +an individual, whom doubtless many who were with Garibaldi during the +campaign of the Two Sicilies will call to mind. He was then only +remarkable for his Calabrian costume and excessive amount of swagger. +When at Niksich I learned that he had escaped through that town into +Montenegro, and he has not, I believe, since been traced. + +No punishment can be too severe for a scoundrel who thus brings English +credit into disrepute, and disgraces a name which, although little known +in these regions, is deservedly respected. + +From Metcovich the traveller may proceed to Mostar by either bank of the +river. I was recommended to take the road on the northern side, which I +did, and ten minutes' ride brought us to the frontier, where a +custom-house official insisted upon unloading the baggage so recently +arranged. In vain I remonstrated, and brandished my despatches with +their enormous red seals in his face. His curiosity was not to be so +easily overcome. When he had at length satisfied himself, he permitted +us to depart with a blessing, which I acknowledge was far from +reciprocated. The first place of any importance which we passed is +Gabella. It stands on an eminence overhanging a bend of the river, by +whose waters three of its sides are washed. In former days it was +defended by two forts, whose guns swept the river in either direction, +and commanded the approach upon the opposite bank. In A.D. 1694 +it was taken by Cornaro, and remained in the hands of the Venetians +until A.D. 1716, when they evacuated it, blowing up the greater +part of its defences. + +Immediately above the town, the Narenta traverses the plain of Gabella, +which is one of the largest and most productive in the country. + +The plains of Herzegovina are in reality nothing more than valleys or +basins, some of which are so hemmed in by hills, that the streams +flowing through them can only escape by percolation, or through +subterranean channels. This last phenomenon frequently occurs, and no +better example can be given of it than the Trebinitza, which loses +itself in the ground two or three times. After the last of these +disappearances nothing is known for certain of its course, although a +large river which springs from the rocks in the Val d'Ombla, and empties +itself into the Adriatic near Ragusa, is conjectured to be the same. + +Gabella, as well as Popovo, Blato, and other plains, is inundated in the +winter, and remains in that state during three or four months. + +They are traversed by means of punts, and excellent wild-duck shooting +may be had by those who do not fear the exposure inseparable from that +sport. + +From this point the river entirely changes its aspect, losing the +sluggish character which distinguishes it during its passage through the +Austrian territory. Indeed, throughout its whole course, from its rise +until it opens out into the plain of Gabella, its bed is rocky, and the +current rapid and even dangerous, from the number of boulders which rise +above the surface, or lie hid a little below the water line. It here +receives the waters of the Trebisat or Trebitza, and the Bregava, the +former flowing from the NW., the latter from the district of Stolatz in +the SE. A few miles higher up is a narrow valley formed by two ranges of +hills, whose rocky declivities slope down to, or in some places +overhang, the river's bed. From one spot where the hills project, there +is a pretty view of the town of Pogitel on the left bank. A large +mosque, with a dome and minaret and a clock-tower, are the principal +objects which catch the eye; but, being pressed for time, I was unable +to cross the river, and cannot therefore from my own observation enter +into any accurate details. The position is, however, exactly described +by Sir Gardner Wilkinson as follows: 'It stands in a semicircular +recess, like an immense shell, in the side of the hill, and at the two +projecting extremities the walls run down from the summit to the river, +the upper part being enclosed by a semicircular wall, terminated at each +end by a tower.' + +Half way between Metcovich and Mostar is a little village, which boasts +an humble species of Khan. + +Here I found the engineer in charge of the telegraph, a Dalmatian by +birth. His head-quarters are at Bosna Serai, but he was then making a +tour for the purposes of inspection and repair. + +The telegraphic communication throughout the Ottoman Empire is now more +general than its internal condition would warrant us in supposing. +Indeed, in travelling through the country, one cannot fail to be struck +by the strange reversal of the general order of things. Thus, for +instance, both telegraph and railways have preceded the construction of +ordinary roads. + +And therein lies one of the principal causes of the hopelessness of +Turkish civilisation; that it has been prematurely forced upon her, and +that, in order to keep a position among the European nations, she is +driven to adopt the highest triumphs of European intelligence without +passing through the intermediate stages by which they have been +acquired. The rapidly remunerative nature of a telegraphic service is +obviously sufficient reason for its being thus early established; but +its duties devolve entirely, not upon Turks, but upon the foreign +employés of the government. It is, moreover, little used by the +Mussulman population, and consequently tends but little to the +enlightenment of the masses. On the subject of roads, I shall have +occasion to speak hereafter, and must therefore beg the indulgent reader +to accompany me along the bridle-path which takes us to the capital of +Herzegovina. + +Descending from the hills our progress became more rapid; yet, despite +this, it was some hours after sunset before we entered the suburbs. As +usual in a Turkish town, dogs and gravestones were to be found in +abundance, the latter with their turbanned heads looking spectral and +grim in the cold moonlight. Saving an occasional group of Mussulmans +sitting silent and pompous in the dusty road, the city appeared +perfectly deserted; and, as my now jaded ponies scrambled over the +ill-paved streets, I began to speculate on the probability of passing +the night _al fresco_. As may be conceived, then, it was with +considerable satisfaction that I found myself, chibouque in hand, +awaiting the arrival of the Pacha, who, notwithstanding the lateness of +the hour, had expressed his intention of seeing me immediately. No one +can have a greater horror than myself of that mania which possesses +some travellers for detailing conversations with Eastern dignitaries, +which, for the most part, consist of ordinary civilities, imperfectly +translated by an half-educated dragoman. + +In the present instance, however, I deem no apology necessary for +dwelling upon this first or subsequent conversations; since anything +from the lips of such a man at so critical a moment must, to say the +least, be of interest, even though it should be without any actual +political importance. Having discussed the relative attitudes of the +European powers with regard to Turkey, and spoken most unreservedly on +the subject of French and Russian intrigues, he expressed great interest +in the opinions formed by the public of the different countries on the +Herzegovinian and Montenegrin question. The principal topic of +conversation, however, was the campaign then about to be opened against +the Herzegovinian rebels, and the preparations which he had made for +carrying it out. + +While fully alive to the difficulties attending his task, resulting from +political complications, and the physical features of the country, he +ever spoke with confidence of the ultimate success of the Turkish armies +and the general pacification of the country. If any man be competent to +bring about this desirable consummation it is himself; for he possesses, +to an eminent degree, that caution which is indispensable to the +successful conduct of an offensive war in a mountainous country, and +which is so much at variance with the haphazard arrangements usually +found among Turkish generals. + +In using the words _offensive war_, I mean to imply operations carried +on from a regular base, and in accordance with the generally accepted +rules of warfare, in contra-distinction to the guerilla fighting as +practised by the insurgent mountaineers. In its more literal sense, Omer +Pacha's mission can hardly be deemed offensive; his object is, not to +overrun territory, nor even to seek a combat with the enemy, but rather +to place the country in such a state of defence as will render it secure +from the incursions of those brigands who, having thrown off the Turkish +rule, have sought a refuge in the fastnesses of Montenegro, whence, in +conjunction with the lawless bands of that province, they make forays +across the frontier, carrying fire and sword in their wake, respecting +neither age nor sex,--rebels to their sovereign, and a disgrace to +Christianity. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical + Features--Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali + Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber + Company--Saw-Mill--Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek + Catholics--Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan + College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour. + + +Herzegovina[C] or Bosnia Inferior, formerly the duchy of Santo Saba, is +bounded on the N. by Bosnia, on the E. by Servia, on the W. by Dalmatia, +and on the S. by Montenegro and the Adriatic. + +Its greatest length, from Duvno in the NW., to Priepolie in the S., is +about a hundred and twenty miles, and its greatest breadth from Konitza, +on the Bosnian frontier, to the port of Klek, is about seventy-two +miles.[D] It contains an approximate area of 8,400 square miles, with a +population, of about thirty-five souls to the square mile.[D] A glance +at any map, imperfect in detail as those yet published have been, will +convey a tolerable idea of the nature of the country. + +The ranges of mountains which intersect the greater part of the province +are a portion of the Dinaric Alps. Along the Dalmatian and Montenegrin +frontiers these are barren and intensely wild, and in many places, from +the deep fissures and honeycomb formation of the rocks, impassable to +aught save the chamois, the goat, or the indigenous mountaineer. + +Proceeding inland, the country assumes a more habitable aspect: plains +and pasture-lands capable of high cultivation are found at intervals, +while even the mountains assume a more fertile appearance, and have a +better depth of soil, which is well adapted for the cultivation of the +olive and the vine. Dense forests, too, of average growth cover the +mountain sides as we approach the Bosnian frontier, which, although +inferior to those of Bosnia itself, would prove most remunerative to the +government were they properly worked. But, unfortunately, the principle +of isolation which the Porte has adopted with regard to these remote +provinces, together with the want of enterprise among its inhabitants, +the result of four hundred years of indolence on the one hand and +oppression on the other, renders it problematical whether their ample +resources will ever be developed. Should Turkey, however, arise from her +lethargy, should genuine civilisation spread its branches over the land, +we may then confidently anticipate a glorious future for her +south-Slavonic provinces, doubting not that they will some day become +'the noblest jewel in their monarch's diadem.' + +To convey an accurate idea of a province so little known as the +Herzegovina, it will be best to enumerate the various physical features +by which it is distinguished. Thus the highest and most important +mountains are Dormitor in the district of Drobniak, on the Montenegrin +frontier, and Velesh, which forms a rugged background to the plain of +Mostar, the highest point being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. +Besides these, there are many others of nearly equal altitude, viz. +Flam, Hergud, Prievolie, Vrau, Hako, Fartar, Belen, Stermoshnik, +Bielevoda, Chabolie, Vrabcha, and Zavola. The perfect sea of rock which +the southern part of the province presents to the eye is of grey +limestone, varied however by a slatey stratum. Of the mineral products +of the mountains little accurate knowledge prevails; gold, silver, and +lead are said to exist, but I could not hear of their having ever been +found to any extent. A firman was granted some years ago to one Hadji +Ali Pacha, ceding to him for fifteen years the privilege of exploring +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and working any mines which he might there +discover. His application for this firman does not, however, in any way +prove the existence of these minerals throughout the country generally, +since it has proved to have been a mere cloak for diverting suspicion +from many previous dishonest actions of which he had been guilty. His +story is worthy of narration, as being no bad instance of the career of +a Turkish _parvenu_, whose only qualifications were a little education +and a large amount of effrontery. + +Hadji Ali Pacha commenced his career as a clerk in the pay of the great +Mehemet Ali Pacha, Viceroy of Egypt, but, having deserted to the Turks, +he was employed by them in the capacity of Uzbashee or Captain. Fearful +of falling into the hands of the Egyptians, he fled from his post, and, +having made his way to Constantinople, contrived, by scheming and +bribery, not only to efface the memory of the past, but to secure the +appointment of Kaimakan or Lieut.-Colonel, with which grade he was sent +to Travnik in command of a regiment. Tahir Pacha, the Governor of +Bosnia, had about this time been informed of the existence of some gold +mines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji Ali to obtain samples for +transmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all the +valuable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, on +their arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner was +this decision arrived at, than Hadji Ali imported the necessary +machinery and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores, +and in this way amassed immense wealth. Rumours having got abroad of +what was going on, and the suspicions of Tahir being aroused, the +unfortunate Austrian was put secretly out of the way, and, as a blind, +the unprincipled ruffian procured the firman to which allusion has been +made. It need hardly be said that he never availed himself of the +privileges which it conferred upon him. Some time after these +transactions, he applied for leave to visit Austria, on the plea of +ill-health, but doubtless with the view of changing the gold. This was +refused, and he was obliged to employ a Jew, who carried it to Vienna, +and disposed of it there. In 1850, when Omer Pacha came to restore order +in Bosnia, which had then revolted, Hadji Ali was sent with two +battalions to the relief of another detachment; upon this occasion he +communicated with the enemy, who cut off his rear-guard, and otherwise +roughly handled the Turkish troops. Upon this, Omer Pacha put him in +chains, and would have shot him, as he richly deserved, had he not known +that his enemies at Constantinople would not fail to distort the true +features of the case. He therefore sent him to Constantinople, where he +was shortly afterwards released, and employed his gold to such good +purpose, that he was actually sent down as Civil Governor to Travnik, +which he had so recently left a prisoner convicted of robbery and +treason. He was, however, soon dismissed for misconduct, and entered +once more into private speculations. In 1857 he purchased the tithes of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and employed such ruffians to collect them as to +make perfect martyrs of the people, some of whom were even killed by his +agents. Exasperated beyond endurance, the people of Possavina rose en +masse, and although the movement was put down without difficulty, it +doubtless paved the way for the discord and rebellion which has been +attended with such calamitous results. This is precisely one of those +cases which has brought such odium on the Turkish government, and which +may so easily be avoided for the future, always providing that the Porte +be sincere in its oft-repeated protestations of a desire for genuine +reform. Ali Pacha was at Mostar in the beginning of 1858, when the +movement began, but was afraid to venture into the revolted districts to +collect his tithes. The Governor, therefore, made him Commandant of the +Herzegovinian irregulars, in which post he vindicated the character +which he had obtained for cruelty and despotism. Subsequently he was +appointed Kaimakan of Trebigné, but the European Consuls interfered, and +he has now decamped, owing a large sum to government, the remnant of his +contract for the tithes. + +The sides of some of the mountains are covered, as I have before said, +with dense forests of great value. There the oak, ash, elm, beech, +walnut, red and white pine, and the red and yellow maple, grow in rich +profusion, awaiting only the hand of man to shape them into 'the tall +mast' and the 'stately ship.' But man, in these benighted lands, is +blind to the sources of wealth with which his country teems, and to +nature it is left in the lapse of years to 'consume the offspring she +has herself produced.' The difficulty of transporting the timber to a +market has been always alleged by the natives as their reason for +neglecting to turn the forests to account; but this is a paltry excuse, +for with abundance of rivers to float it to the coast, and a neighbour +so anxious to monopolise the trade of the country as Austria has shown +herself, little doubt can be entertained of the possibility of its +advantageous disposal. As far back as 1849 an Austrian Company, +foreseeing the benefits which would accrue from the employment of +capital in these parts, obtained a concession of the pine forests for +twenty years. Saw-mills were built near Mostar, and roads and shoots +were constructed. About 5,000 logs had been cut and exported, when the +works were stopped by Omer Pacha on his arrival to suppress rebellion in +the country in 1850. This arbitrary measure on his part has been much +reprehended, and does without doubt require explanation. + +It should, however, be remembered that the contract, which was likely to +prove most remunerative to the Company, and of but little advantage to +the Turkish government, had been granted by Ali Pacha of Stolatz, the +last Civil Governor, to whom a tithe of the products was being paid. He +had in the meanwhile thrown off his allegiance, and consequently the +only blame which can attach to Omer Pacha is a want of judgement, caused +by over-zeal for the interests of his government. The case was +afterwards litigated, and the Porte was mulcted 200,000 florins as an +indemnity for their breach of the contract. This was liquidated from Ali +Pacha's property, and the firman has been renewed for fourteen years +since 1859. The Austrian government has, however, forbidden the Company +to avail themselves of it, as its members are engaged in legal +proceedings. The only saw-mill which I met with in the country was one +at Boona, worked by an Hungarian, who is apparently doing a lucrative +business. + +The rivers in the country are of no great size or importance, but might +in most cases be turned to account for the transport of timber or for +irrigation. The waters of some of the large rivers, it is true, are +injurious to vegetation from their hardness, but this does not apply to +all. After the Narenta, the following are the most important:--the +Trebenitza, Pria, Taro and Moratcha, Yanitza, Boona, Boonitza, Bregava, +Kruppa, Trebisat or Trebitza, Drechnitza, Grabovitza, Biela, +Kaladjin-Polok, and the Drina. It might be expected from its vicinity to +Bulgaria, where such fine lakes are found, that the same would be the +case in Herzegovina; but it is not so: Blato, which is marked as a lake +in all maps, is only such in winter, as with early spring the waters +disappear. + +The only towns in the province worthy of mention, besides Mostar, are +Fochia and Taschlijeh. They each contain about 10,000 inhabitants. The +other towns are nothing more than large villages, with a bazaar. They +are the seats of the district governments, such as Stolatz, Trebigné, +Konitza, Niksich, Duvno, Chainitza, and others. The houses in these are +not conspicuous for cleanliness, while those in the smaller villages are +still less desirable as residences. They generally consist of some +scores of huts, built of rough stones, without windows or chimneys, and +roofed with boards, which are again covered with straw. They seldom +contain more than one room, which the family occupies, in conjunction +with the poultry and domestic animals. The furniture of these luxurious +abodes consists of a hand-loom, two or three iron pots, a few earthen +vessels, and some wooden spoons. The bedding is a coarse woollen +blanket, which serves as a cloak in rainy or wet weather, and as a +mattress and coverlet for the whole family, without distinction of sex. + +The population of the Herzegovina amounts to about 182,000, divided as +follows:-- + +Catholics 52,000 +Greek Church 70,000 +Mussulmans 60,000 + +Originally these were all of the same stock; and their present +divisions, while constituting an element of safety for Turkey, are most +prejudicial to the well-being of the country. The Greek faith +predominates in the southern and eastern parts of the province. Its +adherents are distinguished for their activity and cunning,--qualities +which have rendered them far wealthier than their brethren of the +Catholic communion. The possession of comparative wealth, and the +consciousness of the moral support granted them by Russia, has made them +presumptuous and over-bearing, hating alike all sects and creeds which +differ from their own. Their ignorance is only equalled by the +fanaticism which often results therefrom; and so bitter is their +detestation of the Roman Catholics, that more than one instance has been +known of its leading to foul acts of murder. Unoffending peasants have +been taken in the revolted districts, and ordered to kneel and make the +sign of the cross, to prove the truth of their assertions that they were +not Mussulmans. The wretched creatures confidently did so in accordance +with the Roman Catholic form, and their lives were unceremoniously +forfeited to the bigotry and ferocity of their unrelenting judges. Nor +are either tolerance or humanity in any way advocated by the priests, +who are generally as illiterate and narrow-minded as their flocks, and +whose influence, which is very great, is generally employed for evil. +The priesthood are divided into Archimandrite, Igumens (chiefs of +monasteries), Monks, and Priests, all of whom are natives of the +province, where their whole lives have been passed. Of late years, +however, many have been sent to receive their education in Russia. Some +of these have now returned, but have not given signs of any desire to +ameliorate the spiritual condition of the people. The Church has always +been governed by a Vladika or Metropolitan, named from Constantinople. +Like most other appointments from that capital, this was generally paid +for, and its possessor consequently did not hesitate to employ every +means in his power to reimburse himself. This, and the fact that he was +never a native of the country, rendered him most unpopular; so that +while the priests (little as they may deserve it) are regarded with +reverence by the people, the Vladika was respected by neither the one +nor the other. At present the office is vacant, none having been +appointed since the demise of the last who occupied the episcopal chair. +That event occurred in the commencement of 1861, and his attempts at +extortion were so frequent and undisguised, that his death must have +been felt as a great relief by the people. Petitions were sent at that +time to Constantinople, praying for the appointment of a Slavish +Metropolitan; but, independently of the difficulty of finding anyone of +sufficient education among the Bosnian clergy, political considerations +have induced the Porte to prevent the Patriarch complying with the +demand; for, however bad in other respects they may have been, the +Metropolitans have always remembered that their allegiance was due to +the Patriarch of Constantinople, and not to the schismatic branch of the +Greek Church, over which the Czar exercises both temporal and spiritual +sway. Were a Slavish Metropolitan appointed, Russian influence would be +dangerously augmented, and the task of transferring the allegiance of +the people from their proper ecclesiastical head to the Russian Emperor, +as has been attempted in Bulgaria, would here become easy of +accomplishment. + +In the N. and W. the Romish faith finds the greatest number of +supporters, who look to Austria as their guiding star in all matters +connected with religion. In their ranks are comprised the +agriculturalists and artisans of the province, few being engaged in +commerce. As regards education or enlightenment they are no farther +advanced than their Greek compatriots: few can read or write their own +language, and the knowledge of any other tongue is most exceptional. +Learning, in its broader sense, is indeed confined exclusively to the +convents, and, until very recently, no attempt of any kind was made by +the priests to promote a desire for education or advancement among the +people, their whole thoughts being bent on self-aggrandisement, and the +acquisition of personal wealth. Careful enquiry has established the fact +that no less than 60,000_l._ is annually paid in fees, penances, and +gifts to the Church by the Roman Catholic section of the population; and +we may fairly infer that the Greek priests extort an equally large sum. +Of late schools have been established in different parts of the +province, but the subjects of education are too confined to work any +salutary change in the rising generation. Nor is it probably intended +that such should be the case. + +The Roman Catholics cordially return the hatred of the Greeks, marriages +with whom are forbidden by the Catholic clergy. They are also inimical +to the Mussulman population, by whom they are regarded as serfs. But +this hostility is nurtured in secret, rarely displaying itself in overt +acts of aggression. Four hundred years of oppression have completely +broken their spirit, and they only ask to be allowed to enjoy in peace a +fair portion of the fruits of their labour. + +The Church is governed by two bishops. One, resident at Mostar, bears +the title of Bishop of Azotto, and Vicar-Apostolic of the Herzegovina. +The other, called the Bishop of Trebigné, lives at Ragusa, which is also +included in his see. He has, however, a Vicar resident in the district +of Stolatz. As in Bosnia, the monks are all of the Franciscan order. +Considerable attention is paid to their education, and they are in every +way immeasurably superior to the parochial clergy. In connection with +that brotherhood a college has been for some years established, about +twelve miles distant from Mostar. The subjects of education there are +Latin, Italian, Slavish, Church History, and Theology. From this college +the students proceed to Rome, where they are admitted into the +Franciscan order. + +In the above remarks, I have endeavoured to show that the Christianity +which exists in these provinces is merely nominal, since it is devoid of +all those gentle and humanising principles which should distinguish it +from Islamism, whose tenets have been ever propagated by conquest and +the sword. The vices which more especially accompany and mar the beauty +of true Christian civilisation here hold unrestrained dominion, and both +Greeks and Catholics present a painful combination of western cunning +and intrigue and oriental apathy, while they are devoid of that spirit +of devotion and dignified resignation to the will of Providence which +preeminently characterise the religion of Mahomet. Living on the +confines of the two hemispheres, they have inherited the sins of each, +without the virtues of either the one or the other. Nearly all adults +are addicted to drunkenness, while the use of foul and indelicate +language is almost universal,--men, women, and children employing it in +common conversation. So long as such a state of things shall prevail, it +is clearly impossible that any material improvement can be brought +about; and until the people show some inclination to improve their own +condition, the sympathy or consideration of others is uncalled-for and +misplaced. The perpetual Russian whine about eight millions of +Christians being held in galling subjection by four millions of Turks is +a miserable deception, which, although it may serve as a pretext for +their own repeated acts of interference, cannot mislead those who have +seen anything of these countries, or who have been brought into contact +with their Christian inhabitants. The most effective course, probably, +which either the bitterest enemy or the warmest friend of the Ottoman +government could pursue, would be to disseminate the seeds of true +Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the land. And I say +this advisedly; for on the future conduct of the Porte would depend +whether such a course might lead to the establishment of Turkish +supremacy, or to its irretrievable overthrow. That an enlightened +nation, 'at unity in itself,' could cast off the yoke of an oppressive +and tottering despotism can easily be imagined, while, on the other +hand, a throne based upon principles of justice and progression would +acquire fresh stability with each step made by its subjects in the path +of civilisation. It is, indeed, strange that so fine a field for British +missionary labour has been so long uncared-for and untried. Nowhere is +there more ample scope for exertion of this nature than in the European +provinces of Turkey; for while the Christian population could not but +contrast the simple purity of the missionary life with the vicious +habits and grasping avarice of their own clergy, the Mussulmans would +see Christianity in a very different light from that in which they have +been accustomed to regard it. Nor would any obstacles be thrown in the +way by the Turkish government; nay, instances have even occurred of +Protestant missionaries receiving encouragement and support: for, +whatever may be said to the contrary, no nation is more tolerant of the +exercise of other religions than these same much-abused Moslems. +Whatever is to be done, however, should be done at once, for never was +it more urgently needed. The American struggle seems to have paralysed +the missionary labours of that nation, which had heretofore displayed +much energy in proclaiming the glad tidings of great joy in these +benighted lands. For England, then, it would appear, is reserved the +noble task of rescuing these unfortunates from a state of moral +darkness, as profound as that which envelopes the savage tribes of +central Africa, or the remotest islands of the Pacific. That we have +remained so long indifferent to the urgent appeals of the talented and +earnest, though somewhat prejudiced, advocate of Slavonic institutions, +Count Valerian Krasinski, is a matter of surprise and deep regret; for +surely no country can be more replete with interest to Protestant +England than that which may be regarded as the cradle of Protestantism, +and whose fastnesses afforded a refuge during four centuries of +persecution to the 'early reformers of the Church, the men who supplied +that link in the chain which connected the simplicity of primitive +doctrines with the present time.' + +The affinity which exists between the Church of England in the early +days of the Reformation and the Pragmatic section which glory in Huss +and Jerome, is too close to be easily overlooked. Nor need Bosnia (taken +collectively) succumb in interest to any Slavonic province, whether it +be regarded as the stronghold of freedom of religious opinion, or as the +scene of one of the greatest and most important triumphs of Islamism. + +[Footnote C: Or the territory governed by a Herzog or Duke.] + +[Footnote D: This includes Austrian subjects, who are not included in +the statistics.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic Element--First + Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their Origin--Tenets--Elect + a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in + Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian Apostasy--Religious + Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under Kiamil Pacha--Servian + Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted Brotherhood--Mahommedan + Women--Elopements--Early Marriages. + + +Authorities differ as to the time when Christianity was first introduced +into Bosnia. Some say that it was preached by the apostle St. James, +while others affirm that it was unknown until the year 853 +A.D., when St. Cyril and Methodius translated the Scriptures +into the Slavonic tongue; others again say that it dates back as far as +the seventh century, when the Emperor Heraclius called the Slavonic +nations of the Chorvats or Croats, and the Serbs or Servians, from their +settlement on the N. of the Carpathian Mountains, to the fertile regions +S. of the Danube. The warlike summons was gladly obeyed by those valiant +men, who had unflinchingly maintained their independence, whilst their +Slavish brethren, inhabiting the country between the Volga and the Don, +had submitted to the iron yoke of the all-conquering Avars. These last +were in their time expelled by the Croats and Serbs, and thus was +Slavism established from the Danube to the Mediterranean. But these +important results were not achieved without great sacrifice; and, +wearied of war and bloodshed, the successful Slavonians devoted +themselves to agriculture and industry, neglecting those pursuits which +had procured for them a permanent footing in the Greek empire. Taking +advantage of this defenceless state, resulting from their pacific +disposition, Constans II. made war upon the country of Slavonia, in +order to open a communication between the capital on the one side, and +Philippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian II. (685-95 and +708-10) also made a successful expedition against the Slavonians, and +transplanted a great number of prisoners, whom he took into Asia Minor. +The Greek empire having become reinvigorated for some time under the +Slavonian dynasty, Constantine Copronymus (741-75) advanced in his +conquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the S. of Thessalonica, which +is evident from an inspection of the frontiers of the empire, made by +order of the Empress Irene in 783. The Emperor Michael III. (842-67) +sent an army against the Slavonians of the Peloponnesus, which conquered +them all with the exception of the Melugi and EseritÅ“, who inhabited +Lacedæmonia and Elis, and they were all finally subjugated by the +Emperor Basilicus I., or the Macedonian (867-86), after which the +Christian religion and Greek civilisation completely Hellenised them, as +their brethren on the Baltic were Germanised.[E] That the Latin faith +subsequently obtained a permanent footing in these provinces, is due to +the influence of the Kings of Hungary, who took the Bosnian Bans under +their special protection; and thus it happened that the Bosnian nobles +almost universally adopted the religion of their benefactors,--not so +much from conviction, it is surmised, as from an appreciation of the +many feudal privileges which it conferred, since they afterwards +renounced Christianity entirely, rather than relinquish the rights which +they had begun to regard as hereditary. The remote position of these +countries, however, and the antagonism of the Eastern and Western +Churches, combined to retard the development of the Papal doctrines, +while a still more important counterpoise presented itself, in the +appearance of the sect of Patarenes, towards the close of the twelfth +century. The sect was founded by an Armenian doctor, named Basil, who +was burnt for his opinions by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, and whose +followers, being banished, retired into Bulgaria, where they made many +converts, and took the name of Bogomili--'chosen of God,' or 'implorers +of God's mercy.' They thence spread their tenets into France by means +of pilgrims and traders, who were on their return to that country, and +by degrees laid the seeds of doctrines subsequently taken up by Peter +Bruysius, and afterwards by Henry and by Peter Valdo, the founder of the +Waldenses, and by others in other places. Availing themselves of the +various Caliphs' tolerance of all Christian sects, they carried their +opinions with their commerce into Africa, Spain, and finally into +Languedoc, a neighbouring province, to Moorish Iberia, where Raymond, +Count of Toulouse, gave them shelter and protection.[F] + +The same opinions were held by the Paulicians of Spain, who, having +received much encouragement from the Kings of Arragon and Castile, also +disseminated their doctrines throughout France, in the southern +provinces of which they met with great success. There they received the +name of Albigenses, from the town of Albiga or Alby. They afterwards +spread into Italy, where they received the name of 'Patarenes,' as some +suppose from the 'sufferings' which they endured, though other fanciful +reasons are assigned for the bestowal of the name. The tenets of these +early reformers 'have been transmitted through various sects under the +different denominations of Vallenses, Paulicians, Patarenes, Cathari +(Puritans), Bogomili, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, Bohemian Brethren +or Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Protestants to the present +day.' No very lucid account of their articles of faith has been handed +down to our times, and some suppose that they entertained the Manichæan +doctrines of the existence of the two principles, and of the creation of +the spiritual world by the good, and of matter by the evil One. +Krasinski appears to favour this supposition; but it is far more +probable that, with the name indiscriminately bestowed as a term of +opprobrium upon all who differed from the canons of the Romish Church, +they have received the credit of supporting the doctrines of the +Manichæans. This much, however, is certain,--that they denied the +sovereignty of the Pope, the power of the priests, the efficacy of +prayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory;[G] while they +rejected all images, relics, and the worship of the saints. Whether the +advent of the sect into Bosnia was from the Bulgarian or Italian side is +unknown; but, be this as it may, it is beyond a doubt that they were +most favourably received (in 1197) by Kulin, who was at that time Ban of +the province. His wisdom was so great, and his reign so prosperous, that +long after his death it was a proverbial saying in Bosnia, upon the +occurrence of a fruitful year, 'the times of Kulin are come back.' Both +he himself, his wife, and Daniel, Bishop of Bosnia, embraced the new +doctrines, which consequently gained ground rapidly in the country. + +In obedience to a summons from Pope Innocent III., Kulin repaired to +Rome to give an account of his conduct and faith. Having succeeded in +diverting suspicions about his orthodoxy, he returned to Bosnia, where +he gave out that the Pope was well satisfied with his profession of +faith,--a slight equivocation, which will hardly bear an enquiry,--and +thus induced many more to join the Patarenes. Hearing of this, the Pope +requested the King of Hungary to compel Kulin to eject them from the +country, at the same time ordering Bernard, Archbishop of Spalatro, +publicly to excommunicate Daniel, the refractory Bishop. + + 'Never was heard such a terrible curse. + But what gave rise + To no little surprise + Was, that nobody seemed one penny the worse;' + +though possibly the believer in the validity of Papal bulls, bans, and +so forth, may plead in excuse that the curse was never actually +pronounced. The King also contented himself with a friendly caution to +the Ban, who thenceforward demeaned himself with more circumspection. On +the death of Kulin, Andrew, King of Hungary, gave the Banate of Bosnia +to Zibislau, under whom the doctrines of the Patarenes continued to +flourish. The fears of Pope Honorius II. being aroused, he sent +Acconcio, his Legate, into Bosnia to suppress them. So far from +effecting this, he saw their numbers daily and hourly increase, until in +1222 they elected a Primate of their own, who resided on the confines of +Bulgaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed by his Vicars the filial +congregation of Italy and France.[H] They destroyed the cathedral of +Crescevo, and Bosnia became entirely subject to their influence. From +that time, until the latter part of the fourteenth century, they +contrived to keep a footing in the country, although subjected to much +persecution by successive Popes and the Kings of Hungary, and oftentimes +reduced to the greatest straits. Occasional glimpses of sunshine buoyed +up their hopes, and the following anecdote, quoted by Sir Gardner +Wilkinson, is illustrative of the sanguine view which they were +accustomed to take of the ways of Providence. 'Many of the Patarenes had +taken refuge, during the various persecutions, in the mountains of +Bosnia; and on the eve of St. Catherine (November 24) in 1367, a fire +was seen raging over the whole of the country they occupied, destroying +everything there, and leaving the mountains entirely denuded of wood. +The Roman Catholics considered this event to be a manifest judgement of +heaven against the wicked heretics; but the Patarenes looked on it as a +proof of divine favour, the land being thereby cleared for them and +adapted for cultivation.' In 1392 the sect flourished under Tuartko +(then King of Bosnia), and, further, made great progress during the +first half of the following century. Their cause was openly espoused by +Cosaccia, Duke of Santo Saba, or Herzegovina, and by John Paulovich +Voivode of Montenegro. So far all went well; but Stephen, King of +Bosnia, having in 1459 ordered all Patarenes to leave his kingdom or +abjure their doctrines, their cause received a severe shock, and 40,000 +were obliged to take refuge in the Herzegovina, where they were welcomed +by Stephen Cosaccia. From that time no farther direct trace remains of +this important and widely-spreading sect; though Krasinski speaks of the +existence of a sect in Russia called 'Dookhoboitzi,' or combatants in +spirit, whose doctrines have great affinity to those professed by the +Patarenes, and whom he believes to have been transplanted from Bosnia to +Russia, their present country. + +But this triumph of Papal oppression was not destined to be of long +duration. Already was the tide of Mussulman conquest threatening to +overrun Germany; and Bosnia, after suffering severely from the wars +between Hungary and the Turks, was conquered, and annexed by the latter +in 1465. The religious constancy of the Bosnian nobles was now sorely +tried, for they found themselves compelled to choose between their +religion and poverty, or recantation and wealth. Their decision was soon +made, and the greater portion renounced Christianity and embraced +Islamism, rather than relinquish those feudal privileges, for the +attainment of which they had originally deserted their national creed. +Their example was ere long followed by many of the inhabitants of the +towns, and thus an impassable gulf was placed between them and the great +body of the people, who remained faithful to Christianity, and regarded +the renegades with mistrust and abhorrence. These for the moment were +benefited greatly by their apostasy, receiving permission to retain not +only their own estates, but also to hold in fief those belonging to such +as had refused to deny Christ. With the bitterness characteristic of +renegades, they now became the most inveterate enemies of those whose +faith they had abjured, oppressing them by every means within their +power. The savage tyranny which they exercised would doubtless have +driven very many to emigration, had a place of refuge presented itself; +but in the existing condition of the surrounding countries such a course +would have in no way profited them, but would rather have aggravated +their misery. A few, indeed, succeeded in escaping into Hungary, but +the mass submitted to their fate, and were reduced to poverty and +insignificance. + +The rancorous ill-treatment which they experienced at the hands of their +fanatical oppressors, was without doubt increased by the fact that these +found themselves a small and isolated band, all-powerful upon the +immediate spot they occupied, but surrounded by states which were +implacable enemies to their religion; while the remote position of these +provinces, and the difficulty of communication, have combined to render +the people, even now, less tolerant than the more legitimate devotees of +Mahometanism. That idea of superiority over other peoples and religions, +which the Mussulman faith inculcates, was eagerly embraced by them at +the time of their first perversion, and conspired to make them zealots +in their newly-adopted creed. The feeling was inherited, and even +augmented, with each succeeding generation, until it has become the +prominent feature of the race. To such an extent has this been indulged, +that the Bosniac Mussulmans of the present day not only despise all +other religions, but look upon the Mahommedans of other parts of the +empire as very little superior to the Christians. The apathy and +indifference to progress which has inevitably ensued upon the adoption +of Islamism, has made its effects strikingly apparent in these +provinces; and although entirely deprived of all those Seignorial +rights which their ancestors possessed, the Mussulman population appear +perfectly satisfied with the lazy independence procured for them by the +produce and rents of the land, of which they are the sole proprietors. +The Christians, on the other hand, are invariably the tenants, as it is +beneath the dignity of a Mussulman to turn his hand to any kind of +manual labour, i.e. so long as he can find a Christian to do it. + +The Euchlemeh, or arrangement for the tenure of land, has long existed +in this part of the empire, and has worked well whenever it has not been +abused. The original terms of the contract provided that the proprietor +should give the land and the seed for sowing it, receiving in return +one-third of the produce in kind. The commission of which Kiamil Pacha +was President in 1853, endeavoured, whilst regulating the taxation of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, to ameliorate the condition of the tenant as +regards the rental of land. They decreed that he should be supplied with +animals, implements, seeds, and also a house in which to live, while +yielding to the proprietor in return from 25 to 50 per cent. of the +products, according to the more or less prolific nature of land in the +different parts of the provinces. These terms were cheerfully accepted +by the agriculturalists, by whom they were considered just. The internal +state of the Ottoman empire, unfortunately, renders it impossible that +these conditions should in all cases be adhered to, and without doubt +the tenants are often compelled to pay from 10 to 20 per cent. more than +the legal rent. These instances, however, are less frequent than they +were a few years ago, and very much less frequent than the depreciators +of Turkey would have us to believe. The most scrupulous observance of +the terms of the Euchlemeh will be enforced by the Ottoman government if +it be alive to its own interests, and the more so that the infraction of +it has been, and will always be, turned to account by those who would +fain see rebellion and discord prevailing in the Turkish provinces, +rather than unity and peace. + +In 1860 no fewer than nine Servian emissaries were caught in the +Herzegovina, who were endeavouring to fan the discontent and ill-feeling +already existing amongst the agricultural classes. That province has +indeed been for a long time employed by the advocates of Panslavism, or +by the enemies of Turkey in general, as a focus of agitation, where +plans are hatched and schemes devised, the object of which is to +disorganise and impede the consolidation of the empire. The conduct of +Servia, as well as of greater and more important nations, has been most +reprehensible, and with it the forbearance of Turkey, notwithstanding +the corruptness of her government and the fanaticism of the Mussulman +population, has contrasted most favourably. Little wonder, then, that +ill-blood should have existed between these rival factions, and that the +party possessing power should have been prompted to use it for the +oppression of those whom they have had too much reason to regard as +their implacable foes. Yet, in spite of these opposing elements, many +points of striking resemblance still remain inspired by, and indicative +of, their former consanguinity of origin and identity of creed. The most +important of these, perhaps, is their retention of the Slavonic tongue, +which is employed to the exclusion of Turkish, almost as universally by +the Mussulmans as by the Christians. Some of their customs, too, prove +that a little spark of nationality yet exists, which their adoption of +Islamism has failed to eradicate. Thus, for example, the principle of +adopted brotherhood is eminently Slavonic in its origin. The tie is +contracted in the following manner:--Two persons prick their fingers, +the blood from each wound being sucked by the other. This engagement is +considered very binding, and, curiously enough, it is sometimes entered +into by Christians and Mussulmans mutually. Again, a man cuts the hair +of a child, and thus constitutes himself the 'Coom,' or, to a certain +degree, assumes the position of a godfather. It not unfrequently happens +that a Mussulman adopts a Christian child, and vice versâ. + +In their domestic arrangements they vie in discomfort and want of +cleanliness, notwithstanding the post-prandial ablutions common to all +Easterns. + +The Mussulman females, up to the time of their marriage, show themselves +unreservedly, and generally appear in public unveiled; while in one +respect, at any rate, they have the advantage of many more civilised +Christians than those of Turkey,--that they are permitted, in the matter +of a husband, to choose for themselves, and are wooed in all due form. +Parents there, as elsewhere, are apt to consider themselves the best +judges of the position and income requisite to insure the happiness of +their daughters, and where such decision is at variance with the young +lady's views, elopement is resorted to. Of the amount of resistance +encountered by the bridegrooms on these occasions, I regret that I am +not in a position to hazard an opinion. Polygamy is almost unknown, a +second wife being seldom taken during the lifetime of the first. Since +it is to the expense attendant upon this luxury that such abstinence is +probably to be attributed, it really reflects great credit upon the +Bosnian Benedicts that the meal-sack has been so seldom brought into +play,--that ancient and most expeditious Court of Probate and Divorce in +matrimonial cases. After marriage, the women conceal themselves more +strictly than in most other parts of Turkey. Perhaps in this the +husbands act upon the homÅ“opathic principle, that prevention is better +than cure; for divorces are unheard of, and are considered most +disgraceful. Marriages are contracted at a much earlier age by the +Christian than by the Mahommedan women, and it is no uncommon thing to +find wives of from twelve to fourteen years of age. This abominable +custom is encouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy, whose revenues are +thereby increased. + +[Footnote E: Krasinski.] + +[Footnote F: See Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Dalmatia,' Napier's 'Florentine +History,' and Sismondi's 'Literature du Midi de l'Europe.'] + +[Footnote G: Sismondi.] + +[Footnote H: Gibbon.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of + Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural Capabilities + of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian _Scutors_--Other + Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations with Bosnia--Able + Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria takes Alarm--Trade + Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier + Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms. + + +The agricultural products of the Herzegovina are wheat, barley, rice, +linseed, millet, tobacco, and grapes. Of the cereals, Indian corn is +most cultivated, and forms the staple article of consumption, as is also +the case in Servia and the Danubian principalities. The little wheat +that is grown is found in the northern and eastern parts of the +province, where the soil is better adapted for it; but nowhere is it +either abundant or of good quality. The best which is sold in the towns +is imported from Bosnia. Barley is more extensively grown, and horses +are fed upon it here and throughout Turkey generally. Linseed is only +grown in small quantities in the northern parts, while the district of +Gliubinski is almost entirely devoted to the culture of rice. As the +quantities produced barely suffice for home consumption, no exportation +of cereals can be expected to take place. This circumstance, together +with its rugged appearance, naturally procures for the province the +character of being sterile and unproductive, and such it doubtless is +when compared with Bulgaria, Roumelia, or the fruitful plains of +Wallachia; but it has certain resources peculiar to itself, which, if +properly developed, would materially change the aspect of the country, +and obtain for it a more desirable reputation. It is eminently adapted +for the cultivation of those articles of Eastern necessity and Western +luxury, tobacco and the vine. Numerous patches of land, now either +fallow or sown with grain, for which they are neither suited by their +size or the nature of their soil, might be turned to good account for +the growth of tobacco; and such would doubtless be the case were there +an outlet for its exportation, which at present, unfortunately, does not +exist. Only a sufficiency, therefore, is grown to meet the local +demands, and to supply the contiguous Turkish provinces. Three qualities +are produced, the prices of which have been for some time fluctuating. +Previous to the Christian outbreak the best of these, grown in the +district of Trebigné, sold for about 11_d._ per pound, while the +cheapest was to be procured at 3_d._ per pound. + +In alluding to the capabilities of the province for the production of +the vine, I might also have mentioned the olive and the mulberry, both +of which would thrive. Of these the vine alone, however, has as yet +occupied the attention of the agriculturalists; and though it is largely +cultivated in the southern and western parts, not one-tenth part of the +land adapted to it is thus employed. + +The same obstacle which impedes the more extensive cultivation of +tobacco, is also in a measure applicable to the manufacture of wine, at +least as far as regards its quality. At present quantity is far more +considered, and the result is that, in place of manufacturing really +valuable wines, they poison both themselves and all who have the +misfortune to partake of it. It is only fair to add that one +description, which I tasted at Mostar, appeared to be sound, and gave +promise of becoming drinkable after some months' keeping. The vine +disease, which showed itself some years back, has now disappeared; and +the crops, which during six or seven seasons deteriorated to an +astonishing degree, have now reassumed their former healthy appearance. + +The numerous hills which intersect the province might also be covered +with olive groves, and it would be of great advantage to the country +could the people be induced to follow the example of their Dalmatian +neighbours, who have covered almost inaccessible points of their country +with that useful tree. + +The climate is well adapted to the nurture of the silkworm, and the +mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly throughout the province: were these +turned to account there can be little doubt that in a few years large +quantities of silk might be exported. A few of the natives have reared +worms successfully for several years, and the silk thus obtained has +been employed for domestic purposes. The disease, which for so many +years inflicted such serious loss on the silk producers of Europe, is +unknown in the Herzegovina. Whether this immunity is to be attributed to +the climate, or the nature of the leaf upon which the silkworm feeds, it +is impossible to say, but it is none the less a veritable fact. Cotton +might also be grown to a small extent, but the same drawbacks would +apply here as elsewhere in Turkey, viz. the difficulty of obtaining, and +the high price of labour. + +This has been rapidly increasing during the last twelve years. In 1850, +a mason or carpenter received five piastres or 10_d._ a day, while a +common labourer obtained 6_d._ Now the former finds no difficulty in +earning 2_s._ per diem, while the latter receives 1_s._ 4_d._ for short +days, and 1_s._ 6_d._ for long days. The shorthandedness consequent upon +the Christian rising, has of course contributed to this rise in wages; +but the province was at no time self-supporting in this respect. A large +number of _scutors_ or labourers from Dalmatia cross the frontier in the +spring, and hire themselves out during the summer months. The decrease +in the number of these was, I am told, very perceptible during the +Italian war, in consequence of the demand for recruits. + +The other products of the country are wool, hides, skins, honey, and +wax, which are exported to Austria. Large numbers of sheep and horned +cattle are, moreover, annually exported to the Dalmatian markets. + +The only manufactures of which I could find specimens were coarse +woollen blankets, twist, and carpets. The blankets and carpets are +mostly exported to Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Servia. Besides these, a kind +of cotton cloth is made in the houses by the women, from imported +cotton, and is applied solely to domestic uses, and is not regarded as +an article of commerce. + +In considering the question of the trade of the Herzegovina, the +attention should be directed, not so much to what it actually is, as to +what it might be under the fostering care of an enlightened government. +And yet, it is not to the producing and consuming capabilities of the +province itself that its possible importance in a commercial point of +view is attributable, but rather to its position on the confines of the +East and West, and to the fact of its containing within its limits the +natural outlets for the trade of that portion of the Ottoman empire. + +It is, in fact, in its relation to Bosnia, that it is entitled to most +attention; and if we deplore that such natural resources as it +possesses have not been more fully developed, we have still greater +reason to lament that the world is thus debarred communication with the +most romantic and beautiful province of European Turkey. It is also the +natural route for the commerce of a portion of Servia, whose exports and +imports would thus quickly pass to and from the sea. Its value, however, +appears never to have been properly appreciated by the Turkish +government, and Omer Pacha, in 1852, was the first employé of that power +who ever appreciated its importance in a commercial point of view. He +appears to have indicated the measures necessary for developing its +resources, and for attracting the trade of the neighbouring provinces +from their expensive and indirect channel into their legitimate route. +The prospects of the province were rapidly brightening under his +sagacious administration, when Austria took alarm, and effectually +impeded all farther progress by closing the only port adapted for the +transmission of its mercantile resources. She thus secures for herself a +monopoly of trade, forcing the inhabitants of all the Turkish provinces, +in that quarter, to purchase their imports at high prices from her, and +to sell their produce to Austrian merchants, who, fearing no +competition, themselves determine its price. The object of Austria in +thus retarding the development of Bosnia is sufficiently obvious, since +that which would be a gain to Turkey would be a loss to herself. And +were events so to dispose themselves as to render this probable, she +would doubtless find a pretext to justify a military occupation of the +country. This she has done on several occasions, and the large force now +massed upon the northern bank of the Save only awaits some national +demonstration to effect an armed intervention. This is, however, +trenching upon another subject, to which I may have hereafter to allude. + +Approximate calculations of the trade of the Herzegovina show that the +imports amount annually to about 150,000_l._, while the exports do not +produce more than 70,000_l._ This comparison proves that a very large +amount of specie must be extracted every year from the country, for +which no material counterpoise exists, since the merchandise imported is +to supply the wants of the people, and does not consequently tend to +enrich the province. It follows therefore, naturally, that it is +becoming daily more poverty-stricken, and in place of advancing with +advancing civilisation, it is stagnating or even declining in +prosperity. + +These imports are computed to amount to about 70,000 horse-loads in +quantity, while the transit trade to Bosnia is estimated at 50,000 more. +Of these about 10,000 horse-loads are of salt from Dalmatia. + +The main source whence these provinces are supplied is Trieste, where +large depots exist, established expressly for this purpose. Thither the +traders proceed once a year, to lay in a supply of goods for the ensuing +twelve months. They purchase at credits varying from six to twelve +months, paying high prices for a very indifferent class of goods. These +consist for the most part of cotton and woollen manufactures, cotton +twist, silks, iron in bars sheets and plates, tin, lead, brass, +hardware, glass, sugar, coffee, and other colonial products. Gold lace, +velvet, and silks are also imported from Bosna Serai, and silks and some +kinds of cotton prints from Constantinople by way of Salonica and +Serajevo. Like most semi-civilised nations, the people of Herzegovina +are much addicted to showy colours in their dress. Those most in favour +are scarlet, green, and blue; but the dyes soon fade, and the cloth is +anything but durable. It is invariably of French or German manufacture; +is of coarse quality, and is worn next the skin by the country people. +In the towns, grey long cloths, dyed dark blue, constitute the principal +article of clothing among the Christians, the general character of dress +being the same throughout the province. The exports consist of sheep's +wool, hides, sheep and goats' skins, furs, and wax, to Trieste; cattle, +sheep, goats, pigs, tallow, and eels, to Dalmatia; woollen blankets, red +and yellow leather prepared from sheep skins, carpets, tobacco, wine, +and fruits, to the neighbouring Turkish provinces. Pipe-sticks are also +sent from Bosna Serai, to Egypt, through the Herzegovina, while knives, +manufactured at Foulcha from country-made steel, are also sent in +considerable quantities to Egypt. All imports and exports pay a duty of +three per cent. on their value, and until recently produce exported to +the neighbouring Turkish provinces paid the unreasonable duty of ten per +cent. This grievous impediment to commerce has, thanks to the efforts of +the European Consuls, been abolished, and they now pay the same duty as +exports to other countries. + +It may be noted, as a symptom of the centralising policy which the Porte +is adopting, that the government now farms the customs of these +provinces, in place of selling the right of doing so to the highest +bidder, as was formerly the case. + +Having thus contrasted the actual with the possible condition of the +province, we cannot but enquire the causes which lead thereto; and it is +impossible to disguise from ourselves, that to mal-administration is +primarily attributable this deplorable state of things. Add to this the +total absence of all means of internal communication, and we have quite +sufficient to cripple the energies of a more industrious and energetic +people than those with whom we are dealing. The first object of the +government, then, should be to inspire the people with confidence in its +good faith, and to induce them to believe that the results of their +labour will not be seized by rapacious Pachas or exorbitant landowners; +and, above all things, it is necessary that Turkish subjects, even if +they are not accorded greater favours in their own country than those of +other powers, should at least be placed upon a footing of equality, +which is far from being the case at present. + +It would appear that the government is really sincere in its intention +of making roads through the country generally, and when this is done a +new era may be anticipated. In the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina, only +one road has until very recently existed. It was made by Omer Pacha in +1851, and connects Bosna Serai with Brod, a town situated upon the +southern bank of the Save. From Metcovich to Bosna Serai, which is the +high road for the trade of the country, the line of route is but a path +formed by the constant traffic, and, while always difficult to traverse, +is in winter frequently closed altogether. It is indispensable that a +central high road should be made, and no point could be more +advantageously adopted as a base than the port of Klek, near which +asphalte is found in large quantities. + +Were a good trunk-road established, connecting that point with Bosna +Serai, branch roads might soon be made throughout the province. The +nature of the country is not such as would render the difficulty of +doing this insuperable, and the rivers over which it would pass are +already spanned by good and serviceable bridges, the relics of better +days. That the expense attending it would soon be defrayed by the +increased traffic is acknowledged by all, and we may therefore hope ere +long to see the deficiency remedied. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis--Its + Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial + Tribunals--Revenue and + Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh--Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total + Revenue--Police. + + +The Herzegovina is divided into fourteen districts or mudirliks, named +as follows, viz.:-- + + Districts Chief Towns No. of Villages in + each District + Mostar Mostar 45 + Duvno Duvno 25 + Gliubinski 31 + Stolatz Stolatz 22 + Trebigné Trebigné 51 + Niksich Niksich 28 + Tashlijeh Tashlijeh 16 + Priepolie 22 + Chainitza Chainitza 14 + Kolashin 56 + Fochia Fochia + Gasko Gasko 20 + Nevresign Nevresign 14 + Pogitel Pogitel 13 +[I]Konitza 19 + +These districts, with the exception of Mostar (which is the seat of the +Central Provincial Government), are under the supervision of a Mudir, +who is assisted by a Council, a Cadi or Judge, and a Tax-collector. The +province is governed by a Mutisarif named from Constantinople, who is +subject in certain things to the Pacha of Bosnia. The Mudirs are +appointed by the Mutisarif, subject to the approval of the government at +Constantinople. + +The Cadi of Mostar is a very important personage, and has all the +district Cadis under his orders. He is an unsalaried officer, his +remuneration consisting of the fees of office, and whatever else he can +lay hands on. + +The Medjlis, or Council for the province, was selected by Kiamil +Effendi, the Turkish Commissioner in 1853, and vacancies have since been +filled up by the votes of the majority of their number, subject to +confirmation at Constantinople. + +The Medjlis consists of about ten native Mussulmans, one Roman Catholic, +and one Greek, so that the Christian interests are but indifferently +represented. + +Appeal can be made against its decision to the Medjlis Kebir at Bosna +Serai. + +All legal matters are arbitrated by the Medjlis since the abolition of +the various tribunals, which were founded in 1857. One of these was for +the trial of criminal causes. It consisted of a President, and six +members, and another was a commercial tribunal for the settlement of +petty commercial disputes. These have both fallen into abeyance; and, +seeing that Christian evidence is not accepted in the civil causes, it +is difficult to understand how the Christian population could ever have +benefited, at any rate by the latter. + + * * * * * + +_Revenues and taxes._--The revenue of the province is derived from the +following sources, viz.-- + +_Virgu_ (income tax). + +_Monayene-askereh_, or the tax paid by the Christians in lieu of +military service. It is, however, one of the grievances alleged by the +Christians, who declare their willingness to serve; but as many +Mussulmans would willingly pay the tax to be exempted from the chance of +enlistment, the hardship applies to all parties. + +_Customs, tithes, excise._ + +The Virgu is a species of income tax, inasmuch as it is a rate levied +ostensibly on the wealth of individuals; but, instead of being a per +centage on the income, it has resolved itself into a mere capitation +tax, and is ill-adapted, as such a tax must always be, to the relative +wealth of individuals. A certain sum was arbitrarily fixed upon to be +paid by the province. The government appears to have omitted to enquire +whether the wealth of the country would enable it to pay so large a sum +as that demanded. In 1853, the tax was divided into three portions, +according to the numbers of each persuasion, and has been thus collected +ever since. + +In the same sweeping manner these sums have been equally apportioned to +each household, poor and rich paying alike. Thus the Mussulmans, who +possess nearly all the land in the province, and who are generally in +affluent circumstances, but who form the smallest portion of the +population, pay least. The Virgu has been unscrupulously levied, and has +given rise to much discontent, more especially among the Latins, who are +the poorest classes. + +These complain bitterly, and harrowing stories are told of women, about +to become mothers, being compelled to pay the tax on the chance of the +infant being a male. Such things may have occurred some years ago, but +the spirit of cruelty appears to have died out, or is at all events kept +in the background by the Moslems of the present day. + +The Monayene-askereh was first imposed when the people were relieved +from the Haradj. It is levied on males from fourteen to seventy, and was +found so grievous, that the Porte has seen fit to direct that only about +one-half of the original amount shall be raised. This alleviation has +existed during the last three years. + +_Customs._--These consist of a duty of three per cent. ad valorem on all +imports and exports to and from foreign countries, as well as the same +amount demanded under the form of transit dues for goods passing from +one Turkish province to another. This has lately been reduced from 12 +per cent. to its present rate. + +The next source of revenue is the amount realised by the tithes. Since +1858 these have been farmed by the government, but previous to that year +they were sold by auction, as in other provinces, to the highest bidder. +The arrangement was complicated enough, for they underwent no less than +four sales: 1st. In each district for the amount of the district. 2nd. +At Mostar, where each district was again put up, and given to the person +offering 10 per cent. above the price realised at the first sale. 3rd. +At Bosna Serai for the entire province. And lastly at Constantinople,--the +highest bidder in this fourfold sale becoming the farmer. This system +exposed the tithe payers to much oppression, for it not uncommonly +happened that the farmer found he had paid more for his purchase than +he could legally claim from the people, so that, instead of 10 per +cent., 15 or 20 per cent. could alone remunerate him; and this he found +no difficulty in getting, as the government unfortunately bound itself +to help him. None but the farmers of the tithes really knew what the +produce was, so that any demand of theirs was considered by the +government to be a bonâ fide claim, and was upheld. + +The government was frequently cheated, and, further, defrauded of large +sums of money, as in the case of Hadji Ali Pacha; but it is a question +whether so much will be realised by the present system, since greater +facilities exist for roguery on the part of the agriculturalists, to say +nothing of the corruptness of its own officials. + +The excise consists of a per centage on the sale of wine, spirits, shot, +lead, earthenware, snuff, tobacco, and salt; of tolls on produce brought +into the towns for sale; of fees for permission to distil, to roast and +grind coffee, and to be a public weigher; also of a tax on taking +animals to the grazing grounds,[J] and of licenses to fish for eels and +leeches: these are caught plentifully in the plain of Gabella when +flooded, and are of good quality. + + * * * * * + +_Revenue._--The taxes of the province produce annually about 9,135,000 +piastres, taking the piastre at 2_d._ English. + +This sum may be divided as follows: viz.-- + + Piastres +Virgu 1,700,000 +Tithes 5,000,000 +Monayene-askereh 1,285,000 +Customs 600,000 +Excise 550,000 + --------- + Total 9,135,000 + +The above shows that the province yields to the imperial treasury a +yearly sum of about 79,000_l._ sterling, from a taxation of about 8_s._ +per head on the population. The amount may appear small; but when it is +considered that the taxes are not equitably levied, that the heaviest +share falls upon the poorest inhabitants, and that a great part of the +amount is in direct taxation, it cannot be considered light. The burden, +too, weighs with undue severity upon the faithful subjects of the Porte, +since they are compelled to pay the share which would fall upon those +who have rebelled against the Turkish authority. + +There is one branch of the public administration which eminently +requires readjustment. This is the police force. Ill-paid and badly +organised, it follows as a matter of course that it is inefficient to +perform the duties required of it. It is divided into horse and foot, +and is paid as follows per month:-- + + Horse Piastres +Binbashee (or Chief Officer) 1,000 per month +Uzbashee (or Captain) 600 " +Tchonch (Corporal or Sergeant) 250 " +Nefer (Private) 150 " + + Foot Piastres +Tchonch 100 per month +Nefer 75 " + +The Zaptiehs have frequently duties to perform which should only be +intrusted to men of honesty and sagacity, and it is consequently of +great importance to render the service attractive to trustworthy men. To +effect this the pay, more especially in the lower grades, should be +increased, and circumspection used in the selection of recruits. At +present this is far from being the case, many men of notoriously bad +character being employed, and these are driven to peculation and theft +for the means of supporting life. The mounted portion find their own +horses and forage, is very dear in many parts of the province. + +[Footnote I: Many of the villages on the Montenegrin frontier no longer +exist, having been fired by the insurgents.] + +[Footnote J: These are principally on the western banks of the Narenta, +outside Mostar.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Omer Pacha--Survey of + Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars--Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of + Prisoners--Roman Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish + Officers--Pacha's Palace--European + Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's Day--Warlike + Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders to March. + + +During the week which intervened between my arrival and the removal of +head-quarters to the seat of war, I had several interviews with Omer +Pacha. On these occasions he showed much kindness of disposition, and +took great trouble to explain to me the arrangements which he made for +the prosecution of the war against Montenegro in 1852, and to describe +the nature of campaigning in that province. + +He expressed himself much pleased with a map of Montenegro which I had +presented to him, drawn by Major Cox, R.E., British Commissioner for +determining the new boundary line, but detected the absence of one or +two traversable paths, the existence of which I found to be correct when +I subsequently accompanied the army to those districts. The map, +however, I may observe, is very superior, both in accuracy and +minuteness of detail, to any other survey which has as yet appeared. + +While awaiting the departure of the Generalissimo for the seat of war, +to which he had kindly invited me to accompany him, I employed myself in +wandering about those crooked byways, and studying the many phases of +Turco-European humanity. That my impressions of the town were very +favourable, I am not prepared to state; but I believe that in point of +cleanliness it is superior to many. It is situated on both banks of the +Narenta, in a gorge which opens out into two small plains, at its N. and +S. extremities. The eastern and larger part is built on an acclivity, +and contains the bazaar, government offices, and the houses of the +traders and the richer inhabitants. The western part is occupied by the +poorer classes, who are for the most part Catholics, and are employed in +agricultural pursuits. The gardens, which supply the town with +vegetables, are upon this side, and the soil is more fruitful, though +marshy and feverish. On the eastern side it is healthy, sandy, and dry. +The dwelling-houses are generally small and comfortless, indifferently +built, and roofed with stone. As in India, they are always surrounded +with a compound--for it cannot be called garden--which gives the town a +rambling and extended appearance. + +The shops are small and ill-supplied, and the streets narrow and +tortuous, except the two main ones, which are tolerably broad, and run +parallel to each other in a nearly straight course N. and S. They have +raised footpaths, roughly constructed, and swarming with animal life, as +is to be expected in the luxurious East. There are no fewer than thirty +mosques in the town, whose minarets give it a beautiful and picturesque +appearance, albeit that the buildings themselves are imperfect, and +ungainly in architectural detail. The Mussulmans have a school in the +town, where Turkish and Slavish are taught. Girls are, however, debarred +this advantage, and indeed no institution of any kind exists throughout +the province for their training or instruction. The result is that the +female population is, if possible, in a lower state of degradation than +the male. The religious and secular education of the Christians is as +little considered as that of the Mussulmans. Thus the only place of +worship which the Greeks possess is a small chapel on the outskirts, to +which is attached a school for boys, which is attended by about two +hundred children. Since Omer Pacha's arrival during the past year, a +peal of bells has been placed in this chapel. The superstition which +prevails amongst Turks, 'that bells drive away good spirits from the +abodes of men,' renders this concession the more grateful, and it is +only another proof that the Mussulmans of the present day are not so +intolerant as they are represented. No restrictions, indeed, are placed +upon religious ceremonies or public processions of any kind. With +regard to church bells, I may add that their use has always been +considered tantamount to a recognition of Christianity as the +established religion of the place. In some towns, where Christians +predominated, the concession had been made long before their +introduction at Mostar. + +The Roman Catholics have no church in Mostar. Service is performed at +the Austrian Consulate, and also at a convent, about two miles distant, +where the Bishop of Mostar resides. This circumstance has led to the +concentration of the Catholic community in that neighbourhood. The +Catholic school for boys adjoins the convent; it is, however, thinly +attended, and but indifferently conducted. + +The British Consulate being closed in consequence of the absence of the +Vice-Consul, M. Zohrab, who was acting as temporary Consul at Bosna +Serai, I took up my abode at a khan overlooking the river. The situation +was pretty, and the house newly restored; but this did not deprive it of +some relics of animal life, which somewhat disturb the equanimity of the +new comer, but which he soon learns to regard with indifference. +Descending the stairs, and passing through the stable, which is, as is +usually the case, immediately beneath the lodging rooms, we must turn +sharply to the right; and, after clambering up some rough and broken +steps, we arrive at the main street, which runs for about a mile +through the centre of the town, varied only by arched gateways placed at +intervals along its course. Against the first of these a Turkish sentry +indolently leans, if he be not seated on the kerbstone at the corner. +Passing through this we come to a second gate, where the peaceful +traveller, unconscious of offence, is angrily accosted. The meaning of +all this is that he is requested to throw away and stamp upon his +cigarette, the old tower on the left being used as a magazine. Round it +a weak attempt at a _place d'armes_ is apparent, Omer Pacha having +ordered some of the neighbouring houses to be pulled down. Nor was this +done before it was necessary, a fire having broken out a short time +before in its vicinity. On that occasion the inhabitants destroyed a few +houses, and imagined the fire to be extinguished. The wind rose, and it +broke out again, taking the direction of the magazine. Upon this, the +whole population took to the country, and the prisoners, who were +located close by, escaped in the general confusion. Had it not been +providentially extinguished, the _place of Mostar would have known it no +more_. The prison is a plain white house, which does not look at all as +if it had ever been the sort of place to have long defied the ingenuity +of a Jack Sheppard, or even an accomplished London house-breaker of our +own day. + +The tower to which allusion has been made is built on the eastern side, +and immediately above the beautiful bridge which spans the Narenta, and +for which Mostar[K] has ever been famous. The Turks attribute its +erection to Suleyman the Magnificent, but it was probably built by the +Emperor Trajan or Adrian, since the very name of the town would imply +the existence of a bridge in very early days. The Turkish inscriptions, +which may be traced upon the abutments at the E. end of the bridge, +probably refer to some subsequent repairs. At any rate too much reliance +must not be placed in them, as the Turks have been frequently convicted +of removing Roman inscriptions and substituting Turkish ones in their +place. The beauty of the bridge itself is heightened by the glimpse to +be obtained of the mosques and minarets of Mostar, washed by the turbid +waters of the Narenta, and backed by the rugged hills which hem it in. +'It is of a single arch, 95 ft. 3 in. in span, and when the Narenta is +low, about 70 feet from the water, or, to the top of the parapet, 76 +feet.'[L] + +There is a second tower at the extremity of the bridge on the left bank, +which is said to be of more modern construction. + +Mostar is not a fortified city, nor is it important in a strategical +point of view. The only traces of defensive works which exist are +portions of a crenellated wall of insignificant construction. This +accounts for the ease with which the Venetians were enabled to take +possession of and burn its suburbs by a sudden raid in 1717. 'The town +was built,' says Luccari, 'in 1440, by Radigost, Major-Domo of Stefano +Cosaccia;' but in asserting this, he overlooks the existence of the +Roman road to Trebigné, which is very superior to anything built by +either Slaves or Turks, and places its Roman origin beyond a doubt. Some +suppose it to be the ancient Sarsenterum. That it was selected by the +Turks as the capital of the province immediately after the conquest, and +considerably enlarged, appears very probable, and the towers which flank +the bridge were probably built at that period or a little earlier, +though the eastern one is said to be raised upon a Roman basement. + +Continuing our ramble we pass through another gate, and come to an +uncomfortable looking hill. We have not to mount far, however, before we +approach an archway, with two sentries, rather more alert than the +others whom we have seen. Officers are passing backwards and forwards, +looking fussy and important, as Turks always do when they get rid of +their habitual apathy. In their small waisted coats _à la Française_, +surmounted by the _inevitable fez_, they present a strange combination +of the Eastern and Western soldier. + +The house in the interior of the court-yard is the palace, usually +occupied by the Mulisarif, but devoted, during his stay in these parts, +to Omer Pacha, the Serdar Ekrem and Rumili Valessi, or Governor-General +of European Turkey. In the vicinity of the palace may be seen the +flagstaffs of the Prussian and Austrian Consulates, while that of Great +Britain appears at no great distance, and in the rear of the +clock-tower, which distinguishes Mostar from most other Turkish towns. +Let us now return to the main street, which continues in unbroken +monotony for something less than half a mile. If gifted with sufficient +patience to continue our stroll out of the town, we come upon the +principal burial-ground. On the E. high hills hem us in, while the tiny +stream of the Narenta comes winding from the N. + +During my stay at Mostar the town was enlivened by the occurrence of the +Emperor Alexander's birthday, or the 'Emperor's day,' as it is called. +In celebration of this auspicious event, the Russian Consul kept open +house, everyone who could muster decent apparel being admitted. After +the ceremony of blessing the Muscovite flag had been performed by the +Greek Bishop, a select few sat down to a kind of breakfast, which did +credit to the hospitality of his Imperial Majesty's representative. +Thither I accompanied Omer Pacha, who was attended by a small suite. +This was the only occasion on which I ever observed anything like +display in the Turkish General. His gold-embroidered dress resembled +that of a Marshal of France; his breast was literally covered with +decorations, in the centre of which was the Grand Cross of the Bath, and +he carried a magnificently-jewelled sword, the gift of the late Sultan, +Abdul Medjid. He did not, however, remain long, and on emerging I could +not help contrasting the festivities within with the signs of warlike +preparation which jostled one at every turn, the first fruits, in great +measure, of Russian imperial policy. Strings of ponies laden with +forage, and provisions for the army on the frontier, passed +continuously, and the streets presented a more than usually gay and +variegated appearance. Omer Pacha was throughout indefatigable. +Detachments of irregulars arrived daily, some of which were immediately +pushed up to the scene of operations; others were retained at Mostar; +but whether they went, or stayed behind, he inspected them alike, and +was always received with marked enthusiasm. I must not omit to mention +that amongst these reinforcements was a body of 1,000 Christians, who, +however, were never sent to the frontier. Fine fellows they were, all +armed with rifles of native construction. These arms of precision are +mostly made in Bosnia, where there are two or three establishments for +that purpose. + +Thus the days wore on; and, having provided myself with horses, and such +few things as are deemed indispensable for campaigning, I was delighted +to receive a message from the Generalissimo, on the night of the 13th, +intimating his intention of leaving Mostar at 8 (_à la Franca_) on the +following morning. + +But before I enter upon my personal experiences in the camp of the +Osmanlis, I would fain give some account of the previous history of this +agitated province; passing in brief review those causes which combined +to foster a revolutionary spirit in the country, and dwelling more +especially on the events of the last four years, during which that +spirit has so culminated as to convince even the Porte of the necessity +which exists for the immediate employment of coercive measures. + +[Footnote K: Mostar, from 'Most Star' Old Bridge.] + +[Footnote L: Sir G. Wilkinson.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich--Cruel + Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of + Santo Saba becomes a Roman Province--Despotism of Bosnian + Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall of Sultan Selim and + Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin Pacha--Expedition against + Montenegro--Death of Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces + reconquered--Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of + Janissaries--Regular Troops organised--Hadji + Mustapha--Abdurahim--Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh + rising--Serayevo taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of + Adrianople--Hussein Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of + Grand Vizier--Ali Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War + with Montenegro--Amnesty granted. + + +The history of Bosnia under the Roman empire is possessed of too little +interest to call for any particular observation; but, considered as one +of the most fertile and beautiful of the European provinces, overrun by +the Moslem armies, it is well entitled to the mature consideration of +all who take an interest in the important question now at issue, to wit, +the fusion of the Eastern and Western worlds. + +The immediate cause of the invasion of Bosnia by the Turks, was the +dispute between Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich for the throne of that +country. The former called the Turks to his assistance; Ostoya, the +Hungarians. A war between these two nations was the consequence, and +the Turks gained considerable footing in Bosnia about 1415. Ostoya and +Tuartko being both dead, Stephen Thomas Christich was elected King, and +was obliged to promise an annual tribute of 25,000 ducats to Sultan +Amurath II., thirteen years after which he was murdered by his +illegitimate son, Stephen Thomasovich, who was crowned by a Papal legate +in 1461, and submitted to the Turks. But having refused to pay the +tribute due to the Porte, he was seized and flayed alive, by order of +Sultan Mahomet, and at his death the kingdom of Bosnia was completely +over-thrown.[M] + +Previous to this, the Turks had frequently menaced the Bosnian kingdom, +but it was not until June 14, 1463, that they actually invaded the +country, to reduce Stephen to obedience. In vain did Mathias, King of +Hungary, endeavour to stem the advancing torrent. The Turks carried all +before them, until they besieged and took Yanitza, the then capital of +the province, and with it the King and the entire garrison. Nor was this +effected in fair fight, but through the treachery of Stephen's first +minister, who opened the gates of the fortress by night, and so admitted +the Turkish soldiers. + +With more generosity than was usually shown by these Eastern barbarians, +Mahomet agreed to leave the King in possession of his throne on +condition of his paying an annual tax to the Porte. The payment of this, +as I have said, was evaded by his successor, although the old national +manuscripts do not even allow this apology for the barbarous treatment +which he experienced at the hands of the Turks. These affirm that the +King and all his troops, as well as the townspeople, were invited by +Mahomet to hear the official ratification of the agreement. But, at a +given signal, the Turkish soldiers, who had been in concealment, fell +upon the helpless assemblage, and massacred them in cold blood, shutting +up the King Stephen in a cage, where he subsequently died of despair; +and thus ended the Bosnian kingdom. That his position was sufficiently +hopeless to bring about this calamitous result, can scarcely be doubted; +but unfortunately the tomb of Stephen still exists, which proves +tolerably conclusively that his death was of a more speedy, if not of a +more cruel, nature. An inscription is upon it to the effect, 'Here lies +Stephen, King of Bosnia, without his kingdom, throne, and sceptre, and +without his skin.' Of all the family of the unfortunate monarch, the +only one who escaped was his Queen, Cattarina, who fled to Rome, where +she lies buried in the Chapel of Santa Helena. + +After the death of Stephen Thomasovich the Turks destroyed Michiaz. The +nobles, driven from their estates, fled to Ragusa; and Stephen, +'Herzog' or Duke of Santo Saba, seeing that Turkish garrisons had +occupied Popovo, Rogatiza, Triburio, Tzeruitza, and Kerka, became so +alarmed, that he offered to pay increased tribute; when, his ministers +refusing to consent to this arrangement, he was obliged to send to +Ragusa for his eldest son Stephen, and give him up as a hostage to the +Porte: he having afterwards abjured Christianity, received the name of +Ahmet, married a daughter of Bajazet II., and was made a Vizier. The +Kingdom of Bosnia and the Duchy of Santo Saba from that time became +provinces of Turkey, the latter under the name of Herzegovina, which it +still retains, and which it had received from the title of 'Herzog' or +Duke, given by Tuartko to its first Governor. + +The apostasy of the Bosnian nobles which occurred shortly after the +Turkish conquest, may be regarded as the only event of importance which +has since marked the history of these provinces. The deteriorating +effects which have ever followed the adoption of Islamism are here +conspicuously apparent; for in proportion as the country has sunk into +insignificance, so the moral state of the people has fallen to a lower +standard. Nor is this so much to be attributed to any particular vices +inculcated by the Mahomedan creed, as to the necessary division of +religious and political interests, and the undue monopoly of power by a +small proportion of the inhabitants. That this power has been used +without mercy or consideration must be acknowledged; but be it +remembered that + + 'Their tyrants then + Were still at least their countrymen,' + +and that the iniquities perpetrated by the renegade Beys cannot be with +justice laid to the charge of their Osmanli conquerors. It would, +indeed, be strange had four hundred years of tyranny passed over this +miserable land, without leaving a blight upon its children which no time +will ever suffice to efface. + +As years wore on, other and more important conquests absorbed the +attention of the Mussulman rulers, and the rich pasture-lands of Bosnia, +and the sterile rocks of Herzegovina, were alike left the undisputed +property of the apostate natives of the soil. Thence arose a system of +feudal bondage, to a certain extent akin to that recently existing in +Russia, but unequalled in the annals of the world for the spirit of +intolerance with which it was carried out. Countless are the tales of +cruelty and savage wrong with which the old manuscripts of the country +abound, and these are the more revolting, as perpetrated upon those of +kindred origin, religion, and descent. The spirit of independence +engendered by this system of feudality and unresisted oppression could +only lead to one result--viz. the increase of local at the expense of +the central authority. The increasing debility of the paternal +government tended to strengthen the power of the provincial Magnates; +and the Beys, the Spahis, and the Timariots, stars of lesser magnitude +in their way, could not but be expected to adhere to the cause of the +all-powerful Kapetans rather than to the transient power of a Vizier +appointed by the Porte. + +This last-named official, whose appointment was then, as now, acquired +by successful intrigue or undisguised bribery, was never certain of long +tenure of office, and invariably endeavoured by all the means in his +power to remunerate himself while the opportunity should last. + +The disregard entertained for life in those times, and the indifference +manifested by the Ottoman government for this portion of the empire, +often rendered it the safer policy for the Vizier to make common cause +with the recusant Kapetans, who were too powerful to be subdued by +force, and too wily to be entrapped by treachery or fraud. + +But another and more self-subsistent power had taken deep root +throughout the Ottoman dominions, and nowhere more than in those +provinces which lie between the Save and the Adriatic. 'In Egypt,' says +Ranke, 'there was the power of the Mameluke Beys revived immediately +after the departure of the French; there was the protectorate of the +Dere Beys in Asia Minor; the hereditary authority of the Albanian +chieftains, the dignity of the Ayans in the principal towns, besides +many other immunities--all of which seemed to find a bond of union and a +centre in the powerful order of the Janissaries.' Of all the provinces +of the empire Bosnia was perhaps the most deeply imbued with the spirit +of this faction, the last memento of that ancient chivalry which had +carried fire and sword over a great part of civilised Europe. + +But to that same spirit of turbulent independence, the very germ of +existence of the Janissaries, and so predominant among the natives of +Bosnia, may in a great measure be attributed the successes of the +Turkish arms in Europe in the campaign of 1828, an era fraught with +danger to the whole Ottoman empire, dangers which the newly-organised +battalions of the imperial army would have been unable to overcome but +for the aid of the wild horsemen of the West. That the same spirit +exists as did in bygone times I do not say; but whatever does yet remain +of chivalrous endurance or reckless daring is to be found among the +Mussulman, and not amongst the Christian, population. + +Towards the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth +century, affairs assumed so critical an aspect that it became incumbent +upon the central government to adopt some coercive measure. Sultan Selim +was the first who endeavoured to suppress these turbulent spirits. He +was unequal to the task, and fell a victim to their revengeful +displeasure. 'Bairaktar, the hero of those times,' was equally +unsuccessful, and the imperial authority bid fair to perish from the +land; but in those days there arose one who, like our own Cromwell, +moulded circumstances to his will, resolute of purpose, fearing and +sparing none. But if Mahmoud was stern and inexorable to rebels, he is +entitled to more praise than is usually accorded him, for the +steadfastness of purpose with which he applied himself to the +restoration of system and order, in the place of the chaos which he had +himself brought about. And let us not omit to mention the dignified +courage with which he prepared to meet the calamities which now crowded +thick upon him. With the mere nucleus of a semi-organised army he held +out for two years, both in Europe and Asia, without one ally, against +the herculean efforts of Russia to overthrow his kingdom. + +There are not wanting those who, besides stigmatising him as deceitful +and cruel, cast in his teeth that he failed to carry out the schemes of +reform, which they consider to have been visionary and unmeaning. But +these, while commenting on what he left undone, forget how much he did, +and how little aid he received from without. Well would it be for Turkey +this day had either of his sons inherited the vigour, the perseverance, +or even the honesty of old Mahmoud. + +Since the accession of Mahmoud to the throne, Bosnia and Herzegovina +have been the seat of perpetual, though intermittent, warfare. Short +time did he allow to elapse before he gave unmistakable signs of his +determination to effect a radical change in the state of these +provinces. With this view he sent as Vizier Jelaludin Pacha thither, +with orders to punish with extreme severity all who should show any +signs of discontent. This man, who is said to have belonged to the sect +of Bektashi, an order of Mahomedan monks, did not live like other +Pachas. He neither kept a harem nor a court, and devoted himself +exclusively to fulfilling the duties of his mission. To do this more +effectually, he used to go about in disguise, visiting even the +Christian places of worship, and thus obtaining a real knowledge of the +feelings and wishes of the people. Now as he practised incorruptible, +inexorable justice, his rule was as popular among the Rayahs as it was +odious to the Bosnian nobles, against whose independence all his laws +and measures were directed. + +Having taken Mostar and Trebinitza by storm, he at length succeeded in +subduing the whole country. Although nominally recalled, in deference to +a petition preferred by the nobles of Bosnia, Jelaludin was in reality +advanced to a more exalted position of confidence. To him was intrusted +the conduct of an expedition against Montenegro, which failed; and +little more is heard about him until 1821, when he died, as some think, +by poison administered by his own hand. + +In conformity with a preconceived plan of operations, an expedition was +sent in 1820 against Ali Pacha, the most powerful of those who had +ventured to throw off the Ottoman rule. + +The operations were successful both by sea and land, and at first all +appeared to be progressing satisfactorily. But the extraordinary +fertility of resource which characterised the old man, saved him once +more; and while the Suliots in his pay overran Epirus in 1821, he +succeeded in rousing the whole Greek population to revolt. Although he +himself fell during the outbreak, the disastrous results which he had +succeeded in effecting lived long after him, not only in Greece, but in +Bulgaria, Bosnia, and other parts of the Turkish empire. + +The death of Jelaludin, and the revolutionary movement which had spread +throughout the empire, led to the restoration of the old state of things +in Bosnia. The powerful nobles once more resumed their sway, and the few +supporters of the Sultan were compelled to fly the country. + +The reconquest by the Porte of the revolted countries, and the mighty +change which the iron hand of Mahmoud effected in the internal condition +and administration of all parts of his empire, cannot be more forcibly +described than in the words of Ranke. He says: 'We must recollect that +the Sultan succeeded in extinguishing all these rebellions, one after +another, as soon as he had put down the most formidable. We will not +enquire by what means this was effected: enough to say, that he at last +re-established his authority on the Danube, as in Epirus. Even the Morea +seemed doomed to a renewal of the Moslem sway. Ibrahim Pacha landed +there with the troops from Egypt in 1825. He annihilated rather than +subjugated its population, and changed the country, as he himself said, +into a desert waste; but at least he took possession of it, step by +step, and everywhere set up the standard of the Sultan.' + +Having been so far successful, the Sultan adopted a more comprehensive +plan. + +Mahomed Ali's successful enterprises served as his model from the first. +Mahomed Ali led the way in Egypt by the annihilation of ancient +privileges, and it was not until he had succeeded that Mahmoud resolved +to pursue a similar course. + +'A fearful rivalry in despotism and destruction then began between the +two. They might be compared to the reapers in Homer, cutting down the +corn in all directions. But the vassal had been long engaged in a +process of innovation. In spite of the opposition of his Janissaries, he +had accomplished his purpose of establishing regular regiments, clothed +and disciplined after the European system.' The fact that it was these +troops which, after so many fruitless attempts, at last conquered +Greece, made a profound impression on the Sultan. He reverted to the +ideas of Selim and Bairaktar, and the establishment of regular troops +seemed to him the only salvation of his empire. Therefore, on May 28, +1826, in a solemn sitting of his Council of State, at which the +Commissioner who had lately been in Ibrahim's camp was present, was +pronounced the 'fetwah,' that, 'In order to defend God's word and +counteract the superiority of the unbelievers, the Moslems, too, would +submit to subordination, and learn military manÅ“uvres.' The subversion +of ancient privileges, then, was the fundamental basis upon which his +reforms rested, and to this the destruction of the Janissaries put the +finishing touch. + +If Mahmoud found difficulty in carrying out his plans at Stamboul, how +much more hard must they have been to accomplish in the provinces; and +of these, as I have before said, Bosnia was the most strongly imbued +with a spirit of independent feudalism. + +In Bosnia, therefore, as was anticipated, the greatest resistance to the +innovation was experienced. + +Upon the death of Jelaludin, Hadji Mustapha had been appointed Vizier, a +man of small capacity, and little suited to those stormy times. + +He, and the six commissioners who had been sent with him from +Constantinople, were driven out, and compelled to take refuge in +Servia, whence they returned to Constantinople. + +Again the dominion of the Sultan in these provinces appeared to hang +upon a slender thread; and indeed it was only saved by the sagacity of a +single man. + +Upon the ejection of Hadji Mustapha, Abdurahim, the Pacha of Belgrade, +was appointed Vizier of Bosnia. Gifted with great penetration and +ability for intrigue, he contrived to win over many of the native +chieftains, while he worked upon the jealousy entertained by the Prince +of Servia for the Bosnian nobles, and thus succeeded in raising a small +army, with which he took the initiative in hostilities. Ranke tells us: +'He was fortunate enough to secure the assistance of the Kapetan +Vidaitch of Svornik. Svornik is regarded as the key of Bosnia. It seems +that the Agas of Serayevo had already conceived some suspicion of +Vidaitch, for they were themselves about to take possession of the +place. But Abdurahim anticipated them, and Vidaitch admitted him into +the fortress.' + +A paramount advantage was gained by this. Abdurahim now felt strong +enough to speak in a decisive tone in the Bujurdi, in which he announced +his arrival. + +'I send you from afar,' he therein said, 'O Mahomedans of Bosnia, the +greeting of the faith, and of brotherly union. I will not call to mind +your folly: I come to open your eyes to the light. I bring you the most +sacred commands of our most mighty Sultan, and expect you will obey +them. In that case I have power to forgive you all your errors; choose +now for yourselves. It rests with you to save or to lose your lives. +Reflect maturely, that you may have no cause to repent.' + +This proclamation, which may be regarded as a model of terseness and +expressive earnestness, had a wonderful effect. Still Serayevo was not +gained without a struggle, confined however principally to the citizens +within its walls. + +Upon gaining possession of the town, the new Vizier carried out to the +letter the judgements which he had pronounced against the contumacious. +All who were taken in arms were put to death without mercy, and it was +not until he had taken a bloody vengeance on his enemies that he +consented to make a triumphal entry into Serayevo. + +During the feudal times, when the Sultan's authority was more nominal, +the Vizier was only permitted to remain a few hours in the capital, +whence he returned to his palace at Travnik; but Abdurahim deemed it +necessary to establish the seat of government in that very town, which +had ever been the focus of feudality and rebellion. + +'Thus there was once more a master in Bosnia. No one ventured now to +mention the Janissaries. The uniforms arrived; the Kapetans were +obedient, and put them on. The whole land submitted to the new +regulations.' + +Notwithstanding the high pressure system adopted by the Sultan, the +spirit of rebellion was still rife, and it manifested itself on the +first opportunity that occurred. + +The Machiavellian policy of endeavouring to hold both the Servians and +Bosnians in check, by pitting the one against the other, was of doubtful +expediency; and, as the event proved, tended materially to weaken the +imperial cause by depriving it of the aid of the Bosnian irregulars, who +had acquired a name for reckless daring second to none. The outbreak of +the Russian war was the signal for another attempt to obtain the +independence of which Abdurahim had robbed them. At this juncture, too, +they displayed the mixture of violence and cunning, so essentially the +character of barbarous nations. + +From every castle and town, the troops marched to the Eagle's Field, +Orlovopolie, close by Bielina, their appointed rendezvous. The Vizier +intended soon to repair thither with forces from Serayevo. Whilst +preparing to do so, it happened that the people of Visoko, an +unimportant place about six German miles from Serayevo, arrived before +that capital, instead of marching direct to Orlovopolie, as they should +have done. The Vizier sent out his Kiaia, and some of the principal +inhabitants of the city, to call them to account for the unauthorised +change in their line of march. A Kapidji Bashi, who had just arrived +from Constantinople, accompanied the mission, and gave it still more +importance; but it was unquestionably a concerted scheme amongst the +leading men of Visoko and Serayevo. Thousands of inhabitants had already +gone, many no doubt from mere curiosity--for it was Friday, a day on +which the Turks do not work--but others with a distinct purpose. When +the mission angrily demanded that the force should march off forthwith +to the appointed place, some poor inhabitants of Visoko stepped out of +the ranks and declared that, without money, they were not in a position +to proceed a step farther; that even only to equip themselves, and march +as far as they had already arrived, some of them had been obliged to +sell their children. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia thought that such +language was not to be borne. Without hesitation, therefore, in +accordance with the principles of Turkish justice, they ordered their +followers to seize the speakers, to take them away, and behead them. The +order, however, was not so easy of execution. 'Help, true believers in +the Prophet!' exclaimed the men; 'help, and rescue us.' All seized their +weapons, the comrades of the prisoners as well as the inhabitants of +Serayevo, who were privy to the scheme, and those who were hurried along +by their example. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia had not time to mount +their horses, but were obliged to run to the city on foot, with bullets +whistling after them. The furious armed multitude arrived there with +them. The Vizier's force, about two thousand strong, attempted for a +while to stem the torrent. They tried to stand their ground wherever +they found a position, such as a bridge, a mosque, or a house, but were +far too weak to maintain it. Only a small number had time to retire into +the fortress, where the Vizier was, and thence they fired with the few +cannon they had on the lower town. But the Bosnians, with their small +arms, did far more execution, singling out their enemies, and bringing +them down with sure aim. The fighting continued for three days. At last +Abdurahim found himself compelled to think of his own safety. The +Bosnians, who found themselves victorious, would gladly have refused him +leave to retire; but the older and more experienced among them, +satisfied with the success they had obtained, persuaded the young people +to let him go. On the fourth day, a Thursday in July 1828, Abdurahim +marched away. He took the road to Orlovopolie, being allowed to take +with him the cannons he had brought. There, however, he found that the +spirit of disaffection had gained such head, that nearly all the +soldiers, whom he had expected to find, had dispersed and gone to their +homes. He thereupon repaired to Travnik, and was shortly afterwards +replaced by another Vizier of milder temper. + +The state of the empire now appeared more settled, both in its domestic +and foreign relations, the peace of Adrianople having at any rate saved +the capital from fear of an attack. What success the Sultan might have +had in his endeavours to consolidate his rule in Bosnia, we are unable +to judge; since he found an antagonist to every species of reform in +Mustapha Pacha of Scutari, commonly known as Scodra Pacha, the most +mischievous, as well as the most powerful, of all the provincial +magnates since the fall of Ali Pacha. Young, warlike, and of good +descent, he constituted himself the champion of hereditary privileges, +and as such virtually threw down the gauntlet to his imperial master. +Open rebellion, however, was not the plan which he proposed to himself +by which to attain the object dearest to his heart--the re-embodiment of +the Janissaries, and the establishment of the old order of things. To +this end he consented, in 1823, to make a demonstration against the +Greek rebels, but took very good care not to render too much service to +the cause which he espoused. Thus, too, when he marched in the autumn of +1828 to the vicinity of the Danube, at the head of an army of 25,000 +irregulars, it was not with the intention of attacking the Russians, but +rather under the expectation that the necessities of the Sultan would +afford him an opportunity of procuring the re-establishment of those +'Prætorian guards of Turkey.' The arrogant pretensions of Scodra Pacha +were very strongly exemplified in the attitude which he assumed at the +close of the campaign of 1829. Having in the first instance shown much +dilatoriness in entering the field, he remained inactive near Widdin +during the latter part of 1828 and the commencement of 1829, when, by +operating in the rear of the Russians, he might have been most useful to +the Turkish Seraskier. The treaty of peace, however, had been signed, +and forwarded for ratification to Russia, when Scodra Pacha suddenly +electrified both parties by objecting to its terms, and announcing his +intention of continuing the war. He even marched to Philippopolis, +whence he sent a message that he would arrive at Adrianople within eight +days. This naturally caused Marshal Diebitsch some anxiety, since he was +unaware of the Pacha's real policy, and believed him to be sincere in +his protestations of vengeance against the invaders. A hasty summons was +therefore sent to General Geismar, who consequently crossed the Danube +at Rachova; and having turned, and subsequently forced, the Pass of +Anatcha in the Balkans, easily defeated the Pacha, who made but small +resistance. This and the approach of General Kisselef from Schumla put a +finishing stroke to hostilities, and Scodra returned home to brood over +the ill-success of his undertaking, and plan farther means of working +mischief to the hated Mahmoud. + +The opportunity soon presented itself. Having succeeded in ridding +himself of some of the Albanian leaders, the Sultan applied himself with +vigour to the subjection of those in Bosnia who were adverse to his +rule. In 1830 he sent uniforms to Travnik, which the Vizier immediately +donned. This kindled the spark, and in the beginning of 1831 several +thousand insurgents, under the command of Hussein Kapetan, the 'Sonai od +Bosna,' or Dragon of Bosnia, attacked him in his fortress, and made him +prisoner. So great was the abhorrence professed for the adoption of +Christian clothing, that the unfortunate Vizier was compelled to perform +solemn ablutions and to recite Moslem prayers, in order to purify +himself from contamination. The standard of rebellion was now fairly +unfurled, and within a few weeks a force of 25,000 men had collected. At +the same time Mustapha Pacha, with 40,000 Albanians and others, made his +appearance on the scene of action. Without delay an advance was made _en +potence_, and it was confidently anticipated that Stamboul would fall +before the insurgent arms. But the Sultan possessed both a cunning and +able lieutenant in the Grand Vizier Redschid. This functionary contrived +to dispense bribes so judiciously among the inferior Albanian +chieftains, that they deserted en masse to the Turks, and thus rendered +it imperative on Mustapha to take refuge in his fortress at Scutari. +This he did in the anticipation of speedy relief by Hussein Kapetan and +the Bosnians, who, despite the dissuasion of the Servian Prince Milosch, +had already marched to the rescue. Hussein's answer to Milosch, as given +by Ranke, is very characteristic of the man: 'Take heed to thyself,' he +said; 'thou hast but little food before thee: I have overturned thy +bowl. I will have nothing to do with a Sultan with whom thou canst +intercede for me; I am ready to meet thee, always and anywhere; my sword +had smitten before thine was forged.' More modest and unpresuming was +the burden of the song which they are reported to have chanted on the +march:-- + + We march, brethren, to the plains of Kossovo, + Where our forefathers lost their renown and their faith. + There it may chance that we also may lose our renown and our faith; + Or that we shall maintain them, and return as victors to Bosnia. + +Animated by principles which would have done credit to a Christian host, +these undisciplined Mussulmans easily overcame the Grand Vizier's army, +partly, it must be acknowledged, by the defection of the Albanians, who +had previously deserted the cause of Scodra Pacha. Had they now pushed +on, their independence would have been established; but, unfortunately, +what the Grand Vizier could not effect by force of arms he brought about +by guile. With great tact and cunning he sent emissaries to Hussein, +demanding to know the terms which they required. These were the +permission to remain in statu quo, with the appointment of Hussein as +Vizier. These conditions he was fain to grant, and so far worked upon +the Bosnians by private and official stratagem, that they commenced +their homeward march, leaving Scodra Pacha to his fate. Shortly +afterwards he was compelled to surrender. Individually his life was +spared, but his partisans did not meet with the same clemency. For the +truth of what I am about to relate I am unable to vouch, but can only +give it as it is recorded by the chroniclers of the events of those +times. Projectile machines are said to have been erected, and the +prisoners, being placed upon them, were flung against a wooden framework +studded with great iron hooks, and wherever the body of the unfortunate +victim was caught by them, there it hung until he perished by the +terrible, torturing, and protracted death. + +The destruction of Scodra's power was a great feather in the cap of the +Grand Vizier, who now lost no time in undermining the authority of +Hussein. In this he was assisted by the imprudence of the latter, who +committed the error of admitting Ali Aga of Stolatz into his confidence, +a man who had always adhered to the Sultan, and was distrusted +accordingly by his compatriots. Universal as was the partisan warfare +in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there was no chieftain who had supported the +brunt of so many onslaughts as Ali Aga. His castle at Stolatz, although +incapable of resisting the weapons employed in scientific warfare, was +impregnable in those times, and against such an enemy. + +In addition to the distrust engendered by Hussein's intimacy with All, +the absence of any ratification by the Porte of the recent treaty of +peace tended to produce discord in the province. Taking advantage of +this, the Grand Vizier nominated a new Pacha, Kara Mahmoud, a creature +devoted to government interest. He invaded the country with 30,000 men, +and finally succeeded, in spite of a gallant resistance, in taking +Serayevo, the capital. The perseverance which he employed in a sinking +cause did credit to Hussein, who was nobly supported by the faithful and +brave Al Pacha Vidaitch, who had no less than eight horses killed under +him in the battle which took place before the walls of Serayevo. + +Kara Mahmoud established himself there, and deposed in succession all +the Kapetans except Ali Aga of Stolatz, who had made his appearance at a +critical moment of the battle before Serayevo, and thus turned the +tables against his former friend, Hussein Pacha. + +Having thus far succeeded in his undertaking, Redschid Pacha turned his +attention to Montenegro, which had been the source of chronic +heartburnings since 1804. The nature of the country, and the want of +organisation in the Turkish forces, however, once more enabled the +mountaineers successfully to repel the invaders. A more important +expedition against them was in contemplation, when the Egyptian war +broke out, and the services of the Grand Vizier and his army were +required to combat their former ally, Ibrahim Pacha. Previous to +quitting the country, the Grand Vizier promulgated an amnesty to all +those refugees who had fled into Austria, except Hussein Kapetan, Ali +Vidaitch, and Kruppa Kapetan. A firman was subsequently given, +permitting even these to return to Turkey, although interdicting their +residence in Bosnia. On arriving at Constantinople they received their +pardon, and Ali Vidaitch returned to Bosnia; Hussein's fate is more +uncertain. From that time until 1849 order prevailed in Bosnia, +although, as subsequent events proved, a rebellious spirit still existed +amongst the more important chieftains, with whom personal aggrandisement +took precedence of the interests of the Sultan, their sovereign. + +[Footnote M: Krasinski.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian + Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress + convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer + Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by + Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and Capture + of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass Bashee--Anecdote of Lame + Christian--Omer Pacha invades Montenegro--Successes--Austria + interferes--Mission of General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change + of Frontier--Faults of new Boundary. + + +And so time wore on, and Bosnia enjoyed a kind of fitful repose. There +and in Herzegovina the feudal system had lost much of its primeval +vigour, although a barbarous independence still prevailed, more +especially in the latter province, where Ali Aga of Stolatz showed +symptoms of forsaking the _treacherous fidelity_ which had secured for +him his high position. Whatever feeling of disaffection might have been +cherished, either in Bulgaria or Bosnia, was effectually checked: in the +former by the judicious tyranny of Hussein, Vizier of Widdin, in the +latter by the iron yoke of Tahir Pacha, who fully entered into the +Sultan's projects for reform. + +The social condition of these two provinces rendered necessary a certain +variety in the policy of their rulers. Thus, while Hussein may be +regarded as the apostle of political Islamism in Europe, Tahir +endeavoured to introduce the European element. He consequently +identified himself, to a dangerous extent, with the Christian +population, abolishing forced labour, equalising the taxes, and +effecting other reforms calculated to upset the old, and establish the +_Nisame Jedid_, or new order of things. + +At this juncture the flames of revolutionary war broke forth in Poland +and Hungary. The proximity of these countries, and the affinity of their +Slavonic origin, could not fail to disseminate the same spirit on the +southern bank of the Save. A wild enthusiasm took possession of both +Serbs[N] and Bulgares, before which the aged and decrepid Viziers felt +themselves powerless. + +If it be difficult to realise the position of the Sultan, who thus found +himself at variance with his Christian subjects in Bulgaria, and his +Bosnian Spahis, the attitude assumed by these factions is equally +incomprehensible. Blinded by one insane desire to throw off their +allegiance to the Sultan, they espoused the Russo-Austrian cause, +demanding their annexation to some Slave country. Thus, by a clever +stroke of policy, Austria contrived to secure to herself the cooperation +of both the Hungarian and Serb Slaves. And here we may note a curious +coincidence, which still farther complicated matters. Whatever may have +been their prejudices against the Slavonic Christians, the Bosnian +Spahis found it expedient to demand the assistance, not only of the +Servians, but of the Montenegrins, the most implacable of foes to the +Turkish rule. These at first appeared likely to respond to the summons. + +So numerically strong, and so complete, were the preparations for war +made by the Bosnians, that, when they took the field under Ali Kieditch, +Tahir found it impossible to stem the torrent of rebellion. Never did +the prospects of the Porte wear so gloomy an aspect, for there were +ranged against it all classes of Slaves and Bulgares, irrespective of +religion or denomination. As a last resource government convened a +Congress, comprising representatives of all classes of subject Slaves. +As might have been supposed, little unanimity prevailed in their +counsels, and no tangible advantages were thereby attained. And now a +combination of unforeseen circumstances conspired to rescue the Porte +from the pressing danger which threatened it. The neutrality preserved +by Servia, or rather its Prince, Alexander Guirgievitch, infected not +only the Bulgarian Christians, but even the Montenegrins themselves, who +actually overran Herzegovina and a portion of the Bosnian frontier +during the absence of the Mussulman Spahis of those districts. Undaunted +however, by these mishaps, the members of the Congress returned to +their homes; and, although powerless to act in concert, succeeded so +well in stirring up a feeling of animosity against the government, that +the spring of 1850 found the malcontents in a better position than ever +for the renewal of the war. But rebellion had now reached its +culminating point, and the sudden appearance of Omer Pacha, who threw +himself with impetuous daring into the heart of Bosnia, gave a very +different colouring to events. To form a just estimate of the +difficulties which he had to overcome, ere order could be re-established +in this confused chaos, it is necessary briefly to recapitulate the +various conflicting elements, revolutionary and otherwise, which had +been brought into play, the aim and inevitable result of which must have +been the utter destruction of this unhappy empire. + +There are those who profess to believe that Russia has no malevolent +designs upon Turkey, and who bring forward many plausible reasons in +support of their opinion; but this number has very materially diminished +since the disclosures which preceded the late Russian war. The character +of the Turkish people, their religion, and their social and political +institutions, may all have tended to produce the calamitous state of +affairs. Yet when we probe the matter to the bottom, there we find the +root of all evil--Russian policy and imperial ambition. It is not to say +that this monarch or that was desirous of annexing by conquest, and +holding by force of arms, a gigantic empire. Such a thought were +madness. Far more subtle is the scheme which was, and is, inherent in +every Russian ruler. It has been, and still is, their own +aggrandisement, direct or indirect, based upon the ruins of Turkey. Ably +and laboriously have they worked to effect that which still seems as +distant as ever. No sooner were the bloody days of 1828-9 past, than +they applied themselves afresh to the work of disorganisation, and in +this appeared to succeed too well. They had launched the Slave against +the Turk, and then the Christian Slave against the Mussulman Slave, +whilst at the same time the Asiatic Turk--the Turk _pur sang_--was +struggling throughout Anatolia against the reformed and European Turk. +It now remained to find a pretext to justify her in effecting an armed +intervention, that cloak for so much that is arbitrary and aggressive. +This was soon found in an insignificant rising of the Bulgarians, +brought on by her roubles lavishly dispensed by old Milosch Obrenovitch, +the ejected Servian Prince, and the sympathy felt for Kossuth and +Dembinski, who had taken refuge at Widdin. This rising, however, which +was at first directed only against the Turkish Spahis or landowners, +soon acquired more important dimensions, and on January 8, 1850, the +three Nahias of Widdin, Belgradchitch, and Verkovats, were under arms. +Having failed in an attack upon the fortress of Belgradchitch, they +retired and entrenched themselves at different spots in the adjacent +country. Better armed and provisioned, and of greater physical courage, +the Spahis soon succeeded in overcoming these disorganised masses, and +bloody was the vengeance which they took. + +'Victors in every encounter,' says Cyprien Robert, 'the Mussulman Spahis +began to visit on horseback the villages, more than two hundred in +number, which had taken part in the insurrection. The devastation that +ensued was worthy of the most barbarous time. Neither age nor sex was +spared. All the young were carried off to the vulture-nests of the +Spahis of the Balkan. In vain did Redschid Pacha enjoin milder measures; +neither he nor the Sultan could check these bloodthirsty tigers. There +needed to that end the unexpected arrival of Omer Pacha at Nish. He fell +among them like a thunderbolt, and all was silence. The Bulgarians +ceased to flee, the Spahis to pursue, and, what was more, the Russian +army of Wallachia halted at the moment it was about to cross the Danube. +That terrible Omer, the queller of so many revolts, had at Bucharest an +opportunity of making his qualities felt by the Russian Generals, and +they were completely disconcerted by his sudden arrival at Nish, when +they thought he was hemmed in by the insurgent Serba in the gorges of +Bosnia, without the means of making his way through them. The Russian +troops paused, awaiting fresh orders from St. Petersburg: orders came, +and the whole scheme was quashed. Cleverly as the Russian plot had been +laid, it was completely baffled by the rapidity of Omer Pacha's +movement.' Once again order was re-established. Serayevo was again made +the seat of the provincial government, and numerous reforms were brought +into force, all of which tended to ameliorate the condition of the +Christian population. + +Such of the chieftains as refused to make their submission were pursued +without mercy, until the province became too hot to hold them. A few, +too proud or too obstinate to yield, took refuge in the Herzegovina, +where Ali Rizvan Begovitch, then an old man, opened his fortresses to +them. But all resistance was vain before the iron will and temperate +judgement of Omer. Mostar fell, and old Ali was made a prisoner and sent +in chains to Serayevo. That place he never reached, for he was shot, +accidentally it is alleged, by a Turkish soldier while on his way +thither. The circumstances of his death will hardly bear an enquiry, and +do not reflect much credit on the successful Omer, to whom the blame, as +well as the glory he acquired in all else, must attach. It is true that +the old tyrant fully deserved his fate, since even to this day the +enormities which he committed are well remembered. The old tower on the +Narenta at Mostar used to look grim with the distorted heads of the +prisoners whom he had captured on the Montenegrin frontier. The habit of +decapitating the dead was revolting enough, but this aged sinner was not +satisfied with that: he used to drive sharp wooden poles through their +living bodies, and then leave them to die a lingering and agonising +death. Some are said to have survived their impalement as much as +forty-eight hours. The example set by the Pacha was readily followed by +those about him. Numerous are the tales of murder done by his followers, +one of whom vied with his master in deeds of murder and ferocity. This +man, the Cavass Bashee, lived entirely by plunder and rapine. A spot was +pointed out to me in the valley of the Drechnitza where a Christian was +killed by him while stooping down to drink. I also heard an amusing +anecdote regarding him, when he was completely outwitted by a poor lame +Christian. The latter was riding through a river, where the stream was +somewhat rapid. On the river's bank he was overtaken by the Cavass +Bashee, who allowed him to reach the middle of the stream, when he +ordered him to dismount, threatening to shoot him if he did not comply. +In vain he pleaded his lameness; the ruffian was obdurate. Nothing +remained but to obey. This he did, and with difficulty reached the +opposite bank. The Mussulman followed, but scarcely had he reached the +deep water when the Christian, who carried a pistol concealed, drew it, +and, aiming at his persecutor, ordered him to dismount under pain of +death. So aghast was he at this audacious effrontery, that he not only +obeyed, but departed without farther comment, leaving the Christian +master of the field. Whether he took warning from Ali Pacha's fate is +unknown, but he certainly died in the odour of sanctity, after +performing a pilgrimage to Mecca. + +Having thus established the power of the Sultan in both provinces, as +well as in Bulgaria, Omer Pacha turned his attention to the +Montenegrins, whose incursions into the Herzegovina were becoming +frequent and audacious. Penetrating the country from two converging +points, he defeated the mountaineers on every occasion, who found that +they had a very different foe to contend with from those to whom they +had been accustomed. Already had he advanced close upon Cettigne, the +capital, when the Austrian government interfered. Operations were +suspended, and General Leiningen proceeded to Constantinople, where he +demanded the total withdrawal of the Turkish forces. This was acceded +to, and Turkey thus lost the hold which it had acquired upon the lawless +Montenegrins. The idea of Ottoman decay acquired daily fresh strength, +and a maudlin sentimentality was excited in behalf of these Christian +savages. Taking advantage of this, they made constant forays across the +border, stirring up by their example such of the borderers as were +disposed to rise, and using force to compel those who would have +preferred a quiet existence under the Turkish rule. + +Such was the position of affairs when the battle of Grahovo took place +on May 13, 1858. Although the affair has been grossly exaggerated, and +the blame wrongfully imputed to Hussein Pacha, the military Commander of +the Ottoman forces, it cannot be gain-said that the Turkish power was +much weakened by the event, and the arrogance of the Christians +proportionately increased, while the change of frontier to which it +conduced tended rather to aggravate than diminish the evil. The new +boundary line was defined by an European mixed commission, which decided +on increasing Montenegro by the annexation of territory on the western +frontier, including Grahovo, which they had held since Hussein Pacha's +disaster. Whether the new frontier is calculated to promote a pacific +settlement of the question admits of debate, as the province is +penetrated almost to the centre by Turkish territory on either side: +this, if it give the latter the advantage in a military point of view, +exposes the occupants of the country, flanked by the Montenegrin +mountains, to constant visits from their unwelcome neighbours, who dash +down, kill, burn, and carry off all that they can lay hands on, and +retreat to their fastnesses before the arrival of succour. + +[Footnote N: People occupying Bosnia, Servia, Herzegovina, and +Montenegro.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages + burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch + Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by + Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek Chapels + sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to + Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties + to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and Prince + of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha returns to + Mostar--Preparations for Campaign. + + +We now arrive at that period when rebellion actually broke out among the +Christians of the Herzegovina, and when things, in short, assumed the +aspect which they now wear. + +Before entering upon any account of the various risings which have +occurred, I would remark that much blame attaches itself to the Porte, +not only because of long years of misgovernment, but also on account of +the supineness shown by its officials, who, in the presence of the most +positive proofs to the contrary, treated the idea of a rising with +supercilious disregard. Frequently whole villages came in to declare +that they should be compelled to rise, unless they received protection +and support. This was of course promised liberally, but the promises +were never redeemed, and so they were driven to rebellion against their +will, as a means of safety from the fanatical fury of their lawless +co-religionists. + +After two years of indecisive skirmishing, in which the Turks, always +exposed in small parties, generally fared the worst, the Ottoman +government appeared to awake to the necessity for pursuing more +energetic measures. This resolution was hastened by the revolt of the +villagers of Yassenik, Lipneh, Garevo, Kazantzi, Doulatchi, Vralkovitch, +Golia, Krustach, Beronschitzi, Yenevitza, Danitzi, and others in the +neighbourhood of Gasko, who joined bands of Uskoks, with whom and the +Montenegrins they attacked the blockhouse of Krustach. As a punishment, +three of these were burnt by the Turkish troops. The version of the +affair given by the opposing parties varies considerably, as may be +supposed. The Christians affirm that, after repeated acts of aggression +on the part of the Bashi Bazouks, they took refuge in the mountains, but +returned thence on being promised protection. That they were one day +astonished by perceiving the heights covered with soldiers, who entered +and sacked the village of Beronschitzi. No blood was shed, but the six +sons of one Simon Gregorovitch were taken before Ali Pacha, who ordered +them to instant execution. The seventh son is reported to have been +taken to Metokhia, where, after being tortured, he was executed. The +people escaped from Yassenik and Yenevitza, but in the former two women +are said to have been killed and thrown into the flames of the burning +houses. + +The whole of these villagers affirm that their only crime consisted in +having united with other villagers in posting videttes, to give warning +of the approach of Bashi Bazouks and Uskoks. + +This somewhat improbable story is denied by Dervisch Pacha, who gives +the following account of the matter:--The occupants of twenty-one +different villages revolted in the spring of 1859, and interrupted the +communications between Gasko and Niksich and Grasko and Mostar. They +then attacked those villages occupied by Mussulmans in the plain of +Gasko, and made raids into the district of Stolatz, from which they +carried off 6,000 head of cattle, the property of the Roman Catholics of +that district. They further compelled many Christians to join in the +revolt, who would otherwise have remained quiet. Dervisch Pacha +therefore sent Ali Riza Pacha, a General of Brigade, to restore order. +He, after taking and garrisoning Krustach, advised the rebels to send +deputies, to show the nature of the grievances of which they complained. +These were sent accordingly, headed by one Pop Boydan, a priest, and a +leading mover of the insurrection; but in place of lodging any +complaints, the delegates appeared rather in the light of suppliants +demanding pardon and favour. Meanwhile the villagers returned, but not +to live peaceably--merely with the view of getting in their crops. + +While the deputation, however, was at Nevresign, the villages of Lipneh, +Samabor, Yassenik, Yenevitza, and Beronschitzi revolted again, and cut +off the communications between Gasko, Krustach, and Niksich. They also +posted guards along a line of frontier, which they said that no Turk +should pass. When called to account by Dervisch Pacha for this breach of +faith, the deputies replied that the Christians acted through fear, +which feeling was taken advantage of by a few evil-disposed persons for +their own ends. They, however, undertook to pacify them, and wrote a +letter professedly with that object, but without effect. The disorder +increased, and numerous outrages were committed. Seven soldiers were +murdered whilst cutting wood about four miles from Metokhia; Ali Pacha's +aide-de-camp and five soldiers were cut to pieces between + +Niksich and Krustach, and seven other Mussulmans were killed. Still the +Turks hesitated to act with severity. They appealed again to the +deputies, who wrote another letter, which, as the bearers of it +affirmed, only enraged the rebels, who tore it, and trod it under foot. +But this affords little proof of the intensity of their feelings, as it +has since transpired that an arrangement had been made by the deputies +that all letters written voluntarily and in sincerity should bear a +private mark; and the letter in question was not so distinguished. Upon +the discovery of their treachery the deputies were imprisoned, and +energetic measures at once resolved upon. To give these effect, Ali +Pacha advanced at the head of a small force, and summoned the rebels to +surrender. They replied by firing on the advanced guard. The three +villages were then taken, and five men and two women killed, while a few +prisoners were made. These last were released, but one died in prison. +Such is the story told of the affair by Dervisch Pacha. + +It does not appear that Ali Pacha acquired any great credit by his +method of conducting the operations. Quitting a strong position in the +afternoon, he arrived at the villages to be attacked after nightfall. +Having fired them, he was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, which +might have been most disastrous, had he been opposed to an enterprising +enemy. + +With reference to the discrepancy manifested in the two accounts, we may +feel assured that both are highly coloured. But the deception resorted +to by the rebels, and the simple explanation given by the Turkish +officials, would tend to impart to their story the greater appearance of +truth. Had the Turks, moreover, wished to avenge the deaths of their +soldiers, or to vent their hatred of the Christians, they would have +maltreated the people of the first villages at which they arrived, in +place of marching seven miles through a difficult country to the borders +of a district which had for two years defied their efforts at reduction. + +The implication of the villagers in the numerous murders which had +occurred was proved by the discovery of some of the Turkish bayonets at +Beronschitzi, while they actually made an offer to restore the property +of the murdered aide-de-camp, provided a reward was paid for them. They +even sent a list of the effects to Ali Pacha, with the sum which they +demanded for the restoration of each article. + +I venture to give these details even at the risk of incurring the charge +of too great prolixity, as hitherto a one-sided account only has been +given to the world. Every channel of information, whether it be the +telegraph from Ragusa or the Slavonic press, does its best to mislead +the general public, by exciting sympathy for the Christians, as unjust +as it is undeserved. Even in the affair in question much stir was made +by the Slavish newspapers about the death of seven Christians, while, as +Dervisch Pacha very fairly complained, no notice was taken of the murder +of thirty-seven Mussulmans during the same period. + +Another event, which afforded a handle for the ill-wishers of Turkey, +was the pillage of the four Greek chapels of Samabor, Dobrolie, +Kazantzi, and Grachantzi. This occurred in July 1859, and the case was +investigated by the Russian Consul at Mostar, who imputed the act to +Turkish soldiers, producing in evidence the fact of a sergeant having in +his possession a kind of church vestment. The sergeant, however, did not +attempt to conceal the vestment, and accounted for his possession of it +in a manner which was deemed satisfactory by the British and other +Consuls. + +It was more probably done by Uskoks, who gutted a chapel near Nevresign +a few years before, or by the rebels themselves, at the instigation of +others, for the purpose of bringing odium upon the Turks in the eyes of +Europe. + +By these and other no less unworthy means was the agitation fostered +throughout the province, until the whole frontier became denuded of +Mussulman inhabitants, who were compelled to take shelter in Klobuk, +Niksich, and other places capable of some sort of defence. + +By the spring of 1861 affairs had assumed so serious an aspect, that +even the Porte could not but awake to the danger which threatened that +portion of the empire, and to the necessity for immediate and strenuous +measures. This danger lay not so much in the aggressive power of the +rebels themselves, as in the ulterior results which it was calculated to +produce. + +It required little foresight to understand that the movement was +destined to be the germ of a general insurrection of the Slavonic +Christians of Turkey, which would lead to the partial or entire +dismemberment of her European provinces. + +In this dilemma the Sultan's government bethought them of appealing to +the only man in the empire who was capable of grappling with the +difficulty. Omer Pacha was taken once more into favour, and was +despatched to the scene of discord. A Slave by birth, but tied to the +interests of his imperial master by the devotion of a lifetime, no more +fitting choice could have been made. With alacrity he proceeded on his +mission--a mission which required both courage and address, energy and +endurance. + +He commenced his task by issuing the following proclamation, in which he +called upon all to return to their allegiance, in full assurance that it +was the intention of the Sultan to carry out the reforms which had been +guaranteed by the Hatti Humayoun of 1855. + + 'What this proclamation is I let you all know. + + 'His Majesty the Sultan has appointed me the chief of his armies in + the Roumelian provinces, and has sent me here to carry out in this + mission all the just privileges, which have not hitherto been + fulfilled. In obedience to the commands of the Sultan, I have come + here to show to you how kind and good are the intentions of our + sovereign to his subjects, and to announce without distinction to + Mussulmans, Greeks, and Catholics together, the following + decrees:-- + + '1st. Every village has the power to name one or two chiefs as + representatives, whom I will acknowledge. + + '2nd. Every district has the power to name one or two + representatives whomsoever the people of the district may choose. + + '3rd. The Christians shall have full religious liberties, and shall + be permitted to build churches and place bells therein, like all + the rest of the subjects in the empire. + + '4th. The Zaptiehs (police) shall not be permitted to locate + themselves in your houses, but an appointed place shall be set + apart for them in every village. + + '5th. The arrangement which has been made at Constantinople + touching landowners and the agriculturists, and to which both + parties have assented, shall immediately be put into execution. + + '6th. The taxes shall be collected by your own chiefs, and + consigned by them to the officers sent by our Sultan to receive + them. + + '7th. I will further recommend to the Greek Patriarch at + Constantinople that a Bishop of your own nation should be + nominated, who knows your language and customs. + + '8th. I will take such measures as shall secure you the right of + purchasing landed property. + + 'When this proclamation shall have been promulgated to you, and + you should still have some farther favour to ask at my hands, you + may do so in writing, or by word of mouth. All that is possible for + your welfare I will endeavour to fulfill. + + 'Furthermore, it is your bounden duty to submit yourselves to your + sovereign, and to show humility to him. + +'From the Divan Marshal &c. &c. &c. &c. +--at Mostar. + + + 'When you shall have heard what I have promised, see that everyone + know of it, and what is necessary to execute let me know, and it + shall be fulfilled.' + +This proclamation, was disseminated in all the Nahias (districts), +towns, and villages, and in many instances produced a favourable result. +But it could not be expected that these assurances, even though they +should have reached them, could have made much impression on a set of +lawless brigands, who loved plunder for plunder's sake, and who were +supported both morally and practically by the agents of civilised +European powers. + +Having allowed a sufficient time to elapse for all to make their +submission, it now remained to employ force where it was requisite. But +the difficulties which Omer Pacha had to encounter were prodigious. An +unprecedented drought rendered an unusually sterile country more +incapable than ever of sustaining life, while the period which +generally elapses between the autumn rains and the killing frosts of +winter, renders the time available for military operations short and +uncertain. Add to this, the total want of provisions, stores, and other +necessaries, which his predecessors had neglected to procure, and an +empty treasury, and we may not be surprised that his mission is as yet +uncompleted. But another and still greater difficulty presented itself +to him. This related to the attitude which he should assume towards +Montenegro. + +The shortest and most efficient line to pursue, in order to arrive at +the root of the evil, would have been to have invaded and subjugated +that province. But even had he felt confident of his power to effect it, +he remembered too well the lesson of former years, when his successful +advance was checked by political interference. There was little reason +to suppose that the same power, which then intervened, would allow him +greater latitude in the present instance. The idea, therefore, was +discarded, and endeavours were made to bring about a pacific +understanding, which should result in the re-establishment of order. A +meeting between Omar Pacha and the Prince of Montenegro was consequently +agreed upon at a point close to the Lake of Scutari. Omer Pacha, +accompanied by the European commission, travelled to the spot. All +appeared to be going well. Though nothing definite was ever +promulgated, there is good reason to believe that the Turkish +Plenipotentiary would have offered the most advantageous terms to the +Prince, including an accession of territory to the NW. and W., and the +possession of Spizza, a seaport, had the meeting taken place. But at the +last moment the Prince evaded his share of the arrangement, on the +shallow excuse that his people would not permit him to cross his own +frontier. He well knew that the Sultan's representative would not demean +himself by pandering to the caprices of one by rights a subject, and +that the only way in which Omer Pacha would ever pass into Montenegro +would be at the head of his soldiers. + +In vain did the European Commissioners try to change his decision. In +vain they asserted the sincerity of the Sultan, and the safety with +which he might fulfill his agreement. They could only elicit a surly, +'Faites comprendre ces gens-là .' The indignant 'C'est assez, Monsieur,' +of the French Commissioner brought the interview to an abrupt +conclusion. The rejection, for such it must be deemed, of the Turkish +overtures, together with the boast which escaped the Prince, that he +could pacify the frontier in fourteen days, are quite sufficient proofs +of his implication in the disturbances, and would fully justify the +Turks, were they to sweep this nest of hornets from the face of the +earth. + +Unfortunately, the principle of non-intervention between a sovereign and +his subjects is a chimera, refuted as it has so signally been by the +very author of the principle. + +The Commissioners now saw that nothing more could be done save by force +of arms, and were dissolved accordingly. + +Omer Pacha returned to Mostar to continue his preparations for carrying +on hostilities, not against the Montenegrins, but against the rebellious +Christians on the Turkish side of the frontier. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz--Castle + and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the + Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My Dalmatian + Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of the Turks--Health + of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of Prisoners--Christian Cruelty. + + +Day dawned on September 14, 1861, on about as cheerless a prospect as +can well be imagined. A chilly drizzle, swept hither and thither by +strong gusts of wind, did not tend to enhance the beauty of the +surrounding country, while it portended rather ominously for the success +of the operations, the first important step in the prosecution of which +may be considered to have been begun upon that day. By nine o'clock, the +hour fixed for our departure, the wind had fallen, and the rain began, +to descend in torrents, defying all precautions in the shape of cloaks +and waterproofs. So it continued until past noon, when the clouds +cleared away, and the sun shone out bright and warm. + +There is little to interest the traveller in this part of the +Herzegovina, unless it be the existence of clusters of old tombstones, +which occur very frequently throughout the province. About one hour +before reaching Stolatz, which was our destination, we came upon one of +those ancient cemeteries, which is well worthy of notice from the +mammoth proportions of the tombstones. These are, as is usually the +case, adorned with primitive sculptures of men clad in armour, horses, +and dogs, and decapitated heads; dates are seldom found, but the +character of the work and the frequent occurrence of the cross confirms +the supposition that they were erected previous to the Turkish conquest. +On our approach to Stolatz we were met by a deputation of the country +people, and by bands of children sent out to greet the arrival of him +who is regarded as the general pacificator. The anxiety displayed by +these to do homage by kissing his stirrup-iron when mounted, or the hem +of his trousers, was by no means appreciated by Omer Pacha, who +possesses very Europeanised views on these subjects. The enthusiasm with +which he was received, however, could not be mistaken, and forms an +important element in his prospects of a successful termination of the +affair. Outside the walls a battalion of regulars was drawn up, and +every here and there some detachments of irregular soldiers. + +Stolatz is charmingly situated on both banks of a small stream, which +are covered with fig and olive trees, and at the northern extremity of +the ravine in which it is built is the old castle for which it is +famous. This was put into repair by the rebellious Ali Pacha, and was +the last position held by him before he was taken prisoner by Omer +Pacha. It is simply a rectangular enclosure, with square towers at +intervals in place of bastions, and would afford little security against +an army provided with artillery. In addition to the weakness of its +defences, it is so situated as to be formidable only to the town which +lies beneath it, since it is commanded by several points on the +surrounding hills, where batteries might be safely erected at short +ranges. On the towers and their connecting curtains are many old guns, +some mounted, and others lying as they have probably lain for centuries. +Some of these are of the time of Maria Theresa, and nearly all were +ornamented with inscriptions and designs. The custom of naming guns or +giving them mottoes is very ancient and widely spread. I remember seeing +a number of Sardinians grouped round a gun in Capua upon the day of its +surrender to the Garibaldian and Piedmontese forces. They appeared much +amused, and on enquiring the cause of their merriment, I found it to be +the result of their appreciation of the motto upon the gun, which ran as +follows:--'Ultima ratio regum.' (the last argument of kings), an +argument which at any rate told with little effect in the case of +Francis II., for the simple reason that it was introduced at the wrong +moment. Doubtless some of these relics of Eastern warfare possessed as +pointed and applicable dicta as that of Capua, and had I had sufficient +time I should have scraped off the mould and rust of accumulated ages, +and have copied some of the inscriptions. That they could be fired was +placed beyond a doubt by the promiscuous medley of explosions which +greeted us, and which I purposely abstain from calling a salute, so +unlike was it to everything one has been wont to classify under that +name. + +Omer Pacha passed that night in the house of an opulent Mussulman, while +I was billeted upon the principal Christian inhabitant, a Greek[O] +shopkeeper. These men, one of whom is to be found in most of the +principal towns and large villages, may be regarded as the Parsees of +Turkey. Their shops are tolerably well supplied with European +commodities, and their owners are far in advance of their +fellow-townsmen in cleanliness and civilisation. Yet, in spite of this, +some of the modes in which they delight to honour even the passing +stranger are far from acceptable. Among the least objectionable of these +is the encouragement of their children to seize and slobber over his +hands, the only manner of avoiding which is to keep them thrust deeply +into his pockets--an odious custom elsewhere, but here indispensable. +Before bidding a last farewell to the house of my entertainer, I must +pay a grateful tribute to its comfort and cleanliness. In vain I +pressed him to accept some return for his hospitality, and it was at +length only in the form of a present to one of the aforesaid children +that I could induce this kind-hearted family to take any memento of +their grateful guest. + +On leaving Stolatz, our route lay in a SE. direction along the +bridle-path upon the right bank of the river. During the first two +hours, the rocks on our left were quite bare and devoid of all signs of +vegetation. Afterwards they assumed a far less barren appearance, being +covered with good strong brushwood, which grows down close to the +water's edge. The water is itself clear and shallow, and at one point +suddenly disappears--an instance of that phenomenon so common in these +countries, to which allusion has already been made. Above the point of +disappearance, the valley has all the aspect of the dry bed of a river, +with its sloping banks and pebbly bottom. + +Our force, which on leaving Mostar had consisted only of a small body of +cavalry for escort purposes, and some hundreds of irregulars, was +augmented at Stolatz by half a battalion of regular infantry. That the +picturesque effect produced by these Bashi Bazouks (conspicuous among +whom were the Albanian levies) was heightened by the addition of the +regulars, in their soiled garments and woollen great coats, I cannot +pretend to say; yet let no one endeavour to depreciate the Turkish +infantry who has not seen them plodding gallantly on beneath a broiling +sun, and in a country which, by its stony roughness, would tax the +energies of the stoutest Highlander. + +Those first marches, before we joined the main army, were for us, who +were mounted, pleasant enough. Taking advantage of any clump of trees +which we might encounter--and these were not very numerous--the halt +would sound, and in an incredibly short space of time coffee and pipes +would be served to the General, his Secretary, and myself, the staff +forming themselves into a group a few paces distant. + +During these halts children or curious adults would be seen peeping from +behind the trees, bent on catching a glimpse of the Serdar Ekrem. I +noticed that he never missed an opportunity of conversing with the +country people, who would tremblingly obey his summons to come and +receive 'Bakshish,' until reassured by his kind tone and gentle manner. + +In thus speaking of Omer Pacha's moral qualities let me not be mistaken: +I do not wish to infer that he possesses a very refined mind, still less +that he is gifted with those elements which go to form the +philanthropist; but that which he does possess is much good nature, a +long-headed shrewdness, which shows him the policy of toleration, and a +general disposition to support the weak against the strong. Thus, if he +has been accused of squeezing the faithful subjects of His Imperial +Majesty the Sultan, I venture to say that these attentions on his part +have been devoted entirely to those whom he knows to have amassed money +by grinding extortion, and thus he pays them off in their own coin. + +On the night of the 15th we halted in a small encampment about five +hours beyond Stolatz, where tents were already pitched for our +reception. Here one of those sights met our view so characteristic of +the country, and so unlike anything one is accustomed to see in regular +armies. A certain amount of hay and barley had been collected, and, +having been warned to do so by one of the staff, I ordered my servant to +push on ahead, that he might make sure of a portion of the spoil. On my +arrival I went down to watch operations, and vastly amusing it was to +see the scuffle which was going on--black servants, privates of +dragoons, and staff officers all helping themselves in a manner that +would have wrung the heart of the most generous forage contractor or +commissariat officer. Here I discovered the sort of stuff of which my +servant, a Dalmatian, was made. Some one, it appears, had told him, with +what truth I know not, that a party of Greek Christians had lately made +an incursion into this very camp, killing several Turks. This, and the +reports of a few muskets, so completely unmanned him, that he stoutly +declared his intention of remaining awake during the night; and it was +only by allowing him to lie in the tent by my side that I could induce +him to try and sleep. The abject cowardice of this youth on subsequent +occasions gave me but a poor impression of the modern Dalmatian--an idea +which was confirmed by the conduct of his successor, who was, if +possible, a more pitiable poltroon than Michaele. That the position of a +servant whose master was without bed or coverlet was not particularly +enviable, I am ready to admit, and many a time did he come to complain +of incipient starvation; but at the moment it was difficult to make +allowance for these little inconveniences, which were common to us all. + +We were now approaching Bieliki, where a considerable body of troops was +massed under Dervisch Pacha, a General of Division. The character of the +country through which we passed continued the same--stony and rough, +varied only by a little low wood. + +The last march was doubly as long as its precursors, and it was late in +the evening before we reached the camp. Excepting several detachments of +irregulars posted at intervals, the country presented a most deserted +appearance; and, from accounts which I have since heard, I cannot help +fancying that the cause and effect were very closely allied, or, in +other words, that the presence of the irregulars accounted for the +absence of the general population. The semi-feudal spirit, which was in +great measure extinguished elsewhere with the destruction of the +Janissaries, is still rife in this portion of the empire; and it seems +to me that more real danger is to be apprehended by the Porte from this +independent spirit in the Mussulman population than from the +bloodthirsty hatred of the Christians. + +About four hours from Bieliki we were met by Dervisch Pacha. Here, +again, we found more Bashi Bazouks, both horse and foot, as well as a +battalion of chasseurs of the army of Constantinople. On arriving in +camp, I was told off to share the tent of a Colonel-Doctor, by name Rali +Bey, who received me most hospitably. He is a young Greek, who has +served about eight years, having entered as a Major-Doctor. (Be not +horrified, O Surgeon-Major, at so unheard-of a proceeding! Doubtless +your privileges are far greater than his, save that you have the Major +as an appendage in place of a prefix.) The aforesaid Rali Bey was far +the best specimen of a Turkish military doctor whom I ever met. As a +rule, they are not an attractive set. Almost invariably +Constantinopolitans, they jabber execrable French fluently enough, and +affect European manners in a way which is truly disgusting: add to this +a natural disregard of cleanliness, and an obtrusive familiarity, and +nothing more is wanted to complete the picture. Of their professional +capacity I am unable to speak, never, I am thankful to say, having been +compelled to intrust my constitution to their hands; but, judging from +the fact that, on leaving college, they dispense with books, I felt +inclined to attribute the singularly small amount of sickness in camp +more to fortuitous circumstances than to the _ars medendi_, as practised +by these ingenuous young men. + +The sanitary state of the army at that time contrasted very favourably +with its condition some two months later in the year. At the first +period to which I allude there were only seventy men actually in +hospital, the whole force at Bieliki amounting to 8,047 regulars and +2,900 Bashi Bazouks. Of the twelve battalions of regular infantry which +composed the force five were armed with rifles, and were termed +chasseurs in consequence. At the same time, it is fair to add that +special attention has been paid to this arm, and the naturally keen eye +of the Turkish soldiers renders their education a matter of comparative +facility. + +The night which followed our arrival at Bieliki was, I think, the most +sleepless I have ever experienced. So thoroughly tired was I, that the +deafening crashes of thunder, the forked lightning, and the deluge of +rain, which poured in torrents through the tent, might have passed +unheeded, but for the mass of minute life, which defied sleep. With +early dawn I wandered off, too glad to escape from my tormentors, and +went through the hospitals, surgery, and other buildings connected with +the permanent encampment. The irregular lines of tents gave a +picturesque appearance to the camp, which was heightened by the +configuration of the surrounding hills. Far off to the SE. rise the +rugged mountains of Montenegro, at the foot of which lies the plain of +Grahovo, a spot fraught with disastrous reminiscences to the Turks. +Important as that affair was, since Grahovo was ceded to the +Montenegrins in consequence, its details have been grossly exaggerated. +It is currently accepted that 7,000 Turks were cut to pieces by 4,500 +mountaineers, the real truth being that the latter were probably nearly +as numerous as their opponents. The Turkish force consisted of two +entire battalions and a portion of a third, and, from the impracticable +nature of the country, it would have been strange had the result been +otherwise than it was. Hemmed in and mowed down from all sides by an +unseen foe, the Turkish soldiers lost all self-reliance, it is true, and +the panic which ensued must have tended considerably to increase the +magnitude of their loss. In justice to Hussein Pacha, the Turkish +General, it should be known that the operations which placed his army in +this false position were not of his planning, but were carried out in +deference to the wishes of the Civil Governor, and against his advice. +From the above remarks I would not have it supposed that I am desirous +of detracting from the well-merited praise to which the Montenegrins are +entitled for their long and successful resistance to the Turkish arms. +Their gloriously stalwart frames, and their independent spirit, both of +which they inherit with their mountain air, entitle them to admiration +and esteem; but an undue appreciation of these should not be allowed to +warp the judgement or prejudice the mind. Some there are who invest them +with almost supernaturally noble qualities, while they attribute every +conceivable enormity to their enemies the Turks. Each of these views is +incorrect. The Osmanlis, whether it be from a consciousness of their own +decrepitude, or some other cause, appear to have lost the spirit of +cruelty which characterised their more successful days; and it is a +matter of fact that the atrocities committed by their Christian +antagonists in the Greek War of Independence, during the incursion of +the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus in 1854, or in the present +_émeute_, equal, if they do not surpass, anything which they can lay to +the charge of the Turks. Travellers are apt to form their opinions upon +the evidence of their own senses; and when such is the case, their +verdict cannot fail to be favourable to the Moslems: for things seen +with one's own eyes will always make a deeper and more lasting +impression than the most harrowing details, the scene of which is laid +in times gone by. + +It may be urged that the want of power has caused this increased +humanity; and in part it may be so, for the nature of a people can never +undergo a sudden and entire change. But I can myself vouch for the +lenity which they displayed when they have had the power, and to wit +great provocation, to have acted otherwise. The incontrovertible facts, +too, remain that Mussulman Turkey has been the first to relinquish the +unchristian custom of decapitating prisoners, and other inhuman +practices, which the so-called Christians appear little inclined to +renounce. This will, of course, meet with an indignant denial on the +part of their supporters; but it must be a strong argument which can +overcome the disgust occasioned by the sight of women without ears, +children without noses, and bleeding corpses of soldiers literally hewn +to pieces with knives, all of which I have witnessed with my own eyes. + +In matters which do not immediately concern England, no opinion is +probably entitled to so much reliance as that of a Briton, even allowing +for a certain tendency, which he often has, to measure all people and +things by his own standard; and for this reason, that he is probably +free from all political and religious bias, while we know that he cannot +be actuated by prejudices resulting from community of origin, which +invalidates the testimony of the subjects of so many other European +states. However narrow-minded Englishmen may be in their own affairs, +they are generally capable of taking a broader and sounder view of those +of their neighbours than any other people. I think, therefore, that it +speaks strongly in favour of the opinions which I have advanced, that +they are shared by all those few Englishmen whose calling has brought +them into connection with these countries, or the still smaller number +who have gone thither for their own gratification. To the former class, +more especially, I can unhesitatingly appeal, to bear me out in the +heterodox assertion that the Christians are, as a mass, greater enemies +to progress than the Turks. + +[Footnote O: I.e. of the Greek Church.] + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks + abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian + Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European + Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of + Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani--Bashi + Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in Turkey--Line of + March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National Dance--'La Donna + _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big + Head--Old Tower--Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem + Devotions--Character of Turkish Troops--System of + Drill--Peculation--Turkish Army--Letters--Scarcity of + Provisions--Return of Villagers. + + +If the past history of Tzernagora or the Black Mountain is deserving of +our admiration and wonder, its future prospects afford a no less open +field for doubt and speculation. So far all has gone well with her: the +manly character of her people, and their apparent invincibility, have +enlisted the sympathies of the world in her behalf, while identity of +religion and race have procured for her the more tangible advantages of +Russian protection. + +That the last-named power is disinterested in pursuing this policy is +not for a moment to be supposed. The price she has ever demanded for her +protection has been one too willingly paid by these lawless +mountaineers, an unremitting hostility to Turks and Turkey. For +centuries this was open and undisguised on the part both of the people +and the Vladika, by whom, despite his religious calling, the destruction +of Turks was rewarded as a distinguished national service. Such, +however, is no longer the case; although their hatred is not one whit +diminished, or their depredations less frequent than of old, they mask +them under the garb of a feigned neutrality and an unreal friendship. +Thus they protest, in the face of the most damning proofs to the +contrary, their innocence of all connivance with the Herzegovinian +rebels. Corpses of those who have been recognised as accredited leaders +they declare to be Uskoks, proscribed brigands, whom it behoves every +lover of order to hunt down and destroy. But none are deceived by these +shallow excuses, which ill corroborate the assertion which, in an +unguarded moment, escaped from the young Prince, that he would +undertake, upon the fulfillment of certain conditions, to pacify the +frontier within fourteen days. + +This tacit admission of collusion with the rebels is quite sufficient to +justify the Porte in endeavouring to overrun the province, and thus +trample out rebellion in its principal stronghold. Presupposing its +ability to effect this, we then arrive at the real debatable point, +whether such a course would be allowed by the other powers. In the case +of England the answer can hardly be doubtful; for it would ill behove a +country, in whose Parliament all religions are tolerated, to interfere +in the matter, abandoning that policy of non-intervention which she has +so openly confessed and so successfully pursued, upon the narrow grounds +of the inexpediency of permitting a Mussulman power to overrun a +Christian province, and a province, be it remembered, which legally +composes an integral portion of the Turkish empire. + +The candid announcement made by the Porte of its intention to abandon +the policy of forbearance towards Montenegro, which it has as yet +pursued, betokens the existence of a small spark of its ancient spirit, +and augurs well for its success. Should the belligerents be left to +themselves, I believe that it will succeed; but the web of political +intrigue which has grown around the question, fostered by hereditary +policy, imperial ambition, and private machination, render it difficult +to foretell the issue. The chances which render success probable are the +deference which France has of late shown to the wishes of England, the +want of union prevalent throughout the Austrian empire, and the internal +movement in Russia, which incapacitates her from doing mischief in this +part of Europe. Yet, let us not disguise from ourselves the self-evident +fact, that the views of Russia remain unaltered, that the policy of +Peter is still maintained inviolate, and that, although the last war may +have convinced her that actual self-aggrandisement will not be +tolerated, she still holds one object ever in view--the destruction of +Turkish supremacy on both banks of the Danube and the substitution of +dependent Slavism. + +Throughout European Turkey, and nowhere more than in Montenegro, has her +influence waned since the Eastern war; yet so long as she shall possess, +and so freely use, the golden key, she must and will have very great +weight. + +Of the three causes which, as I have said, tend to complicate the +Herzegovinian-Montenegrin question, private machinations have recently +been the most successful, and consequently the most injurious to order +and the general weal. The energy of some of the foreign employés has +been truly astounding, while their glib tongues and manÅ“uvring minds +have worked metamorphoses worthy of Robin or the Wizard of the North. +This distortion of facts was somewhat naïvely described by a French +colleague of M. Hecquard.[P] + +'Montenegro,' said the former gentleman, 'c'est une invention de +Monsieur Hecquard.' Instances of such duplicity have been frequently +brought to light. These, while they reflect little credit on the +individual, speak badly for the good faith of the government +represented, as discovery is rarely followed by punishment--frequently +quite the reverse. + +The high-handed policy which the Porte is now pursuing is the most +likely to be attended with beneficial results; for, as experience has +shown us, the system of concession is entirely useless, each addition to +their territory only making the Montenegrins the more grasping and more +avaricious. That a solution of the difficulty must in some way be +arrived at is clear. Should Turkey fail in effecting this by the means +she is now adopting, Europe will be called on to interfere; for while +things exist as at present, the developement of those countries in +agriculture or commerce is as impossible as in civilisation and +Christianity. + +The disorganised condition of the Herzegovina, with its attendant +incubus of half a million of debt, renders it certain that one of two +results must inevitably ensue: either Turkey will be compelled to +surrender that province, and possibly Bosnia also, or she will sustain a +still severer blow to her already shattered finances. Of the two evils, +the latter is the least in the opinion of the Ottoman government, and it +was this consideration which induced it to determine on the prosecution +of hostilities in 1861. Several causes combined to retard the +commencement of military operations until late in the year. The +principal reasons were, the almost unprecedented drought which prevailed +during that year, and the deference shown by Omer Pacha to the wishes +of the European Commission, then sitting at Mostar, whose members did +all in their power to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion without having +recourse to arms. In the meantime troops were being massed, and stores, +provisions, and magazines provided at Gasko, Bieliki, and Trebigné. The +country infested by the insurgents extended from Bosnia round the +frontier as far as Suttorina, in the vicinity of which Luca Vukalovitch +had established his quarters. This man, who has acquired a certain +notoriety, was a blacksmith by trade, but, preferring a life of lawless +indolence to honest labour, betook himself to his present calling. He +appears to be quite devoid of that chivalrous courage which has +distinguished many of his class, and consequently deserves neither +sympathy when free nor mercy from his captors when taken. + +On September 3 the first move was made. Columns left Bieliki and +Trebigné, which, after scouring the district surrounding Grahovo, +returned without effecting any important results. A re-distribution of +the troops then took place. Trebigné was almost denuded of regular +soldiers, its defence being intrusted to Bashi Bazouks, while the entire +force was distributed at other points of the frontier, Bieliki and Gasko +constituting a permanent base of operations. At the former of these +Dervisch Pacha was in command, a man of considerable military talent, +though thoroughly unscrupulous, while another General of Division, Osman +Pacha, had his head-quarters at Gasko. + +Such was the position of affairs on September 18, 1861. Upon the morning +of that day, intelligence was received of such a nature as to render an +immediate move advisable. An order to this effect was issued at 2 +P.M., just as I had succeeded in rendering habitable a very +smart little tent, which had previously belonged to the Spanish General +Prim, and had been given by him to Omer Pacha after the campaign on the +Danube. At 3 P.M. six battalions paraded with eight guns, and +some sappers, the whole under the command of Ali Pacha of Scutari, a +General of Brigade. For some hours our course lay in a NE. direction +along a ridge, and separated only by the intervening gorge from the +mountains of the Baniani, which ran parallel on our right. These were +known to be infested with rebels, traces of whom were found by a force +of irregulars sent to attack them during the chilly hours of morning. +Here I, for the first time, saw Omer Pacha throw off the air of easy +carelessness habitual to him, and apply himself _con amore_ to the work +before him. He selected the positions to be occupied by the outposts and +picquets, indicating to his staff such points as he considered most +worthy of their attention, and endeavouring, by his own exertions, to +atone for the shortcomings of his subordinates. The force bivouacked +that night on the side of a hill overhanging a hollow, in which was +pitched one of the small camps with which these districts are now +interspersed. The choice of ground was certainly most injudicious, and +the General expressed his annoyance in no measured terms. + +From this time the privations endured by the troops were very great. +Long marches over an almost impracticable country by day, the most +intense cold by night, without tents or extra clothing, and with little +food, were endured with uncomplaining devotion. In some measure I could +sympathise with them, having passed all the nights since leaving Mostar +without bed or blanket. Thus many a cold morning hour did I eke out in +vain search for wood to kindle a little fire; and had I to undergo the +ordeal again, I should certainly prefer to pass the night _à la belle +étoile_, with my toes to the smouldering embers of a camp fire, and my +head well wrapped up after the manner of all Easterns. + +On the second day after leaving Bieliki, our course lay due N. through a +perfect wilderness of rocks, varied only by an occasional basin, formed +by surrounding hills, and covered with a species of dwarf vegetation. +The appearance of the force, as it straggled over this wavy expanse of +stone, was curious enough, and it certainly baffles all attempts at +description; so I must ask my readers to allow their imagination to +people the _mer de glace_ with some thousands of Oriental soldiers, +regular and irregular, pipe-bearers, and household servants formidably +armed, and they will not be far from a just conception of the case. +After marching for five hours over this inhospitable tract, we halted at +the mouth of a valley where the hills open out into a small plain. This +forms the entrance to the Pass of Koryta, whence we had just emerged. It +is a spot of ill repute even amongst the barbarous inhabitants of these +regions; and more Turks have received their death-wounds from behind the +boulders, which have served to screen the assassins, or from the knives +of the ever-ready Greeks in that fatal gorge, than in any other spot of +these disordered lands. The Pass is formed by the extremities of Banyani +and Pianina, and is of much strategical importance. It was one of the +first points subsequently occupied by Omer Pacha. Many a disaster has +been brought about by the incautious recklessness of those in command of +Turkish troops, and it was with some satisfaction that I saw the heights +both in front and rear crowned by Turkish battalions, before the +remainder were allowed to pile their arms, and betake themselves to +sleep or any other recreation. It was impossible not to revert in +imagination to the scenes of blood and strife of which Koryta has been +the site, as contrasted with its appearance at that moment. Groups of +Turkish soldiers were amusing themselves by dancing a national dance, +with as much gaiety as though they had not marched a yard, and with far +more activity than one would be disposed to give them credit for +possessing. The dance, a kind of jumping reel, was accompanied by +droning music not unlike the pipes. A little farther a regimental band +was murdering the two or three European airs with which it was +acquainted. One of these, to which they showed a good-natured antipathy +by frequently murdering, was 'La Donna è Mobile,' or 'La Donna +_Amabile_,' as Omer took pleasure in calling it. And thus the day wore +on, until, late in the evening, we arrived at Tchernitza, a little town +of about 600 inhabitants. Our camp was formed on a level plot, which +looked green and pleasant after the barren country through which we had +passed. Just above the spot where the men bivouacked was a lofty mound +surmounted by a turret, from which an armed sentry of a regiment of +redif (or militia) kept watch over the surrounding country. While taking +a bird's-eye view from this point, I heard myself accosted, to my no +small astonishment, in very fair English by a Turkish officer. My new +acquaintance proved to be one Hakki Bey, a Major of Engineers, employed +on the staff of Osman Pacha. He told me that, after having passed ten +years at the Turkish Military College, he had been sent to England for +five years to complete his education. What can the world say of Turkish +education after this stupendous example? He was an officer of much +intelligence, and soon worked himself into Omer Pacha's good graces. On +the following morning I met Osman Pacha at breakfast in the +Generalissimo's tent. He answers fully to the latter's description of +him, as being a man of much feeling, and very much the reverse of what +he is represented by Mr. Oliphant. That gentleman, in his narrative of +the Trans-Caucasian campaign, calls him 'a thorough Moslem, and a hater +of all Feringhees.' Now I am at a loss to conceive on what grounds he +can base that assertion; for, excepting that he speaks no language but +his own--a very common circumstance with English gentlemen of a certain +age--he is thoroughly European in his ideas and tendencies. Of his +kindness to myself under circumstances of difficulty and danger I shall +ever entertain the most lively recollection. + +While peering about in the single street of Tchernitza, I observed a +crowd collected in one corner. The centre of attraction proved to be a +man with a big head. The unfortunate creature seemed to experience very +much the same treatment as he would have met with had he been turned +loose in the streets of London. Everybody stared, most people laughed, +and some jeered at his terrible affliction. He may have numbered some +five-and-forty years, stood about five feet four inches high, with a +head of about twice the natural size. The idiotic appearance produced by +this deformity was increased by the dimensions of his tongue, which +protruded from his mouth, and hung down at the side in the most +woe-begone manner. The poor wretch accepted the banter of the spectators +with that good-humoured indifference which leads one to hope that the +victims of such freaks of nature are insensible to the full weight of +their calamity. To the SE. of the town or village stand the ruins of an +old castle, once the favourite resort of the Dukes of Herzegovina. +Nought save the remnant of the walls remains to mark its importance in +days gone by. + +The remainder of our march to Gasko was in the plain, and presented few +objects to attract attention, unless it was another victim of fell +disease. A poor girl, suffering from elephantiasis, was one of the only +women whom I had seen for many days. Her foot was swollen to an +incredible size, and I have been since informed that it is not an +uncommon complaint in those countries. As usual, we found the force +already encamped at Gasko drawn up to receive us, four mountain guns on +either flank. These were mounted, and drawn by two mules. In places +inaccessible to wheeled carriages, they are carried, as in our own +service, by two mules, viz. the gun on one, and the carriage on the +other. + +The infantry presented a more creditable appearance than any I had yet +seen, and the encampment generally looked clean and orderly. Camp life +is under no circumstances a very agreeable phase of existence, and least +of all in Eastern countries, when divested of the excitement resulting +from the probability of an attack. In other lands there is sure to be +something to attract the mind. Staff officers in gay uniforms pass and +repass in all the importance of official haste, cornets of cavalry bent +on performing the onerous duties of galloper, and the pompous swagger of +infantry drum-majors, all combine to vary the scene and amuse the eye. +But in Turkey this is not so. All are equally dirty and unkempt, while +the hideous attempts at music have very far from a soothing effect. An +attentive listener may hear a single voice four times in the day calling +to prayer, a custom which, under no circumstances, is ever omitted. Of +the internal response to this appeal I am of course unable to judge, but +from outward appearance I should imagine it to be small. The Pachas, it +is true, indulge in the somewhat unintellectual amusement of twiddling a +chain of beads, talking on indifferent subjects the while; but I never +observed even this small tribute of respect amongst the inferior +officers. And thus the day wears on in dull monotony, until at sunset a +crash of many voices may be heard from the centre of the camp, rising up +to heaven, and calling down a blessing on their Sultan's head. + +Immediately upon his arrival at Gasko, Omer Pacha had betaken himself to +the only habitable house in the adjacent village, coming down to camp +with early morning. I consequently became the guest of Osman Pacha, who +treated me with uniform kindness. It is a strange coincidence that +almost every Turkish Pacha, whatever may have been his origin, however +low his moral character, possesses a dignity of deportment and a charm +of manner which among Europeans is deemed an infallible test of a kind +heart and high breeding. This, however, does not apply in its full sense +to Osman, for a more amiable and moral old gentleman never breathed. +Indeed, I much fear that the good qualities of his heart somewhat +eclipsed those of his head, as subsequent events will show. Many of his +remarks, however, were shrewd and pointed enough; thus, while comparing +the English with the Turkish soldier, he very candidly admitted that the +former carried off the palm in the matter of fighting, with the +following reservations--that the Turk is content to serve with a very +considerable arrear of pay, and with very little in the way of clothing +or nourishment; that he is able to endure equal if not greater fatigue +and hardship; and lastly, that he does not indulge in strong drinks. All +this must be admitted by the most prejudiced arbitrator; nor is it the +highest eulogium to which the Moslem soldier is entitled. Habits of +order and obedience, which are only sustained in European armies by the +strictest discipline, form part of the national character, and therefore +render the minuter details of military economy unnecessary. That they +will ever become sufficiently familiarised with their European clothing +as to present a smart appearance, is improbable; yet their parade +movements are even now performed with considerable accuracy and rapidity +in the loose shuffling manner in vogue amongst the French, while of +their prowess in the field we have had ample proofs on divers +occasions--whether in the European campaign of 1828, when, despite the +confusion resulting from the recent destruction of the Janissaries, they +beat the Russians at all points; or in Asia during that and the +following years, where, if not so successful, they often displayed a +heroism unsurpassed in history. Or, coming down to the present time, we +have but to recall the noble stand made at Kars and Silistria, which, +almost without defences, they held for months against the most +determined efforts of Mouravieff and Paskievitch. Singularly enduring, +brave, and obedient, they require only good leading to form them into +one of the most effective armies of the world. But this is precisely the +one thing in which they are most strikingly deficient, and of which +there is little hope of any permanent amelioration. + +In no department of the public administration are the baneful effects of +that spirit of insincerity and rapacity, which is almost universal at +Constantinople, more apparent than in the army. Money drawn upon the +authority of false returns, and eventually appropriated by the highest +people of the land, affords an example of peculation and dishonesty +which is carried out through all ranks, and the result is that the +greater portion of the army has received no pay for more than +six-and-twenty months. There is reason to believe that this system of +sending in false numerical returns has been of late carried to an +incredible extent. The nominal strength of the Turkish army is as +follows:--6 corps d'armées, each consisting of 6 regiments of 4 +battalions, each battalion numbering 1,000 effective men, with a +proportion of cavalry and artillery to each corps d'armée. + +This gives us 144,000 regular infantry; and yet I have good authority +for saying that, should Turkey enter upon a war to-morrow, she would do +so with less than 80,000 regular infantry. Of these 29 of the strongest +battalions were in the Herzegovina during the past autumn, and that +force has received a slight increase during the winter months. To the +merits of these troops I have already borne testimony. Against those by +whom they are officered I would now raise a protest, since they appeared +to be so selected without regard to any one qualification which may +entitle them to the rank. Even were the finances of the empire restored +to a flourishing condition, and other reforms instituted, the army +cannot be thoroughly effective until it is re-officered, and the new +officers duly impressed with a conviction of the just distribution of +rewards and punishments. It is deplorable that so low a sentiment should +be the only one with which to inspire the officers, in order to secure +the zealous fulfillment of their duties. But so it is: their birth and +education, and the flagrant instances of bought rewards, which are +constantly before their eyes, combine to render it the best sentiment of +which they are capable. This applies principally to the regimental +officers in the lower ranks, upon whom the efficiency of an army so much +depends. Great good is anticipated from the extended scale introduced +into the Military College, and it is said to be the intention of the +government to appoint as soon as possible officers to commands who have +passed through it, to the extinction of the old system of conferring the +highest rank upon Pachas, whether fitted for the position or not. + +Excepting the chief of the staff, and some of the aides-de-camp, the +staff in the field was composed of engineer officers, most of whom had +passed some years in France or Belgium, while one had remained five +years in England. But these are men of a very different stamp from the +general run of regimental officers, who appear to think it the greatest +privilege of their position to get very drunk whenever the opportunity +offers itself, thus presenting a curious contrast with the remarkable +sobriety of their men. One evening I chanced to witness a scene as +amusing as it was characteristic of the people among whom I lived. A +post had arrived, and Osman Pacha's private Secretary was occupied in +dispensing the letters. The officers were admitted to his tent, and the +childish glee which they displayed was diverting in the extreme. Not +only did they mark their gratitude by kissing every portion of the +Secretary's garments on which they could lay hand, but danced about, +showing the epistles to all who approached. Fortunately, perhaps, few of +these could read, so the breach of confidence was not very great. I have +often noticed that an Oriental, when he does shake off the apathetic +reserve habitual to him, becomes more excited and enthusiastic than +warmer-blooded nations. At any rate they seem to possess a full measure +of that natural instinct of joy at receiving tidings of loved ones in +far distant lands. One of these letters was from the wife of an officer, +who had not heard from her for many months, and whose last reports had +informed him of the destruction of his house by fire. The apparent +indifference with which he had received the first announcement +completely gave way to a flood of happiness on hearing of the safety of +those he loved. Verily they are not so devoid of feeling as is generally +supposed--these fatalist Turks. + +The arrival of Dervisch Pacha with six battalions from Bieliki, which +was now occupied by two battalions of redif, converted Gasko into the +sole base of operations. The rain, which had for the past few days +fallen in torrents, would have enabled Omer Pacha to have commenced +hostilities on a greater scale, but for the dearth of provisions, which +should have reached the frontier long since. It now became apparent that +little could be done during the remaining months of the year, for nature +had effected for the rebels whatever the indolence of the Turkish +commanders had left undone. The magnificent harvest of the preceding +year, which the rebels had appropriated, and the extraordinary drought +which had prevailed during the spring and summer of 1861, combined to +diminish the Turkish prospects of success. Moreover, the object of the +Generalissimo was not so much to hunt down the rebels as to inspire them +with confidence in the leniency of the Sultan's rule, while he, at the +same time, occupied the country in such force as to convince them of the +necessity of eventual submission. Already were the good effects of this +measure manifested in the rapid return of the inhabitants to the +surrounding villages. Metokhia, Aphtoria, and Lubniak, all in the close +vicinity of the Turkish camp, had been deserted by their occupants, who, +like the majority in the plain of Gasko, are of the Mussulman religion. +These now returned to their desolated homes. + +[Footnote P: The French Consul at Scutari and member of the European +Commission, a man as remarkable for talent as for cunning and love of +intrigue.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer + Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack + Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of + Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish Women--Defects + of Government by Mudir and Medjlis. + + +The ennui produced by a long halt after a series of consecutive marches +had by this time taken such a hold on me, that with delight I heard Omer +Pacha's announcement of his intention to send a force with provisions +for the town and garrison of Niksich, whose proximity to Montenegro +placed them in the position of a beleaguered garrison, and rendered them +dependent upon the government for the ordinary necessaries of life. For +this duty Osman Pacha was detached, taking with him seven battalions and +four guns, which were subsequently reinforced by an eighth battalion +from Krustach. For the first three hours our route lay in the valley of +Gasko, which looked green and fertile, though showing few signs of +cultivation. The ruins of a church were the only antiquarian relics +which I noticed on the march. At the extremity of the valley the pathway +winds to the SE., having the rugged Piwa, looking bleak and bare, on the +left, and the more wooded heights of Baniani on the right. The +configuration of the hills, and the sharp outline of the country +generally, combined with the indescribably wild and rocky character of +some parts of the foreground, and the sloping grass banks in others, to +produce a picture at once grand and picturesque; but it was a picture of +which the eye soon wearied and the appreciation palled. There, as +throughout the whole march to Niksich, the country abounds with the most +magnificent defensible positions; natural parapets, whence a most +destructive fire might be poured upon an advancing foe, and incapable of +being turned by any flank movement; positions, in short, constructed for +the enactment of a second Thermopylæ. No signs of humanity were to be +found in that barren region. Here and there the carcass of a stray +horse, which had died probably of pure inanition, and afforded a scanty +meal to the birds and beasts of prey, was the only sign of aught that +had ever beat with the pulse of life. Leaving the main body, I came up +with a small party of engineer officers, employed in taking the angles +on the line of march. The serious inconvenience resulting from the want +of a good map of these countries is now much felt. True, it was +partially removed by the existence of a map of Montenegro, including a +portion of the Herzegovinian frontier, drawn by Major Cox[Q], R.E., and +published by the Topographical Department, a copy of which I had +presented to Omer Pacha, and which was much appreciated by him. Very +properly, however, he proposes that the country shall be surveyed by +Turkish officers, and a map constructed upon their observations. Its +accuracy will be somewhat doubtful, if we may judge from the crude +manner in which they set to work. The only instruments employed were +prismatic compasses, with which they jotted down angles at all the +salient points, an orderly dragoon counting his horse's paces in the +intervening time, which was occasionally as much as twenty minutes. +Passing these I reach the advance guard, and still pressing on I soon +find myself alone. No, not quite alone; another turn of the rocks brings +me abreast of a strange companion, his long flowing dress of yellow +surge, and Dervish's hat, with its hair-fringe, proclaim him to be one +of that large class of religious devotees who live in indolence by +working upon the superstition of their co-religionists. My friend, +however, was a man of some affluence, and very superior in all respects +to the generality of his order. By birth an Affghan, he has spent many +years in the Herzegovina, and had followed the army for some weeks +before I chanced to meet him. Wherever there was a prospect of work or +danger there were his little bay stallion and tufted lance always to be +seen. There was something weird-like in his presence, as he now sat +like a statue on his horse, and anon darted forward with a flourish of +his lance, sending up wreaths of blue smoke from the inseparable +chibouque. We thus rode in company until we overtook the small force of +irregulars, who had been sent in advance of the main body. This constant +use of, and great reliance on, the Bashi Bazouks, is most prejudicial to +the efficiency of the service; for while it tends to deteriorate the +spirit of the regulars by depriving them of the first chance of meeting +the enemy, it exposes the others to the influence of bribery, which +constitutes so prominent a feature of Oriental warfare. Omer Pacha well +understands the disadvantages resulting therefrom, and will soon have +established a more healthy system. Already he has succeeded in inspiring +the troops with a degree of self-confidence, quite unprecedented, by +merely avoiding that error into which Turkish Generals so often fall, of +detaching small bodies of troops, who are cut up by the enemy without +object and without result. Individually, he is perhaps somewhat +destitute of the _élan_ which is generally associated with the character +of a Guerilla chief, and yet without detracting from his character as a +master in the art of modern war, there is no species of campaigning +which he understands so well as that which he has successfully waged in +Montenegro and the other hill countries of the Turkish empire. Energy +and caution are the two qualities indispensable to success in these +countries, and these he possesses to an eminent degree. It may be deemed +presumptuous in me to pass an opinion upon one whose fame is world-wide; +but that very fact must be my excuse, that those who are entitled to +universal admiration are likewise subject to universal criticism. I have +heard it urged that Fuad Pacha, the present Grand Vizier, who displayed +much ability in the conduct of the war against the rebels in Thessalyand +Epirus in 1854, would have succeeded better in the present hostilities. +But, on the other hand, if the Grand Vizier be gifted with a greater +amount of dash, Omer Pacha possesses a cooler judgement and a larger +experience than any man in the Turkish empire; and before leaving the +subject, I would call attention to the meritorious service which he has +rendered to the Sultan under all circumstances. Disgraced without cause, +he has faithfully adhered to the country of his adoption, displaying +through good report and evil report an integrity which does honour to +his principles. For, be it remembered, that he is bound by no ties of +blood or nationality, and that treachery to Turkey would probably serve +as a passport to the highest honours in Austria or Russia. + +Apologising for this digression, I would now return to Osman Pacha and +the column whom I have left so far to the rear. Late in the afternoon we +arrived at Krustach, a position somewhat similar to Koryta, and of +equal importance as regards the military occupation of the country. The +valley is at this point shut in on either hand by hills of just +sufficient height to give an advantageous command to a defending force; +these are connected by a cross range, that present an apparently +impassable barrier to an advancing foe. This position is surmounted by a +small fort with a court-yard, whose walls are pierced for musketry. Four +guns of indifferent quality are here mounted, commanding the approaches +on either side, while three guard-houses, each capable of holding two or +three companies, have been built on the most elevated positions, +flanking the approach from the NW. The garrison consisted of two +battalions commanded by a Wallack colonel, who might have passed but for +his fez for an officer in the Russian service, so much did he resemble +one of that nation in physiognomy. He appeared to be an active and +intelligent officer, and had, I heard, rendered good service during the +Eastern war. The appearance of the valley that night was strange and +picturesque. Hundreds of fires stretched far up the sides of the cradle +of hills in which our bivouac was formed, while a regular line of light +marked the chain of outposts which crowned the surrounding heights. +Head-quarters might be recognised by a large paper lantern suspended on +a high stick close to the camp-fire, around which lay Osman Pacha, one +of his staff, the Affghan Dervish, and myself, all sleeping quite as +comfortably as though we had never known a bed. Trumpets sounded at 5 +A.M. for a start; and, having ascended to the fort, we found +the sun struggling for the mastery with the clouds on the tops of the +adjacent hills. The army was now in full motion; the regular infantry +defiled in something like order down the narrow path, which had been +imperceptible to us on the preceding evening. The Bashi Bazouks, on the +other hand, might be seen streaming down the hill-side, jumping, +rolling, and tumbling in strange confusion. Having inspected the fort we +joined in with these, and rode down a descent, which would have been +impracticable for any save the sure-footed iron-plated horses of the +East. After traversing the valley for some miles, the rugged line of +Piwa closed in upon us on the left, and a black impenetrable mountain +seemed to bar our farther progress. After three quarters of an hour's +ascent we were glad to halt. Clambering to a grassy knoll, we made a +frugal meal of the hardest of biscuit soaked in muddy water, the only +food, by the way, which the troops tasted from the time of leaving Gasko +until their return. These biscuits are manufactured at Constantinople, +and are so hard as to be uneatable unless soaked; they, however, form a +good substitute for bread, which is seldom to be procured. But we must +not linger too long, for already the sun is high in the heavens. On, +on, once more, brave little horses and unflinching men; your labours +will soon be rewarded: and thus they toiled on, until, with sobbing +flanks and perspiring brows, the highest requisite point was reached. +Stretching away to our right front was a grassy glade, looking like +velvet after the stony wilderness we had just left: a pine wood on the +left gave it all the appearance of an English park, which was only +dispelled by the extraordinary sight which now met the eye. Behind a dip +in the ground were collected a considerable body of irregular horse and +foot, who were awaiting our approach in all the magnificence of banners, +kettledrums, sackbuts, psalteries, and all kinds of possible and +impossible instruments of music. No sooner did we approach than away +they went, horse and foot, shouting and blowing and waving their flags. +The idea seemed contagious, for it was instantaneously followed by Osman +Pacha and everyone who bestrode any kind of beast, prominent amongst +whom the Affghan might be seen, flourishing his lance well to the fore. +The glade opened out into a valley of inconsiderable size, which has +witnessed more than one encounter between the Christians and Turks. Only +the previous winter an engagement took place, in which the Turks, +notwithstanding that they remained masters of the position, had from +forty to fifty men put _hors de combat_. The timber here was of far +finer growth than any I had yet seen, and the numerous oaks and elms +lying with uptorn roots betokened the violence of the storms which rage. +Many of them were lying midway across our line of march, and it was +found necessary to remove them to admit of a free passage. This was soon +effected, though perhaps with a little more noise than is consistent +with English ideas of order. We had by this time entered the Pass of +Dugah, formed by the extremities of Piwa on the left, and Banian on the +right. The slopes on either hand are wooded, that of Banian to much the +greatest extent. It is some fifteen miles in length, and consists of a +series of open spaces, connected by narrow defiles, whose bottoms +resemble the bed of a dry stream. The scenery is generally pretty, and +abounds with interest from its being a constant bone of contention +between the rival factions. As a defensive position it is undoubtedly +strong; but there is nothing in the nature of the ground in reality to +impede the advance of a determined force. While halted in one of the +open spaces which I have mentioned, we discovered a hole or cavern in +the side of the hill, capable of holding at least two hundred men. +Doubtless this is a constant resort of the freebooters and other lawless +ruffians who infest this part of the country. It was here that the +European Consuls were nearly meeting their deaths, although accompanied +by the Secretary of the Montenegrin Prince, when employed in making +arrangements for the relief of Niksich, which was then invested. + +It was dark before we reached the extremity of the valley, and little +did we then think under what circumstances we should next see it. The +latter portion of our march lay through a wood of hazel and other small +trees, intersected here and there by pathways. Here we were met by more +irregulars, and, debouching from the high land, we found a portion of +the garrison of Niksich drawn up on the opposite bank of a little stream +which flowed beneath us. The contour of the surrounding country is very +remarkable: the gray heights of Piwa behind us, Drobniak to our left, +and Banian looking green by comparison on the right, while the rocky +mountains of Karatag form a dark and gloomy foreground to the picture. + +During the ensuing night the rain descended in torrents, rendering the +spongy ground on which we had bivouacked very much the reverse of a +desirable resting-place. In vain I waited for an improvement in the +weather, which only became worse and worse; and eventually I started in +pursuit of that portion of the troops which had left at early dawn in +charge of the provisions for Niksich. These consisted of 65,000 okes of +meal and biscuit, with a few head of horned cattle. The last commodity +appeared to me to be scarcely necessary, as we met some hundreds of +bullocks being driven out to graze in the valley, while the presence of +our force rendered such a measure safe. How these were generally +supplied with forage I am at a loss to conjecture, since the Mussulman +population were unable to venture more than one mile from the town, +except in bodies of 500 armed men. The distance to the town from the +commencement of the valley is about six miles, through a broad and +well-watered pasture land. In parts this has been ploughed and devoted +to the produce of grain, burnt stubble of which denoted the destructive +ferocity of the neighbouring Montenegrins. The new line of frontier +recently defined by the European Commission scarcely tends to promote a +pacific adjustment of existing difficulties. On the contrary, the line +of demarcation as it now is must inevitably lead to further +complications. Situated at the apex of a triangle, the town and plain of +Niksich offer a tempting bait to the lawless brigands, who infest the +mountains which form two of its sides, and who keep the unfortunate +Mussulman population in terror of their lives. At the south-eastern +extremity of the plain stands the town of Niksich, a small, dirty, and +irregular collection of buildings, all huddled together in the closest +possible vicinity to the ruined fort, as though seeking the protection +of its mouldering walls. Of the origin of the fort I could learn little, +save from an inscription over the arched entrance, from which it +appears to have been built by the son of an old and influential Albanian +chieftain about 200 years ago. Two square towers, containing five pieces +of ordnance, form the principal feature in the defensive works; but the +whole place is in so ricketty a condition that, were a cannonade to be +opened from its walls, they would inevitably come down about the ears of +their defenders. From the easternmost of these towers the town runs out +some few hundred yards towards the Montenegrin frontier; but all egress +upon that side is out of the question, as there is ever a bullet in +readiness for anyone who may be so rash as to cross a certain green +patch of grass, which appears to be accepted as the legitimate boundary +of the two provinces, although not precisely specified as such. At this +point the Turkish sentries are withdrawn, but farther to the south a +small white building serves as a guard-house, whence sentries are +supplied to form a cordon round that portion of the frontier. On +arriving at Niksich, we--that is, Osman Pacha's principal staff officer +and myself--paid a visit to the Mudir, whom we found sitting in +dignified conclave with his whole Medjlis. The Mudir, a magnificent +Albanian, standing about six feet four inches, and of proportionate +girth, welcomed us most cordially, and appeared a person of far greater +intelligence than most of his class. He bitterly lamented the increase +of suffering, resulting from the change in the line of frontier. +'Attacks by the Montenegrins and their friends,' said he, 'are now of +daily occurrence, and there seems to be no chance of any improvement in +our condition.' He expressed great confidence, however, in the +advantages to be derived from Omer Pacha's arrival, and took a clear and +sound view of things generally. He argued, correctly enough, that the +rebels would stand a good chance of being literally starved into +submission during the ensuing winter and spring, since the occupation of +the country by the Turkish troops had prevented them from getting in +their harvest, while the benighted frenzy which they had themselves +displayed in the wanton destruction of the crops had deterred the +neighbouring landowners from cultivating their fields. But the open +intelligent face of our friend, the Mudir, lit up, more especially when +telling us of some of the dours which he had made against the rebels; +and in good sooth he looked better fitted for such employment, judging +from his great length and breadth, than for sitting hour after hour on +his haunches, emitting clouds of tobacco-smoke, and reflecting upon the +individuality of God, and the plurality of wives, reserved in the next +world for all those who say their prayers regularly, and kill a +sufficient number of Feringhees in this. These stereotyped notions, +however, regarding the tenets of Mahometanism are fast losing credence, +just in proportion as the growth of European ideas is undermining its +very foundation. I do not say that Mussulmans are becoming more +religious or more elevated from their contact with Christian peoples. +Indeed, I rather incline to the opposite opinion; but the European +tendencies which prevail are marked clearly enough by the facile +adroitness with which the followers of the Prophet contrive to evade the +injunctions of the Koran, whether it be in the matter of wines and +strong drinks, or the more constitutional difficulty touching loans, +debts, and the like. For myself, I rather incline to the view of the old +Pacha, who, after listening with his habitual patience to the +long-winded arguments of a Protestant missionary, completely +dumb-foundered that excellent divine by remarking that he (the Pacha) +felt quite convinced of the similarity of their creeds, since the only +apparent difference was, that the Christian has three Gods and one wife, +while the Mussulman has three wives and one God. Even in this last +matter, the plurality of wives, a marvellous amendment is visible. It is +probably owing to the expense attendant thereon, and also to the little +fact, that it is not quite in accordance with the spirit of the age to +drown, or otherwise destroy, those women who indulge their very +pardonable and womanly frailty of wrangling and fighting one with +another. But, granting all this, it is impossible not to perceive that +the position of Turkish women is daily improving. All of a certain +class receive some education; and I never yet spoke to any intelligent +Turk on the subject without hearing him deplore the existence of those +laws in the Koran which would deprive the world of that which renders it +most enjoyable. That the time will come when the religious influences of +Mahometanism will cease to offer a bar to all progress and advancement, +is sufficiently evident, and it consequently behoves Europe to guard +against the re-establishment of moral heathenism on the ruin of +fanatical Islamism. + +Returning to the council-chamber of the Mudir of Niksich, I would call +attention to the similarity of expression and venerable appearance of +nearly every member of the Medjlis. This is one of the faults of the +system, that an undue preponderance is thereby given to the ideas of a +certain class. + +From the experience of those Europeans who have had good opportunities +of forming an opinion, it would seem that this double government of +Pacha and Medjlis works badly, owing to the ignorance and want of +capacity of those from whom the latter are selected. It would, +therefore, be far more salutary were they only permitted to advise in +place of having a vote; absolute authority being vested in the Pacha, +who should be held personally responsible that the rights of the people +be not infringed, and rigorously punished if convicted of malpractices. +Many will doubtless deny the advantages to be thus derived; but it is +self-evident that in half-civilised countries power should be in the +hands of as few as possible. + +It is not my intention to enter the lists as the champion of the Ottoman +Government, whose apathy and insincerity cannot be too strongly +condemned; but I contend that governments, like everything else, must be +judged by comparison, and that the only true measure of the merits of a +government is the moral and social condition of the people whom it +rules. The Turkish Government, whether regarded in its central or +provincial bearings, is decidedly in advance of its subjects. In its +diplomatic relations, in monetary and financial schemes, Turkey has at +any rate acquired a certain amount of credit, while an increase of the +revenue from four to nearly twelve millions within the past thirty +years, and the continued increase of the Christian population, is a +certain proof of the diminution of oppression, and proves conclusively +that a remnant of vitality still exists in her veins. + +[Footnote Q: The British member of the European Commission for defining +the frontier of Montenegro.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy + repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish Soldiers + murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched Camp + assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive Character of + Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation--Military Uniforms--Return + to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum--Express + Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified + Barrack--Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European + Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian + Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of + Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The + Meredits--Instincts of Race. + + +On our return from the town we found the leading battalions in the act +of crossing the stream which separates the valley from the overhanging +woodland. The 900 ponies, now deprived of their burden, carried in lieu +thereof sick soldiers from Niksich, or such as preferred riding to +walking. Little order prevailed, and it is only wonderful that the +consequences of entering a defile more than an hour after midday should +not have proved more disastrous than they actually did. In vain I added +my remonstrances to those of some of the staff, who were intelligent +enough to predict evil. The order had been issued. The advance guard had +already marched, and it was too late to countermand the departure. Thus +saying, Osman Pacha crossed the stream and ascended to the high ground, +now covered with a confused mass of bipeds and quadrupeds. At this +moment the rain, which had ceased during the past hour, began to descend +once more in torrents, accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning and +thunder, which, though still distant, reverberated through the woods +with grand effect. In the midst of this we retraced our steps until +about 4 P.M., when the centre of the column, with the baggage +and head-quarters, defiled from the woods into one of the open spaces, +of which mention has been made. The General informed me of his intention +to halt there until the morning; and he could not have found a spot +better calculated for the purpose, since, by massing the troops in the +centre, they would have been out of range of the surrounding heights, +and a double line of sentries would have been the only precaution +absolutely necessary. For some reason he, however, subsequently changed +his mind, and the delay which had taken place only made matters worse. +The advance guard of four battalions, under Yaya Pacha, had continued +the march in ignorance of the halt of the main body, and were ere this +out of hearing or chance of recall. Scarcely had we recommenced our +advance when a dropping shot in the rear gave us the first announcement +that the enemy had taken advantage of our false step, and was bent on +harassing what would now assume the appearance of a retreat. + +The shots, which were at first few and distant, soon increased, and by +the time that the Affghan and myself had reached the rear of the column +the action appeared to have become general. Ali Pacha, who commanded the +rear-guard, now committed the grave error of halting the three +battalions of his brigade, and wasted most valuable time in performing +desultory movements, and in firing volleys of grape and musketry, +without arriving at any practical results. At one point, however, the +rebels, who were advancing in force with loud cries of fanatical +vengeance, received a substantial check. Two companies of Turks had been +concealed on either side of the defile, which was narrow at this point. +Concealment was facilitated by approaching darkness, and it was only at +a given signal that they rose and poured a deadly volley into the ranks +of the advancing foe, who immediately fell back. This circumstance +appeared to damp their ardour, and they contented themselves with +running in small parties along the flank of our line of march; two or +three would dash down the sloping banks, and, having discharged their +pieces without aim or precision, would return to the safety afforded by +the rocks and trees. It was between 6 and 7 o'clock before the order to +resume the march was issued. And now began a scene which none who +witnessed are likely to forget to their dying day: deeply tragical it +might have been, but fortunately circumstances combined to render it +merely ridiculous, as reflected in the mirror of memory. The rain still +fell heavily, lying in places to the depth of nearly a foot, and +converting all the ground that was not rocky into a slippery quagmire. +So profound was the darkness, that it was literally impossible to see +any object six inches from one's eyes, and it was only by the occasional +flashes from the firelocks of the persevering enemy and the forked +lightning that we could realise the surrounding scene. By the light of +the last were revealed horses and men falling in all directions, and I +may safely say, that some of the 'crumplers' received that night would +have shaken the nerve of the hardest steeplechase rider. For my own part +I preferred walking, after my horse had fallen twice, and with this +object proceeded to dismount, but on bringing my leg to the ground, as I +imagined, I made a rapid descent of about eight feet. On clambering up I +was met with a sharp blow on the face from what I believe to have been +the butt of a Turkish musket, and my horse was not to be found. About +half an hour later, while feeling for the road, to my great +satisfaction, I placed my hand upon my English saddle, and thus +repossessed myself of my steed. No need to dilate farther on the events +of that disastrous evening. Suffice to say that, after some hours more +of scrambling and toiling, falling frequently over the stones and trees +which were strewn plentifully across the path, we reached the spot +where the advanced body had arrived some four hours previously, and had +succeeded, in spite of the rain, in kindling a few fires. It was close +upon midnight when Ali Pacha arrived at head-quarters to report that the +rear-guard had reached the bivouac, though nothing was known as to the +losses incurred in men, horses, or provisions. All that was certain was +that one gun had been abandoned, the mule which carried it having rolled +down a ravine. This was never found, as the rebels, who passed the night +within ten minutes' walk of our bivouac, had carried it off before the +arrival of the force sent back at daybreak to effect its recovery. Our +loss, however, proved to be insignificant--two killed and six wounded, +and a few ponies, &c., missing. As might be supposed, the Slavish +newspapers magnified the affair into a great and decisive victory for +the rebels. It is true that it reflected little credit on Osman Pacha; +and it might have been fully as disastrous to the Turks as their worst +enemies could have desired, had not the intense darkness of the night, +the heavy rain, and the want of pluck in the Christians (a fault of +which they cannot in general be accused), combined to get them out of +the scrape without any serious loss. The two whose deaths it was +impossible to disallow, as their mangled bodies gave evidence thereof, +were foully butchered by these long-suffering Christians. It came about +as follows:--An officer and three soldiers had remained a little in rear +of the column, being footsore with the march. As the rebels came swiftly +and quietly along, one of the soldiers, believing them to be a Turkish +regiment, made some observation. In a moment he and his comrade were +seized, and, while receiving many assurances of safety, were stripped to +the skin. The officer and the third soldier instantly concealed +themselves behind some of the projecting rocks, within ten yards of the +spot, and thus became auditors of the ensuing tragedy. No sooner had the +rebels stripped their unfortunate captives, than they fell upon them en +masse, literally making pin-cushions of their naked bodies. Throughout +that long and painful night did those two men lie hid in jeopardy of +their lives, and glad must they have been when they saw the rebels +retracing their blood-stained steps on the following morning, and more +grateful still when the arrival of the Turkish force enabled them to +feel assured of life and liberty. The following afternoon we returned to +Krustach, where we found a Montenegrin emissary, who was journeying +homeward, having had an interview with Omer Pacha. He was a finely built +and handsome man, dressed in his national costume, with a gold-braided +jacket, and decorated with a Russian medal and cross, for his services +against Turkey at a time when Russia was at peace with that power. He +had been Superintendent of the Montenegrin workmen at Constantinople, +and had consequently seen something of European manners, although +unacquainted with any language save Slave and some Turkish. He told me +that he had left 400 followers in Piwa; but this I found did not exactly +coincide with a statement he had made to Omer Pacha, and it subsequently +transpired that his body guard amounted to about double that number. +This worthy asked me to accompany him to Cettigne, but circumstances +conspired to prevent my accepting the invitation; and so we separated, +he to Cettigne, we to Gasko on the following day. + +During one of the halts on the line of march, I found the mouth of what +must have been a coal-pit of large dimensions. The entrance of this was +on the bank of a dry stream, and several masses of what appeared to be a +concrete of lignite and coal betokened the existence of the latter in a +purer form within the bowels of the surrounding country. This I showed +to Omer Pacha, who said that he would adopt my suggestion of having it +worked by military labour for the purpose of consumption during the +winter months. In several places, I subsequently came across the same +characteristics, which convince me of the existence of a spurious +description of coal in large quantities in the province. In Bosnia it +is plentiful, and of a very superior quality. + +Some miles before we reached the camp we were met by Omer Pacha and his +staff. + +As may be supposed, the most extravagant reports of the extent of our +disaster had preceded us. The most moderate of these involved the death +of Ali Pacha (no great loss by the way), and about 1,000 men put _hors +de combat_. Omer's face wore a grave expression when we met, and his 'Eh +bien, Monsieur, nous avons perdu un canon sans utilité' boded ill for +the peace of Osman Pacha. It was a pleasing duty to be able to refute +the assertion that this last had lost his head on the occasion in +question. Although guilty of grievous error of judgement, the other more +pitiful charge could hardly be laid to his account, since he never for a +moment lost his habitual sangfroid and self-possession. + +The subsequent operations during 1861 were scarcely of a more decisive +nature than those in the early part of the campaign. They consisted for +the most part of slight skirmishes, which, though unimportant in +themselves, tended to establish the Turks in their occupation of the +country, and produced a good moral effect. + +One event, however, deserves notice, as giving fair evidence of the +respective merits of the belligerent parties. In pursuance of the plan +which he had originally devised, Omer Pacha established a permanent +fortified camp in Piwa. Twelve battalions under Dervisch Pacha were +concentrated at this point; and at the time of the contest which I am +about to describe, Omer Pacha was himself present. Reduced to the +greatest straits by famine and the presence of the Turkish troops, and +inspired doubtless by the knowledge of the Generalissimo's presence in +the camp, the rebels resolved to make a desperate onslaught upon the +entrenchments. + +On the morning of October 26, a strong force was despatched from camp to +procure forage, wood, and other necessaries. While thus employed, the +enemy, favoured by the formation of the surrounding country, made a +sudden and well-sustained attack upon this force, in conjunction with a +consentaneous assault upon the entrenchments. With more judgement than +is generally found amongst Turkish commanders, the foraging party was +brought back to camp, though not before it had suffered a considerable +loss. In the meantime charge upon charge was being made by the +half-naked savages who formed the Christian army, against the enclosed +space which was dignified by the name of an entrenched camp. Three times +they forced an entrance, and three times were they driven out at the +point of the bayonet, while the guns mounted on the works made wide gaps +in their retreating columns. After several hours' hard fighting, in +which both sides displayed exemplary courage, the assailants were +compelled to withdraw, leaving many hundred dead upon the field. The +Turkish loss was something under a hundred, owing to the advantage they +derived from fighting under the cover of their guns and walls. + +Shortly after this event Omer Pacha returned to Mostar, contenting +himself with holding the various passes and other points on the +frontier, which enabled him to keep an unremitting watch over the +disturbed district. + +Early in the spring of 1862 he returned to the frontier, which he will +doubtless pacify before the extreme heat and drought shall have forced +him to suspend military operations. With this view eighteen battalions +of infantry and 3,000 irregulars have been concentrated at and about +Trebigné, which he has this year made his base of operations. The +judicious disposal of his troops, which he has effected, have driven +Luca Vukalovitch and his band of hornets to take refuge in Suttorina, +adjacent to the Austrian territory. This circumstance caused the +Austrians at the end of last year to enter that district for the purpose +of destroying certain batteries, which were considered to be too close +to the Austrian frontier. The legality of this measure is doubtful; yet +it may be believed that the step was not taken with any view to +promoting hostilities with Turkey. + +The final success of the Turkish arms can scarcely be long delayed, +since starvation must inevitably effect all in which the sword may fail. +The armed occupation of the country during the past year has at any rate +so far worked good, that it has effectually prevented the rebellious +Christians from getting in the crops which belonged to themselves or +their weaker neighbours, while it has enabled such of the Mussulmans as +chose to do so to reap their harvest in security. Should these +expectations, however, not be realised, the result would indeed be +serious to the Ottoman empire. In such case either her already rotten +exchequer must receive its death-blow, or she will be compelled to +evacuate the Herzegovina, a course which would be gladly welcomed by her +enemies, since it would probably be but the first step towards the +dismemberment of the whole empire. + +Before quitting the army, I would fain pay a passing tribute to the good +qualities of the Turkish soldiers. Having seen them under circumstances +of no ordinary difficulty and privations, I found them ever cheerful and +contented with their unenviable lot. Uninfluenced by feelings of +patriotism--for such a word exists not in their language--unaffected by +the love of glory, which they have not sufficient education to +comprehend, the only motives by which they are actuated are their +veneration for their Sultan and the distinctive character of their +religion. It would be well for their Sultan did he appreciate the +sterling military qualities of his people. With good management and +honest reform, an army might be created which, if inferior in _matériel_ +to those of certain European powers, would in the matter of _personnel_ +be sufficiently good to render the Turkish dominions perfectly secure +from hostile invasion, which is now very far from the case. At present, +unfortunately, his whole attention is devoted to the manning and +equipment of the navy, for the amelioration of which large sums of money +are paid and heavy debts incurred. The visionary character of his +ambitious projects on this head is apparent to all but himself, since +the Turkish navy can scarcely be expected ever to attain more than a +fifth or sixth-rate excellence. The recent changes in the dress of the +army betoken that some attention has been devoted of late to the +subject. Nothing can be more desirable than an assimilation of the +uniform to the natural style of costume; and the loose Zouave dresses of +the army of the Turkish imperial guard[R] are not only better adapted to +soldiers who do not indulge in the luxury of beds and the like, than the +tight-fitting garments heretofore in use, but present a far more +workmanlike appearance, for the simple reason that they understand +better how to put them on. + +After a month's sojourn in the tents of the Osmanlis, the rapid +shortening of the days warned me of the necessity for pushing on if I +wished to see the more peaceable portion of the country, before the +snows of winter should render travelling impossible. Already the day had +arrived when the first fall of snow had taken place in the previous +year. + +Despite the hardships indispensable from the kind of life we had been +living, it was with much regret that I bade farewell to my hospitable +entertainers, and started once more on my solitary rambles. For the +first day, at least, I was destined to have company, as the Pacha of +Bosnia's private Secretary was about to return to Bosna Serai, having +fulfilled a mission on which he had been sent to the camp of the +Commander-in-Chief. My object was to return to Mostar by way of +Nevresign, which, as well as being new ground to me, forms a portion of +the projected line of defence. After waiting no less than five hours and +a half for an escort of Bashi Bazouks, who, with true Turkish ideas of +the value of time, presented themselves at 12.30, having been warned to +be in attendance at 7 A.M., we at length got under weigh. These +irregulars were commanded by Dervisch Bey, one of the principal Beys in +that neighbourhood. Some twenty years ago his father, a devout +Mussulman, and a cordial hater of Christians, whom, it must be +acknowledged, he lost no opportunity of oppressing, built for himself a +large square house flanked with towers, and otherwise adapted for +defensive purposes. This is situated about six miles from Gasko, and +here he lived in considerable affluence. Taken one day at an unguarded +moment, he was murdered by the Christians, and his mantle descended upon +his son, who, if he has not the same power or inclination to oppress, +shows himself perfectly ready to do battle on all occasions against the +murderers of his father. This individual, then, mounted on a good +useful-looking horse, and loaded with silver-hilted daggers, pistols, +and other weapons of offence, was destined to be our guide. Our road lay +through a long narrow defile, which, like most parts of the Herzegovina, +abounds with positions capable of defence. After five hours' travelling +we arrived at Zaloum, a small military station situated at the highest +point of the pass. I did not see any attempt at fortifications; but, as +all the villages are built quite as much with a view to defence as +convenience, these are hardly necessary. Every house is surrounded by a +court-yard, in most cases loopholed. Taking up our quarters at the only +house capable of affording the most ordinary shelter, we passed the +evening, as far as I was concerned, pleasantly enough. The Secretary, a +middle-aged and very affable Slave, was also somewhat of a _bon vivant_, +and, with the help of sundry adjuncts which he carried with him, we made +a very good meal. The habit of drinking rakee, eating cheese, and other +provocatives of thirst before dining, is quite as rife in these parts of +the empire as at Stamboul, and it frequently happens that the +dinner-hour of a fashionable man is later than in London during the +height of the season. Breakfasting at twelve, they do not touch food +again till dinner-time, and even then their repeated nips of rakee taken +in the hour previous to the repast renders them little disposed for +eating. Shortly after we had commenced dinner at Zaloum, a great +chattering and confusion in the court-yard proclaimed a new arrival. +This proved to be Asiz Bey, an aide-de-camp of Omer Pacha, who was on +his road to Mostar. Snatching a hurried meal, he once more mounted, and +pushed on in the darkness, with the intention of not pulling rein again +until his arrival in Mostar. Later in the evening an excited +agriculturist made his appearance, and with much humility demanded the +return of his pack-saddle, which he affirmed that one of my servants had +stolen. It fell out in this wise: I had engaged a certain youth of the +Greek faith, named Giovanni, to look after my baggage-ponies, which he +invariably allowed to stray whenever most required. On the occasion of +our leaving Gasko one of these was, as usual, absent without leave, and +on his being discovered, the pack-saddle in which these long-suffering +animals pass their existence had been removed. Giovanni, whose +pilfering habits were only equalled by his disregard of truth, replaced +the missing article in the simplest way, by doing unto others as they +had done unto him, and appropriated the first saddle he came across. To +allow the saddle to return to Gasko was impossible, as I could not have +proceeded on my journey without it; so I induced the owner to part with +it at a considerable profit, mulcting Giovanni of the same. The +following morning we descended into the plain of Nevresign, one of the +seven or eight large plains in the province. + +The road approaching the town passes between two cemeteries--that of the +Mussulmans on the right being the most pleasantly situated, for thus it +was that, even in death, they were more regarded than their +less-favoured Christian brethren. On the outskirts I noticed a very +primitive movable house, strongly characteristic of the kind of life led +by the people: it consisted of two skates, with a hurdle laid across for +flooring and others for walls, the whole being thatched. In this the +shepherd sleeps when he pens his cattle: this he does in a very small +space, shifting his position every night, and thus practically manuring +the country. The town itself has little worthy of notice, save the new +fortified barrack which the Turks are constructing. No labourers were, +however, engaged upon it at the time of my visit: it consists of an +oblong work, with bastions at the angles, on each of which it is +intended to mount three guns. It was proposed to build accommodation +for 1,600 men, but the size of the work did not appear to me to warrant +the belief that it would hold so many. There will be no necessity for +the townspeople to take shelter within its walls in the event of an +attack, as it immediately overhangs the town, and is itself commanded by +the hills in its rear. The engineer officer who conducted me over it +informed me that an earthwork would be thrown up on the most commanding +position, and two block-houses built at other points. The arrangements +for obtaining a supply of water appeared simple; and as it is the only +attempt at modern fortification which I have seen in Turkey, I shall be +curious to hear of its completion. + +Leaving Nevresign one crosses two mountains, which, with the exception +of about an hour and a half distance, are traversed by a road. Save one +in course of construction from Mostar to Metcovich, it is the only +attempt at road-making in the province. It is bad enough, as all Turkish +roads are, their engineers having not the slightest idea of levelling. +They take the country as they find it, apparently thinking that a +zigzag, no matter at what slope the angles may be, is the highest +triumph of their art. Until our arrival at Blagai, six miles from +Mostar, an escort was deemed necessary, though it was really of not the +slightest use, since the rebels, if so inclined, might have disposed of +the whole party without once showing themselves. On nearing Mostar I +looked with curiosity for any signs of progress in the new powder +magazine or barracks, which are situated in the plain outside the town. +They both appeared in precisely the same condition as when I left, save +for the absence of some hundreds of ponies, which were at that moment +eating mouldy hay at Gasko and its vicinity. In the barrack square +several block-houses which Omer Pacha had ordered appeared to be in a +state of completion. These are made of wood and have two stories, each +house being capable of containing about two companies of infantry. The +walls are loopholed and of sufficient thickness to resist musket balls: +the use to which they were to be applied was the protection of working +parties and small detachments during the construction of more permanent +defences; and as the rebels are without carcases or liquid fire-balls or +other scientific implements of destruction, it is possible that they may +answer their purpose well enough. + +At the British Consulate I found Mr. H., the Consul at Bosna Serai, who +was on his road to Ragusa, where the European Commission for carrying +out reforms in Turkey was about to reassemble, with the view of watching +the progress of events. Little good could be expected to result from +their deliberations, for matters had not been in any way simplified +since their adjournment two months before. The sincerity of the +individual members of the Commission cannot be called in question; but +what avails that, when other agents of the governments so represented +apply themselves with assiduity to stultify the very measures which +their colleagues are endeavouring to effect. As might have been +anticipated, their sittings at Ragusa proved as ineffectual as those at +Mostar, and in three weeks' time they once more adjourned, and have not +since reassembled. Whatever difference of opinion may have existed +amongst the members on this point, at any rate they professedly agreed +that it is for the interest of these provinces that the Turkish rule +should remain inviolate, but that this rule must be very decidedly +ameliorated. Of its sincerity in wishing to bring this about the Porte +will find it difficult to convince the Christian malcontents, so deeply +rooted is their mistrust. Secret agents are not wanting to check any +spirit of wavering which may show itself in the insurgents. In the +meanwhile both Bosnia and Herzegovina are being rapidly exhausted. Even +in peaceable times, the people of the Herzegovina had to draw their +supplies of grain from Bosnia, while the import trade of both provinces +more than doubled the export in value. The demand for horses for +military purposes has of late still farther crippled commercial +enterprise, as the people are thereby deprived of the only means of +transport in the country. At Mostar, even, it was impossible to buy +coals, as the peasants were afraid of exposing their horses to the +probability of being pressed, with the certainty of remaining unpaid. + +The foregoing remarks may appear to corroborate ill my oft-repeated +assertion of the immunity of the Christians from persecution by the +constituted Mussulman authorities. A distinction should be made between +oppression and misgovernment, the existence of which last is fully +admitted on all hands. It applies in an almost equal degree to the +professors of all religions in Turkey; and when the Christians have been +induced by designing minds, as has sometimes been the case, to pour out +to the world a torrent of grievances, these have been proved in almost +all instances to have been as much imaginary as real; such at least was +the opinion of the Grand Vizier, after his visit of enquiry through +European Turkey in 1860; and his views, which might otherwise be deemed +prejudiced, were supported by Mr. L----, the Consul-General at Belgrade, +who was deputed by the British Ambassador to attend the Ottoman +functionary. That gentleman's opinion--concurred in, as it is, by almost +all British officials--is especially worthy of attention, since the +greater part of his life has been passed in the Turkish dominions, and a +large share of his attention devoted to this particular subject. At +Widdin, a petition was presented, signed by 300 persons, complaining of +the local authorities. These names were mostly forgeries, and even the +alleged grievances were of a trivial nature; outrages, and forced +conversion to Islamism, could nowhere be proved. The source whence the +petition emanated may be shrewdly guessed, since M. Sokoloff, the +Russian Consul at Widdin, was removed to Jerusalem only a few days +before the commencement of the enquiry. One subject of complaint was the +appointment of the bishops by the patriarch at Constantinople, which +strongly confirms the supposition of its Russian origin. The petition +was moreover presented by one Tuno, a Rayah, who had been turned out of +the Medjlis for corruption, and was at the time a hanger-on at the +Russian consulate. Those few who acknowledged to having signed the +document, stated that they believed it to have been a remonstrance +against the pig tax. + +The second ground of complaint was that the Cadi had interfered in the +affairs of the Christians; i.e. in matters of inheritance, and in the +administration of the property of minors. This also proved untenable, +although, in the course of the enquiry, it transpired that something of +the sort had occurred at Crete, which was ingeniously perverted to suit +their purpose on the occasion in question. + +Thirdly, it was alleged that the Christian members of the Medjlis were +allowed no voice in its deliberations. This the Bishop even denied. Had +they said that their opinions were of little weight, it would have been +nearer the truth. Nor can we wonder at this, since it is in vain that we +look for any spirit of independence among the Christian members; and +this not more in consequence of the domineering spirit of the Turks, +than from the natural disposition of the Christians, which is cringing +and corrupt. Time and education can alone effect a change for the +better. The government may, by the promulgation of useful edicts, and by +the establishment of schools common to all religions, materially hasten +this desirable end; but in the present condition of the Christian +population, it is questionable whether more harm than good would not +result from the proclamation of social equality. + +The veritable grounds of complaint, on which the petition in question +did not touch, it is within the power of the government to remove; and +this, we may confidently anticipate, will be done. + +Equality before the law is the principal and first thing to be +established, and such at present is not the case. Christian evidence, +for example, is received in criminal, but not in civil causes, i.e. in +questions concerning property. Moreover, even in criminal causes of any +importance, the decision of the inferior courts, where Christian +evidence is admissible, is referred for confirmation to superior courts, +where such testimony is not accepted. In defence of this it is urged, +that Turkish property would be endangered, if, in the present +demoralised state of society, Christian evidence were admitted. But, +while advancing this argument, it is forgotten that this state is +traceable to the lax and vicious system pursued in the Mussulman courts, +where, as the only way of securing justice for the Christians, Mussulman +witnesses are allowed to give false evidence. + +Another abuse, of which the most is made by the enemies of Turkey, is +the forcible abduction of Christian girls by Mussulmans. The practice +has, however, almost died out, except in northern Albania; and yet it is +this alone which formed the groundwork of the most important of Prince +Gortschakoff's charges, viz. the forced conversion of Christians to +Islamism. It would, doubtless, fall into disuse in that part of the +country, were the offence dealt with as an ordinary police affair; but +the clumsy machinery of Turkish law, however sincere may be its object, +has done little to diminish the evil. Many schemes have been devised for +its prevention. One was to make the girl appear before the court which +rejects Christian evidence, and declare herself a Christian or +Mussulman. If she confessed her faith, she was returned to her friends, +and the ravisher nominally punished; but, as they almost always declared +themselves to be Mahomedans, the Christians complained that fear or +other undue pressure had been put upon them. To obviate this, it was +decided that the girl should be sequestered in the house of the Bishop +for three days previous to her making her profession of faith. This has, +however, been discontinued, as it produced much scandal; and the +question remains undecided. + +Instincts of race are far stronger in Turkey than is generally supposed. +In Albania, where the Mussulmans are deemed more fanatical than +elsewhere, these are more powerful than even the instincts of religion. +Thus, while other Christians are looked down upon and treated with +severity, the Miridits, who are of Albanian blood, are allowed to wear +their arms, and admitted to equal privileges with their Mahomedan +fellow-countrymen. In Bosnia, more than anywhere throughout the empire, +the question has been one of feudal origin, that is to say, of a +privileged and unprivileged class, analogous to that which now occupies +the Russians; although in Bosnia the former class has been gradually +losing importance, and sinking into a lower position. + +To the demoralised condition of the Christians themselves, then, +combined with Turkish misgovernment, resulting from their +semi-civilisation, may the existing unsatisfactory state of affairs be +attributed, and not to any systematic oppression. It is the want of +this, which renders it difficult for the Porte, now that the central +power has been strengthened at the expense of the local, to take any +decided steps for improving the position of the Christians; all that it +can do is to place all upon a footing of legal equality, to encourage +education, and to promote everything which shall have for its object the +developement of the natural resources of the country. + +[Footnote R: The 1st Corps d'Armée of the empire.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza--Subterraneous + Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman Tombs--Coins and + Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry Trees--Blagai--Source of + Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain of Mostar--Legends--Silver + Ore--Mineral Products of Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley + of the Drechnitza. + + +The week following upon my return to Mostar was devoted to excursions to +different spots in the vicinity of the town. In one instance the +pleasure was enhanced by the anticipation of some duck-shooting; for, as +the event will show, the expectation was never realised. Our destination +was Blato, a plain about nine miles distant, which all maps represent as +a lake, but which does not deserve the name, as it is only flooded +during the winter months. The party consisted of M. Gyurcovich, the +Hungarian dragoman of the British consulate; the Russian Consul; his +domestic, a serf strongly addicted to the use of ardent drinks, of which +he had evidently partaken largely on the occasion in question; a French +doctor, who had many stories of the Spanish war, in which he had served; +two other individuals, and myself. + +About one hour from Mostar, we arrived at the source of the Radobolya, +which flows through Mostar and falls into the Narenta near the old +bridge. The road was sufficiently well defined, although needing repair +in places. The walls on either side, as well as its general +construction, proclaim its Roman origin. It was doubtless a part of the +great main road from the east to Dalmatia. It is only at occasional +points that it is so easily discernible, but sufficient evidence exists +to show that on quitting the Albanian mountains it passed Stolatz, +crossed the bridge at Mostar, and continued thence by a somewhat +circuitous route to Spalatro. On emerging from the defile through which +we had been marching, the plain of Blato lay extended before us, some +nine or ten miles in length and four in breadth. The land, which must be +extremely fertile, is cultivated in the spring, but only those cereals +which are of the most rapid growth are produced; such as millet, Indian +corn, and broom seed, from which a coarse description of bread is made. +The Lichnitza, which runs through it, is a mere stream. It takes its +rise near the Austro-Bosnian frontier, and loses itself in the hills +which surround Blato. The plain is porous and full of holes, from which, +in the late autumnal months, the waters bubble up. This continues until +the river itself overflows, covering the entire plain to a considerable +depth, in some parts as much as thirty-six feet. The original passage +under the hills, by which the water escaped, is said to have been +filled up at the time of the Turkish conquest. If such be true, it might +be reopened with little cost and trouble, and the plain would thus be +rendered most valuable to the province. + +Arrived at the scene of operations, we lost little time in getting to +work. A still evening, and a moon obscured by light clouds, promised +well for sport; and we should doubtless have made a large bag had +ordinary precautions been taken. These, however, were not deemed +necessary by the majority of the party, who walked down in the open to +the river's edge, smoking and chattering as though they expected the +'dilly-dills to come and be killed' merely for the asking. The result, I +need not say, was our return almost empty-handed. Late in the evening we +assembled round a large fire, to eat the dinner which our servants had +already prepared; after which we courted sleep beneath the soothing +influences of tales of love and war as related by our Æsculapian friend, +who undeniably proved himself to have been a very Don Quixote. Early the +following morning we were again afoot, and a few partridges, hares, and +quail rewarded our exertions. Amongst the hills, where most of the game +was shot, I noticed several old Roman tombs. Many of these were merely +large shapeless blocks of stone, while others were of the proper +sarcophagus form, ornamented with sculptures of considerable merit. On +some were depicted men in armour, with shields and long straight swords, +while others had two men with lances aimed at a deer between them. The +absence of anything like moulding on the sides proves their great +antiquity. In its place we find a rather graceful pattern, vines with +leaves and grapes predominating; or, as in other cases, choruses of +women holding hands and dancing. In no instance did I detect anything +denoting immorality or low ideas, so prevalent in the sculptures of +intermediate ages. Amongst these tombs, as also on the sites of the +ancient towns, curiosities and coins are found. Of the last, small +Hungarian silver pieces, and large Venetian gold pieces, are the most +numerous; although Roman copper coins are by no means rare. Stones +engraved with figures of Socrates and Minerva were shown to me, as +having been found in the province, and it is only two years since, that +two golden ear-rings of fifteen drachms weight, and about the size of +pigeons' eggs, were dug up in the neighbourhood of Blato. About the same +time a ring was found, of which the Pacha obtained possession. It was of +iron, set with a stone only three tenths of an inch in diameter, on +which were most beautifully engraved no fewer than nine figures of +classical deities. + +The ensuing day I devoted to a double expedition to Boona and Blagai. +The former of these is about six miles distant, on the plain from +Mostar. It consists of a few houses built by the rebellious Ali Pacha, +who was Vizier at the time of Sir Gardner Wilkinson's visit to +Herzegovina. That functionary's villa, which is now the country-house of +the British Consul, is a moderate-sized yellow house, with little to +recommend it save its situation at the confluence of the Boona and the +Narenta. The former is spanned by a large bridge of fourteen arches, +upon one of which is a Turkish inscription, from which it appears that +it was repaired by the Turks in the year of the Hegira 1164--that is to +say, 113 years ago. + +The bridge is in all probability of Roman construction, though the +Turkish habit of erasing all inscriptions, and substituting others in +Turkish in their place, renders it impossible to fix precise dates. Near +the villa stands a square house intended for the nurture of silk-worms, +while a garden of 30,000 mulberry trees shows that Ali Pacha had +pecuniary considerations in view as well as his domestic comfort. From +Boona to Blagai is about six miles, and here also is a bridge of five +arches across the Boona. Leaving the village, which stands on the banks +of the river, we proceeded to its source. Pears, pomegranates, olives, +and other fruit trees grow in great luxuriance, and two or three mills +are worked by the rush of water, which is here considerable. The cavern +from which the river pours in a dense volume, is about eight feet high, +and situated at the foot of a precipitous cliff, under which stands a +kiosk, the abode of our fighting friend the Affghan Dervish. Thence we +proceeded to the castle, which stands on the summit of a craggy height, +overlooking the village on the one side, and the road to Nevresign on +the other. Speaking of this, Luccari says, 'Blagai stands on a rock +above the river Bosna, fortified by the ancient Voivodas of the country +to protect their treasure, as its name implies, Blagia (or Blago) +signifying treasure.'[S] + +It was governed by a Count, and the Counts of Blagai performed a +distinguished part in the history of Herzegovina. Some of them, as the +Boscenovich and the Hranich, are known for their misfortunes, having +been compelled to seek refuge in Ragusa at the time of the Turkish +invasion; and the last who governed 'the treasure city of Blagai' was +Count George, who fled to the Ragusan territory in 1465.[T] The view to +the southward over the plain country is extremely picturesque, but this +portion of the battlements are completely ruined. On the north side they +are in good preservation, and there wells exist, the cement of which +looked as fresh as though it had been recently renovated. + +In one of the batteries a brass gun was lying, of about 9lbs. calibre, +with vent and muzzle uninjured. In the interior of the fort, shells of +dwelling-houses, distributed angularly, denote the part of the building +which was devoted to domestic purposes. In these the woodwork of the +windows may still be seen, as well as stones projecting from the walls, +on which the flooring of the upper stories must have rested. At the main +entrance an oak case is rivetted into the wall to receive the beam, +which barred the door. At the foot of the hill is a ruined church, in +which some large shells of about thirteen inches diameter were strewed +about. One of these was lying on the road side, as though it had been +rolled from the castle above. + +Having now seen all the lions of the neighbourhood, I bethought me of +leaving Mostar once more, but this time with the intention of working +northward. The ordinary route pursued by those whom business calls from +Mostar to Bosna Serai is by Konitza, a village situated on the frontier, +nearly due north of Mostar. To this course I at first inclined, but was +induced to change my plans by the prospect of some chamois-hunting, in +the valley of the Drechnitza. Having laid in a supply of bread and other +necessaries, we, i.e. M. Gyurcovich and myself, made an early start, in +hopes of reaching our destination on the same night. + +Following the right bank of the Narenta, our course lay for a short time +through the northernmost of the two plains at whose junction Mostar is +situated. These, from the smooth and round appearance of the stones, +with which their surface is strewed, lead to the supposition that this +at one time was the bed of an important lake: this idea is confirmed by +the legends of the country, which affirm the existence of rings in the +sides of the mountains, to which it is rumoured that boats were moored +of old. Whether this be true or not, the appearance of the place lends +probability to the statement. + +Shortly after leaving the town, there is a small square tower close to +and commanding the river, which is here fordable. As we proceeded +farther north it becomes rocky and narrow, and some small rapids occur +at intervals. The bad state of the roads, and the ill condition of our +baggage horses, rendered it necessary to halt several hours short of the +point which we had intended to reach that night. Having, therefore, +cleared out an outhouse devoted in general to looms, green tobacco, +hens, cats, and the like, we made our arrangements for passing the +night. While thus engaged a peasant brought me a tolerably large +specimen of silver ore, which he stated that he had found in the hills +on the Bosnian frontier, where he assured me that any amount was to be +obtained. His veracity I have no reason to doubt, although unable to +proceed thither to confirm his statement by my own testimony. It is +certain, however, that the mountains of Bosnia are unusually rich in +mineral products. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, iron, coal, black +amber, and gypsum, are to be found in large quantities; silver being the +most plentiful, whence the province has received the name of Bosnia +Argentina. The manifold resources of the country in this respect have +unfortunately been permitted to remain undeveloped under the Ottoman +rule, while the laws laid down relative to mining matters are of such a +nature as to cripple foreign enterprise. In this proceeding, the Turkish +government has committed the error of adhering to the principles and +counsels of France, which is essentially a non-mining country. In three +places only has any endeavour been made to profit by the secret riches +of the earth, viz. at Foinitza, Crescevo, and Stanmaidan, where iron +works have been established by private speculation. The iron is of good +quality, but the bad state of the roads, and the difficulty of procuring +transport, render it a far less remunerative undertaking than would +otherwise be the case. Good wrought iron sells at three-halfpence the +pound. Were a company formed under the auspices of the British +government, there is little doubt that they might be successfully +worked, since there is nothing in the nature of the country to render +the construction of a road to the coast either a difficult or expensive +operation. Continuing our course on the right bank of the Narenta, we +arrived at a lofty mound, evidently of artificial construction, situated +at a bend of the river. Traces of recent digging were apparent, as +though search had been made for money or curiosities. It was just one of +those positions where castles were built of yore, its proximity to the +river being no small consideration in those days of primitive defences. +A short distance from its base were two tombstones, sculptured with more +than ordinary care and ability. One of these represented a man with a +long sword and shield, faced by a dog or fox, which was the only portion +of the engraving at all effaced. + +At a spot where a spring issued from the rocks, we were met by a party +of Irregulars, shouting and firing their matchlocks in a very indecorous +manner. They were doubtless going their rounds, bent on plunder, as is +their wont; and living at free quarters. The place where we encountered +them was wild in the extreme, and well adapted for deeds of violence. It +was indeed only in the preceding spring, that a murder was committed on +that very spot. Nor was it the first murder that had been done there. +Some years previously two Dalmatian robbers concealed themselves behind +the adjacent rocks, with the intention of murdering two Turks, who were +carrying money to Bosna Serai. These Turks, however, detected the +movements of the assassins, and as one of the Christians fired, one of +the Turks returned the shot, each killing his man. Sequel: the second +Christian ran away; the surviving Turk carried off his companion's money +in addition to his own. + +At one part of our route a landslip of large dimensions had taken place, +covering the slope to the river with large stones and blocks of red +marble. This, as well as white, black, and gray marble, are found in +large quantities in the surrounding hills. The river at this point is +turgid and rocky, and there are two or three rapids almost worthy of the +name of falls. The narrow rocky ledge, which constitutes the only +traversable road, immediately overhangs the water, having a sheer +descent on the right of nearly 200 feet. The edge of this precipice is +overgrown with grass and shrubs to such a degree as to render it very +dangerous. Indeed it nearly proved fatal to my horse and myself: the +bank suddenly gave way, and but for the fortunate intervention of a +projecting ledge, which received the off fore and hind feet of the +former, we should inevitably have been picked up in very small pieces, +if anyone had taken the trouble to look for us. + +Having now journeyed about ten hours from Mostar, our road wound to the +left, leaving the Narenta at its confluence with the Drechnitza, which +waters the valley of the same name. Close to its mouth, which is +spanned by a neat two-arched bridge, a Ban is said to have lived in +former days; and a solitary rock projecting from the hills on the left +bank is pointed out as his favourite resort. The summit of this is +smoothed off, and traces of an inscription still exist, but too much +defaced to be deciphered. + +[Footnote S: Luccari.] + +[Footnote T: Gardner Wilkinson, vol. ii.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopædia--Feats of Skill--Legend of + Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of Druga--Excavations--Country + Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud Effendi--Old + Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian Frontier--Vidosa--Parish + Priest--National Music--Livno--Franciscan Convent--Priestly + Incivility--Illness--Quack Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military + Ambulance--Bosna Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and + Bridges--Mussulman Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman + Pacha. + + +The family with whom we purposed spending the succeeding days were +reputed to be the wealthiest of the Christians in that part of the +country. It will perhaps convey a more correct impression of their +means, if we say that they were less poverty-stricken than others. A few +cows, some half-dozen acres of arable land, and a fair stock of poultry, +constituted their claim to being considered millionaires. The household +consisted, besides father and mother, of two rather pretty girls, two +sons, and their cousin, who cultivated the land and hunted chamois +regularly every Sunday. Besides these there were some little boys, whose +only occupation appeared to be to bring fire for the pipes of their +elders. Our arrival, and the prospect of a bye day after the chamois, +threw all the men of the party into a state of great excitement. Minute +was the inspection of our guns, rifles, and revolvers, the latter +receiving much encomium. An old Turk, who had been summoned to take part +in the morrow's excursion, eyed one of those for some time, and at +length delivered himself of the following sentiment: 'They say there is +a devil: how can this be so, when men are so much more devilish?' I am +afraid the salvation of Sir William Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, &c. &c., +would be uncertain were they to be judged on the same grounds. While +waiting for our dinner of fowls made into soup and baked potatoes, the +sons brought a book, which the priest, with more regard for preserving +his reputation for learning than veracity, had told them was a bad book. +It proved to be a German Encyclopædia. On hearing this one remarked, +'Oh, then it will do for cigarettes.' While regaling ourselves on wine +and grapes, which one of the hospitable creatures had walked twelve +miles to procure, we received visits from the male population of the +village, who, like all the people of the valley, are much addicted to +chamois-hunting. Their conversation, indeed, had reference exclusively +to sport, varied by a few feats of skill, hardly coming under the former +name. One villager asserted positively that he had seen a man at Livno +shoot an egg off another's head. This was instantly capped by another, +who affirmed that he had witnessed a similar feat at the same place. His +story ran thus: 'At the convent of Livno, all the Roman Catholic girls +of the district are married. On one occasion a young bride was receiving +the congratulations of her friends, when a feather which had been +fastened across her head became loosened, and waved around it. A +bystander remarked that he would be a good shot who could carry away the +feather without injuring the head. The girl upon hearing this looked +round and said, "If you have the courage to fire, I will stand." Upon +which the bystander drew a pistol and shot away the truant feather.' + +The valley of Drechnitza is wild and rocky, but sufficiently wooded to +present a pleasing aspect. The timber is in many places of large girth, +and might easily be transported to the sea. It is invested also with +more than common interest by the primitive character of its people, and +the legends which associate it with the early history of the province. + +At present only four villages remain in the valley; that where our hosts +lived being the most ancient. They indeed spoke with pride of having +occupied their present position since before the conquest, paying only a +nominal tribute of one piastre and a half until within the last thirty +years, since which time their privileges have been rescinded. + +On the left bank of the Drechnitza, about half-way between its +confluence with the Narenta and the house of our hosts, is a small +valley named Petral; it derived its name from the following +circumstances:--For seven years after the rest of Bosnia and the +Herzegovina had been overrun by the Turks under Mehemet II., the people +of this valley maintained an unequal combat with the invaders. The +gallant little band were under the orders of one Peter, who lived in a +castle on the summit of a height overlooking the plain; this plain could +only be approached by two passes, one of which was believed to be +unknown to the Turks. In an evil hour an old woman betrayed the secret +of this pass, and Peter had the mortification one morning of looking +down from his castle upon the armed Turkish legion, who had effected an +entrance during the night. Like a true patriot, he sank down overcome by +the sight, and died in a fit of apoplexy; whence the valley has been +called Petral to this day. + +A few ruins mark the spot where the church stood of yore, and four +tombstones are in tolerably good preservation. Beneath these repose the +ashes of a bishop and three monks; the date on one of them is +A.D. 1400. + +Early the following morning we started for the bills, where the chamois +were reported to be numerous. After about three hours' climbing over a +mass of large stones and rocks, the ascent became much more precipitous, +trees and sand taking the place of the rocks. In course of time we +reached a plateau, with an almost perpendicular fall on the one side, +and a horizontal ridge of rock protruding from the mountain side +beneath. Four of the party, which numbered eight guns in all, having +taken up positions on this ridge, the remainder, with a posse of boys, +made a flank movement with the view of taking the chamois in reverse. +The shouting and firing which soon commenced showed us that they were +already driving them towards us from the opposite hills. The wood was +here so thick that occasional glimpses only could be obtained of the +chamois, as they came out into the open, throwing up their heads and +sniffing the air as though to detect the danger which instinct told them +was approaching. Two or three of the graceful little animals blundered +off, hard hit, the old Turk being the only one of the party who +succeeded in killing one outright. The bound which followed the +death-wound caused it to fall down a precipice, at the bottom of which +it was found with its neck dislocated, and both horns broken short off. +If the ascent was difficult, the descent was three-fold more so. The +rocks being the great obstacle to our progress, the mountaineers managed +well enough, jumping from one to another with the agility of cats; but +to those unaccustomed to the kind of work, repeated falls were +inevitable. How I should have got down I really cannot say, had I not +intrusted myself to providence and the strong arm of one of those sons +of nature. + +The strong exercise which I had taken rendering me anything but disposed +for a repetition of the sport on the ensuing day, M.G. left me on his +return journey to Mostar, while I proceeded on my solitary way. This, +however, was not so cheerless as I had anticipated, as the two sons of +the house expressed a wish to accompany me as far as Livno on the +Bosnian frontier, where their uncle, a village priest, held a cure. For +several hours we remained on the left bank of the Drechnitza, which we +forded close to its source. On the heights upon our right, fame tells of +the existence of a city, now no more; and it is certain that a golden +idol weighing 23 lbs. was found in the locality. Buoyed up by hopes of +similar success, fresh gold-diggers had been recently at work, but with +what result I am unable to say. + +Bearing away now to the W. we entered the valley of the Druga, a little +rocky stream. Two roads were reported practicable, the longer taking a +winding course past Rachitna, the other, which I selected, being more +direct, but far more rocky and difficult; the ascent at one point was +more severe than anything I ever recollect having seen. + +Leaving Druga we descended into the plain of Swynyatcha, a small open +space, which is again connected with Duvno by a pass. The hills on the +left of this pass are called Liep, those on the right Cesarussa. Here, +too, report speaks of the existence of a city in former days, and the +discovery of a large hag of gold coins, like Venetian sequins, has +induced some speculative spirit to commence excavations on a large +scale. But these, I regret to say, have not as yet been attended with +any success. A very fair road has been recently made through this pass, +and the traffic which has resulted from it ought to convince the people +of the utility of its construction. We met many ponies carrying +merchandise from Livno to Mostar, while long strings of carts drawn by +eight bullocks were employed in carrying wood to the villages in the +plain of Duvno. These carts are roughly built enough, but answer the +purpose for which they are intended, viz. slow traffic in the plains. +The axle-trees and linch-pins are made of wood, and indeed no iron at +all is used in their construction. The plain of Duvno is one of the +largest in the province: its extreme length is about fifteen miles, and +villages are placed at the foot of the hills, round its entire +circumference. The most important of these is the seat of a Mudir, to +whom I proceeded at once on my arrival. Although afflicted with a +hump-back, he was a person of most refined manners. His brother-in-law, +Mahmoud Effendi, who is a member of the Medjlis, was with him, and added +his endeavours to those of the Mudir to render my stay at Duvno +agreeable. Having complimented the great man upon the appearance of his +Mudirlik, he laughingly replied, 'Oh, yes, they must work because it is +so cold'--a statement which I felt anything but disposed to question. +The wind was blowing down the plain at the time in bitterly cold blasts, +and I understand that such is always the case. The vegetation appeared +good, in spite of a seeming scarcity of water. + +The people of the district are nearly all Catholics, which may be +attributed to its proximity to Dalmatia and the convents of Bosnia. They +are orderly and well-behaved, according to the Mudir's account; but I +also gathered from some Catholics to whom I spoke that this good +behaviour results from fear more than love, as the few Turks have it all +their own way. In the centre of the plain are some old tombs, some of a +sarcophagus shape, others merely rough flat stones, whilst here and +there interspersed may be seen some modern crosses--a strange admixture +of the present and the past. After a somewhat uncomfortable night in the +one khan which the town possesses, I presented myself with early dawn at +the house of the Mudir. Although not yet 8 o'clock, I found him with the +whole Medjlis in conclave around him. Thence the entire party +accompanied me to inspect the fort, or such part of it as had escaped +the ravages of time. It was rather amusing to see the abortive attempts +at climbing of some of these fur-coated, smoke-dried old Mussulmans, who +certainly did not all equal the Mudir in activity. The fort is a +quadrilateral with bastions, and gates in each of the curtains; in two +of the bastions are eight old guns, dismounted: these are all of Turkish +manufacture, some having iron hoops round the muzzles. + +In the SW. corner is a round tower, evidently copied from the Roman, if +not of genuine Roman origin. For what purpose the fort was built, or by +whom, I was unable to learn. It is said, however, to have been +constructed about two centuries ago[U], and there is a Turkish +inscription on it to that effect; but, as I have said before, no +reliance can be placed upon these. There are many buildings within the +walls, and one mosque is reputed to have existed a hundred years before +the rest of the fort. + +Shortly after leaving the village we arrived at the frontier line of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is, however, unmarked. Already the country +presented a greener and more habitable appearance, which increased as we +continued our journey. Towards evening we stopped at a little village +named Vidosa, where the uncle of my hunting companions held the post of +parish priest. Having sent one of his nephews in advance to warn him of +my arrival, he was waiting to receive me, and invited me to stay at his +house with great cordiality. Notwithstanding that the greater portion of +it had been destroyed by fire a few months previously, I was very +comfortably housed, and fully appreciated a clean bed after the rough +'shakes down' to which I was accustomed. That the kitchen was +luxuriously stocked, I am not prepared to say; but the priest was +profuse in his apologies for the absence of meat, proffering as an +excuse that Roman Catholics do not eat it on Friday, a reason which +would scarcely hold good, as I arrived on a Saturday. Of eggs and +vegetables, however, there was no lack. Vegetable diet and dog Latin are +strong provocatives of thirst, and the number of times that I was +compelled to say '_ad salutem_' in the course of the evening was +astonishing. The old priest appeared more accustomed to these copious +libations than his younger assistant, who before he left the table +showed unmistakable signs of being 'well on.' Both vicar and curate wore +moustachios, and the flat-topped red fez, which distinguishes their +profession. The curate had received a certain amount of education at one +of the Bosnian convents, whence he had been sent to Rome, where he had, +at any rate, attained a tolerable proficiency in Italian, and a few +words of French. Another occupant of the house, who must not be allowed +to go unmentioned, was the priest's mother, a charming old lady in her +ninety-seventh year. Age had in no way impaired her faculties, and she +was more active and bustling than many would be with half her weight of +years. + +In the evening the nephews made their appearance, having dined with the +domestics. The remaining hours were devoted to singing, if such can be +termed the monotonous drawl which constitutes the music of the country. +In this one of the brothers was considered very proficient: the subjects +of the songs are generally legendary feats of Christians against the +conquering Turks, which, however little they may have conduced to bar +the progress of the invaders, sound remarkably well in verse. Sometimes, +as in the present case, the voice is accompanied by the guesla, a kind +of violin with one or three strings. + +The priest, although a man of small education and strong prejudices, +appeared to be possessed of much good sense. He deplored the state of +things in Herzegovina, and said that much misery would ensue from it, +not only there, but in all the neighbouring provinces. As an instance of +the severity of the government demands, he mentioned that 1,400 +baggage-horses had been recently taken from the district of Livno alone, +as well as more than 400 horse-loads of corn, for all of which promises +of payment only had been made. For the accuracy of his statements I am +not prepared to vouch, but I give them as they were given to me. He did +not, however, complain so much of the quantity, as of the injudicious +mode of proceeding, in making such large demands at one time. + +A few hours took me to the town of Livno, on the outskirts of which is +the Catholic convent. Mass was being performed at the time; but I found +the Guardiano, 'Padre Lorenzo,' and one of the Fratri disengaged. After +keeping me waiting for some time in a very cold vaulted room, these two +came to me, though their reception of me contrasted very unfavourably +with that of the simple village priest. The convent is for monks of the +Franciscan order, of whom there were five besides the Superior. It is a +large, rambling, and incomplete building of white stone, and in no way +interesting, having only been completed about six years. After mass came +dinner, which was provided more with regard to quantity than quality, +and at which the holy men acquitted themselves _à merveille_. Excepting +a young priest of delicate appearance and good education, the brethren +appeared a surly and ill-conditioned set. So ill-disguised was the +discontent conveyed in the ungracious 'sicuro' vouchsafed in reply to my +petition for a bed, that I ordered my traps to be conveyed forthwith to +the best khan in the town, and, having failed to find favour with the +Christians, sought the aid of the Mussulman Kaimakan, from whom at any +rate my English blood and Omer Pacha's Buruhltee insured me advice and +assistance. + +The Austrian Consul also received me with much civility, and most +obligingly placed his house at my disposal, although compelled to start +for Spolatro on business. For some reason best known to himself, he +begged of me to return to Mostar, insisting on the impracticability of +travelling in Bosnia in the present state of political feeling. This, +coupled with the specimen of priestly civility which I had experienced +in the convent of Goritza, inclined me to alter the route which I had +proposed to myself by Foinitza to Bosna Serai. In lieu of this route, I +resolved upon visiting Travnik, the former capital of Bosnia, before +proceeding to Bosna Serai (or Serayevo, as it is called in the +vernacular), the present capital of the province. In fulfillment of this +plan, I started on the morning of the 21st, though suffering from fever +and headache, which I attributed to a cold caught in the damp vaults of +the Franciscan convent. With each successive day my illness became more +serious, and it was with difficulty that I could sit my horse during the +last day's journey before reaching Travnik. At one of the khans en +route, I put myself into the hands of the Khanjee, who with his female +helpmate prescribed the following remedies:--He directed me to place my +feet in a basin of almost boiling tea, made out of some medicinal herbs +peculiar to the country, the aroma from which was most objectionable. He +then covered me with a waterproof sheet which I carried with me, and, +when sufficiently cooked, lifted me into bed. Though slightly relieved +by this treatment, the cure was anything but final; and on my arrival at +Travnik I was far more dead than alive. There an Hungarian doctor, to +whom I had letters of introduction, came to visit me, and prescribed a +few simple remedies. One day I hazarded the remark that stimulants were +what I most required; upon which the learned doctor observed, with +proper gravity, that brandy would probably be the most efficacious +remedy, as he had often heard that English soldiers lived entirely on +exciting drinks. Ill as I was, I could scarcely refrain from laughing at +the drollery of the idea. + +After a few days' stay at Travnik my medical adviser began, I fancy, to +despair of my case; and on the same principle as doctors elsewhere +recommend Madeira to hopeless cases of consumption, he advised me to +continue my journey to Bosna Serai. The difficulty was to reach that +place. Here, however, the Kaimakan came to my help, and volunteered to +let out on hire an hospital-cart belonging to the artillery. I accepted +his offer, and after a few days' stay at Travnik set forward on my +journey to Bosna Serai. The carriage was a species of Indian dâk ghari, +with side doors, but without a box-seat; it was drawn by artillery +horses, ridden by two drivers, while a sergeant and gunner did escort +duty. Fortunately the vehicle had springs, which must have suffered +considerably from the jolting which it underwent, although we only +proceeded at a foot's pace. + +After three days' journey we reached Bosna Serai, where I was most +kindly received by Mr. Z., the acting British Consul, and by M.M., the +French Consul, with whom I stayed during the three weeks that I was +confined to my room by illness. + +Bosna Serai, or Serayevo, is probably the most European of all the large +towns of Turkey in Europe. It is not in the extent of the commerce which +prevails, nor in the civilisation of its inhabitants, that this +pre-eminence shows itself; but in the cleanly and regular appearance of +its houses and streets, the condition of which last would do credit to +many a Frankish town. This happy state of things is mainly attributable +to the energy and liberality of the present governor of Bosnia, Osman +Pacha, who, notwithstanding his advanced years, has evinced the greatest +desire to promote the welfare of the people under his charge. In the +nine months of his rule which had preceded my visit, he had constructed +no less than ninety miles of road, repaired the five bridges which span +the river within the limits of the town, and introduced other reforms +which do him honour, and have procured for him the gratitude and +goodwill of all classes of his people. The system which he has +introduced for the construction of roads is at once effective and +simple. By himself making a small portion of road near the capital, he +succeeded in demonstrating to the country people the advantages which +would result from the increased facility of traffic. By degrees this +feeling spread itself over the province, and the villagers apply +themselves, as soon as the crops are sown, to making new portions of +road, which they are further bound to keep in repair. This is obviously +the first and most indispensable step in the developement of the +resources of the country. It would be well for the Sultan were he +possessed of a few more employés as energetic, able, and honest as Osman +Pacha. + +I regretted that the rapidity of his movements prevented my taking leave +of him and his intelligent secretary. But, a few nights before my +departure, an express arrived bringing intelligence of a rising in +Turkish Croatia, near Banialuka. The news arrived at 9 P.M., +and the energetic Pacha was on the road to the scene of the disturbance +by 6 A.M. the following morning. The émeute proved trifling; +not being, as was at first reported, a Christian insurrection, but a +mere ebullition of feeling on the part of the Mussulmans of that +district, who are the most poverty-stricken of all the inhabitants of +the province. + +[Footnote U: This can scarcely be correct, as everything implies far +greater antiquity.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo--Mineral + Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The + Bosna--Trout-fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen + Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the + Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--Culpa + River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to + Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian Troops--Probable + Policy--Water-Mills--Semlin--Belgrade. + + +The shortening days, and the snow, which might now be seen in patches on +the mountain sides, warned us of approaching winter, and the necessity +for making a start in order to ensure my reaching Constantinople before +the Danube navigation should be closed. My illness and other +circumstances had combined to detain me later than I had at first +intended, and I was consequently compelled to abandon the idea of +visiting either Svornik or Banialuka, two of the largest and most +important towns in the province. The former of these places is +interesting as being considered the key of Bosnia, in a military point +of view; the latter, from the numerous remains, which speak eloquently +of its former importance. The navigation of the Save, too, having +become practicable since the heavy rains had set in, I resolved upon +the simplest route of reaching Belgrade, viz., that by Brod. In coming +to this decision, I was influenced also by my desire to see the valley +of the Bosna, in and above which the road lies for almost the whole +distance. No site could have been more judiciously chosen, than that in +which Serayevo is built. Surrounded by beautiful hills and meadows, +which even in November bore traces of the luxuriant greenness which +characterises the province, and watered by the limpid stream of the +Migliaska, its appearance is most pleasing. As we rattled down the main +street at a smart trot on the morning of the 16th November, in the +carriage of Mr. H., the British Consul, it was difficult to believe +oneself in a Turkish city. The houses, even though in most cases built +of wood, are in good repair; and the trellis-work marking the feminine +apartments, and behind which a pair of bright eyes may occasionally be +seen, materially heightens the charms of imagination. The road for the +first six miles was hard and good. It is a specimen of Osman Pacha's +handiwork, and is raised considerably above the surrounding fields, the +sides of the road being rivetted, as it were, with wattles. At the end +of that distance, and very near the confluence of the Migliaska and the +Bosna, I separated from my friends, who were bent on a day's shooting. +From the number of shots which reached my ear as I pursued my solitary +journey, I should imagine that they must have had a successful day. The +love of sport is strongly developed in the people of these provinces, +and nature has provided them with ample means of gratifying their +inclination. Besides bears, wolves, boars, foxes, roebucks, chamois, +hares, and ermines, all of which are plentiful in parts of the country, +birds of all kinds abound; grey and red-legged partridges, blackcock, +ducks of various kinds, quail, and snipe, are the most common; while +flights of geese and cranes pass in the spring and autumn, but only +descend in spring. Swans and pelicans are also birds of passage, and +occasionally visit these unknown lands. The natives are clever in +trapping these animals. This they do either by means of pitfalls or by +large traps, made after the fashion of ordinary rat-traps. + +Before continuing my journey, I visited the hot springs, which rise from +the earth at a stone's throw from the main road. Baths were built over +them by Omer Pacha, on the occasion of his last visit to Bosnia, for the +benefit of the sick soldiers, and such others as chose to use them. +Besides two or three larger baths, there are several intended for one +person, each being provided with a kind of cell, as a dressing room. The +waters are considered most efficacious in all cases of cutaneous +diseases, and were at one time in great request for every kind of +disorder, real and imaginary. From what I could gather from the +'Custos,' I should say that they are now but little frequented. Leaving +the Migliaska, which is here spanned by a solid bridge of ten arches, we +crossed the Bosna in about half an hour. Scattered along the river bank, +or in some sheltered nook, protected by large trees alike from the heat +and the eyes of curious observers, might be seen the harems of various +pachas, and other grandees connected with the province. After four hours +farther march, we arrived at Ekshesoo, where 1 located myself in the +khan for the night. My first step was to send for a jug of the mineral +water, for which the village is famous, and at one period of the year +very fashionable. The water has a strong taste of iron, and when fresh +drawn, effervesces on being mixed with sugar, wine, or other acids. It +is in great repute with all classes, but the Jews are the most addicted +to its use. No Hebrew in Serayevo would venture to allow a year to +elapse without a visit to the springs; they generally remain there for +two or three days, and during that time drink at stated hours gallon +after gallon of the medicated fluid. The following night I arrived at +Boosovatz, where I left the Travnik road, which I had been retracing up +to that point. The water of the Bosna is here beautifully transparent; +and at about an hour's distance is a spring, the water of which is +considered the best in Bosnia. The Pacha has it brought in all the way +to Serayevo, yet, notwithstanding this, I saw many persons in the +village suffering from goitre, a by no means uncommon complaint in +Bosnia. The cause for the prevalence of this affliction is difficult to +understand, unless we attribute it to the use of the river water, which +is at times much swollen by the melting snow. + +10th November: rain fell in torrents, much to my disgust, as the scenery +was very beautiful. The road, which is a portion of the old road +constructed by Omer Pacha, skirts the banks of the river, which winds +sometimes amongst steep wooded hills, at others in the smooth green +plains. At one point we were obliged to ford it; the stream was rather +deep and rapid, and I certainly experienced a sensation of relief when I +saw my baggage pony fairly landed on the opposite bank, without further +injury to his load than a slight immersion. The fishing of the Bosna is +not so good as that of the Narento and some other rivers of Bosnia and +Herzegovina. Let me not be accused of a partiality for travellers' +tales, when I say that trout of 60 lbs. have been killed in the latter +province. In external colour these are veritable trout, the flesh, +however, having a yellowish appearance, something between the colour of +trout and salmon; the smaller fish are of excellent quality and are +very abundant. Three hours after leaving Boosovatz we reached Tzenitza, +a small town where a little trade is carried on. While sitting in the +public room of the khan, the post from Brod arrived en route to Bosna +Serai. The man who carried it came in wet and mud-bespattered, and +declared the road to be quite impassable; a bit of self-glorification +which I took for what it was worth. Had I not been pressed for time I +should have myself been inclined to give way to the importunities of all +concerned, to postpone my journey to Vranduk until the following day; +but seeing no prospect of any improvement in the weather, I deemed it +prudent to push on. + +Another difficulty, however, here presented itself. The Tchouch of +Zaptiehs positively declined to give me a guide; and it was only by +sending for the Mudir, and threatening to write a complaint to the +Serdar Ekrem, that I succeeded in obtaining one. This escort duty is the +principal work of the mounted Zaptiehs. Ten piastres a day, or twenty +pence, is what is usually paid them by those who make use of their +services. They, of course, pay for the keep of their own horses out of +their regular official salary. The rain now gave place to snow, which +fell in considerable quantities for two or three days. The cold was +intense, and it was only by halting at every khan, generally about three +hours apart, that it was possible to keep the blood in circulation. On +the morning of the 20th the sun shone out bright and comparatively warm, +although everything bore a most wintry aspect. Beautiful as the scenery +must be when spring has clothed the trees with green, or when the early +autumnal tints have succeeded the fierce heat of summer, the appearance +of the country clad in its snowy garments might well compare with either +of these. The hills, rugged in parts, and opening out at intervals into +large open plains, trees and shrubs groaning with their milk-white +burden, or sparkling like frosted silver in the moonlight, and above all +the river, now yellow and swollen, rushing rapidly along, produced an +effect characteristic and grand. + +About ninety miles from Serayevo the river becomes much broader, and +swollen as it was by the recent rain and snow, presented a very fine +appearance. + +On its right bank stands the town of Maglai, which is prettily situated +in the side of a basin formed by the hills, a craggy eminence apparently +dividing the town into two parts. Behind these, however, the houses +meet, sloping down close to the river's edge. On the very summit of the +central mound is an old fort mounting five guns, which command the +river, but would otherwise be of little use. The only means of +communication between either bank, is a ferry-boat of rude construction. +After leaving this town there still remained four hours of my journey +to be accomplished, before arriving at Schevaleekhan, where I intended +passing the night. Unaccustomed as I was to anything like luxury, I was +positively staggered at the total absence of even the commonest +necessaries of life. At Maglai I had endeavoured without success to buy +potatoes, fruit, and even meat; but here neither bread, eggs, nor +chickens, which are nearly always procurable, were to be found. Having +received the inevitable 'Nehmur' to every one of my demands, I could not +help asking what the inhabitants themselves eat; and being told that +they lived upon vegetables, asked for the same. Judge, then, of my +astonishment when told that there were none. Fortunately my kind friends +at Bosna Serai had not sent me away empty-handed, or assuredly I should +have felt the pangs of hunger that day. + +At all times a khan is a painful mockery of the word hotel, as it is +often translated. Picture to yourself a room about eight feet square, +with windows not made to open, a stove which fills one-third of the +entire space, and a wooden divan occupying the other two-thirds; the +whole peopled by innumerable specimens of the insect creation, and you +have a very fair idea of an ordinary khan. If there be a moment when one +is justified in the indulgence of a few epicurean ideas, it is when +inhabiting one of these abodes of bliss. + +About an hour from Schevaleekhan we crossed an arm of the Bosna by means +of a ferry-boat; a little farther on the left bank stands a town of 300 +houses, built very much after the same principle as Maglai. Like that +place it has an eminence, around which the houses cluster. This is also +surmounted by a fort with three guns, two small and one large. The Mudir +told me with no little satisfaction that it was the last place taken by +the Turks, when they conquered Bosnia. Profiting by my experience of the +previous day, I took the precaution of buying a chicken, some bread, and +a few more edibles, on my way through the town. Provisions were, +however, both scarce and execrable in quality. Meat is indeed rarely to +be obtained anywhere, as sheep are never killed, and bullocks only when +superannuated and deemed unfit for further physical labour. Chickens are +consequently almost the only animal food known. The method of killing +them is peculiar. The children of the house are generally selected for +this office. One secures a very scraggy fowl, while another arms himself +with a hatchet of such formidable dimensions as to recall in the +beholder all sorts of unpleasant reminiscences about Lady Jane Grey, +Mauger, and other historic characters. The struggling bird is then +beheaded, and stripped of his plumage almost before his pulses have +ceased to beat. The first occasion on which I saw one of these +executions, I could not help thinking of a certain cicerone at Rome, +who, albeit that he spoke very good French and Italian, always broke out +in English when he saw a picture of a martyrdom of any kind soever; +'That one very good man, cut his head off.' The man had but one idea of +death, and the same may be said of these primitive people, who look upon +decapitation as the easiest termination to a half-starved life. + +Leaving Kotauski, where I passed the night of the 21st, at 7 +A.M., I reached Brod at 8.30 in the evening. The distance is +considerable, but might have been accomplished in a far shorter time, +had not the country been one sheet of ice, which rendered progression +both difficult and dangerous. Each person of whom I enquired the +distance told me more than the one before, until I thought that a +Bosnian 'saht' (hour) was a more inexplicable measure than a German +'stunde' or a Scottish 'mile and a bittoch.' At length, however, the +lights of Brod proclaimed our approach to the Turkish town of that name. +On the left bank of the Save stands Austrian Brod, which, like all the +Slavonic towns near the river, is thoroughly Turkish in character. Late +as it was, I hoped to cross the river the same night, and proceeded +straight to the Mudir, who raised no objections, and procured men to +ferry me across. But we had scarcely left the shore when we were +challenged by the Austrian sentry on the other side. As the garrisons +of all the towns on the frontier are composed of Grenzer regiments, or +confinarii, whose native dialect is Illyric, a most animated discussion +took place between the sentry on the one hand, and the whole of my +suite, which had increased considerably since my arrival in the town. My +servant Eugene, who had been educated for a priest, and could talk +pretty well, tried every species of argument, but without success; the +soldier evidently had the best of it, and clenched the question with the +most unanswerable argument--that we were quite at liberty to cross if we +liked; but that he should fire into us as soon as we came into good +view. There was therefore no help for it, and unwillingly enough, I +returned to a khan, and crossed over early the following morning. At his +offices, close to the river, I found M.M., le Directeur de la +Quarantine, and general manager of all the other departments. He +accompanied me to the hotel, which, though not exactly first-rate, +appeared luxurious after my three months of khans and tents. I was +somewhat taken aback at finding that the steamer to Belgrade was not due +for two days, and moreover that the fogs had been so dense that it had +not yet passed up on its voyage to Sissek; whence it would return to +Belgrade, calling at Brod, and other places en route. + +It therefore appeared the better plan to go up in it to Sissek, than to +await its return to Brod. By this means I was enabled to see many of the +towns and villages on the Bosnian, Slavonian, and Croatian frontiers. +Leaving my servant and horses at Brod, I went on board the steamer as +soon as it arrived. The scene I there found was curious. In a small +saloon, of which the windows were all shut, and the immense stove +lighted, were about thirty persons, three or four of whom were females, +the remainder merchants and Austrian officers. The atmosphere was so +oppressive that I applied for a private cabin, a luxury which is paid +for, in all German companies, over and above the regular fare. I was +told that I might have one for eleven florins a night. To this I +demurred, but was told that any reduction was impossible; it was the +tariff. At length the inspector came on board; to him I appealed, and +received the same answer. After a little conversation, he agreed to +break through a rule. I might have it for seven florins. No! well, he +would take the five which I had originally offered; and so I got my +cabin. That it was the nicest little room possible, I must admit, with +its two large windows, a maple table, a large mirror, and carpeted +floor; and a very much pleasanter resting-place than the hot saloon. The +night was rainy and dark, and we lay-to throughout the greater part of +it, as is the invariable rule on the Save, and even on the Danube +during the autumn months. At eight on the following morning we touched +at Gradiska. There are two towns of the name, the old one standing close +to the river, and embellished with a dilapidated castle; the new town +being about an hour's distance inland. + +About noon we reached Cenovatz, which, like the other towns and villages +on the frontier, might be mistaken rather for a Turkish than a German +town. + +The Castle of Cenovatz is an irregular quadrilateral, with three round +and one square tower at the angles. It is now occupied by priests. It is +interesting from its connection with the military history of the +country. There, on a tongue of land which projects into the river, waved +the flag of France during the occupation of the Illyrian provinces by +the old Napoleon, while on the main land on either side the sentinels of +Austria and Turkey were posted in close juxtaposition. Hence it has +received the name of "la lingua di tré regni." + +At six o'clock the same evening we entered the River CÅ«lpa, at the mouth +of which is the town of Sissek. + +It has a thrifty and cleanly appearance, and possesses two very fair +inns. The saloon of one of these appeared to be the rendezvous of the +opulent townspeople. Music, chess, billiards, and tobacco-smoke, +appeared to be the amusements most in vogue; the indulgence in the +latter being of course universal. Here I took leave of my companions of +the steamer, whose loss I much regretted, especially M. Burgstaller, a +gentleman of much intelligence, who requested me to examine his silk, +manufactured at Carlstadt, for the International Exhibition. On the +ensuing morning, I crossed the CÅ«lpa, and inspected the works connected +with the new railway to Trieste. It is intended to be in a state of +completion by the end of the coming autumn. Several Englishmen are +employed on the line, but I did not happen to come across any of them; +every information was, however, given me by a Croatian gentleman, who +has the superintendence of one-half of the line. Moravian iron is used +in preference to English, although its value on delivery is said to be +the greater of the two. + +Sissek was in ancient days a place of no small importance. There, Attila +put in to winter his fleet during one of his onslaughts on the decaying +Roman empire. Traces of the ancient city are often dug up, and many +curiosities have been found, which would delight the heart of the modern +antiquarian. The return voyage to Brod was not remarkable for any +strange incident, the passengers being almost entirely Austrian +officers. The number of troops massed by that power on her Slavonian and +Croatian frontier would infer that she entertains no friendly feelings +to her Turkish neighbours. These amount to no less than 40,000 men, +dispersed among the villages in the vicinity of Brod, and within a +circumference of fourteen miles. At Brod itself no fewer than 4,000 +baggage-horses were held in readiness to take the field at any moment. +It requires no preternatural foresight to guess the destination of these +troops. They are not intended, as some suppose, to hold in check the +free-thinking Slavonic subjects of Austria. Nor is that province used as +a penal settlement for the disaffected, as others would infer. The whole +history of Austria points to the real object with which they have been +accumulated, viz. to be in readiness to obtain a footing in Bosnia, in +the event of any insurrection in that province of sufficient importance +to justify such a measure. The utility of such a step would be +questionable, as climate and exposure have more than once compelled the +Austrians to relinquish the idea, even after they had obtained a +substantial footing in the province. The motives which would induce them +to make another attempt are palpable enough; for, besides the advantages +derivable from the possession of so beautiful and rich a country, +Austria sees with alarm the increase of revolutionary principles in a +province in such close proximity to her own. And yet she has small +reason for fear, since no single bond of union exists between the +Slaves on either bank of the Save. + +But even if this were not the case, surely her soundest policy would be +to support and strengthen in every way the Turkish Government, since +their interests are identical, viz. the preservation of order among the +Slavish nations of the world. + +After leaving Brod, the banks of the river become flat and +uninteresting; that on the Bosnian side is to a certain extent covered +with low brushwood. After passing the Drina, which forms the boundary +between Bosnia and Servia, it becomes still less interesting; the only +objects of attraction being the numerous mills with which the river is +studded. On the morning of the 29th we moored off the wharf at Semlin, +but just too late to enable me to cross over to Belgrade by the +morning's steamer. During the day, which I was compelled to pass in the +town, I received much attention from General Phillipovich, who commanded +the garrison, to whom I tender my sincere thanks. In the evening I +crossed over to Belgrade (the white city), the capital of the +principality of Servia. + + + + +SERVIA: + +ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL CONDITION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +The erroneous notions prevalent throughout Europe relative to the +internal condition of Servia, are mainly traceable to two causes. The +first of these is the wilful misrepresentation of facts by governments +to their subjects, while the other, and a far more universal one, is the +indifference inherent in flourishing countries for such as are less +successful, or which have not been brought into prominence by +contemporaneous events. We English are operated upon by the last of +these influences. We are contented to accept the meagre accounts which +have as yet reached us, and which give a very one-sided impression, as +is but natural, the whole of the materials having been collected at +Belgrade. I am not aware that anyone has during the past few years +written upon the subject; and having been at some pains to obtain the +means of forming a just estimate of the character and condition of the +Servian people, I must fain confess to very different ideas concerning +them to those which I had previously entertained, based upon the perusal +of Ranke and Von Engel, or the lighter pages of Cyprien Robert and +Paton. + +The retrograde movement, but too apparent, gives cause for serious +regret, not only to those who are politically interested in the +well-being of the country, but to all who desire to see an advanced +state of civilisation and a high moral standard amongst a people who +pride themselves on the universality of Christianity within their +limits. + +The present population is about one million, and is said to be +increasing at the rate of ten per cent., but so crudely compiled are the +statistics, that doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of this +statement. Of this million of souls, 200,000 at the lowest estimate are +foreigners; the greater portion being Austrian subjects, and the +children of those Servians who on three separate occasions migrated to +the northern banks of the Danube. What has induced them to return to +their ancestral shores, whether it be Austrian oppression, or an +unlooked-for patriotism, it is hard to say; but whatever the motives, +they have not proved of sufficient strength to awaken the dormant apathy +inherited with their Slavish blood. Save those who have settled at +Belgrade, and who drive a most lucrative and usurious trade, they have +sunk back contentedly to a level with the rest of their compatriots. + +The scanty population is only one of the many signs of the decadence of +a country for whose future such high hopes were entertained, and whose +name is even now blazoned forth as a watchword to the Christians of +Turkey. In reality, a comparison with most Turkish provinces, and more +especially with those in which the Mussulman element predominates, will +tell very favourably for the latter. Roumelia, for example, with a +smaller area, contains a larger population, produces more than double +the revenue, while land is four times as valuable, the surest test of +the prosperity of a country. This last is easily accounted for by the +lamentable indolence of the masses, who are contented to live in the +most abject poverty, neglecting even to take advantage of a naturally +fertile soil. Yet must it not be supposed that indifference to its +possession prompts this contempt for the cultivation of land. There is +probably no province so much enclosed, and where the mania for +litigation in connection therewith is so rife as Servia. An +insurmountable obstacle is thus thrown in the way of foreign enterprise, +by the narrow-mindedness of the people. + +The same want of energy has had the most baneful effect upon commerce, +the very existence of which is merely nominal. Even at Belgrade the +common necessaries of life are daily imported from the Austrian banks of +the Danube. No one is more alive to the deplorable state of affairs than +the reigning Prince, whose long residence in the capitals of Europe has +familiarised him with their bustling scenes of thriving activity. Well +will it be for Servia and himself, if he shall turn the experience which +he has acquired to some practical account. Any doubts which he may +previously have entertained regarding the misery of the country, and the +moral degradation of his subjects, were removed effectually by all that +he witnessed in a recent expedition into the interior--miserable hovels, +uncultivated fields, magnificent forests wantonly destroyed, were the +sights which met him at every turn. At length some restrictions have +been placed on the wilful abuse of the greatest source of wealth which +the country possesses. Nor are they premature, for the reckless +destruction of the forests, combined with a failure of the acorns during +the past year, produced serious distress. Already has the export trade +of pigs diminished by one-third of the average of former years. This is +immediately owing to the necessity of feeding them on Indian corn, a +process which proves too expensive for their poverty-stricken owners, +and which in this respect places the pig and its proprietor upon an +equality. The latter live almost entirely upon maize and sliegovich, a +kind of rakee made out of plums, and extremely fiery. + +The mode of treatment of their women, an infallible sign of civilisation +or the reverse, was brought prominently to the Prince's notice by the +following circumstance:--Having, in company with the Princess, visited +the cottage of a thriving pig-owner, he observed the presence of three +daughters of the house. These young ladies showed unmistakeable signs of +approaching old-maidism, and the parental philosophy settled the +question of their future pretty conclusively. 'Why,' said he, in reply +to a question put by the Prince touching the solitary condition of the +damsels, 'should I allow them to marry, when each of them is worth more +than three fat pigs to me.' Manners must have changed very much for the +worse since the days of Ami Boué, or it is difficult to conceive upon +what he founds his assertion that labour is not imposed upon Servian +women. Indeed it would be surprising were it not so, when they are +subjected by the laws of the land to the indignity of the bastinado, +from which even men, save soldiers, are exempted in Mahometan Turkey. + +The absence of that blind subjection to a bigoted priesthood which +distinguishes the other Christian populations, would seem to indicate a +certain independence of spirit, but unhappily the accompanying symptoms +are not so encouraging. With contempt for its ministers, has come +disregard for the ordinances of the Church, the services of which are +but scantily attended. Yet notwithstanding the irreligion which is +spreading fast throughout the land, little tolerance is shown for +adherents to other than the Greek Church. For example, Catholics are +compelled to close their shops on the Greek feasts, of which there are +not a few, under penalty of a fine. In the same liberal spirit the mob +are permitted to break the windows of such houses as are not illuminated +on these occasions. + +An ignorant and narrow-minded man is generally also vain. The same law +is equally applicable to nations. A fancied superiority over the +Christians of the other Turkish provinces cannot escape the notice of +the most casual observer. That Servia has acquired some fame for +military exploits is true, and far be it from me to detract from the +praise due to her efforts to achieve and maintain her independence. The +successes of their fathers, however, over the small irregular Turkish +levies to which they were opposed, do not warrant the present population +in indulging in the vapid boastings too often heard, of their ability to +drive the Turks to Constantinople, were they permitted so to do. In a +word, they forget that they owe their present position, not to their own +prowess, but to foreign intervention; without which the province would +probably have shared the fate of Bosnia, Albania, Epirus, and the +Pashaliks of Rutschuk and Widdin, all which were as independent as +themselves, but were reconquered by the Turks, no European power having +extended to them the safeguard of a guarantee. + +Whether the protection accorded to Servia has worked beneficially is for +my readers to judge. The abstract question of the advantages thus +conferred admits of debate, and for my own part I believe the present +miserable state of the province to be mainly owing to the European +guarantee. She was not sufficiently enlightened to profit by the +advantages presented to her, and the honourable self-reliance which was +the result of a successful resistance to the Turkish arms has given +place to a feeling of indolent security. Nor is this the worst. A +principal feature in a country under guarantee is the total want of +responsibility in those vested with administrative power. Upon this the +Servian rulers presume to a preeminent degree, and indulge in many acts +of presumption which would be impossible were they not fully alive to +the fact that the conflicting interests of the guaranteeing powers, +added to their own insignificance (which perhaps they overlook), exempt +them from any fear of chastisement. + +The principle of supporting the independence of a province forming a +component geographical part of an empire, must have but one result, that +of weakening the mother state, without, as experience has shown, +ameliorating the condition of the province. Independently, therefore, of +the drain upon the Turkish finances, for the maintenance of troops from +time to time on the Servian frontier, to counteract revolutionary +propaganda, her influence throughout her Slavish provinces is much +weakened. Although in a position as anomalous as it must be unpalatable, +the Ottoman Government deserves credit for abstaining so entirely from +any species of interference in the internal affairs of the country; for +be it remembered that the province is still tributary to the Porte. The +hattischeriff of 1834, by which, on the evacuation of the country, the +Sultan retained the right of garrisoning the fortresses, has never been +strictly adhered to, and may at some future period lead to +complications. Belgrade is secure from any efforts which may be made +against it, but the other forts are hardly worthy of the name, and were +only used as a place of refuge in case of attack. The Servians now +complain of the infringement of the hattischeriff, and M. Garaschanin +has but lately returned from Constantinople, whither he was sent on a +special mission in connection with this subject. He endeavoured to +procure an order for the withdrawal of all Mussulmans from the villages +which they now occupy in the vicinity of the forts. This demand would +appear just in the letter of the law, but for the neglect on the part +of the Servian Government of one of the conditions, which was, that +before resigning their property, the Mussulmans should receive an +equivalent in money. The payment of this has been evaded, and the Porte +consequently declines to interfere in the matter; should the Sultan +hereafter accede to the demand, it would be no great sacrifice, as he +would still retain Belgrade. Situated as that fortress is, at the +confluence of the Danube and the Save, surrounded with strong and +well-ordered fortifications, and commanding every quarter of the town, +its occupation in the event of hostilities would at once determine the +fate of the province. + +The city may be fairly said to represent the sum of civilisation in the +country. In addition to 2,000 Austrian subjects, the population is of a +very polyglot character, who, however much they may have added to the +importance, have deprived the town of its national appearance. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Before alluding to the financial or military resources, it will be well +to pass in brief review the events of the past few years, of which no +chronicle exists. These, if devoid of any special interest, tend +considerably to our enlightenment regarding the much vexed question of a +south Slavonic kingdom, and at the same time of Russia's prospects of +aggrandisement south of the Danube. The neutral attitude preserved by +Servia during the war in 1854-55, must have been a grievous +disappointment to the Emperor Nicholas. Had she risen consentaneously +with the irruption of the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus, the +revolt might have become general, and would have been fraught with +consequences most perplexing to the Sultan's allies. This neutrality may +be attributed to the position assumed by Austria throughout that +struggle, combined with the independence of Russian influence manifested +by the then reigning family of Servia. No sooner was peace declared, +than Russia applied herself to the task of producing a state of feeling +more favourable to herself in the Slavonic provinces. While adhering to +her traditional policy of fomenting discord, and exciting petty +disturbances with the view of disorganising and impeding the +consolidation of Turkey, she redoubled her efforts to promote her own +influence by alienating the Greek Christians from their spiritual +allegiance to the Archimandrite, and transferring it to the Czar. Nor to +attain this end did she scruple to resort to presents, bribes, and even +more unworthy means. That her efforts have not met with more signal +success than has as yet attended them, is due to the indifference +displayed by the people on these subjects. + +One measure which was deemed most important was the substitution in +Servia of the Obrenovitch family for that of Kara George. This occurred +in 1858; and during the lifetime of Milneh, Russian influence was ever +in the ascendant. The familiar roughness of tone and manner assumed by +that Prince towards his uncultivated people procured for him great +weight; while his astute cunning, his hatred of Turkey, and his Russian +bias, would have given a most valuable ally to that power, had she +procured his restoration before her armies crossed the Pruth. +Fortunately no opportunity presented itself for him to promote actively +the cause of his imperial master; and the two years which he survived +his return to power are marked only by occasional ill-judged and +bloodthirsty emeutes, as prejudicial to his people as they were +ineffectual in overthrowing Turkish supremacy. + +The eastern policy of France, during the Italian war, was subjected to +many powerful conflicting influences. The chances of creating a +diversion in the rear of Austria, owing to the unsettled state of the +Turkish provinces, was probably thought of. Why the idea was abandoned +is not for us here to enquire; but it may be in part attributed to the +display of force which Turkey for once put forth at the right moment. Be +this as it may, no disturbance took place until the winter of 1859, +when, upon the withdrawal of the Turkish troops, fresh rumours of an +insurrectionary nature were heard. These are well known to have been +encouraged and circulated by the Servian Government, which calculated +upon foreign support, at any rate that of Russia. But Russia has no wish +to precipitate a crisis. The disastrous results of Prince Gortschakoff's +mission have, at any rate, taught her the impolicy of plucking at the +fruit before it is ripe. Her own internal reorganisation, moreover, +occupies her sufficiently, and renders any active interference for the +moment impracticable. Even were it otherwise, were Russia able and +willing to renew the struggle in behalf of her co-religionists, the +report of Prince Dolgorouki as to the amount of assistance likely to be +derived from them, would hardly tend to encourage her in her +disinterested undertaking. This envoy arrived at Belgrade in the latter +part of 1859, while Prince Gortschakoff's charges were issued shortly +after his return, and were doubtless based upon his reports. (Yet it is +more than probable that the primary object of his mission was to enquire +into and to regulate the revolutionary movements, which at that moment +had acquired a certain degree of importance.) The Bulgarian emissaries +told him frankly that no rising could be looked for in those provinces, +unless Russia took the initiative. They reminded him that in 1842, when +Baron Lieven visited Belgrade, the Bulgarians were induced by the +promises of Prince Michael Obrenovitch to rise en masse. These promises +were never fulfilled, and the insurrection was put down with great +barbarities by the neighbouring Albanian levies. This single fact is +tolerably conclusive as to the unreality of a south Slavonic +insurrection, of which so much has been said, and to promote which so +much trouble has been taken. Even were the discontent tenfold as +deep-rooted as it now is, the Turkish Government might rely on the +Mussulman population and the Arnauts to suppress any rising of the +Christians. The chief danger to Turkey lies in the truculent nature of +those whom she would be compelled to let loose upon the insurgents, and +who would commit excesses which might be made an excuse for foreign +intervention. The attainment of this ignoble end has been and still is +the policy pursued by more than one power. Prince Milosch played +admirably into their hands, not foreseeing that in the general +bouleversement which would be the result, the independence of Servia +might be disregarded. The invasion of the Bosnian frontier by bands of +Servian ruffians was a measure well calculated to arouse the fury of the +Mussulmans; and if such has not been the case, it may be attributed to +the rapid dispersion of the miscreants. Little credit, indeed, accrued +to Servia in these hostile demonstrations, for while the bands were +composed of the lowest characters, and could only be brought together by +payment, they quickly retreated across the frontier at the first show of +resistance. It is significant that these bands were in nearly all cases +led by Montenegrins, a fact which indicates the decline of that spirit +of military adventure to which the Haiduks of old (robbers) could at +least lay some claim. Discreditable as these proceedings were, worse +ensued. + +On the 5th of August a murderous attack was made upon a party of +Mussulmans in the close vicinity of Belgrade, upon which occasion eight +were killed and seventeen wounded. No fire-arms were used, probably to +avoid alarming the garrison. The absence on that night from the capital +of both Prince Milosch and his son, furnishes just grounds for +suspecting them of complicity in the affair, while the presence of +Sleftcha (notoriously a creature of Russia), and Tenko, among the +murderers, clearly shows where and with what views the crime was +devised. On the same night, five Mussulmans who were sleeping in a +vineyard at Kladova, on the Bulgarian frontier, were murdered by +Servians, while an attack was made upon a third party. The prospects of +a country whose princes connive at, and whose ministers commit murder, +cannot be very brilliant. Whether other atrocities might have met with +the sanction of Milosch it is impossible to say, for death cut him off +in the latter part of September, 1860, full of years and crimes. Not the +least of these was the death of Kara George, who was treacherously +murdered at his instigation. But let us pass from so unattractive a +retrospect to a consideration of the character and policy of the living +prince who now holds the reins of government. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +The appointment of Prince Michael to the vacant throne of Servia was the +first step towards the substitution of hereditary for elective +succession. One of the first measures of the new prince was to induce +the Skuptschina, or National Assembly, to legalise for the future that +which had been an infraction of the law. The sixteen years which +intervened between 1842, when Michael was ejected, and 1858, when Prince +Milosch was reinstated, were passed by the former in the various +capitals of Europe. The high Vienna notions which he imbibed during that +period have deprived him of the sympathy and affection of his +semi-civilised subjects, as much as the uncultivated mind of his father +deprived him of their respect. Nor does the lack of sympathy appear to +be one-sided. And, in truth, that mind must be possessed of no ordinary +amount of philanthropy which can apply itself to the improvement of a +people at once so ignorant and vain, and who evince withal so little +desire for enlightenment. + +At the time of his accession the Russian element, as has been shown, was +strong in the Ministry. Sleftcha and the Metropolitan were her +principal agents. It was to be expected, therefore, that he would +adhere to the family principles, and sell himself body and soul to his +great benefactor. But it frequently happens that persons who have risen +to unexpected eminence turn upon those by whom they have been raised. +This would appear to be somewhat the case with Prince Michael, who +certainly does not show the same devotion to Russia as did his father. +It may be that he has not noted in the foreign policy of that power the +disinterestedness which she so loudly professes. If such be his views, +who can controvert them? To the character of the man, combined with his +peculiarly irresponsible condition (owing to the guarantee), may be +ascribed his present line of conduct. Ambitious, obstinate, and devoted +to intrigue, his character is no more that of a mere puppet than it is +of one likely to attain to any great eminence. At first, it must be +acknowledged that he played into the hands of Russia most unreservedly. +No endeavours were spared to stir up discontent and rebellion in the +surrounding provinces. Little credit is due to the sagacity of those by +whom these machinations were contrived. For example, petitions were sent +to all the foreign consulates purporting to come from the Christian +subjects of Turkey on the frontiers of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and setting +forth the miserable condition to which they had been reduced by +Mussulman oppression. The sympathy which might have been felt for the +sufferers was somewhat shaken by attendant circumstances, which threw +doubts on the authenticity of the letters. It appears that these arrived +from the two frontiers by the same post, while, on comparison, they were +found to be almost identical in form and wording. + +Great results were also anticipated from the Emigration movement, to +which the early part of 1861 was devoted. Russia, while endeavouring to +promote the emigration of Bulgarians to the Crimea, did not discourage +the efforts of Servia to induce them to cross her frontier with the view +of settling. Several thousands did so, and these came principally from +the Pachaliks of Widdin and Nish. Amongst these were many criminals and +outlaws, who were admitted by the Servians, in violation of their +charter. Considerable excitement prevailed, and subscriptions were set +on foot for their benefit, but the movement appears to have died a +natural death, as nothing is now heard of it. The émigrés cannot have +been too well satisfied with the position in which they found +themselves, since the greater number soon returned whence they came, in +spite of Mussulman oppression. + +Since the failure of this scheme, the Prince has applied all his +energies to the acquisition of independent power. He first endeavoured +to effect it by means of a deputation to the Sublime Porte. Failing in +this, he resorted to the internal means at his disposal, and has gained +his point. The principal objects which he had in view, and which he has +succeeded in carrying out, were the declaration of hereditary +succession, and the abrogation of the Ustag or Constitution, by which +his power was limited. The Senate, as the deliberative body may be +termed, originally consisted of 17 members. They were in the first +instance nominated by the then reigning prince, but could not be removed +by him, while vacancies were filled up by election among themselves. The +whole of these rules he has now set aside, and, albeit he has given a +colouring of justice to his proceedings by restoring the original number +of members, and some other customs which had fallen into abeyance, he +has virtually stripped them of all power. With great astuteness he +induced the Skuptschina to deprive the Senate of legislative functions, +and immediately afterwards to relinquish them itself, thus placing +absolute power in his hands. This grossly illegal action has met with +some faint resistance, but the Prince will without doubt carry out his +wishes. He has only to fear internal discontent, as he is entirely +independent by virtue of the guarantee, not only of the European powers, +but even of Turkey. It is true that this very policy cost him his throne +in 1838, but with years he has gained prudence, and he is now pursuing +it with far greater caution. The Servians, too, having sunk +immeasurably in the social scale, are less likely to stand upon their +rights, or to give him the same trouble as heretofore. + +Up to the present time all these schemes have weighed but little in the +scale against the one absorbing ambition of his life. In a word, Michael +is a hot Panslavist. Of this he makes no secret, and he has probably +shared hitherto, in common with all Servians, very exaggerated notions +of the importance which Servia would assume were the dismemberment of +Turkey to take place. Their self-conceived superiority over the other +Christians of European Turkey, induces the Servians to regard the +northern provinces in the same light as do the Greeks the southern. The +ambition of Michael, however, is not satisfied with the prospect of +dominion over the undeveloped countries south of the Danube. His +conversation, character, and previous history all point to one +conclusion--that he aspires to sway the destinies of the Slavish +provinces of Austria, and maybe of Hungary itself. His marriage with an +Hungarian lady of the name, and it is to be presumed of the stock of the +great Hunyadi family, would appear to give some consistency to these +dreams. The chief drawbacks to its fulfilment are the unreality of the +agitation among the Slavish populations, the power of Turkey to crush +any insurrection unaided from without, and the honour and interest of +Great Britain, which are staked on the preservation of the Ottoman +empire from foreign aggressions. Although he may indulge in such day +dreams, it is impossible but that a man of Prince Michael's calibre must +be alive to all the opposing elements which will defer the +accomplishment of them to a remote period. Notwithstanding natural +prejudices, which in his case, however, are not very strong, it is +probable that he now sees the inutility, and understands how visionary +are the ambitious projects which he once entertained touching Servia. +Such, at least, is the opinion of those who have the best opportunities +of forming a correct judgement in the matter. Whatever may be his own +intellect, whatever his ability to conceive and execute, Servia is too +degraded to carry him through. To be the nucleus of a large kingdom, +certain elements are necessary, in which she is strikingly deficient. +Among these may be placed tried and flourishing institutions, unity of +sentiment and purpose amidst all classes, and a due appreciation of the +advantages of education and commerce; while last, but perhaps the most +important of all, is civil and religious liberty of the highest order. +In all of these, I repeat, Servia is eminently wanting. + +A very slight glimpse also at her financial and military resources will +show how far she is fitted to take even a leading part in any emeute +which circumstances may hereafter bring about. The total revenue of the +country has up to this time amounted to 200,000_l._ sterling. This has +been raised by a tax of $5 levied on about 40,000 males. Nearly the +whole sum is expended in paying and equipping the army, and in the +salary of officials. Dissatisfied with the small amount of revenue, the +Prince undertook, during the past year, to reorganise the taxation. An +impost upon property was projected in lieu of the capitation tax, but +having, unfortunately, started without any very well-defined basis, the +system broke down, actually producing a smaller revenue than was yielded +by the original method. Equally abortive, as might have been +anticipated, was the scheme for raising a militia of 50,000 men. +Presupposing, for the sake of argument, a strong military spirit to be +rife among the people, the financial condition of the country would +render the idea untenable, since it is with difficulty that the 1,800 +soldiers who constitute the regular army can be maintained. Granting +even the willingness to serve, and the ability of the government to pay +them, the population of the country would not, according to ordinary +statistics, furnish so large a force. The greatest number that could be +calculated on in the event of war would be about 40,000 men, and these +only in a war in which the national sympathy might be deeply enlisted. +How many of this number would remain in arms, would probably depend on +the amount of plunder to be obtained, and the nature of the resistance +which they might encounter. + +The matérial of the existing force is about on an equality with that of +most continental armies. A portion of the troops are armed with rifles, +and the remainder with unbrowned muskets. One battery of artillery forms +the aggregate of that arm of the service. There are 70 guns at the +arsenal at Kragiewatz, but they are all old and unfit for field service. +A French Colonel has lately been imported to fill the combined offices +of War-Minister and Commander-in-Chief. This, and, indeed, the whole of +the recent internal policy, leaves very little doubt of the source +whence emanate these high-flown ideas. It cannot be better expressed +than as a _politique d'ostentation_, which is, if we may compare small +things with great, eminently French. The oscillation of French and +Russian influence, and the amicable manner in which their delegates +relinquish the field to each other alternately, implies the existence of +a mutual understanding between them. Whether this accord extends to a +wider sphere and more momentous questions, time alone will show. +Meanwhile, the Prince continues to indulge in dreams of a Panslavish +kingdom, and of the crumbs which may fall to his own share, while he +neglects the true interests of his country, with which his own are so +intimately blended. Let him apply himself to the developement of her +internal resources, to the promotion of education and civilisation among +the people, and, above all, let him root out that spirit of indolence +which has taken such firm hold upon all classes. It is his policy to do +all this, that Servia may be in a position to assume that leading place +among the Slavonic races which she arrogates to herself, should +unforeseen circumstances call upon her to do so. With her he must stand +or fall; therefore, setting aside more patriotic motives, self-interest +renders it imperative on him to apply himself zealously to her +regeneration. + +With regard to his foreign policy, he cannot do better than act up to +the conviction which he has himself more than once expressed, that 'the +interests of Servia are identical with those of Turkey.' For, should the +disruption of the Ottoman empire take place--the probability of which is +at any rate no greater than in the time of our grandfathers--it will not +be effected by internal revolution, but by foreign intervention; and +credulous must he be who can believe in the disinterestedness of those +who would lend themselves to such a measure. Thus, in the partition +which would ensue, Servia might find even her former independence +overlooked. + +Let me add, that if I have alluded in strong terms to the condition of +the people, I have done it in all sincerity, regretting that Servia +should thus cast away the sympathy which, were she bent on +self-advancement, would pour in upon her from every side. If, again, I +may appear presumptuous in dictating the duties which devolve upon her +Prince, I am prompted to it by the supineness which he has as yet +evinced in promoting the desire for civilisation. Let him delay no +longer, for, should events so dispose themselves that Servia should be +weighed in the balance, she will, unless an amendment takes place, be +indeed found miserably wanting. + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +In conclusion, I would venture to call attention to the fact that the +preceding pages were written before events had assumed the aspect which +they now wear. Actual hostilities had not then commenced against +Montenegro; the Turkish Government had not then contracted the loan +which has opened up new prospects for the finances of the country. + +That Omer Pacha has not already brought the war to a close is to be +regretted, but let those who criticise the slowness of his movements +weigh well all the disadvantages against which he has to contend. + +It would be useless to enumerate these again, as they are alluded to +more than once in the course of this volume. Suffice it to say, then, +that if Cettigné be taken and Montenegro occupied before the end of the +present year, Omer Pacha will have placed another feather in his cap, +and will have materially increased the debt of gratitude to which he is +already entitled. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +The following is an extract of a letter from the young Prince of +Montenegro, addressed to the Consuls of the Great Powers. The sentiments +which it expresses are creditable enough, and, did his acts corroborate +his words, he would be well entitled to the sympathy which he demands. + + Cettigné, le 30 juillet 1861. + + Monsieur le Consul, + + A l'occasion de la récente et grave mésure prise par la Turquie + envers le Montenégro, je crois devoir rompre le silence et faire + connaître succinctement à MM. les Consuls des Grandes Puissances + qu'elle a été tenue depuis un an par le Montenegro vis-à -vis de + l'empire ottoman. + + Depuis mon avènement j'ai employé tout mon pouvoir à maintenir la + tranquillité. Sur les frontières je n'ai rien négligé pour éloigner + tout motif de collision, pour calmer les animosités séculaires qui + séparent les deux peuples, en un mot, pour donner à la Turquie les + preuves les plus irréfragables de meilleur voisinage. + + Dans une occasion toute récente je me suis rendu avec empressement + au désir exprimé par les Grandes Puissances de me voir contribuer + autant qu'il était dans mon pouvoir au soulagement des malheureux + enfermés dans la forteresse de Niksich. J'ai été heureux de pouvoir + en pareilles circonstances donner une preuve de déference aux + Grandes Puissances, et de pouvoir répondre, comme il convenait à un + souverain et un peuple chrétien, à l'appel fait à ses sentiments + d'humanité. Je ne me suis point arrêté devant la considération d'un + intérêt personnel. + + +LONDON +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. +NEW-STREET SQUARE + +[Illustration: THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY.] + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + +***** This file should be named 17288-0.txt or 17288-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/8/17288/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. 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Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/17288-0.zip b/17288-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4bc9a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/17288-0.zip diff --git a/17288-8.txt b/17288-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0fa8bbf --- /dev/null +++ b/17288-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6992 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Herzegovina + Or, Omer Pacha and the Christian Rebels + +Author: George Arbuthnot + +Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17288] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. (This file was made using scans of +public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital +Libraries.) + + + + + + + +[Illustration: A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC.] + + + + +HERZEGOVINA; + +OR + +OMER PACHA AND THE CHRISTIAN REBELS. + + +WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF SERVIA, ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL +CONDITION. + + +BY LIEUT. G. ARBUTHNOT, R.H.A., F.R.G.S. + + +[Illustration: Official Seal of Omer Pacha] + + +LONDON: +LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN. +1862. + +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. +NEW-STREET SQUARE + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The wanderings of an unknown in an unknown land may not be a subject of +universal interest, and as such require a few words of apology, or +possibly of defence. + +To convey an accurate idea of a country the inhabitants of which differ +from ourselves in creed, origin, and in all their habits of life, it +would be necessary to have passed a lifetime amongst them. It may +therefore be deemed presumptuous in me to attempt so comprehensive a +task, upon the meagre experience of a few short months. And such it +would be, did I entertain such aspirations. The impossibility, however, +of identifying myself with a people, with whose very language I have but +a slight acquaintance, would banish such a thought. My object is rather +to describe briefly and simply everything that presented itself to my +own notice; upon the evidence of which, coupled with the observations of +the few who have devoted any attention to the condition of these +countries, I have founded my views and opinions. Far be it from me to +assume that they have more claim to be regarded as correct, than the +opinions of others who may differ from me. Above all, if any of my +remarks on the subject of the Greek and Latin religions should appear +somewhat severe, I would have it clearly understood, that nowhere is +allusion intentionally made to these churches, save in the relation +which they bear to the Illyric Provinces of European Turkey. + +[Illustration: Signature of Author in Turkish Characters] + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + +Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian +Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian +Boatmen--French Policy and Austrian Prospects-- +Spalatro--Palace of Diocletian--Lissa--Naval +Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian Hotel--Change of Plans Pages 1--15 + + +CHAPTER II. + +Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of +Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the +Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for +Trade granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian +Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel-- +Dalmatian Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at +Mostar--Omer Pacha--Object of Campaign 16--32 + + +CHAPTER III. + +Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical Features-- +Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali +Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber Company--Saw-Mill-- +Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek Catholics-- +Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan +College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour 33--49 + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic +Element--First Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their +Origin--Tenets--Elect a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, +or Combatants in Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian +Apostasy--Religious Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under +Kiamil Pacha--Servian Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted +Brotherhood--Mahommedan Women--Elopements--Early Marriages 50--64 + + +CHAPTER V. + +Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of +Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural +Capabilities of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian +_Scutors_--Other Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations +with Bosnia--Able Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria +takes alarm--Trade Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier +Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms 65--75 + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis-- +Its Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial +Tribunals--Revenue and Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh-- +Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total Revenue--Police 76--83 + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Omer Pacha--Survey of Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars-- +Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of Prisoners--Roman +Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish Officers--Pacha's +Palace--European Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's +Day--Warlike Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders +to March 84--93 + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. and Ostoya +Christich--Cruel Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His +Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of Santo Saba becomes a Roman +Province--Despotism of Bosnian Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall +of Sultan Selim and Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin +Pacha--Expedition against Montenegro--Death of +Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces reconquered-- +Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of Janissaries-- +Regular Troops organised--Hadji Mustapha--Abdurahim-- +Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh rising--Serayevo +taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of Adrianople--Hussein +Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of Grand Vizier--Ali +Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War with +Montenegro--Amnesty granted 94--117 + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian +Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress +convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer +Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by +Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and +Capture of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass +Bashee--Anecdote of Lame Christian--Omer Pacha invades +Montenegro--Successes--Austria interferes--Mission of +General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change of +Frontier--Faults of new Boundary 118--127 + + +CHAPTER X. + +Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages +burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch +Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by +Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek +Chapels sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to +Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties +to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and +Prince of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha +returns to Mostar--Preparations for Campaign 128--140 + + +CHAPTER XI. + +Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz-- +Castle and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the +Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My +Dalmatian Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of +the Turks--Health of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of +Prisoners--Christian Cruelty 141--164 + + +CHAPTER XII. + +Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks +abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian +Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European +Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of +Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani-- +Bashi Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in +Turkey--Line of March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National +Dance--'La Donna _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki +Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big Head--Old Tower-- +Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem Devotions--Character +of Turkish Troops--System of Drill--Peculation--Turkish +Army--Letters--Scarcity of Provisions--Return of Villagers 155--173 + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer +Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack +Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of +Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish +Women--Defects of Government by Mudir and Medjlis 174--189 + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy +repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish +Soldiers murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched +Camp assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive +Character of Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation-- +Military Uniforms--Return to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum-- +Express Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified Barrack-- +Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European +Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian +Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of +Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The +Meredits--Instincts of Race 190--214 + + +CHAPTER XV. + +Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza-- +Subterraneous Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman +Tombs--Coins and Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry +Trees--Blagai--Source of Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain +of Mostar--Legends--Silver Ore--Mineral Products of +Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley of the Drechnitza 215--226 + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopædia--Feats of +Skill--Legend of Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of +Druga--Excavations--Country Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud +Effendi--Old Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian +Frontier--Vidosa--Parish Priest--National Music--Livno-- +Franciscan Convent--Priestly Incivility--Illness--Quack +Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military Ambulance--Bosna +Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and Bridges--Mussulman +Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman Pacha 227--242 + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo-- +Mineral Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The Bosna--Trout +Fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen +Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the +Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--Culpa +River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to +Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian +Troops--Probable Policy--Watermills--Semlin--Belgrade 243--258 + + +SERVIA: + +Its Social, Political, and Financial Condition 261--285 + + +CONCLUSION 286 + + +APPENDIX 287--288 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC _Frontispiece._ + +OFFICIAL SEAL OF OMER PACHA _On Title-page._ + +SIGNATURE OF AUTHOR IN TURKISH CHARACTERS _page_ vi + +MAP OF MONTENEGRO _To face page_ 1 + +MAP OF SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY " 288 + + +[Illustration: Map of Montenegro.] + + + + +HERZEGOVINA. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian + Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian Boatmen--French + Policy and Austrian Prospects--Spalatro--Palace of + Diocletian--Lissa--Naval Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian + Hotel--Change of Plans. + + +_'Omer Pacha will proceed with the army of Roumelia to quell the +disturbance in Herzegovina.'_ Such, I believe, was the announcement +which confirmed me in the idea of visiting the Slavonic provinces of +European Turkey. Had any doubts existed in my mind of the importance +attached by the Ottoman government to the pacification of these remote +districts, the recall to favour of Omer Pacha, and the despatch of so +large a force under his command, would have sufficed to remove them. As +it was, the mere desire to keep myself _au courant_ of the events of the +day, together with the interest which all must feel in the condition of +a country for whom England has sacrificed so much blood and treasure, +had made me aware that some extraordinary manifestation of feeling must +have occurred to arouse that apathetic power to so energetic a measure. +Of the nature of this manifestation, little or no reliable information +could be obtained; and so vague a knowledge prevails touching the +condition of these provinces, that I at once perceived that personal +observation alone could put me in possession of it. The opinions of such +as did profess to have devoted any attention to the subject, were most +conflicting. Whilst some pronounced the point at issue to be merely one +between the Turkish government and a few rebellious brigands, others +took a far more gloomy view of the matter, believing that the first shot +fired would prove the signal for a general rising of the Christian +subjects of the Porte, which, in its turn, was to lead to the +destruction of Turkish suzerainty in Europe, and to the consummation of +the great Panslavish scheme. To satisfy myself on these points, then, +was the main object of my travels,--to impart to others the information +which I thus obtained, is the intention of this volume. + +On August 31, 1861, I left Trieste in the Austrian Lloyd's steamer, +bound for Corfu, and touching _en route_ at the ports on the Dalmatian +coast. Having failed in all my endeavours to ascertain the exact +whereabouts of the Turkish head-quarters, I had secured my passage to +Ragusa, reckoning on obtaining the necessary information from the +Ottoman Consul at that town; and in this I was not disappointed. + +It is not my intention to enlarge upon this portion of my travels, which +would indeed be of little interest; still less to tread in the steps of +Sir Gardner Wilkinson, whose valuable work on Dalmatia has rendered such +a course unnecessary; but rather to enter, with log-like simplicity, the +dates of arrival and departure at the various ports, and such-like +interesting details of sea life. If, however, my landsman-like +propensities should evince themselves by a lurking inclination to 'hug +the shore,' I apologise beforehand. + +My fellow-passengers were in no way remarkable, but harmless enough, +even including an unfortunate mad woman, whose mania it was to recount +unceasingly the ill-treatment to which she had been exposed. At times, +her indignation against her imaginary tormentors knew no bounds; at +others, she would grow touchingly plaintive on the subject of her +wrongs. That she was a nuisance, I am fain to confess; but the treatment +she experienced at the hands of her Dalmatian countrymen was +inconsiderate in the extreme. One who professed himself an advocate for +sudden shocks, put his theory into practice by stealing quietly behind +his patient, and cutting short her lugubrious perorations with a deluge +of salt water. This was repeated several times, but no arguments would +induce her to allow her wet clothes to be removed, so it would not be +surprising if this gentleman had succeeded in 'stopping her tongue' +beyond his expectations. The only other lady was young and rather +pretty, but dismally sentimental. She doated on roses, was enamoured of +camelias, and loved the moon and the stars, and in fact everything in +this world or out of it. In vain I tried to persuade her that her cough +betrayed pulmonary symptoms, and that night air in the Adriatic was +injurious to the complexion. + +The man-kind on board included an Austrian officer of engineers, a +French Consul, and a Dalmatian professor. Besides the above, there was +an Italian patriot, whose devotion to the 'Kingmaker' displayed itself +in a somewhat eccentric fashion. With much mystery, he showed me a +portrait of Garibaldi, secreted in a watchkey seal, while his waistcoat +buttons and shirt studs contained heads of those generals who served in +the campaign of the Two Sicilies. It was rather a novel kind of +hero-worship, though, I fear, likely to be little appreciated by him who +inspired the thought. + +_September 1._--Landed at Zara at 6.30 A.M., and passed a few +hours in wandering over the town and ramparts. These last are by no +means formidable, and convey very little idea of the importance which +was attached to the city in the time of the Venetian Republic. The +garrison is small, and, as is the case throughout Dalmatia, the soldiers +are of Italian origin. The Duomo is worthy of a visit; while the +antiquarian may find many objects of interest indicative of the several +phases of Zarantine history. Here, in a partially obliterated +inscription, he may trace mementos of Imperial Rome; there, the +Campanile of Santa Maria tells of the dominion of Croatian kings; while +the winged lion ever reminds him of the glory of the Great Republic, its +triumphs, its losses, and its fall. On leaving we were loudly cheered by +the inhabitants, who had collected in large numbers on the shore. A few +hours' run brought us abreast of Fort St. Nicholas, and ten minutes +later we dropped anchor in the harbour of Sebenico. Here the delight of +the people at our arrival was somewhat overwhelming. It vented itself in +an inordinate amount of hugging and kissing, to say nothing of the most +promiscuous hand-shaking, for a share of which I myself came in. My +first step was to negotiate with four natives to row me to the Falls of +Kerka, about three hours distant. This I had succeeded in doing, when, +having unfortunately let them know that I was English, they demanded +seven florins in place of four, as had been originally agreed. Resolving +not to give way to so gross an imposition, I was returning in quest of +another boat, when I met a troop of some six or seven girls, young, +more than averagely good-looking, and charmingly dressed in their +national costume. I presume that my T.G. appearance must have amused +them; for they fairly laughed,--not a simpering titter, but a good +honest laugh. To them I stated my case, and received a proper amount of +sympathy. One offered to row me herself, while another said something +about 'twenty florins and a life,'--which, whatever it may have meant, +brought a blush to the cheek of the pretty little volunteer. At this +juncture the boatmen arrived, and on my assurance that I was perfectly +satisfied with the company to which they had driven me, which my looks, +I suppose, did not belie, they came to terms. Leaving the bay at its NW. +extremity, where the Kerka flows into it, we proceeded about four miles +up that river. At this point it opens out into the Lake of Scardona, +which is of considerable size, and affords a good anchorage. There is an +outlet for the river to the N., close to which is situated the little +town of Scardona. The banks of the river here begin to lose their rocky +and precipitous appearance, assuming a more marshy character, which +renders it unhealthy in the summer. The Falls are approached by a long +straight reach, at the end of which they form a kind of semicircle, the +entire breadth being about 250 feet. In winter, or after heavy rains, +the effect must be very grand; but at the time of my visit they were, in +consequence of the great drought, unusually small. Below the falls is a +mill worked by a Levantine, who appears to drive a flourishing trade, +grinding corn for Sebenico, Zara, and many other places on the coast. + +The Dalmatian boatmen are a very primitive set in everything save money +matters. One asked, Are the English Christians? while another asserted +most positively, that he had taken an Englishman to see the Falls in the +year _1870_. Their style of rowing resembles that in vogue among the +Maltese and Italians, excepting that they make their passenger sit in +the hows of the boat. This, at any rate, has the advantage of keeping +him to windward of themselves, which is often very desirable. Another +point of difference is, that they wear shoes or slippers,--the latter +being, in some instances, really tasteful and pretty. + +The moon was high ere we reached the ship, where I found all the +passengers assembled upon deck. One after another they disappeared +below, until I was left alone. I know no spot so conducive to reflection +as the deserted deck of a ship at anchor on a lovely night, and in a +genial latitude. In this instance, however, my thoughts assumed more of +a speculative than retrospective character, large as was the field for +the indulgence of the latter. The shades of emperors and doges faded +away, giving place to the more terrestrial forms of living sovereigns; +and the wild shouts of the Moslem conquerors resolved themselves into +the 'Vive l'Empereur' of an army doing battle for an idea. Let Austria +look to herself, that, when the hour of struggle shall arrive, as arrive +it will, she be not found sleeping. Should Napoleon once more espouse +the Italian cause, should he hurl his armies upon the Quadrilateral, who +can doubt but that a diversion of a more or less important character +will be attempted in the rear of the empire? But even though he should +let slip the notable occasion presented to him by a rising among the +Italian subjects of Austria, the evil day will only be postponed. I +believe that, not content with the humiliation of that power at +Villafranca, he will take advantage of any opportunity which disorder in +the neighbouring Turkish provinces may offer him to aim a blow at her on +her Dalmatian frontier, as a means to the gigantic end of crippling her, +and with her ultimately the entire German Confederation. It is a great +scheme, and doubtless one of many in that fertile brain. If Austria +should resolve to defend her Venetian territory, as it may be presumed +she will, she should spare no labour to strengthen her fortresses in the +Adriatic. On the Dalmatian coast, Zara, Lissa, Pola, and Cattaro are all +capable of making a very respectable defence in the event of their being +attacked; while, to quote the words of Rear-Admiral Count Bernhard von +Wüllersdorf and Urban, 'An Austrian squadron at Cattaro would be very +dangerous to any hostile squadron on the Italian coast, as its cruisers +would cut off all transports of coal, provisions, &c. &c.,--in a word, +render the communication of the hostile squadron with the Mediterranean +very difficult.... Lissa is the keystone of the Adriatic. This island, +the importance of which in former times was never denied, commands the +straits which lead from the southern to the northern half of the +Adriatic.... The naval force at Lissa ought to be a local one, +consisting of light fast gun-boats to cruise in the narrow waters, to +which might be added some plated ships to keep open communications, on +the one hand, between Lissa and the mainland, and on the other hand +acting with the gun-boats to bar the passage to hostile vessels.' The +publication of the article from which the above is extracted in the +'Oesterreichische Militar Zeitschrift,' proves sufficiently that the +Austrian government is aware of the necessity which exists for taking +precautionary measures; and the lesson which they learnt in 1859 ought +to have induced them to adopt a more energetic policy in their military +and naval affairs. + +The defences of Sebenico consist of three small forts: St. Nicholas, +containing seventeen mounted guns, is at the entrance of the bay, while +San Giovanni and Santa Anna, situated on rising ground, command the +town, harbour, and land approaches. The precise number of guns which +they contain, I was unable to learn. The very meagre character of the +information which I am in a position to impart on these subjects +requires, I am aware, some apology. The difficulty of obtaining it +during the short stay of a steamer must be my excuse. May it be +accepted! + +_September 2._--Steamed into the port of Spalatro at 10.30 A.M. +There is both an outer and inner harbour, the latter affording a good +anchorage to vessels of any burden; yet, notwithstanding this, we were +compelled, for the first time since leaving Trieste, to lie off at some +distance from the quay. The origin of Spalatro dates from the building +of the palace of Diocletian in 303, A.D. This glorious pile, +however much it may offend against the rules of architecture, is well +entitled to rank among the noblest monuments of imperial Rome. Its +mammoth proportions, the novelty of conception evinced in many parts, +together with its extraordinary state of preservation, render it alike +unique, while the circumstances connected with its building impart to it +an unusual interest. Wearied with the affairs of state, Diocletian +retired to Salona, where he passed the remaining nine years of his life +in profound seclusion. Of the use to which he applied his wealth during +that period, a record still exists in the golden gate and the Corinthian +columns which decorate that regal abode; while we learn what were his +pursuits from his own memorable reply to Maximian, when urged by him to +reassume the purple. 'Utinam Salonis olera nostris manibus insita +invisere posses, de resumando imperio non judicares;' or, as it has been +somewhat freely translated by Gibbon--'If I could show you the cabbages +I have planted with my own hands at Salona, you would no longer urge me +to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power.'[A] + +Nor has nature been less bountiful than man to this most favoured spot. +The description given by Adams conveys a very accurate impression of the +character of the surrounding country. 'The soil is dry and fertile, the +air pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summer +months, the country seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to which +the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views from +the palace are no less beautiful than the soil and climate are inviting. +Towards the W. lies the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, +in which a number of small islands are scattered in such a manner as to +give this part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the N. side +lies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona, and the country +beyond it appearing in sight forms a proper contrast to that more +extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents both to the S. +and the E. Towards the N. the view is terminated by high and irregular +mountains situated at a proper distance, and in many places covered with +villages, woods, and vineyards.'[B] Like most other relics of antiquity, +the time-honoured walls of Spalatro have been witnesses of those varied +emotions to which the human heart is subject. Thither Glycerius the +prelate retired, when driven by Julius Nepos from the imperial throne. +There, too, in a spirit of true Christian charity, he heaped coals of +fire on the head of his enemy, by affording him a sanctuary when +dethroned in his turn by Orestes, the father of Augustulus. Again, a +little while, and within the same walls, where he had deemed himself +secure, Julius Nepos fell a victim to the assassin's knife, and +subsequently we find the houseless Salonites sheltering themselves +within its subterraneous passages, when driven from their homes by the +fury of the invading Avars. The memory of all these is passed away, but +the stones still remain an undying testimony of a happy king. + +Having passed some hours in the town and palace, I adjourned to one of +the few small _cafés_ in the principal street. While sipping my +chocolate, I was accosted by an elderly priest, who most civilly +enquired whether he could help me in any way during my stay at +Spalatro. He proved to be a person of much intelligence, and, +notwithstanding that his knowledge of English extended only to a few +conversational words, he had read Sir Gardner Wilkinson's work on +Dalmatia, and, as his remarks showed, not without profiting thereby. At +4.30 the same afternoon we arrived at Lissa, the military port of +Austria in this part of the Adriatic. It is interesting to English +travellers, its waters having been the scene of a naval action in which +an English squadron, commanded by Captain Hoste, defeated a French +squadron carrying nearly double as many guns. During the great war the +island belonged to England, and indeed a portion of it is called to this +day the Cittá Inglese. It at one time acquired a certain importance in a +mercantile point of view, sardines being the staple article of commerce. + +The same night we touched at Curzola, and at 4 A.M. on +September 3 anchored at Gravosa, the port of debarcation for Ragusa. +Taking leave of my friends on board, I landed at about 5 A.M., +and, having committed my luggage, a small bullock trunk, saddle-bags, +and a saddle, to the shoulders of a sturdy facchino, and myself to a +very rickety and diminutive cart, I proceeded on my way to Ragusa. The +drive, about a mile and a half in distance, abounds with pretty views, +while the town of Ragusa itself is as picturesque in its interior +detail as it is interesting from its early history. The grass-grown +streets, the half-ruined palaces, and the _far niente_ manners of the +people, give little indication of the high position which the Republic +once achieved. Yet, despite all these emblems of decay, there are no +signs of abject poverty, but rather a spirit of frugal contentment is +everywhere apparent. + +Arriving at an hour when, in the more fastidious capitals of Europe, +housemaids and milkmen hold undisputed sway, I found groups of the +wealthier citizens collected under the trees which surround the café, +making their morning meal, and discussing the local news the while. +Later in the day ices and beer were in great demand, and in the evening +the beauty and fashion of Ragusa congregated to hear the beautiful band +of the regiment 'Marmola.' The hotel, if it deserve the name, is scarce +fifty yards distant; it possesses a _cuisine_ which contrasts favourably +with the accommodation which the house affords. + +The _table d'hôte_ dinner is served in a kind of vaulted kitchen, the +walls of which are hung round with scenes illustrative of the Italian +campaign. The series, which comprises desperate cavalry charges, death +wounds of general officers, and infantry advancing amidst perfect +bouquets of shot and shell, closes appropriately with the pacific +meeting of the two Emperors at Villafranca. + +Here, then, I proposed to take up my quarters, making it the +starting-point for expeditions to the Val d'Ombla, the beautiful Bocche +di Cattaro, and Cettigne, the capital of Montenegro; but it was destined +otherwise, and night found me on board a country fishing-boat, the +bearer of despatches to Omer Pacha at Mostar, or wherever he might +happen to be. + +[Footnote A: Gibbon, chap. xiii.] + +[Footnote B: Adams' 'Ruins of Spalatro,' p. 6.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of + Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the + Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for Trade + granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian + Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel--Dalmatian + Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at Mostar--Omer + Pacha--Object of Campaign. + + +The change in my plans, and my precipitate departure from Ragusa, were +the results of information which I there received. From M. Persich, the +Ottoman Consul, whom I take this opportunity of thanking for his +courtesy and kindness, I learned that the Turkish Generalissimo might be +expected to leave Mostar for the frontier at any moment, and that the +disturbed state of the country would render it perilous, if not +impossible, to follow him thither. This determined me to push on at +once, postponing my visit to Montenegro to a more fitting season. To +make some necessary purchases, and to engage a servant, was the work of +a few hours, and, being supplied by the Captano of the Circolo with the +necessary visés and letters of recommendation to the subordinate +officials through whose districts I should have to pass, it only +remained to decide upon the mode of travelling which I should adopt, +and to secure the requisite conveyance. My first point was Metcovich, a +small town on the right bank of the Narenta, and close to the frontier +lines of Dalmatia and Herzegovina. Three modes of performing the journey +were reported practicable,--viz. on horseback, by water, or by carriage. +The first of these I at once discarded, as both slow and tedious; the +choice consequently lay between the remaining two methods: with regard +to economy of time I decided upon the latter. But here a difficulty +arose. The man who possessed a monopoly of carriages, for some reason +best known to himself, demurred at my proceeding, declaring the road to +be impassable. He farther brought a Turkish courier to back his +statement, who at any rate deserved credit, on the +tell-a-good-one-and-stick-to-it principle, for his hard swearing. I +subsequently ascertained that it was untrue; and had I known a little +more of the country, I should not have been so easily deterred, seeing +that the road in question is by far the best which exists in that part +of Europe. It was constructed by the French during their occupation of +Dalmatia in the time of Napoleon, and has been since kept in good order +by the Austrian government. Being thus thwarted in my plans, I made a +virtue of necessity, engaged a country boat, and got under weigh on the +evening of the day on which I had landed at Gravosa. The night was +clear and starry; and as my boat glided along before a light breeze +under the romantic cliffs of the Dalmatian coast, I ceased to regret the +jolting which I should have experienced had I carried out my first +intention. Running along the shore for some ten hours in a +north-westerly direction, we reached Stagno, a town of small importance, +situated at the neck of a tongue of land in the district of Slano, and +which connects the promontory of Sabioncello with the mainland; ten +minutes' walk across the isthmus brought us again to the sea. The +luggage deposited in a boat of somewhat smaller dimensions, and better +adapted for river navigation, we once more proceeded on our journey. + +A little to the north of Stagno is the entrance to the port of Klek, a +striking instance of right constituted by might. The port, which, from +its entrance, belongs indisputably to Turkey, together with the land on +the southern side, is closed by Austria, in violation of every principle +of national law and justice. + +Previous to 1852, many small vessels used to enter it for trading +purposes, and it was not until Omer Pacha in that year attempted to +establish it as an open port that Austria interfered, and stationed a +war-steamer at its mouth. + +In 1860 the restriction was so far removed that Turkish vessels have +since been allowed to enter with provisions for the troops. + +To the isolated condition of these provinces, coupled with the ignorance +which prevails at Constantinople relative to the affairs of the +interior, must be attributed the indifference which the Porte has as yet +manifested regarding the preservation of its just rights. The importance +to be attached to the possession by Turkey of an open port upon the +coast cannot be overrated, since through it she would receive her +imports direct from the producing countries, while her own products +could be exported without being subjected to the rules and caprices of a +foreign state. Nor are the Turkish officials in these quarters at all +blind to the injury that accrues to Turkey, from the line of policy +which Austria is now pursuing; but while they see and deplore the +mildness with which their government permits its rights to be thus +violated, they neglect to take any steps which might induce it to appeal +to the arbitration of Europe. Were this done, there could be little +doubt of the result; for, since the land on one side of the harbour, +without question, belongs to Turkey, it would appear only just that she +should have control over the half of the channel. But even were this to +be accorded (which is most improbable, since it would prove dangerous to +the trade of Trieste), the point at issue would still be far from +settled. Any concessions will be unavailing so long as the present line +of demarcation between the two countries shall exist; for while Turkey +draws the line of limit from a point near the entrance of the harbour to +the village of Dobrogna, Austria maintains the boundary to run from that +village to a point farther within the port, by which arrangement she +includes a small bluff or headland, which commands the entire harbour. +She asserts her right to this frontier, upon the grounds of its having +been the line drawn by the French during their occupation of Dalmatia. +The Turks deny the truth of this, and state that the lines occupied by +the French can still be traced from the remains of huts built for the +protection of their sentries. Moreover, since the Austrians have also +stated that the French, when in Dalmatia, did not respect the rights of +the Sultan, but occupied Suttorina and Klek, the argument that they +assume the frontier left them by the French is hardly entitled to much +consideration. That Austria is very unlikely to open Klek of her own +free will, I have already said; nor can she be blamed for the +determination, since she must be well aware that, in the event of her +doing so, English goods at a moderate price would find a far readier +market than her own high-priced and indifferent manufactures. In a word, +she would lose the monopoly of trade which she at present possesses in +these provinces. But, on the other hand, were Turkey animated by a +spirit of reprisal, she might throw such obstacles in the path of her +more powerful neighbour as would almost compel her to abandon the system +of ultra-protection. + +The military road from Cattaro to Ragusa and Spalatro encroaches upon +Turkish territory, and the telegraphic wire which connects Cattaro with +Trieste passes over both Suttorina and Klek. The Austrian government +would find it very inconvenient were the Porte to dispute the right of +passage at these points. Should Turkey ever be in a position to force +the adoption of the frontier, as defined by herself, the value of Klek +in a military point of view will be immeasurably increased; for, while +the port itself would be protected by her guns, the approach to it is +perfectly secure, although flanked on either side by Austrian territory. +The waters of the harbour open out into the bay of Sabioncello from +seven to eight miles in width, so that a vessel in mid-channel might run +the gauntlet with impunity. + +Towards evening we entered the Narenta, the principal river of Dalmatia +and Herzegovina, by one of the numerous mouths which combine to form its +delta. Its ancient name was the 'Naro,' and it is also called by +Constantine Porphyrogenitus 'Orontium.' Later it acquired an unenviable +notoriety, as being the haunt of the 'Narentine Pirates,' who issued +thence to make forays upon the coast, and plundered or levied tribute on +the trading vessels of the Adriatic. At one time they became so powerful +as to be able to carry on a regular system of warfare, and even gain +victories over the Venetian Republic, and it was not till 997 +A.D. that they were reduced to submission by the Doge Pietro +Orseolo II., and compelled to desist from piracy. + +The valley of the Narenta is but thinly populated, a circumstance easily +accounted for by the noxious vapours which exhale from the alluvial and +reed-covered banks of the stream. + +The lowlands, moreover, which lie around the river's bed are subject to +frequent and rapid inundations. Excepting one party of villagers, who +appeared to be making merry around a large fire close to the bank, I saw +no signs of human habitation. + +The croaking of many frogs, and the whirr of the wild fowl, as they rose +from their marshy bed at our approach, were the only signs of life to be +perceived, though higher up we met a few rowing boats, and one of the +small coasting vessels used for the transport of merchandise. These +boats are generally from twenty to thirty tons burden, and are employed +for the conveyance of ordinary goods from Trieste, whence the imports of +Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Herzegovina are for the most part derived. +Their rates of freight are light, averaging from 10_d._ to 1_s._ per +cwt., chargeable on the bulk. The more valuable or fragile articles are +brought to Macarsca, a port on the Dalmatian coast, near the mouth of +the Narenta, in steamers belonging to the Austrian Lloyd's Company, +whence they are despatched by boat to Metcovich. The expense attendant +on this route prevents its being universally adopted. Insurance can be +effected as far as Metcovich at 1_s._ 4_d._ to 3_s._ 4_d._ per cwt. on +the value declared, according to the season of the year. + +Metcovich may be regarded as the _Ultima Thulé_ of civilisation in this +direction. Once across the frontier, and one may take leave of all one's +preconceived ideas regarding prosperity or comfort. Everything appears +at a standstill, whether it be river navigation or traffic on the land. +The apathy of the Turkish government presents a striking contrast to the +policy of Austria, who clearly sees the value to be attached to the +trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who, while throwing every obstacle +in the way of competition, evinces unwonted energy to secure the +monopoly which she now possesses. During the past few years she has +granted many facilities for the growth of commercial relations between +Herzegovina and her own provinces. Thus, for instance, the transit dues +on the majority of imports and exports have been removed, a few articles +only paying a nominal duty on passing into Turkey. Wool, skins, hides, +wax, honey, fruits, and vegetables, are allowed into Dalmatia free of +duty. A grant of 1,200,000 florins has, moreover, been recently made +for the regulation of the channel of the Narenta, with the view of +rendering it navigable by small steamers, which will doubtless prove a +most profitable outlay. It is to be hoped that the Turkish government +will take steps to continue the line to Mostar, which is quite +practicable, and could be effected at a small expense. + +The Narenta takes its rise at the foot of the small hill called Bolai, a +spur of the Velesh range of mountains. Its route is very circuitous, the +entire distance from the source to its mouth being about one hundred and +thirty miles, while its average width is computed at about one hundred +and forty yards. It is subject to rapid rises between the months of +September and May, caused by rains in the mountains and the melting +snow, and a rise of twelve feet in three or four hours is by no means +uncommon. As a source of communication it might be invaluable to the +province, but in its present state it is perfectly useless, since the +hardness of its waters renders it unfit for irrigation. It has many +tributary streams, amongst the most important of which are the Boona, +Bregava, Rama, Radopolie, Trebitza, and Cruppa. + +On its right bank, and some miles above the mouth, is a small town, +which rejoices in the imposing name of Fort Opus, albeit it possesses +neither walls, fortifications, nor other means of defence. As the night +was already far advanced when we arrived, I resolved to stay there a +few hours before continuing the row to Metcovich, which I should +otherwise have reached before daylight, and have been compelled to lie +off the town during the damp hours of morning. Neither sentry nor health +officer appeared to interdict our landing; and having found a miserable +outhouse, which served as a cabaret, I was preparing to snatch a few +hours' sleep as best I might, when an Hungarian corporal, employed in +the finance department, came to the rescue, and undertook to find me a +bed. Of its quality I will abstain from speaking; but such as it was, it +was freely given, and it took much persuasion to induce the honest +fellow to accept any remuneration. His post can hardly be a pleasant +one, for malaria and fever cause such mortality, that the station is +regarded much in the same light as is the gold coast of Africa by our +own government servants. As a set-off against these disadvantages, my +friend was in receipt of 2_d._ per day additional pay. May he pass +unscathed through the ordeal! + +By 2 A.M. I had again started, and reached Metcovich at 5 +A.M. on September 5. Here M. Grabrich, the principal merchant +of the place, put me in the way of procuring horses to take me to +Mostar, about nine hours distant. My destination becoming known, I was +beset with applications for my good offices with Omer Pacha. Some of +these were petitions for contracts for supplying the army, though the +greater number were demands for arrears of payment due for the supply of +meal, and the transport of horned cattle and other provisions to the +frontier. One of the complainants, a Greek, had a grievance of a +different and much more hopeless nature. He had cashed a bill for a +small amount offered him by an Irish adventurer. This, as well as +several others, proved to be forgeries, and the money was irretrievably +lost. Although travelling under an assumed name, and with a false +passport, I subsequently discovered the identity of the delinquent with +an individual, whom doubtless many who were with Garibaldi during the +campaign of the Two Sicilies will call to mind. He was then only +remarkable for his Calabrian costume and excessive amount of swagger. +When at Niksich I learned that he had escaped through that town into +Montenegro, and he has not, I believe, since been traced. + +No punishment can be too severe for a scoundrel who thus brings English +credit into disrepute, and disgraces a name which, although little known +in these regions, is deservedly respected. + +From Metcovich the traveller may proceed to Mostar by either bank of the +river. I was recommended to take the road on the northern side, which I +did, and ten minutes' ride brought us to the frontier, where a +custom-house official insisted upon unloading the baggage so recently +arranged. In vain I remonstrated, and brandished my despatches with +their enormous red seals in his face. His curiosity was not to be so +easily overcome. When he had at length satisfied himself, he permitted +us to depart with a blessing, which I acknowledge was far from +reciprocated. The first place of any importance which we passed is +Gabella. It stands on an eminence overhanging a bend of the river, by +whose waters three of its sides are washed. In former days it was +defended by two forts, whose guns swept the river in either direction, +and commanded the approach upon the opposite bank. In A.D. 1694 +it was taken by Cornaro, and remained in the hands of the Venetians +until A.D. 1716, when they evacuated it, blowing up the greater +part of its defences. + +Immediately above the town, the Narenta traverses the plain of Gabella, +which is one of the largest and most productive in the country. + +The plains of Herzegovina are in reality nothing more than valleys or +basins, some of which are so hemmed in by hills, that the streams +flowing through them can only escape by percolation, or through +subterranean channels. This last phenomenon frequently occurs, and no +better example can be given of it than the Trebinitza, which loses +itself in the ground two or three times. After the last of these +disappearances nothing is known for certain of its course, although a +large river which springs from the rocks in the Val d'Ombla, and empties +itself into the Adriatic near Ragusa, is conjectured to be the same. + +Gabella, as well as Popovo, Blato, and other plains, is inundated in the +winter, and remains in that state during three or four months. + +They are traversed by means of punts, and excellent wild-duck shooting +may be had by those who do not fear the exposure inseparable from that +sport. + +From this point the river entirely changes its aspect, losing the +sluggish character which distinguishes it during its passage through the +Austrian territory. Indeed, throughout its whole course, from its rise +until it opens out into the plain of Gabella, its bed is rocky, and the +current rapid and even dangerous, from the number of boulders which rise +above the surface, or lie hid a little below the water line. It here +receives the waters of the Trebisat or Trebitza, and the Bregava, the +former flowing from the NW., the latter from the district of Stolatz in +the SE. A few miles higher up is a narrow valley formed by two ranges of +hills, whose rocky declivities slope down to, or in some places +overhang, the river's bed. From one spot where the hills project, there +is a pretty view of the town of Pogitel on the left bank. A large +mosque, with a dome and minaret and a clock-tower, are the principal +objects which catch the eye; but, being pressed for time, I was unable +to cross the river, and cannot therefore from my own observation enter +into any accurate details. The position is, however, exactly described +by Sir Gardner Wilkinson as follows: 'It stands in a semicircular +recess, like an immense shell, in the side of the hill, and at the two +projecting extremities the walls run down from the summit to the river, +the upper part being enclosed by a semicircular wall, terminated at each +end by a tower.' + +Half way between Metcovich and Mostar is a little village, which boasts +an humble species of Khan. + +Here I found the engineer in charge of the telegraph, a Dalmatian by +birth. His head-quarters are at Bosna Serai, but he was then making a +tour for the purposes of inspection and repair. + +The telegraphic communication throughout the Ottoman Empire is now more +general than its internal condition would warrant us in supposing. +Indeed, in travelling through the country, one cannot fail to be struck +by the strange reversal of the general order of things. Thus, for +instance, both telegraph and railways have preceded the construction of +ordinary roads. + +And therein lies one of the principal causes of the hopelessness of +Turkish civilisation; that it has been prematurely forced upon her, and +that, in order to keep a position among the European nations, she is +driven to adopt the highest triumphs of European intelligence without +passing through the intermediate stages by which they have been +acquired. The rapidly remunerative nature of a telegraphic service is +obviously sufficient reason for its being thus early established; but +its duties devolve entirely, not upon Turks, but upon the foreign +employés of the government. It is, moreover, little used by the +Mussulman population, and consequently tends but little to the +enlightenment of the masses. On the subject of roads, I shall have +occasion to speak hereafter, and must therefore beg the indulgent reader +to accompany me along the bridle-path which takes us to the capital of +Herzegovina. + +Descending from the hills our progress became more rapid; yet, despite +this, it was some hours after sunset before we entered the suburbs. As +usual in a Turkish town, dogs and gravestones were to be found in +abundance, the latter with their turbanned heads looking spectral and +grim in the cold moonlight. Saving an occasional group of Mussulmans +sitting silent and pompous in the dusty road, the city appeared +perfectly deserted; and, as my now jaded ponies scrambled over the +ill-paved streets, I began to speculate on the probability of passing +the night _al fresco_. As may be conceived, then, it was with +considerable satisfaction that I found myself, chibouque in hand, +awaiting the arrival of the Pacha, who, notwithstanding the lateness of +the hour, had expressed his intention of seeing me immediately. No one +can have a greater horror than myself of that mania which possesses +some travellers for detailing conversations with Eastern dignitaries, +which, for the most part, consist of ordinary civilities, imperfectly +translated by an half-educated dragoman. + +In the present instance, however, I deem no apology necessary for +dwelling upon this first or subsequent conversations; since anything +from the lips of such a man at so critical a moment must, to say the +least, be of interest, even though it should be without any actual +political importance. Having discussed the relative attitudes of the +European powers with regard to Turkey, and spoken most unreservedly on +the subject of French and Russian intrigues, he expressed great interest +in the opinions formed by the public of the different countries on the +Herzegovinian and Montenegrin question. The principal topic of +conversation, however, was the campaign then about to be opened against +the Herzegovinian rebels, and the preparations which he had made for +carrying it out. + +While fully alive to the difficulties attending his task, resulting from +political complications, and the physical features of the country, he +ever spoke with confidence of the ultimate success of the Turkish armies +and the general pacification of the country. If any man be competent to +bring about this desirable consummation it is himself; for he possesses, +to an eminent degree, that caution which is indispensable to the +successful conduct of an offensive war in a mountainous country, and +which is so much at variance with the haphazard arrangements usually +found among Turkish generals. + +In using the words _offensive war_, I mean to imply operations carried +on from a regular base, and in accordance with the generally accepted +rules of warfare, in contra-distinction to the guerilla fighting as +practised by the insurgent mountaineers. In its more literal sense, Omer +Pacha's mission can hardly be deemed offensive; his object is, not to +overrun territory, nor even to seek a combat with the enemy, but rather +to place the country in such a state of defence as will render it secure +from the incursions of those brigands who, having thrown off the Turkish +rule, have sought a refuge in the fastnesses of Montenegro, whence, in +conjunction with the lawless bands of that province, they make forays +across the frontier, carrying fire and sword in their wake, respecting +neither age nor sex,--rebels to their sovereign, and a disgrace to +Christianity. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical + Features--Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali + Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber + Company--Saw-Mill--Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek + Catholics--Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan + College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour. + + +Herzegovina[C] or Bosnia Inferior, formerly the duchy of Santo Saba, is +bounded on the N. by Bosnia, on the E. by Servia, on the W. by Dalmatia, +and on the S. by Montenegro and the Adriatic. + +Its greatest length, from Duvno in the NW., to Priepolie in the S., is +about a hundred and twenty miles, and its greatest breadth from Konitza, +on the Bosnian frontier, to the port of Klek, is about seventy-two +miles.[D] It contains an approximate area of 8,400 square miles, with a +population, of about thirty-five souls to the square mile.[D] A glance +at any map, imperfect in detail as those yet published have been, will +convey a tolerable idea of the nature of the country. + +The ranges of mountains which intersect the greater part of the province +are a portion of the Dinaric Alps. Along the Dalmatian and Montenegrin +frontiers these are barren and intensely wild, and in many places, from +the deep fissures and honeycomb formation of the rocks, impassable to +aught save the chamois, the goat, or the indigenous mountaineer. + +Proceeding inland, the country assumes a more habitable aspect: plains +and pasture-lands capable of high cultivation are found at intervals, +while even the mountains assume a more fertile appearance, and have a +better depth of soil, which is well adapted for the cultivation of the +olive and the vine. Dense forests, too, of average growth cover the +mountain sides as we approach the Bosnian frontier, which, although +inferior to those of Bosnia itself, would prove most remunerative to the +government were they properly worked. But, unfortunately, the principle +of isolation which the Porte has adopted with regard to these remote +provinces, together with the want of enterprise among its inhabitants, +the result of four hundred years of indolence on the one hand and +oppression on the other, renders it problematical whether their ample +resources will ever be developed. Should Turkey, however, arise from her +lethargy, should genuine civilisation spread its branches over the land, +we may then confidently anticipate a glorious future for her +south-Slavonic provinces, doubting not that they will some day become +'the noblest jewel in their monarch's diadem.' + +To convey an accurate idea of a province so little known as the +Herzegovina, it will be best to enumerate the various physical features +by which it is distinguished. Thus the highest and most important +mountains are Dormitor in the district of Drobniak, on the Montenegrin +frontier, and Velesh, which forms a rugged background to the plain of +Mostar, the highest point being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. +Besides these, there are many others of nearly equal altitude, viz. +Flam, Hergud, Prievolie, Vrau, Hako, Fartar, Belen, Stermoshnik, +Bielevoda, Chabolie, Vrabcha, and Zavola. The perfect sea of rock which +the southern part of the province presents to the eye is of grey +limestone, varied however by a slatey stratum. Of the mineral products +of the mountains little accurate knowledge prevails; gold, silver, and +lead are said to exist, but I could not hear of their having ever been +found to any extent. A firman was granted some years ago to one Hadji +Ali Pacha, ceding to him for fifteen years the privilege of exploring +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and working any mines which he might there +discover. His application for this firman does not, however, in any way +prove the existence of these minerals throughout the country generally, +since it has proved to have been a mere cloak for diverting suspicion +from many previous dishonest actions of which he had been guilty. His +story is worthy of narration, as being no bad instance of the career of +a Turkish _parvenu_, whose only qualifications were a little education +and a large amount of effrontery. + +Hadji Ali Pacha commenced his career as a clerk in the pay of the great +Mehemet Ali Pacha, Viceroy of Egypt, but, having deserted to the Turks, +he was employed by them in the capacity of Uzbashee or Captain. Fearful +of falling into the hands of the Egyptians, he fled from his post, and, +having made his way to Constantinople, contrived, by scheming and +bribery, not only to efface the memory of the past, but to secure the +appointment of Kaimakan or Lieut.-Colonel, with which grade he was sent +to Travnik in command of a regiment. Tahir Pacha, the Governor of +Bosnia, had about this time been informed of the existence of some gold +mines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji Ali to obtain samples for +transmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all the +valuable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, on +their arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner was +this decision arrived at, than Hadji Ali imported the necessary +machinery and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores, +and in this way amassed immense wealth. Rumours having got abroad of +what was going on, and the suspicions of Tahir being aroused, the +unfortunate Austrian was put secretly out of the way, and, as a blind, +the unprincipled ruffian procured the firman to which allusion has been +made. It need hardly be said that he never availed himself of the +privileges which it conferred upon him. Some time after these +transactions, he applied for leave to visit Austria, on the plea of +ill-health, but doubtless with the view of changing the gold. This was +refused, and he was obliged to employ a Jew, who carried it to Vienna, +and disposed of it there. In 1850, when Omer Pacha came to restore order +in Bosnia, which had then revolted, Hadji Ali was sent with two +battalions to the relief of another detachment; upon this occasion he +communicated with the enemy, who cut off his rear-guard, and otherwise +roughly handled the Turkish troops. Upon this, Omer Pacha put him in +chains, and would have shot him, as he richly deserved, had he not known +that his enemies at Constantinople would not fail to distort the true +features of the case. He therefore sent him to Constantinople, where he +was shortly afterwards released, and employed his gold to such good +purpose, that he was actually sent down as Civil Governor to Travnik, +which he had so recently left a prisoner convicted of robbery and +treason. He was, however, soon dismissed for misconduct, and entered +once more into private speculations. In 1857 he purchased the tithes of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and employed such ruffians to collect them as to +make perfect martyrs of the people, some of whom were even killed by his +agents. Exasperated beyond endurance, the people of Possavina rose en +masse, and although the movement was put down without difficulty, it +doubtless paved the way for the discord and rebellion which has been +attended with such calamitous results. This is precisely one of those +cases which has brought such odium on the Turkish government, and which +may so easily be avoided for the future, always providing that the Porte +be sincere in its oft-repeated protestations of a desire for genuine +reform. Ali Pacha was at Mostar in the beginning of 1858, when the +movement began, but was afraid to venture into the revolted districts to +collect his tithes. The Governor, therefore, made him Commandant of the +Herzegovinian irregulars, in which post he vindicated the character +which he had obtained for cruelty and despotism. Subsequently he was +appointed Kaimakan of Trebigné, but the European Consuls interfered, and +he has now decamped, owing a large sum to government, the remnant of his +contract for the tithes. + +The sides of some of the mountains are covered, as I have before said, +with dense forests of great value. There the oak, ash, elm, beech, +walnut, red and white pine, and the red and yellow maple, grow in rich +profusion, awaiting only the hand of man to shape them into 'the tall +mast' and the 'stately ship.' But man, in these benighted lands, is +blind to the sources of wealth with which his country teems, and to +nature it is left in the lapse of years to 'consume the offspring she +has herself produced.' The difficulty of transporting the timber to a +market has been always alleged by the natives as their reason for +neglecting to turn the forests to account; but this is a paltry excuse, +for with abundance of rivers to float it to the coast, and a neighbour +so anxious to monopolise the trade of the country as Austria has shown +herself, little doubt can be entertained of the possibility of its +advantageous disposal. As far back as 1849 an Austrian Company, +foreseeing the benefits which would accrue from the employment of +capital in these parts, obtained a concession of the pine forests for +twenty years. Saw-mills were built near Mostar, and roads and shoots +were constructed. About 5,000 logs had been cut and exported, when the +works were stopped by Omer Pacha on his arrival to suppress rebellion in +the country in 1850. This arbitrary measure on his part has been much +reprehended, and does without doubt require explanation. + +It should, however, be remembered that the contract, which was likely to +prove most remunerative to the Company, and of but little advantage to +the Turkish government, had been granted by Ali Pacha of Stolatz, the +last Civil Governor, to whom a tithe of the products was being paid. He +had in the meanwhile thrown off his allegiance, and consequently the +only blame which can attach to Omer Pacha is a want of judgement, caused +by over-zeal for the interests of his government. The case was +afterwards litigated, and the Porte was mulcted 200,000 florins as an +indemnity for their breach of the contract. This was liquidated from Ali +Pacha's property, and the firman has been renewed for fourteen years +since 1859. The Austrian government has, however, forbidden the Company +to avail themselves of it, as its members are engaged in legal +proceedings. The only saw-mill which I met with in the country was one +at Boona, worked by an Hungarian, who is apparently doing a lucrative +business. + +The rivers in the country are of no great size or importance, but might +in most cases be turned to account for the transport of timber or for +irrigation. The waters of some of the large rivers, it is true, are +injurious to vegetation from their hardness, but this does not apply to +all. After the Narenta, the following are the most important:--the +Trebenitza, Pria, Taro and Moratcha, Yanitza, Boona, Boonitza, Bregava, +Kruppa, Trebisat or Trebitza, Drechnitza, Grabovitza, Biela, +Kaladjin-Polok, and the Drina. It might be expected from its vicinity to +Bulgaria, where such fine lakes are found, that the same would be the +case in Herzegovina; but it is not so: Blato, which is marked as a lake +in all maps, is only such in winter, as with early spring the waters +disappear. + +The only towns in the province worthy of mention, besides Mostar, are +Fochia and Taschlijeh. They each contain about 10,000 inhabitants. The +other towns are nothing more than large villages, with a bazaar. They +are the seats of the district governments, such as Stolatz, Trebigné, +Konitza, Niksich, Duvno, Chainitza, and others. The houses in these are +not conspicuous for cleanliness, while those in the smaller villages are +still less desirable as residences. They generally consist of some +scores of huts, built of rough stones, without windows or chimneys, and +roofed with boards, which are again covered with straw. They seldom +contain more than one room, which the family occupies, in conjunction +with the poultry and domestic animals. The furniture of these luxurious +abodes consists of a hand-loom, two or three iron pots, a few earthen +vessels, and some wooden spoons. The bedding is a coarse woollen +blanket, which serves as a cloak in rainy or wet weather, and as a +mattress and coverlet for the whole family, without distinction of sex. + +The population of the Herzegovina amounts to about 182,000, divided as +follows:-- + +Catholics 52,000 +Greek Church 70,000 +Mussulmans 60,000 + +Originally these were all of the same stock; and their present +divisions, while constituting an element of safety for Turkey, are most +prejudicial to the well-being of the country. The Greek faith +predominates in the southern and eastern parts of the province. Its +adherents are distinguished for their activity and cunning,--qualities +which have rendered them far wealthier than their brethren of the +Catholic communion. The possession of comparative wealth, and the +consciousness of the moral support granted them by Russia, has made them +presumptuous and over-bearing, hating alike all sects and creeds which +differ from their own. Their ignorance is only equalled by the +fanaticism which often results therefrom; and so bitter is their +detestation of the Roman Catholics, that more than one instance has been +known of its leading to foul acts of murder. Unoffending peasants have +been taken in the revolted districts, and ordered to kneel and make the +sign of the cross, to prove the truth of their assertions that they were +not Mussulmans. The wretched creatures confidently did so in accordance +with the Roman Catholic form, and their lives were unceremoniously +forfeited to the bigotry and ferocity of their unrelenting judges. Nor +are either tolerance or humanity in any way advocated by the priests, +who are generally as illiterate and narrow-minded as their flocks, and +whose influence, which is very great, is generally employed for evil. +The priesthood are divided into Archimandrite, Igumens (chiefs of +monasteries), Monks, and Priests, all of whom are natives of the +province, where their whole lives have been passed. Of late years, +however, many have been sent to receive their education in Russia. Some +of these have now returned, but have not given signs of any desire to +ameliorate the spiritual condition of the people. The Church has always +been governed by a Vladika or Metropolitan, named from Constantinople. +Like most other appointments from that capital, this was generally paid +for, and its possessor consequently did not hesitate to employ every +means in his power to reimburse himself. This, and the fact that he was +never a native of the country, rendered him most unpopular; so that +while the priests (little as they may deserve it) are regarded with +reverence by the people, the Vladika was respected by neither the one +nor the other. At present the office is vacant, none having been +appointed since the demise of the last who occupied the episcopal chair. +That event occurred in the commencement of 1861, and his attempts at +extortion were so frequent and undisguised, that his death must have +been felt as a great relief by the people. Petitions were sent at that +time to Constantinople, praying for the appointment of a Slavish +Metropolitan; but, independently of the difficulty of finding anyone of +sufficient education among the Bosnian clergy, political considerations +have induced the Porte to prevent the Patriarch complying with the +demand; for, however bad in other respects they may have been, the +Metropolitans have always remembered that their allegiance was due to +the Patriarch of Constantinople, and not to the schismatic branch of the +Greek Church, over which the Czar exercises both temporal and spiritual +sway. Were a Slavish Metropolitan appointed, Russian influence would be +dangerously augmented, and the task of transferring the allegiance of +the people from their proper ecclesiastical head to the Russian Emperor, +as has been attempted in Bulgaria, would here become easy of +accomplishment. + +In the N. and W. the Romish faith finds the greatest number of +supporters, who look to Austria as their guiding star in all matters +connected with religion. In their ranks are comprised the +agriculturalists and artisans of the province, few being engaged in +commerce. As regards education or enlightenment they are no farther +advanced than their Greek compatriots: few can read or write their own +language, and the knowledge of any other tongue is most exceptional. +Learning, in its broader sense, is indeed confined exclusively to the +convents, and, until very recently, no attempt of any kind was made by +the priests to promote a desire for education or advancement among the +people, their whole thoughts being bent on self-aggrandisement, and the +acquisition of personal wealth. Careful enquiry has established the fact +that no less than 60,000_l._ is annually paid in fees, penances, and +gifts to the Church by the Roman Catholic section of the population; and +we may fairly infer that the Greek priests extort an equally large sum. +Of late schools have been established in different parts of the +province, but the subjects of education are too confined to work any +salutary change in the rising generation. Nor is it probably intended +that such should be the case. + +The Roman Catholics cordially return the hatred of the Greeks, marriages +with whom are forbidden by the Catholic clergy. They are also inimical +to the Mussulman population, by whom they are regarded as serfs. But +this hostility is nurtured in secret, rarely displaying itself in overt +acts of aggression. Four hundred years of oppression have completely +broken their spirit, and they only ask to be allowed to enjoy in peace a +fair portion of the fruits of their labour. + +The Church is governed by two bishops. One, resident at Mostar, bears +the title of Bishop of Azotto, and Vicar-Apostolic of the Herzegovina. +The other, called the Bishop of Trebigné, lives at Ragusa, which is also +included in his see. He has, however, a Vicar resident in the district +of Stolatz. As in Bosnia, the monks are all of the Franciscan order. +Considerable attention is paid to their education, and they are in every +way immeasurably superior to the parochial clergy. In connection with +that brotherhood a college has been for some years established, about +twelve miles distant from Mostar. The subjects of education there are +Latin, Italian, Slavish, Church History, and Theology. From this college +the students proceed to Rome, where they are admitted into the +Franciscan order. + +In the above remarks, I have endeavoured to show that the Christianity +which exists in these provinces is merely nominal, since it is devoid of +all those gentle and humanising principles which should distinguish it +from Islamism, whose tenets have been ever propagated by conquest and +the sword. The vices which more especially accompany and mar the beauty +of true Christian civilisation here hold unrestrained dominion, and both +Greeks and Catholics present a painful combination of western cunning +and intrigue and oriental apathy, while they are devoid of that spirit +of devotion and dignified resignation to the will of Providence which +preeminently characterise the religion of Mahomet. Living on the +confines of the two hemispheres, they have inherited the sins of each, +without the virtues of either the one or the other. Nearly all adults +are addicted to drunkenness, while the use of foul and indelicate +language is almost universal,--men, women, and children employing it in +common conversation. So long as such a state of things shall prevail, it +is clearly impossible that any material improvement can be brought +about; and until the people show some inclination to improve their own +condition, the sympathy or consideration of others is uncalled-for and +misplaced. The perpetual Russian whine about eight millions of +Christians being held in galling subjection by four millions of Turks is +a miserable deception, which, although it may serve as a pretext for +their own repeated acts of interference, cannot mislead those who have +seen anything of these countries, or who have been brought into contact +with their Christian inhabitants. The most effective course, probably, +which either the bitterest enemy or the warmest friend of the Ottoman +government could pursue, would be to disseminate the seeds of true +Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the land. And I say +this advisedly; for on the future conduct of the Porte would depend +whether such a course might lead to the establishment of Turkish +supremacy, or to its irretrievable overthrow. That an enlightened +nation, 'at unity in itself,' could cast off the yoke of an oppressive +and tottering despotism can easily be imagined, while, on the other +hand, a throne based upon principles of justice and progression would +acquire fresh stability with each step made by its subjects in the path +of civilisation. It is, indeed, strange that so fine a field for British +missionary labour has been so long uncared-for and untried. Nowhere is +there more ample scope for exertion of this nature than in the European +provinces of Turkey; for while the Christian population could not but +contrast the simple purity of the missionary life with the vicious +habits and grasping avarice of their own clergy, the Mussulmans would +see Christianity in a very different light from that in which they have +been accustomed to regard it. Nor would any obstacles be thrown in the +way by the Turkish government; nay, instances have even occurred of +Protestant missionaries receiving encouragement and support: for, +whatever may be said to the contrary, no nation is more tolerant of the +exercise of other religions than these same much-abused Moslems. +Whatever is to be done, however, should be done at once, for never was +it more urgently needed. The American struggle seems to have paralysed +the missionary labours of that nation, which had heretofore displayed +much energy in proclaiming the glad tidings of great joy in these +benighted lands. For England, then, it would appear, is reserved the +noble task of rescuing these unfortunates from a state of moral +darkness, as profound as that which envelopes the savage tribes of +central Africa, or the remotest islands of the Pacific. That we have +remained so long indifferent to the urgent appeals of the talented and +earnest, though somewhat prejudiced, advocate of Slavonic institutions, +Count Valerian Krasinski, is a matter of surprise and deep regret; for +surely no country can be more replete with interest to Protestant +England than that which may be regarded as the cradle of Protestantism, +and whose fastnesses afforded a refuge during four centuries of +persecution to the 'early reformers of the Church, the men who supplied +that link in the chain which connected the simplicity of primitive +doctrines with the present time.' + +The affinity which exists between the Church of England in the early +days of the Reformation and the Pragmatic section which glory in Huss +and Jerome, is too close to be easily overlooked. Nor need Bosnia (taken +collectively) succumb in interest to any Slavonic province, whether it +be regarded as the stronghold of freedom of religious opinion, or as the +scene of one of the greatest and most important triumphs of Islamism. + +[Footnote C: Or the territory governed by a Herzog or Duke.] + +[Footnote D: This includes Austrian subjects, who are not included in +the statistics.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic Element--First + Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their Origin--Tenets--Elect + a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in + Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian Apostasy--Religious + Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under Kiamil Pacha--Servian + Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted Brotherhood--Mahommedan + Women--Elopements--Early Marriages. + + +Authorities differ as to the time when Christianity was first introduced +into Bosnia. Some say that it was preached by the apostle St. James, +while others affirm that it was unknown until the year 853 +A.D., when St. Cyril and Methodius translated the Scriptures +into the Slavonic tongue; others again say that it dates back as far as +the seventh century, when the Emperor Heraclius called the Slavonic +nations of the Chorvats or Croats, and the Serbs or Servians, from their +settlement on the N. of the Carpathian Mountains, to the fertile regions +S. of the Danube. The warlike summons was gladly obeyed by those valiant +men, who had unflinchingly maintained their independence, whilst their +Slavish brethren, inhabiting the country between the Volga and the Don, +had submitted to the iron yoke of the all-conquering Avars. These last +were in their time expelled by the Croats and Serbs, and thus was +Slavism established from the Danube to the Mediterranean. But these +important results were not achieved without great sacrifice; and, +wearied of war and bloodshed, the successful Slavonians devoted +themselves to agriculture and industry, neglecting those pursuits which +had procured for them a permanent footing in the Greek empire. Taking +advantage of this defenceless state, resulting from their pacific +disposition, Constans II. made war upon the country of Slavonia, in +order to open a communication between the capital on the one side, and +Philippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian II. (685-95 and +708-10) also made a successful expedition against the Slavonians, and +transplanted a great number of prisoners, whom he took into Asia Minor. +The Greek empire having become reinvigorated for some time under the +Slavonian dynasty, Constantine Copronymus (741-75) advanced in his +conquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the S. of Thessalonica, which +is evident from an inspection of the frontiers of the empire, made by +order of the Empress Irene in 783. The Emperor Michael III. (842-67) +sent an army against the Slavonians of the Peloponnesus, which conquered +them all with the exception of the Melugi and Eseritoe, who inhabited +Lacedæmonia and Elis, and they were all finally subjugated by the +Emperor Basilicus I., or the Macedonian (867-86), after which the +Christian religion and Greek civilisation completely Hellenised them, as +their brethren on the Baltic were Germanised.[E] That the Latin faith +subsequently obtained a permanent footing in these provinces, is due to +the influence of the Kings of Hungary, who took the Bosnian Bans under +their special protection; and thus it happened that the Bosnian nobles +almost universally adopted the religion of their benefactors,--not so +much from conviction, it is surmised, as from an appreciation of the +many feudal privileges which it conferred, since they afterwards +renounced Christianity entirely, rather than relinquish the rights which +they had begun to regard as hereditary. The remote position of these +countries, however, and the antagonism of the Eastern and Western +Churches, combined to retard the development of the Papal doctrines, +while a still more important counterpoise presented itself, in the +appearance of the sect of Patarenes, towards the close of the twelfth +century. The sect was founded by an Armenian doctor, named Basil, who +was burnt for his opinions by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, and whose +followers, being banished, retired into Bulgaria, where they made many +converts, and took the name of Bogomili--'chosen of God,' or 'implorers +of God's mercy.' They thence spread their tenets into France by means +of pilgrims and traders, who were on their return to that country, and +by degrees laid the seeds of doctrines subsequently taken up by Peter +Bruysius, and afterwards by Henry and by Peter Valdo, the founder of the +Waldenses, and by others in other places. Availing themselves of the +various Caliphs' tolerance of all Christian sects, they carried their +opinions with their commerce into Africa, Spain, and finally into +Languedoc, a neighbouring province, to Moorish Iberia, where Raymond, +Count of Toulouse, gave them shelter and protection.[F] + +The same opinions were held by the Paulicians of Spain, who, having +received much encouragement from the Kings of Arragon and Castile, also +disseminated their doctrines throughout France, in the southern +provinces of which they met with great success. There they received the +name of Albigenses, from the town of Albiga or Alby. They afterwards +spread into Italy, where they received the name of 'Patarenes,' as some +suppose from the 'sufferings' which they endured, though other fanciful +reasons are assigned for the bestowal of the name. The tenets of these +early reformers 'have been transmitted through various sects under the +different denominations of Vallenses, Paulicians, Patarenes, Cathari +(Puritans), Bogomili, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, Bohemian Brethren +or Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Protestants to the present +day.' No very lucid account of their articles of faith has been handed +down to our times, and some suppose that they entertained the Manichæan +doctrines of the existence of the two principles, and of the creation of +the spiritual world by the good, and of matter by the evil One. +Krasinski appears to favour this supposition; but it is far more +probable that, with the name indiscriminately bestowed as a term of +opprobrium upon all who differed from the canons of the Romish Church, +they have received the credit of supporting the doctrines of the +Manichæans. This much, however, is certain,--that they denied the +sovereignty of the Pope, the power of the priests, the efficacy of +prayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory;[G] while they +rejected all images, relics, and the worship of the saints. Whether the +advent of the sect into Bosnia was from the Bulgarian or Italian side is +unknown; but, be this as it may, it is beyond a doubt that they were +most favourably received (in 1197) by Kulin, who was at that time Ban of +the province. His wisdom was so great, and his reign so prosperous, that +long after his death it was a proverbial saying in Bosnia, upon the +occurrence of a fruitful year, 'the times of Kulin are come back.' Both +he himself, his wife, and Daniel, Bishop of Bosnia, embraced the new +doctrines, which consequently gained ground rapidly in the country. + +In obedience to a summons from Pope Innocent III., Kulin repaired to +Rome to give an account of his conduct and faith. Having succeeded in +diverting suspicions about his orthodoxy, he returned to Bosnia, where +he gave out that the Pope was well satisfied with his profession of +faith,--a slight equivocation, which will hardly bear an enquiry,--and +thus induced many more to join the Patarenes. Hearing of this, the Pope +requested the King of Hungary to compel Kulin to eject them from the +country, at the same time ordering Bernard, Archbishop of Spalatro, +publicly to excommunicate Daniel, the refractory Bishop. + + 'Never was heard such a terrible curse. + But what gave rise + To no little surprise + Was, that nobody seemed one penny the worse;' + +though possibly the believer in the validity of Papal bulls, bans, and +so forth, may plead in excuse that the curse was never actually +pronounced. The King also contented himself with a friendly caution to +the Ban, who thenceforward demeaned himself with more circumspection. On +the death of Kulin, Andrew, King of Hungary, gave the Banate of Bosnia +to Zibislau, under whom the doctrines of the Patarenes continued to +flourish. The fears of Pope Honorius II. being aroused, he sent +Acconcio, his Legate, into Bosnia to suppress them. So far from +effecting this, he saw their numbers daily and hourly increase, until in +1222 they elected a Primate of their own, who resided on the confines of +Bulgaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed by his Vicars the filial +congregation of Italy and France.[H] They destroyed the cathedral of +Crescevo, and Bosnia became entirely subject to their influence. From +that time, until the latter part of the fourteenth century, they +contrived to keep a footing in the country, although subjected to much +persecution by successive Popes and the Kings of Hungary, and oftentimes +reduced to the greatest straits. Occasional glimpses of sunshine buoyed +up their hopes, and the following anecdote, quoted by Sir Gardner +Wilkinson, is illustrative of the sanguine view which they were +accustomed to take of the ways of Providence. 'Many of the Patarenes had +taken refuge, during the various persecutions, in the mountains of +Bosnia; and on the eve of St. Catherine (November 24) in 1367, a fire +was seen raging over the whole of the country they occupied, destroying +everything there, and leaving the mountains entirely denuded of wood. +The Roman Catholics considered this event to be a manifest judgement of +heaven against the wicked heretics; but the Patarenes looked on it as a +proof of divine favour, the land being thereby cleared for them and +adapted for cultivation.' In 1392 the sect flourished under Tuartko +(then King of Bosnia), and, further, made great progress during the +first half of the following century. Their cause was openly espoused by +Cosaccia, Duke of Santo Saba, or Herzegovina, and by John Paulovich +Voivode of Montenegro. So far all went well; but Stephen, King of +Bosnia, having in 1459 ordered all Patarenes to leave his kingdom or +abjure their doctrines, their cause received a severe shock, and 40,000 +were obliged to take refuge in the Herzegovina, where they were welcomed +by Stephen Cosaccia. From that time no farther direct trace remains of +this important and widely-spreading sect; though Krasinski speaks of the +existence of a sect in Russia called 'Dookhoboitzi,' or combatants in +spirit, whose doctrines have great affinity to those professed by the +Patarenes, and whom he believes to have been transplanted from Bosnia to +Russia, their present country. + +But this triumph of Papal oppression was not destined to be of long +duration. Already was the tide of Mussulman conquest threatening to +overrun Germany; and Bosnia, after suffering severely from the wars +between Hungary and the Turks, was conquered, and annexed by the latter +in 1465. The religious constancy of the Bosnian nobles was now sorely +tried, for they found themselves compelled to choose between their +religion and poverty, or recantation and wealth. Their decision was soon +made, and the greater portion renounced Christianity and embraced +Islamism, rather than relinquish those feudal privileges, for the +attainment of which they had originally deserted their national creed. +Their example was ere long followed by many of the inhabitants of the +towns, and thus an impassable gulf was placed between them and the great +body of the people, who remained faithful to Christianity, and regarded +the renegades with mistrust and abhorrence. These for the moment were +benefited greatly by their apostasy, receiving permission to retain not +only their own estates, but also to hold in fief those belonging to such +as had refused to deny Christ. With the bitterness characteristic of +renegades, they now became the most inveterate enemies of those whose +faith they had abjured, oppressing them by every means within their +power. The savage tyranny which they exercised would doubtless have +driven very many to emigration, had a place of refuge presented itself; +but in the existing condition of the surrounding countries such a course +would have in no way profited them, but would rather have aggravated +their misery. A few, indeed, succeeded in escaping into Hungary, but +the mass submitted to their fate, and were reduced to poverty and +insignificance. + +The rancorous ill-treatment which they experienced at the hands of their +fanatical oppressors, was without doubt increased by the fact that these +found themselves a small and isolated band, all-powerful upon the +immediate spot they occupied, but surrounded by states which were +implacable enemies to their religion; while the remote position of these +provinces, and the difficulty of communication, have combined to render +the people, even now, less tolerant than the more legitimate devotees of +Mahometanism. That idea of superiority over other peoples and religions, +which the Mussulman faith inculcates, was eagerly embraced by them at +the time of their first perversion, and conspired to make them zealots +in their newly-adopted creed. The feeling was inherited, and even +augmented, with each succeeding generation, until it has become the +prominent feature of the race. To such an extent has this been indulged, +that the Bosniac Mussulmans of the present day not only despise all +other religions, but look upon the Mahommedans of other parts of the +empire as very little superior to the Christians. The apathy and +indifference to progress which has inevitably ensued upon the adoption +of Islamism, has made its effects strikingly apparent in these +provinces; and although entirely deprived of all those Seignorial +rights which their ancestors possessed, the Mussulman population appear +perfectly satisfied with the lazy independence procured for them by the +produce and rents of the land, of which they are the sole proprietors. +The Christians, on the other hand, are invariably the tenants, as it is +beneath the dignity of a Mussulman to turn his hand to any kind of +manual labour, i.e. so long as he can find a Christian to do it. + +The Euchlemeh, or arrangement for the tenure of land, has long existed +in this part of the empire, and has worked well whenever it has not been +abused. The original terms of the contract provided that the proprietor +should give the land and the seed for sowing it, receiving in return +one-third of the produce in kind. The commission of which Kiamil Pacha +was President in 1853, endeavoured, whilst regulating the taxation of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, to ameliorate the condition of the tenant as +regards the rental of land. They decreed that he should be supplied with +animals, implements, seeds, and also a house in which to live, while +yielding to the proprietor in return from 25 to 50 per cent. of the +products, according to the more or less prolific nature of land in the +different parts of the provinces. These terms were cheerfully accepted +by the agriculturalists, by whom they were considered just. The internal +state of the Ottoman empire, unfortunately, renders it impossible that +these conditions should in all cases be adhered to, and without doubt +the tenants are often compelled to pay from 10 to 20 per cent. more than +the legal rent. These instances, however, are less frequent than they +were a few years ago, and very much less frequent than the depreciators +of Turkey would have us to believe. The most scrupulous observance of +the terms of the Euchlemeh will be enforced by the Ottoman government if +it be alive to its own interests, and the more so that the infraction of +it has been, and will always be, turned to account by those who would +fain see rebellion and discord prevailing in the Turkish provinces, +rather than unity and peace. + +In 1860 no fewer than nine Servian emissaries were caught in the +Herzegovina, who were endeavouring to fan the discontent and ill-feeling +already existing amongst the agricultural classes. That province has +indeed been for a long time employed by the advocates of Panslavism, or +by the enemies of Turkey in general, as a focus of agitation, where +plans are hatched and schemes devised, the object of which is to +disorganise and impede the consolidation of the empire. The conduct of +Servia, as well as of greater and more important nations, has been most +reprehensible, and with it the forbearance of Turkey, notwithstanding +the corruptness of her government and the fanaticism of the Mussulman +population, has contrasted most favourably. Little wonder, then, that +ill-blood should have existed between these rival factions, and that the +party possessing power should have been prompted to use it for the +oppression of those whom they have had too much reason to regard as +their implacable foes. Yet, in spite of these opposing elements, many +points of striking resemblance still remain inspired by, and indicative +of, their former consanguinity of origin and identity of creed. The most +important of these, perhaps, is their retention of the Slavonic tongue, +which is employed to the exclusion of Turkish, almost as universally by +the Mussulmans as by the Christians. Some of their customs, too, prove +that a little spark of nationality yet exists, which their adoption of +Islamism has failed to eradicate. Thus, for example, the principle of +adopted brotherhood is eminently Slavonic in its origin. The tie is +contracted in the following manner:--Two persons prick their fingers, +the blood from each wound being sucked by the other. This engagement is +considered very binding, and, curiously enough, it is sometimes entered +into by Christians and Mussulmans mutually. Again, a man cuts the hair +of a child, and thus constitutes himself the 'Coom,' or, to a certain +degree, assumes the position of a godfather. It not unfrequently happens +that a Mussulman adopts a Christian child, and vice versâ. + +In their domestic arrangements they vie in discomfort and want of +cleanliness, notwithstanding the post-prandial ablutions common to all +Easterns. + +The Mussulman females, up to the time of their marriage, show themselves +unreservedly, and generally appear in public unveiled; while in one +respect, at any rate, they have the advantage of many more civilised +Christians than those of Turkey,--that they are permitted, in the matter +of a husband, to choose for themselves, and are wooed in all due form. +Parents there, as elsewhere, are apt to consider themselves the best +judges of the position and income requisite to insure the happiness of +their daughters, and where such decision is at variance with the young +lady's views, elopement is resorted to. Of the amount of resistance +encountered by the bridegrooms on these occasions, I regret that I am +not in a position to hazard an opinion. Polygamy is almost unknown, a +second wife being seldom taken during the lifetime of the first. Since +it is to the expense attendant upon this luxury that such abstinence is +probably to be attributed, it really reflects great credit upon the +Bosnian Benedicts that the meal-sack has been so seldom brought into +play,--that ancient and most expeditious Court of Probate and Divorce in +matrimonial cases. After marriage, the women conceal themselves more +strictly than in most other parts of Turkey. Perhaps in this the +husbands act upon the homoeopathic principle, that prevention is better +than cure; for divorces are unheard of, and are considered most +disgraceful. Marriages are contracted at a much earlier age by the +Christian than by the Mahommedan women, and it is no uncommon thing to +find wives of from twelve to fourteen years of age. This abominable +custom is encouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy, whose revenues are +thereby increased. + +[Footnote E: Krasinski.] + +[Footnote F: See Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Dalmatia,' Napier's 'Florentine +History,' and Sismondi's 'Literature du Midi de l'Europe.'] + +[Footnote G: Sismondi.] + +[Footnote H: Gibbon.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of + Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural Capabilities + of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian _Scutors_--Other + Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations with Bosnia--Able + Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria takes Alarm--Trade + Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier + Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms. + + +The agricultural products of the Herzegovina are wheat, barley, rice, +linseed, millet, tobacco, and grapes. Of the cereals, Indian corn is +most cultivated, and forms the staple article of consumption, as is also +the case in Servia and the Danubian principalities. The little wheat +that is grown is found in the northern and eastern parts of the +province, where the soil is better adapted for it; but nowhere is it +either abundant or of good quality. The best which is sold in the towns +is imported from Bosnia. Barley is more extensively grown, and horses +are fed upon it here and throughout Turkey generally. Linseed is only +grown in small quantities in the northern parts, while the district of +Gliubinski is almost entirely devoted to the culture of rice. As the +quantities produced barely suffice for home consumption, no exportation +of cereals can be expected to take place. This circumstance, together +with its rugged appearance, naturally procures for the province the +character of being sterile and unproductive, and such it doubtless is +when compared with Bulgaria, Roumelia, or the fruitful plains of +Wallachia; but it has certain resources peculiar to itself, which, if +properly developed, would materially change the aspect of the country, +and obtain for it a more desirable reputation. It is eminently adapted +for the cultivation of those articles of Eastern necessity and Western +luxury, tobacco and the vine. Numerous patches of land, now either +fallow or sown with grain, for which they are neither suited by their +size or the nature of their soil, might be turned to good account for +the growth of tobacco; and such would doubtless be the case were there +an outlet for its exportation, which at present, unfortunately, does not +exist. Only a sufficiency, therefore, is grown to meet the local +demands, and to supply the contiguous Turkish provinces. Three qualities +are produced, the prices of which have been for some time fluctuating. +Previous to the Christian outbreak the best of these, grown in the +district of Trebigné, sold for about 11_d._ per pound, while the +cheapest was to be procured at 3_d._ per pound. + +In alluding to the capabilities of the province for the production of +the vine, I might also have mentioned the olive and the mulberry, both +of which would thrive. Of these the vine alone, however, has as yet +occupied the attention of the agriculturalists; and though it is largely +cultivated in the southern and western parts, not one-tenth part of the +land adapted to it is thus employed. + +The same obstacle which impedes the more extensive cultivation of +tobacco, is also in a measure applicable to the manufacture of wine, at +least as far as regards its quality. At present quantity is far more +considered, and the result is that, in place of manufacturing really +valuable wines, they poison both themselves and all who have the +misfortune to partake of it. It is only fair to add that one +description, which I tasted at Mostar, appeared to be sound, and gave +promise of becoming drinkable after some months' keeping. The vine +disease, which showed itself some years back, has now disappeared; and +the crops, which during six or seven seasons deteriorated to an +astonishing degree, have now reassumed their former healthy appearance. + +The numerous hills which intersect the province might also be covered +with olive groves, and it would be of great advantage to the country +could the people be induced to follow the example of their Dalmatian +neighbours, who have covered almost inaccessible points of their country +with that useful tree. + +The climate is well adapted to the nurture of the silkworm, and the +mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly throughout the province: were these +turned to account there can be little doubt that in a few years large +quantities of silk might be exported. A few of the natives have reared +worms successfully for several years, and the silk thus obtained has +been employed for domestic purposes. The disease, which for so many +years inflicted such serious loss on the silk producers of Europe, is +unknown in the Herzegovina. Whether this immunity is to be attributed to +the climate, or the nature of the leaf upon which the silkworm feeds, it +is impossible to say, but it is none the less a veritable fact. Cotton +might also be grown to a small extent, but the same drawbacks would +apply here as elsewhere in Turkey, viz. the difficulty of obtaining, and +the high price of labour. + +This has been rapidly increasing during the last twelve years. In 1850, +a mason or carpenter received five piastres or 10_d._ a day, while a +common labourer obtained 6_d._ Now the former finds no difficulty in +earning 2_s._ per diem, while the latter receives 1_s._ 4_d._ for short +days, and 1_s._ 6_d._ for long days. The shorthandedness consequent upon +the Christian rising, has of course contributed to this rise in wages; +but the province was at no time self-supporting in this respect. A large +number of _scutors_ or labourers from Dalmatia cross the frontier in the +spring, and hire themselves out during the summer months. The decrease +in the number of these was, I am told, very perceptible during the +Italian war, in consequence of the demand for recruits. + +The other products of the country are wool, hides, skins, honey, and +wax, which are exported to Austria. Large numbers of sheep and horned +cattle are, moreover, annually exported to the Dalmatian markets. + +The only manufactures of which I could find specimens were coarse +woollen blankets, twist, and carpets. The blankets and carpets are +mostly exported to Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Servia. Besides these, a kind +of cotton cloth is made in the houses by the women, from imported +cotton, and is applied solely to domestic uses, and is not regarded as +an article of commerce. + +In considering the question of the trade of the Herzegovina, the +attention should be directed, not so much to what it actually is, as to +what it might be under the fostering care of an enlightened government. +And yet, it is not to the producing and consuming capabilities of the +province itself that its possible importance in a commercial point of +view is attributable, but rather to its position on the confines of the +East and West, and to the fact of its containing within its limits the +natural outlets for the trade of that portion of the Ottoman empire. + +It is, in fact, in its relation to Bosnia, that it is entitled to most +attention; and if we deplore that such natural resources as it +possesses have not been more fully developed, we have still greater +reason to lament that the world is thus debarred communication with the +most romantic and beautiful province of European Turkey. It is also the +natural route for the commerce of a portion of Servia, whose exports and +imports would thus quickly pass to and from the sea. Its value, however, +appears never to have been properly appreciated by the Turkish +government, and Omer Pacha, in 1852, was the first employé of that power +who ever appreciated its importance in a commercial point of view. He +appears to have indicated the measures necessary for developing its +resources, and for attracting the trade of the neighbouring provinces +from their expensive and indirect channel into their legitimate route. +The prospects of the province were rapidly brightening under his +sagacious administration, when Austria took alarm, and effectually +impeded all farther progress by closing the only port adapted for the +transmission of its mercantile resources. She thus secures for herself a +monopoly of trade, forcing the inhabitants of all the Turkish provinces, +in that quarter, to purchase their imports at high prices from her, and +to sell their produce to Austrian merchants, who, fearing no +competition, themselves determine its price. The object of Austria in +thus retarding the development of Bosnia is sufficiently obvious, since +that which would be a gain to Turkey would be a loss to herself. And +were events so to dispose themselves as to render this probable, she +would doubtless find a pretext to justify a military occupation of the +country. This she has done on several occasions, and the large force now +massed upon the northern bank of the Save only awaits some national +demonstration to effect an armed intervention. This is, however, +trenching upon another subject, to which I may have hereafter to allude. + +Approximate calculations of the trade of the Herzegovina show that the +imports amount annually to about 150,000_l._, while the exports do not +produce more than 70,000_l._ This comparison proves that a very large +amount of specie must be extracted every year from the country, for +which no material counterpoise exists, since the merchandise imported is +to supply the wants of the people, and does not consequently tend to +enrich the province. It follows therefore, naturally, that it is +becoming daily more poverty-stricken, and in place of advancing with +advancing civilisation, it is stagnating or even declining in +prosperity. + +These imports are computed to amount to about 70,000 horse-loads in +quantity, while the transit trade to Bosnia is estimated at 50,000 more. +Of these about 10,000 horse-loads are of salt from Dalmatia. + +The main source whence these provinces are supplied is Trieste, where +large depots exist, established expressly for this purpose. Thither the +traders proceed once a year, to lay in a supply of goods for the ensuing +twelve months. They purchase at credits varying from six to twelve +months, paying high prices for a very indifferent class of goods. These +consist for the most part of cotton and woollen manufactures, cotton +twist, silks, iron in bars sheets and plates, tin, lead, brass, +hardware, glass, sugar, coffee, and other colonial products. Gold lace, +velvet, and silks are also imported from Bosna Serai, and silks and some +kinds of cotton prints from Constantinople by way of Salonica and +Serajevo. Like most semi-civilised nations, the people of Herzegovina +are much addicted to showy colours in their dress. Those most in favour +are scarlet, green, and blue; but the dyes soon fade, and the cloth is +anything but durable. It is invariably of French or German manufacture; +is of coarse quality, and is worn next the skin by the country people. +In the towns, grey long cloths, dyed dark blue, constitute the principal +article of clothing among the Christians, the general character of dress +being the same throughout the province. The exports consist of sheep's +wool, hides, sheep and goats' skins, furs, and wax, to Trieste; cattle, +sheep, goats, pigs, tallow, and eels, to Dalmatia; woollen blankets, red +and yellow leather prepared from sheep skins, carpets, tobacco, wine, +and fruits, to the neighbouring Turkish provinces. Pipe-sticks are also +sent from Bosna Serai, to Egypt, through the Herzegovina, while knives, +manufactured at Foulcha from country-made steel, are also sent in +considerable quantities to Egypt. All imports and exports pay a duty of +three per cent. on their value, and until recently produce exported to +the neighbouring Turkish provinces paid the unreasonable duty of ten per +cent. This grievous impediment to commerce has, thanks to the efforts of +the European Consuls, been abolished, and they now pay the same duty as +exports to other countries. + +It may be noted, as a symptom of the centralising policy which the Porte +is adopting, that the government now farms the customs of these +provinces, in place of selling the right of doing so to the highest +bidder, as was formerly the case. + +Having thus contrasted the actual with the possible condition of the +province, we cannot but enquire the causes which lead thereto; and it is +impossible to disguise from ourselves, that to mal-administration is +primarily attributable this deplorable state of things. Add to this the +total absence of all means of internal communication, and we have quite +sufficient to cripple the energies of a more industrious and energetic +people than those with whom we are dealing. The first object of the +government, then, should be to inspire the people with confidence in its +good faith, and to induce them to believe that the results of their +labour will not be seized by rapacious Pachas or exorbitant landowners; +and, above all things, it is necessary that Turkish subjects, even if +they are not accorded greater favours in their own country than those of +other powers, should at least be placed upon a footing of equality, +which is far from being the case at present. + +It would appear that the government is really sincere in its intention +of making roads through the country generally, and when this is done a +new era may be anticipated. In the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina, only +one road has until very recently existed. It was made by Omer Pacha in +1851, and connects Bosna Serai with Brod, a town situated upon the +southern bank of the Save. From Metcovich to Bosna Serai, which is the +high road for the trade of the country, the line of route is but a path +formed by the constant traffic, and, while always difficult to traverse, +is in winter frequently closed altogether. It is indispensable that a +central high road should be made, and no point could be more +advantageously adopted as a base than the port of Klek, near which +asphalte is found in large quantities. + +Were a good trunk-road established, connecting that point with Bosna +Serai, branch roads might soon be made throughout the province. The +nature of the country is not such as would render the difficulty of +doing this insuperable, and the rivers over which it would pass are +already spanned by good and serviceable bridges, the relics of better +days. That the expense attending it would soon be defrayed by the +increased traffic is acknowledged by all, and we may therefore hope ere +long to see the deficiency remedied. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis--Its + Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial + Tribunals--Revenue and + Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh--Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total + Revenue--Police. + + +The Herzegovina is divided into fourteen districts or mudirliks, named +as follows, viz.:-- + + Districts Chief Towns No. of Villages in + each District + Mostar Mostar 45 + Duvno Duvno 25 + Gliubinski 31 + Stolatz Stolatz 22 + Trebigné Trebigné 51 + Niksich Niksich 28 + Tashlijeh Tashlijeh 16 + Priepolie 22 + Chainitza Chainitza 14 + Kolashin 56 + Fochia Fochia + Gasko Gasko 20 + Nevresign Nevresign 14 + Pogitel Pogitel 13 +[I]Konitza 19 + +These districts, with the exception of Mostar (which is the seat of the +Central Provincial Government), are under the supervision of a Mudir, +who is assisted by a Council, a Cadi or Judge, and a Tax-collector. The +province is governed by a Mutisarif named from Constantinople, who is +subject in certain things to the Pacha of Bosnia. The Mudirs are +appointed by the Mutisarif, subject to the approval of the government at +Constantinople. + +The Cadi of Mostar is a very important personage, and has all the +district Cadis under his orders. He is an unsalaried officer, his +remuneration consisting of the fees of office, and whatever else he can +lay hands on. + +The Medjlis, or Council for the province, was selected by Kiamil +Effendi, the Turkish Commissioner in 1853, and vacancies have since been +filled up by the votes of the majority of their number, subject to +confirmation at Constantinople. + +The Medjlis consists of about ten native Mussulmans, one Roman Catholic, +and one Greek, so that the Christian interests are but indifferently +represented. + +Appeal can be made against its decision to the Medjlis Kebir at Bosna +Serai. + +All legal matters are arbitrated by the Medjlis since the abolition of +the various tribunals, which were founded in 1857. One of these was for +the trial of criminal causes. It consisted of a President, and six +members, and another was a commercial tribunal for the settlement of +petty commercial disputes. These have both fallen into abeyance; and, +seeing that Christian evidence is not accepted in the civil causes, it +is difficult to understand how the Christian population could ever have +benefited, at any rate by the latter. + + * * * * * + +_Revenues and taxes._--The revenue of the province is derived from the +following sources, viz.-- + +_Virgu_ (income tax). + +_Monayene-askereh_, or the tax paid by the Christians in lieu of +military service. It is, however, one of the grievances alleged by the +Christians, who declare their willingness to serve; but as many +Mussulmans would willingly pay the tax to be exempted from the chance of +enlistment, the hardship applies to all parties. + +_Customs, tithes, excise._ + +The Virgu is a species of income tax, inasmuch as it is a rate levied +ostensibly on the wealth of individuals; but, instead of being a per +centage on the income, it has resolved itself into a mere capitation +tax, and is ill-adapted, as such a tax must always be, to the relative +wealth of individuals. A certain sum was arbitrarily fixed upon to be +paid by the province. The government appears to have omitted to enquire +whether the wealth of the country would enable it to pay so large a sum +as that demanded. In 1853, the tax was divided into three portions, +according to the numbers of each persuasion, and has been thus collected +ever since. + +In the same sweeping manner these sums have been equally apportioned to +each household, poor and rich paying alike. Thus the Mussulmans, who +possess nearly all the land in the province, and who are generally in +affluent circumstances, but who form the smallest portion of the +population, pay least. The Virgu has been unscrupulously levied, and has +given rise to much discontent, more especially among the Latins, who are +the poorest classes. + +These complain bitterly, and harrowing stories are told of women, about +to become mothers, being compelled to pay the tax on the chance of the +infant being a male. Such things may have occurred some years ago, but +the spirit of cruelty appears to have died out, or is at all events kept +in the background by the Moslems of the present day. + +The Monayene-askereh was first imposed when the people were relieved +from the Haradj. It is levied on males from fourteen to seventy, and was +found so grievous, that the Porte has seen fit to direct that only about +one-half of the original amount shall be raised. This alleviation has +existed during the last three years. + +_Customs._--These consist of a duty of three per cent. ad valorem on all +imports and exports to and from foreign countries, as well as the same +amount demanded under the form of transit dues for goods passing from +one Turkish province to another. This has lately been reduced from 12 +per cent. to its present rate. + +The next source of revenue is the amount realised by the tithes. Since +1858 these have been farmed by the government, but previous to that year +they were sold by auction, as in other provinces, to the highest bidder. +The arrangement was complicated enough, for they underwent no less than +four sales: 1st. In each district for the amount of the district. 2nd. +At Mostar, where each district was again put up, and given to the person +offering 10 per cent. above the price realised at the first sale. 3rd. +At Bosna Serai for the entire province. And lastly at Constantinople,--the +highest bidder in this fourfold sale becoming the farmer. This system +exposed the tithe payers to much oppression, for it not uncommonly +happened that the farmer found he had paid more for his purchase than +he could legally claim from the people, so that, instead of 10 per +cent., 15 or 20 per cent. could alone remunerate him; and this he found +no difficulty in getting, as the government unfortunately bound itself +to help him. None but the farmers of the tithes really knew what the +produce was, so that any demand of theirs was considered by the +government to be a bonâ fide claim, and was upheld. + +The government was frequently cheated, and, further, defrauded of large +sums of money, as in the case of Hadji Ali Pacha; but it is a question +whether so much will be realised by the present system, since greater +facilities exist for roguery on the part of the agriculturalists, to say +nothing of the corruptness of its own officials. + +The excise consists of a per centage on the sale of wine, spirits, shot, +lead, earthenware, snuff, tobacco, and salt; of tolls on produce brought +into the towns for sale; of fees for permission to distil, to roast and +grind coffee, and to be a public weigher; also of a tax on taking +animals to the grazing grounds,[J] and of licenses to fish for eels and +leeches: these are caught plentifully in the plain of Gabella when +flooded, and are of good quality. + + * * * * * + +_Revenue._--The taxes of the province produce annually about 9,135,000 +piastres, taking the piastre at 2_d._ English. + +This sum may be divided as follows: viz.-- + + Piastres +Virgu 1,700,000 +Tithes 5,000,000 +Monayene-askereh 1,285,000 +Customs 600,000 +Excise 550,000 + --------- + Total 9,135,000 + +The above shows that the province yields to the imperial treasury a +yearly sum of about 79,000_l._ sterling, from a taxation of about 8_s._ +per head on the population. The amount may appear small; but when it is +considered that the taxes are not equitably levied, that the heaviest +share falls upon the poorest inhabitants, and that a great part of the +amount is in direct taxation, it cannot be considered light. The burden, +too, weighs with undue severity upon the faithful subjects of the Porte, +since they are compelled to pay the share which would fall upon those +who have rebelled against the Turkish authority. + +There is one branch of the public administration which eminently +requires readjustment. This is the police force. Ill-paid and badly +organised, it follows as a matter of course that it is inefficient to +perform the duties required of it. It is divided into horse and foot, +and is paid as follows per month:-- + + Horse Piastres +Binbashee (or Chief Officer) 1,000 per month +Uzbashee (or Captain) 600 " +Tchonch (Corporal or Sergeant) 250 " +Nefer (Private) 150 " + + Foot Piastres +Tchonch 100 per month +Nefer 75 " + +The Zaptiehs have frequently duties to perform which should only be +intrusted to men of honesty and sagacity, and it is consequently of +great importance to render the service attractive to trustworthy men. To +effect this the pay, more especially in the lower grades, should be +increased, and circumspection used in the selection of recruits. At +present this is far from being the case, many men of notoriously bad +character being employed, and these are driven to peculation and theft +for the means of supporting life. The mounted portion find their own +horses and forage, is very dear in many parts of the province. + +[Footnote I: Many of the villages on the Montenegrin frontier no longer +exist, having been fired by the insurgents.] + +[Footnote J: These are principally on the western banks of the Narenta, +outside Mostar.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Omer Pacha--Survey of + Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars--Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of + Prisoners--Roman Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish + Officers--Pacha's Palace--European + Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's Day--Warlike + Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders to March. + + +During the week which intervened between my arrival and the removal of +head-quarters to the seat of war, I had several interviews with Omer +Pacha. On these occasions he showed much kindness of disposition, and +took great trouble to explain to me the arrangements which he made for +the prosecution of the war against Montenegro in 1852, and to describe +the nature of campaigning in that province. + +He expressed himself much pleased with a map of Montenegro which I had +presented to him, drawn by Major Cox, R.E., British Commissioner for +determining the new boundary line, but detected the absence of one or +two traversable paths, the existence of which I found to be correct when +I subsequently accompanied the army to those districts. The map, +however, I may observe, is very superior, both in accuracy and +minuteness of detail, to any other survey which has as yet appeared. + +While awaiting the departure of the Generalissimo for the seat of war, +to which he had kindly invited me to accompany him, I employed myself in +wandering about those crooked byways, and studying the many phases of +Turco-European humanity. That my impressions of the town were very +favourable, I am not prepared to state; but I believe that in point of +cleanliness it is superior to many. It is situated on both banks of the +Narenta, in a gorge which opens out into two small plains, at its N. and +S. extremities. The eastern and larger part is built on an acclivity, +and contains the bazaar, government offices, and the houses of the +traders and the richer inhabitants. The western part is occupied by the +poorer classes, who are for the most part Catholics, and are employed in +agricultural pursuits. The gardens, which supply the town with +vegetables, are upon this side, and the soil is more fruitful, though +marshy and feverish. On the eastern side it is healthy, sandy, and dry. +The dwelling-houses are generally small and comfortless, indifferently +built, and roofed with stone. As in India, they are always surrounded +with a compound--for it cannot be called garden--which gives the town a +rambling and extended appearance. + +The shops are small and ill-supplied, and the streets narrow and +tortuous, except the two main ones, which are tolerably broad, and run +parallel to each other in a nearly straight course N. and S. They have +raised footpaths, roughly constructed, and swarming with animal life, as +is to be expected in the luxurious East. There are no fewer than thirty +mosques in the town, whose minarets give it a beautiful and picturesque +appearance, albeit that the buildings themselves are imperfect, and +ungainly in architectural detail. The Mussulmans have a school in the +town, where Turkish and Slavish are taught. Girls are, however, debarred +this advantage, and indeed no institution of any kind exists throughout +the province for their training or instruction. The result is that the +female population is, if possible, in a lower state of degradation than +the male. The religious and secular education of the Christians is as +little considered as that of the Mussulmans. Thus the only place of +worship which the Greeks possess is a small chapel on the outskirts, to +which is attached a school for boys, which is attended by about two +hundred children. Since Omer Pacha's arrival during the past year, a +peal of bells has been placed in this chapel. The superstition which +prevails amongst Turks, 'that bells drive away good spirits from the +abodes of men,' renders this concession the more grateful, and it is +only another proof that the Mussulmans of the present day are not so +intolerant as they are represented. No restrictions, indeed, are placed +upon religious ceremonies or public processions of any kind. With +regard to church bells, I may add that their use has always been +considered tantamount to a recognition of Christianity as the +established religion of the place. In some towns, where Christians +predominated, the concession had been made long before their +introduction at Mostar. + +The Roman Catholics have no church in Mostar. Service is performed at +the Austrian Consulate, and also at a convent, about two miles distant, +where the Bishop of Mostar resides. This circumstance has led to the +concentration of the Catholic community in that neighbourhood. The +Catholic school for boys adjoins the convent; it is, however, thinly +attended, and but indifferently conducted. + +The British Consulate being closed in consequence of the absence of the +Vice-Consul, M. Zohrab, who was acting as temporary Consul at Bosna +Serai, I took up my abode at a khan overlooking the river. The situation +was pretty, and the house newly restored; but this did not deprive it of +some relics of animal life, which somewhat disturb the equanimity of the +new comer, but which he soon learns to regard with indifference. +Descending the stairs, and passing through the stable, which is, as is +usually the case, immediately beneath the lodging rooms, we must turn +sharply to the right; and, after clambering up some rough and broken +steps, we arrive at the main street, which runs for about a mile +through the centre of the town, varied only by arched gateways placed at +intervals along its course. Against the first of these a Turkish sentry +indolently leans, if he be not seated on the kerbstone at the corner. +Passing through this we come to a second gate, where the peaceful +traveller, unconscious of offence, is angrily accosted. The meaning of +all this is that he is requested to throw away and stamp upon his +cigarette, the old tower on the left being used as a magazine. Round it +a weak attempt at a _place d'armes_ is apparent, Omer Pacha having +ordered some of the neighbouring houses to be pulled down. Nor was this +done before it was necessary, a fire having broken out a short time +before in its vicinity. On that occasion the inhabitants destroyed a few +houses, and imagined the fire to be extinguished. The wind rose, and it +broke out again, taking the direction of the magazine. Upon this, the +whole population took to the country, and the prisoners, who were +located close by, escaped in the general confusion. Had it not been +providentially extinguished, the _place of Mostar would have known it no +more_. The prison is a plain white house, which does not look at all as +if it had ever been the sort of place to have long defied the ingenuity +of a Jack Sheppard, or even an accomplished London house-breaker of our +own day. + +The tower to which allusion has been made is built on the eastern side, +and immediately above the beautiful bridge which spans the Narenta, and +for which Mostar[K] has ever been famous. The Turks attribute its +erection to Suleyman the Magnificent, but it was probably built by the +Emperor Trajan or Adrian, since the very name of the town would imply +the existence of a bridge in very early days. The Turkish inscriptions, +which may be traced upon the abutments at the E. end of the bridge, +probably refer to some subsequent repairs. At any rate too much reliance +must not be placed in them, as the Turks have been frequently convicted +of removing Roman inscriptions and substituting Turkish ones in their +place. The beauty of the bridge itself is heightened by the glimpse to +be obtained of the mosques and minarets of Mostar, washed by the turbid +waters of the Narenta, and backed by the rugged hills which hem it in. +'It is of a single arch, 95 ft. 3 in. in span, and when the Narenta is +low, about 70 feet from the water, or, to the top of the parapet, 76 +feet.'[L] + +There is a second tower at the extremity of the bridge on the left bank, +which is said to be of more modern construction. + +Mostar is not a fortified city, nor is it important in a strategical +point of view. The only traces of defensive works which exist are +portions of a crenellated wall of insignificant construction. This +accounts for the ease with which the Venetians were enabled to take +possession of and burn its suburbs by a sudden raid in 1717. 'The town +was built,' says Luccari, 'in 1440, by Radigost, Major-Domo of Stefano +Cosaccia;' but in asserting this, he overlooks the existence of the +Roman road to Trebigné, which is very superior to anything built by +either Slaves or Turks, and places its Roman origin beyond a doubt. Some +suppose it to be the ancient Sarsenterum. That it was selected by the +Turks as the capital of the province immediately after the conquest, and +considerably enlarged, appears very probable, and the towers which flank +the bridge were probably built at that period or a little earlier, +though the eastern one is said to be raised upon a Roman basement. + +Continuing our ramble we pass through another gate, and come to an +uncomfortable looking hill. We have not to mount far, however, before we +approach an archway, with two sentries, rather more alert than the +others whom we have seen. Officers are passing backwards and forwards, +looking fussy and important, as Turks always do when they get rid of +their habitual apathy. In their small waisted coats _à la Française_, +surmounted by the _inevitable fez_, they present a strange combination +of the Eastern and Western soldier. + +The house in the interior of the court-yard is the palace, usually +occupied by the Mulisarif, but devoted, during his stay in these parts, +to Omer Pacha, the Serdar Ekrem and Rumili Valessi, or Governor-General +of European Turkey. In the vicinity of the palace may be seen the +flagstaffs of the Prussian and Austrian Consulates, while that of Great +Britain appears at no great distance, and in the rear of the +clock-tower, which distinguishes Mostar from most other Turkish towns. +Let us now return to the main street, which continues in unbroken +monotony for something less than half a mile. If gifted with sufficient +patience to continue our stroll out of the town, we come upon the +principal burial-ground. On the E. high hills hem us in, while the tiny +stream of the Narenta comes winding from the N. + +During my stay at Mostar the town was enlivened by the occurrence of the +Emperor Alexander's birthday, or the 'Emperor's day,' as it is called. +In celebration of this auspicious event, the Russian Consul kept open +house, everyone who could muster decent apparel being admitted. After +the ceremony of blessing the Muscovite flag had been performed by the +Greek Bishop, a select few sat down to a kind of breakfast, which did +credit to the hospitality of his Imperial Majesty's representative. +Thither I accompanied Omer Pacha, who was attended by a small suite. +This was the only occasion on which I ever observed anything like +display in the Turkish General. His gold-embroidered dress resembled +that of a Marshal of France; his breast was literally covered with +decorations, in the centre of which was the Grand Cross of the Bath, and +he carried a magnificently-jewelled sword, the gift of the late Sultan, +Abdul Medjid. He did not, however, remain long, and on emerging I could +not help contrasting the festivities within with the signs of warlike +preparation which jostled one at every turn, the first fruits, in great +measure, of Russian imperial policy. Strings of ponies laden with +forage, and provisions for the army on the frontier, passed +continuously, and the streets presented a more than usually gay and +variegated appearance. Omer Pacha was throughout indefatigable. +Detachments of irregulars arrived daily, some of which were immediately +pushed up to the scene of operations; others were retained at Mostar; +but whether they went, or stayed behind, he inspected them alike, and +was always received with marked enthusiasm. I must not omit to mention +that amongst these reinforcements was a body of 1,000 Christians, who, +however, were never sent to the frontier. Fine fellows they were, all +armed with rifles of native construction. These arms of precision are +mostly made in Bosnia, where there are two or three establishments for +that purpose. + +Thus the days wore on; and, having provided myself with horses, and such +few things as are deemed indispensable for campaigning, I was delighted +to receive a message from the Generalissimo, on the night of the 13th, +intimating his intention of leaving Mostar at 8 (_à la Franca_) on the +following morning. + +But before I enter upon my personal experiences in the camp of the +Osmanlis, I would fain give some account of the previous history of this +agitated province; passing in brief review those causes which combined +to foster a revolutionary spirit in the country, and dwelling more +especially on the events of the last four years, during which that +spirit has so culminated as to convince even the Porte of the necessity +which exists for the immediate employment of coercive measures. + +[Footnote K: Mostar, from 'Most Star' Old Bridge.] + +[Footnote L: Sir G. Wilkinson.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich--Cruel + Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of + Santo Saba becomes a Roman Province--Despotism of Bosnian + Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall of Sultan Selim and + Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin Pacha--Expedition against + Montenegro--Death of Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces + reconquered--Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of + Janissaries--Regular Troops organised--Hadji + Mustapha--Abdurahim--Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh + rising--Serayevo taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of + Adrianople--Hussein Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of + Grand Vizier--Ali Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War + with Montenegro--Amnesty granted. + + +The history of Bosnia under the Roman empire is possessed of too little +interest to call for any particular observation; but, considered as one +of the most fertile and beautiful of the European provinces, overrun by +the Moslem armies, it is well entitled to the mature consideration of +all who take an interest in the important question now at issue, to wit, +the fusion of the Eastern and Western worlds. + +The immediate cause of the invasion of Bosnia by the Turks, was the +dispute between Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich for the throne of that +country. The former called the Turks to his assistance; Ostoya, the +Hungarians. A war between these two nations was the consequence, and +the Turks gained considerable footing in Bosnia about 1415. Ostoya and +Tuartko being both dead, Stephen Thomas Christich was elected King, and +was obliged to promise an annual tribute of 25,000 ducats to Sultan +Amurath II., thirteen years after which he was murdered by his +illegitimate son, Stephen Thomasovich, who was crowned by a Papal legate +in 1461, and submitted to the Turks. But having refused to pay the +tribute due to the Porte, he was seized and flayed alive, by order of +Sultan Mahomet, and at his death the kingdom of Bosnia was completely +over-thrown.[M] + +Previous to this, the Turks had frequently menaced the Bosnian kingdom, +but it was not until June 14, 1463, that they actually invaded the +country, to reduce Stephen to obedience. In vain did Mathias, King of +Hungary, endeavour to stem the advancing torrent. The Turks carried all +before them, until they besieged and took Yanitza, the then capital of +the province, and with it the King and the entire garrison. Nor was this +effected in fair fight, but through the treachery of Stephen's first +minister, who opened the gates of the fortress by night, and so admitted +the Turkish soldiers. + +With more generosity than was usually shown by these Eastern barbarians, +Mahomet agreed to leave the King in possession of his throne on +condition of his paying an annual tax to the Porte. The payment of this, +as I have said, was evaded by his successor, although the old national +manuscripts do not even allow this apology for the barbarous treatment +which he experienced at the hands of the Turks. These affirm that the +King and all his troops, as well as the townspeople, were invited by +Mahomet to hear the official ratification of the agreement. But, at a +given signal, the Turkish soldiers, who had been in concealment, fell +upon the helpless assemblage, and massacred them in cold blood, shutting +up the King Stephen in a cage, where he subsequently died of despair; +and thus ended the Bosnian kingdom. That his position was sufficiently +hopeless to bring about this calamitous result, can scarcely be doubted; +but unfortunately the tomb of Stephen still exists, which proves +tolerably conclusively that his death was of a more speedy, if not of a +more cruel, nature. An inscription is upon it to the effect, 'Here lies +Stephen, King of Bosnia, without his kingdom, throne, and sceptre, and +without his skin.' Of all the family of the unfortunate monarch, the +only one who escaped was his Queen, Cattarina, who fled to Rome, where +she lies buried in the Chapel of Santa Helena. + +After the death of Stephen Thomasovich the Turks destroyed Michiaz. The +nobles, driven from their estates, fled to Ragusa; and Stephen, +'Herzog' or Duke of Santo Saba, seeing that Turkish garrisons had +occupied Popovo, Rogatiza, Triburio, Tzeruitza, and Kerka, became so +alarmed, that he offered to pay increased tribute; when, his ministers +refusing to consent to this arrangement, he was obliged to send to +Ragusa for his eldest son Stephen, and give him up as a hostage to the +Porte: he having afterwards abjured Christianity, received the name of +Ahmet, married a daughter of Bajazet II., and was made a Vizier. The +Kingdom of Bosnia and the Duchy of Santo Saba from that time became +provinces of Turkey, the latter under the name of Herzegovina, which it +still retains, and which it had received from the title of 'Herzog' or +Duke, given by Tuartko to its first Governor. + +The apostasy of the Bosnian nobles which occurred shortly after the +Turkish conquest, may be regarded as the only event of importance which +has since marked the history of these provinces. The deteriorating +effects which have ever followed the adoption of Islamism are here +conspicuously apparent; for in proportion as the country has sunk into +insignificance, so the moral state of the people has fallen to a lower +standard. Nor is this so much to be attributed to any particular vices +inculcated by the Mahomedan creed, as to the necessary division of +religious and political interests, and the undue monopoly of power by a +small proportion of the inhabitants. That this power has been used +without mercy or consideration must be acknowledged; but be it +remembered that + + 'Their tyrants then + Were still at least their countrymen,' + +and that the iniquities perpetrated by the renegade Beys cannot be with +justice laid to the charge of their Osmanli conquerors. It would, +indeed, be strange had four hundred years of tyranny passed over this +miserable land, without leaving a blight upon its children which no time +will ever suffice to efface. + +As years wore on, other and more important conquests absorbed the +attention of the Mussulman rulers, and the rich pasture-lands of Bosnia, +and the sterile rocks of Herzegovina, were alike left the undisputed +property of the apostate natives of the soil. Thence arose a system of +feudal bondage, to a certain extent akin to that recently existing in +Russia, but unequalled in the annals of the world for the spirit of +intolerance with which it was carried out. Countless are the tales of +cruelty and savage wrong with which the old manuscripts of the country +abound, and these are the more revolting, as perpetrated upon those of +kindred origin, religion, and descent. The spirit of independence +engendered by this system of feudality and unresisted oppression could +only lead to one result--viz. the increase of local at the expense of +the central authority. The increasing debility of the paternal +government tended to strengthen the power of the provincial Magnates; +and the Beys, the Spahis, and the Timariots, stars of lesser magnitude +in their way, could not but be expected to adhere to the cause of the +all-powerful Kapetans rather than to the transient power of a Vizier +appointed by the Porte. + +This last-named official, whose appointment was then, as now, acquired +by successful intrigue or undisguised bribery, was never certain of long +tenure of office, and invariably endeavoured by all the means in his +power to remunerate himself while the opportunity should last. + +The disregard entertained for life in those times, and the indifference +manifested by the Ottoman government for this portion of the empire, +often rendered it the safer policy for the Vizier to make common cause +with the recusant Kapetans, who were too powerful to be subdued by +force, and too wily to be entrapped by treachery or fraud. + +But another and more self-subsistent power had taken deep root +throughout the Ottoman dominions, and nowhere more than in those +provinces which lie between the Save and the Adriatic. 'In Egypt,' says +Ranke, 'there was the power of the Mameluke Beys revived immediately +after the departure of the French; there was the protectorate of the +Dere Beys in Asia Minor; the hereditary authority of the Albanian +chieftains, the dignity of the Ayans in the principal towns, besides +many other immunities--all of which seemed to find a bond of union and a +centre in the powerful order of the Janissaries.' Of all the provinces +of the empire Bosnia was perhaps the most deeply imbued with the spirit +of this faction, the last memento of that ancient chivalry which had +carried fire and sword over a great part of civilised Europe. + +But to that same spirit of turbulent independence, the very germ of +existence of the Janissaries, and so predominant among the natives of +Bosnia, may in a great measure be attributed the successes of the +Turkish arms in Europe in the campaign of 1828, an era fraught with +danger to the whole Ottoman empire, dangers which the newly-organised +battalions of the imperial army would have been unable to overcome but +for the aid of the wild horsemen of the West. That the same spirit +exists as did in bygone times I do not say; but whatever does yet remain +of chivalrous endurance or reckless daring is to be found among the +Mussulman, and not amongst the Christian, population. + +Towards the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth +century, affairs assumed so critical an aspect that it became incumbent +upon the central government to adopt some coercive measure. Sultan Selim +was the first who endeavoured to suppress these turbulent spirits. He +was unequal to the task, and fell a victim to their revengeful +displeasure. 'Bairaktar, the hero of those times,' was equally +unsuccessful, and the imperial authority bid fair to perish from the +land; but in those days there arose one who, like our own Cromwell, +moulded circumstances to his will, resolute of purpose, fearing and +sparing none. But if Mahmoud was stern and inexorable to rebels, he is +entitled to more praise than is usually accorded him, for the +steadfastness of purpose with which he applied himself to the +restoration of system and order, in the place of the chaos which he had +himself brought about. And let us not omit to mention the dignified +courage with which he prepared to meet the calamities which now crowded +thick upon him. With the mere nucleus of a semi-organised army he held +out for two years, both in Europe and Asia, without one ally, against +the herculean efforts of Russia to overthrow his kingdom. + +There are not wanting those who, besides stigmatising him as deceitful +and cruel, cast in his teeth that he failed to carry out the schemes of +reform, which they consider to have been visionary and unmeaning. But +these, while commenting on what he left undone, forget how much he did, +and how little aid he received from without. Well would it be for Turkey +this day had either of his sons inherited the vigour, the perseverance, +or even the honesty of old Mahmoud. + +Since the accession of Mahmoud to the throne, Bosnia and Herzegovina +have been the seat of perpetual, though intermittent, warfare. Short +time did he allow to elapse before he gave unmistakable signs of his +determination to effect a radical change in the state of these +provinces. With this view he sent as Vizier Jelaludin Pacha thither, +with orders to punish with extreme severity all who should show any +signs of discontent. This man, who is said to have belonged to the sect +of Bektashi, an order of Mahomedan monks, did not live like other +Pachas. He neither kept a harem nor a court, and devoted himself +exclusively to fulfilling the duties of his mission. To do this more +effectually, he used to go about in disguise, visiting even the +Christian places of worship, and thus obtaining a real knowledge of the +feelings and wishes of the people. Now as he practised incorruptible, +inexorable justice, his rule was as popular among the Rayahs as it was +odious to the Bosnian nobles, against whose independence all his laws +and measures were directed. + +Having taken Mostar and Trebinitza by storm, he at length succeeded in +subduing the whole country. Although nominally recalled, in deference to +a petition preferred by the nobles of Bosnia, Jelaludin was in reality +advanced to a more exalted position of confidence. To him was intrusted +the conduct of an expedition against Montenegro, which failed; and +little more is heard about him until 1821, when he died, as some think, +by poison administered by his own hand. + +In conformity with a preconceived plan of operations, an expedition was +sent in 1820 against Ali Pacha, the most powerful of those who had +ventured to throw off the Ottoman rule. + +The operations were successful both by sea and land, and at first all +appeared to be progressing satisfactorily. But the extraordinary +fertility of resource which characterised the old man, saved him once +more; and while the Suliots in his pay overran Epirus in 1821, he +succeeded in rousing the whole Greek population to revolt. Although he +himself fell during the outbreak, the disastrous results which he had +succeeded in effecting lived long after him, not only in Greece, but in +Bulgaria, Bosnia, and other parts of the Turkish empire. + +The death of Jelaludin, and the revolutionary movement which had spread +throughout the empire, led to the restoration of the old state of things +in Bosnia. The powerful nobles once more resumed their sway, and the few +supporters of the Sultan were compelled to fly the country. + +The reconquest by the Porte of the revolted countries, and the mighty +change which the iron hand of Mahmoud effected in the internal condition +and administration of all parts of his empire, cannot be more forcibly +described than in the words of Ranke. He says: 'We must recollect that +the Sultan succeeded in extinguishing all these rebellions, one after +another, as soon as he had put down the most formidable. We will not +enquire by what means this was effected: enough to say, that he at last +re-established his authority on the Danube, as in Epirus. Even the Morea +seemed doomed to a renewal of the Moslem sway. Ibrahim Pacha landed +there with the troops from Egypt in 1825. He annihilated rather than +subjugated its population, and changed the country, as he himself said, +into a desert waste; but at least he took possession of it, step by +step, and everywhere set up the standard of the Sultan.' + +Having been so far successful, the Sultan adopted a more comprehensive +plan. + +Mahomed Ali's successful enterprises served as his model from the first. +Mahomed Ali led the way in Egypt by the annihilation of ancient +privileges, and it was not until he had succeeded that Mahmoud resolved +to pursue a similar course. + +'A fearful rivalry in despotism and destruction then began between the +two. They might be compared to the reapers in Homer, cutting down the +corn in all directions. But the vassal had been long engaged in a +process of innovation. In spite of the opposition of his Janissaries, he +had accomplished his purpose of establishing regular regiments, clothed +and disciplined after the European system.' The fact that it was these +troops which, after so many fruitless attempts, at last conquered +Greece, made a profound impression on the Sultan. He reverted to the +ideas of Selim and Bairaktar, and the establishment of regular troops +seemed to him the only salvation of his empire. Therefore, on May 28, +1826, in a solemn sitting of his Council of State, at which the +Commissioner who had lately been in Ibrahim's camp was present, was +pronounced the 'fetwah,' that, 'In order to defend God's word and +counteract the superiority of the unbelievers, the Moslems, too, would +submit to subordination, and learn military manoeuvres.' The subversion +of ancient privileges, then, was the fundamental basis upon which his +reforms rested, and to this the destruction of the Janissaries put the +finishing touch. + +If Mahmoud found difficulty in carrying out his plans at Stamboul, how +much more hard must they have been to accomplish in the provinces; and +of these, as I have before said, Bosnia was the most strongly imbued +with a spirit of independent feudalism. + +In Bosnia, therefore, as was anticipated, the greatest resistance to the +innovation was experienced. + +Upon the death of Jelaludin, Hadji Mustapha had been appointed Vizier, a +man of small capacity, and little suited to those stormy times. + +He, and the six commissioners who had been sent with him from +Constantinople, were driven out, and compelled to take refuge in +Servia, whence they returned to Constantinople. + +Again the dominion of the Sultan in these provinces appeared to hang +upon a slender thread; and indeed it was only saved by the sagacity of a +single man. + +Upon the ejection of Hadji Mustapha, Abdurahim, the Pacha of Belgrade, +was appointed Vizier of Bosnia. Gifted with great penetration and +ability for intrigue, he contrived to win over many of the native +chieftains, while he worked upon the jealousy entertained by the Prince +of Servia for the Bosnian nobles, and thus succeeded in raising a small +army, with which he took the initiative in hostilities. Ranke tells us: +'He was fortunate enough to secure the assistance of the Kapetan +Vidaitch of Svornik. Svornik is regarded as the key of Bosnia. It seems +that the Agas of Serayevo had already conceived some suspicion of +Vidaitch, for they were themselves about to take possession of the +place. But Abdurahim anticipated them, and Vidaitch admitted him into +the fortress.' + +A paramount advantage was gained by this. Abdurahim now felt strong +enough to speak in a decisive tone in the Bujurdi, in which he announced +his arrival. + +'I send you from afar,' he therein said, 'O Mahomedans of Bosnia, the +greeting of the faith, and of brotherly union. I will not call to mind +your folly: I come to open your eyes to the light. I bring you the most +sacred commands of our most mighty Sultan, and expect you will obey +them. In that case I have power to forgive you all your errors; choose +now for yourselves. It rests with you to save or to lose your lives. +Reflect maturely, that you may have no cause to repent.' + +This proclamation, which may be regarded as a model of terseness and +expressive earnestness, had a wonderful effect. Still Serayevo was not +gained without a struggle, confined however principally to the citizens +within its walls. + +Upon gaining possession of the town, the new Vizier carried out to the +letter the judgements which he had pronounced against the contumacious. +All who were taken in arms were put to death without mercy, and it was +not until he had taken a bloody vengeance on his enemies that he +consented to make a triumphal entry into Serayevo. + +During the feudal times, when the Sultan's authority was more nominal, +the Vizier was only permitted to remain a few hours in the capital, +whence he returned to his palace at Travnik; but Abdurahim deemed it +necessary to establish the seat of government in that very town, which +had ever been the focus of feudality and rebellion. + +'Thus there was once more a master in Bosnia. No one ventured now to +mention the Janissaries. The uniforms arrived; the Kapetans were +obedient, and put them on. The whole land submitted to the new +regulations.' + +Notwithstanding the high pressure system adopted by the Sultan, the +spirit of rebellion was still rife, and it manifested itself on the +first opportunity that occurred. + +The Machiavellian policy of endeavouring to hold both the Servians and +Bosnians in check, by pitting the one against the other, was of doubtful +expediency; and, as the event proved, tended materially to weaken the +imperial cause by depriving it of the aid of the Bosnian irregulars, who +had acquired a name for reckless daring second to none. The outbreak of +the Russian war was the signal for another attempt to obtain the +independence of which Abdurahim had robbed them. At this juncture, too, +they displayed the mixture of violence and cunning, so essentially the +character of barbarous nations. + +From every castle and town, the troops marched to the Eagle's Field, +Orlovopolie, close by Bielina, their appointed rendezvous. The Vizier +intended soon to repair thither with forces from Serayevo. Whilst +preparing to do so, it happened that the people of Visoko, an +unimportant place about six German miles from Serayevo, arrived before +that capital, instead of marching direct to Orlovopolie, as they should +have done. The Vizier sent out his Kiaia, and some of the principal +inhabitants of the city, to call them to account for the unauthorised +change in their line of march. A Kapidji Bashi, who had just arrived +from Constantinople, accompanied the mission, and gave it still more +importance; but it was unquestionably a concerted scheme amongst the +leading men of Visoko and Serayevo. Thousands of inhabitants had already +gone, many no doubt from mere curiosity--for it was Friday, a day on +which the Turks do not work--but others with a distinct purpose. When +the mission angrily demanded that the force should march off forthwith +to the appointed place, some poor inhabitants of Visoko stepped out of +the ranks and declared that, without money, they were not in a position +to proceed a step farther; that even only to equip themselves, and march +as far as they had already arrived, some of them had been obliged to +sell their children. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia thought that such +language was not to be borne. Without hesitation, therefore, in +accordance with the principles of Turkish justice, they ordered their +followers to seize the speakers, to take them away, and behead them. The +order, however, was not so easy of execution. 'Help, true believers in +the Prophet!' exclaimed the men; 'help, and rescue us.' All seized their +weapons, the comrades of the prisoners as well as the inhabitants of +Serayevo, who were privy to the scheme, and those who were hurried along +by their example. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia had not time to mount +their horses, but were obliged to run to the city on foot, with bullets +whistling after them. The furious armed multitude arrived there with +them. The Vizier's force, about two thousand strong, attempted for a +while to stem the torrent. They tried to stand their ground wherever +they found a position, such as a bridge, a mosque, or a house, but were +far too weak to maintain it. Only a small number had time to retire into +the fortress, where the Vizier was, and thence they fired with the few +cannon they had on the lower town. But the Bosnians, with their small +arms, did far more execution, singling out their enemies, and bringing +them down with sure aim. The fighting continued for three days. At last +Abdurahim found himself compelled to think of his own safety. The +Bosnians, who found themselves victorious, would gladly have refused him +leave to retire; but the older and more experienced among them, +satisfied with the success they had obtained, persuaded the young people +to let him go. On the fourth day, a Thursday in July 1828, Abdurahim +marched away. He took the road to Orlovopolie, being allowed to take +with him the cannons he had brought. There, however, he found that the +spirit of disaffection had gained such head, that nearly all the +soldiers, whom he had expected to find, had dispersed and gone to their +homes. He thereupon repaired to Travnik, and was shortly afterwards +replaced by another Vizier of milder temper. + +The state of the empire now appeared more settled, both in its domestic +and foreign relations, the peace of Adrianople having at any rate saved +the capital from fear of an attack. What success the Sultan might have +had in his endeavours to consolidate his rule in Bosnia, we are unable +to judge; since he found an antagonist to every species of reform in +Mustapha Pacha of Scutari, commonly known as Scodra Pacha, the most +mischievous, as well as the most powerful, of all the provincial +magnates since the fall of Ali Pacha. Young, warlike, and of good +descent, he constituted himself the champion of hereditary privileges, +and as such virtually threw down the gauntlet to his imperial master. +Open rebellion, however, was not the plan which he proposed to himself +by which to attain the object dearest to his heart--the re-embodiment of +the Janissaries, and the establishment of the old order of things. To +this end he consented, in 1823, to make a demonstration against the +Greek rebels, but took very good care not to render too much service to +the cause which he espoused. Thus, too, when he marched in the autumn of +1828 to the vicinity of the Danube, at the head of an army of 25,000 +irregulars, it was not with the intention of attacking the Russians, but +rather under the expectation that the necessities of the Sultan would +afford him an opportunity of procuring the re-establishment of those +'Prætorian guards of Turkey.' The arrogant pretensions of Scodra Pacha +were very strongly exemplified in the attitude which he assumed at the +close of the campaign of 1829. Having in the first instance shown much +dilatoriness in entering the field, he remained inactive near Widdin +during the latter part of 1828 and the commencement of 1829, when, by +operating in the rear of the Russians, he might have been most useful to +the Turkish Seraskier. The treaty of peace, however, had been signed, +and forwarded for ratification to Russia, when Scodra Pacha suddenly +electrified both parties by objecting to its terms, and announcing his +intention of continuing the war. He even marched to Philippopolis, +whence he sent a message that he would arrive at Adrianople within eight +days. This naturally caused Marshal Diebitsch some anxiety, since he was +unaware of the Pacha's real policy, and believed him to be sincere in +his protestations of vengeance against the invaders. A hasty summons was +therefore sent to General Geismar, who consequently crossed the Danube +at Rachova; and having turned, and subsequently forced, the Pass of +Anatcha in the Balkans, easily defeated the Pacha, who made but small +resistance. This and the approach of General Kisselef from Schumla put a +finishing stroke to hostilities, and Scodra returned home to brood over +the ill-success of his undertaking, and plan farther means of working +mischief to the hated Mahmoud. + +The opportunity soon presented itself. Having succeeded in ridding +himself of some of the Albanian leaders, the Sultan applied himself with +vigour to the subjection of those in Bosnia who were adverse to his +rule. In 1830 he sent uniforms to Travnik, which the Vizier immediately +donned. This kindled the spark, and in the beginning of 1831 several +thousand insurgents, under the command of Hussein Kapetan, the 'Sonai od +Bosna,' or Dragon of Bosnia, attacked him in his fortress, and made him +prisoner. So great was the abhorrence professed for the adoption of +Christian clothing, that the unfortunate Vizier was compelled to perform +solemn ablutions and to recite Moslem prayers, in order to purify +himself from contamination. The standard of rebellion was now fairly +unfurled, and within a few weeks a force of 25,000 men had collected. At +the same time Mustapha Pacha, with 40,000 Albanians and others, made his +appearance on the scene of action. Without delay an advance was made _en +potence_, and it was confidently anticipated that Stamboul would fall +before the insurgent arms. But the Sultan possessed both a cunning and +able lieutenant in the Grand Vizier Redschid. This functionary contrived +to dispense bribes so judiciously among the inferior Albanian +chieftains, that they deserted en masse to the Turks, and thus rendered +it imperative on Mustapha to take refuge in his fortress at Scutari. +This he did in the anticipation of speedy relief by Hussein Kapetan and +the Bosnians, who, despite the dissuasion of the Servian Prince Milosch, +had already marched to the rescue. Hussein's answer to Milosch, as given +by Ranke, is very characteristic of the man: 'Take heed to thyself,' he +said; 'thou hast but little food before thee: I have overturned thy +bowl. I will have nothing to do with a Sultan with whom thou canst +intercede for me; I am ready to meet thee, always and anywhere; my sword +had smitten before thine was forged.' More modest and unpresuming was +the burden of the song which they are reported to have chanted on the +march:-- + + We march, brethren, to the plains of Kossovo, + Where our forefathers lost their renown and their faith. + There it may chance that we also may lose our renown and our faith; + Or that we shall maintain them, and return as victors to Bosnia. + +Animated by principles which would have done credit to a Christian host, +these undisciplined Mussulmans easily overcame the Grand Vizier's army, +partly, it must be acknowledged, by the defection of the Albanians, who +had previously deserted the cause of Scodra Pacha. Had they now pushed +on, their independence would have been established; but, unfortunately, +what the Grand Vizier could not effect by force of arms he brought about +by guile. With great tact and cunning he sent emissaries to Hussein, +demanding to know the terms which they required. These were the +permission to remain in statu quo, with the appointment of Hussein as +Vizier. These conditions he was fain to grant, and so far worked upon +the Bosnians by private and official stratagem, that they commenced +their homeward march, leaving Scodra Pacha to his fate. Shortly +afterwards he was compelled to surrender. Individually his life was +spared, but his partisans did not meet with the same clemency. For the +truth of what I am about to relate I am unable to vouch, but can only +give it as it is recorded by the chroniclers of the events of those +times. Projectile machines are said to have been erected, and the +prisoners, being placed upon them, were flung against a wooden framework +studded with great iron hooks, and wherever the body of the unfortunate +victim was caught by them, there it hung until he perished by the +terrible, torturing, and protracted death. + +The destruction of Scodra's power was a great feather in the cap of the +Grand Vizier, who now lost no time in undermining the authority of +Hussein. In this he was assisted by the imprudence of the latter, who +committed the error of admitting Ali Aga of Stolatz into his confidence, +a man who had always adhered to the Sultan, and was distrusted +accordingly by his compatriots. Universal as was the partisan warfare +in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there was no chieftain who had supported the +brunt of so many onslaughts as Ali Aga. His castle at Stolatz, although +incapable of resisting the weapons employed in scientific warfare, was +impregnable in those times, and against such an enemy. + +In addition to the distrust engendered by Hussein's intimacy with All, +the absence of any ratification by the Porte of the recent treaty of +peace tended to produce discord in the province. Taking advantage of +this, the Grand Vizier nominated a new Pacha, Kara Mahmoud, a creature +devoted to government interest. He invaded the country with 30,000 men, +and finally succeeded, in spite of a gallant resistance, in taking +Serayevo, the capital. The perseverance which he employed in a sinking +cause did credit to Hussein, who was nobly supported by the faithful and +brave Al Pacha Vidaitch, who had no less than eight horses killed under +him in the battle which took place before the walls of Serayevo. + +Kara Mahmoud established himself there, and deposed in succession all +the Kapetans except Ali Aga of Stolatz, who had made his appearance at a +critical moment of the battle before Serayevo, and thus turned the +tables against his former friend, Hussein Pacha. + +Having thus far succeeded in his undertaking, Redschid Pacha turned his +attention to Montenegro, which had been the source of chronic +heartburnings since 1804. The nature of the country, and the want of +organisation in the Turkish forces, however, once more enabled the +mountaineers successfully to repel the invaders. A more important +expedition against them was in contemplation, when the Egyptian war +broke out, and the services of the Grand Vizier and his army were +required to combat their former ally, Ibrahim Pacha. Previous to +quitting the country, the Grand Vizier promulgated an amnesty to all +those refugees who had fled into Austria, except Hussein Kapetan, Ali +Vidaitch, and Kruppa Kapetan. A firman was subsequently given, +permitting even these to return to Turkey, although interdicting their +residence in Bosnia. On arriving at Constantinople they received their +pardon, and Ali Vidaitch returned to Bosnia; Hussein's fate is more +uncertain. From that time until 1849 order prevailed in Bosnia, +although, as subsequent events proved, a rebellious spirit still existed +amongst the more important chieftains, with whom personal aggrandisement +took precedence of the interests of the Sultan, their sovereign. + +[Footnote M: Krasinski.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian + Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress + convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer + Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by + Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and Capture + of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass Bashee--Anecdote of Lame + Christian--Omer Pacha invades Montenegro--Successes--Austria + interferes--Mission of General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change + of Frontier--Faults of new Boundary. + + +And so time wore on, and Bosnia enjoyed a kind of fitful repose. There +and in Herzegovina the feudal system had lost much of its primeval +vigour, although a barbarous independence still prevailed, more +especially in the latter province, where Ali Aga of Stolatz showed +symptoms of forsaking the _treacherous fidelity_ which had secured for +him his high position. Whatever feeling of disaffection might have been +cherished, either in Bulgaria or Bosnia, was effectually checked: in the +former by the judicious tyranny of Hussein, Vizier of Widdin, in the +latter by the iron yoke of Tahir Pacha, who fully entered into the +Sultan's projects for reform. + +The social condition of these two provinces rendered necessary a certain +variety in the policy of their rulers. Thus, while Hussein may be +regarded as the apostle of political Islamism in Europe, Tahir +endeavoured to introduce the European element. He consequently +identified himself, to a dangerous extent, with the Christian +population, abolishing forced labour, equalising the taxes, and +effecting other reforms calculated to upset the old, and establish the +_Nisame Jedid_, or new order of things. + +At this juncture the flames of revolutionary war broke forth in Poland +and Hungary. The proximity of these countries, and the affinity of their +Slavonic origin, could not fail to disseminate the same spirit on the +southern bank of the Save. A wild enthusiasm took possession of both +Serbs[N] and Bulgares, before which the aged and decrepid Viziers felt +themselves powerless. + +If it be difficult to realise the position of the Sultan, who thus found +himself at variance with his Christian subjects in Bulgaria, and his +Bosnian Spahis, the attitude assumed by these factions is equally +incomprehensible. Blinded by one insane desire to throw off their +allegiance to the Sultan, they espoused the Russo-Austrian cause, +demanding their annexation to some Slave country. Thus, by a clever +stroke of policy, Austria contrived to secure to herself the cooperation +of both the Hungarian and Serb Slaves. And here we may note a curious +coincidence, which still farther complicated matters. Whatever may have +been their prejudices against the Slavonic Christians, the Bosnian +Spahis found it expedient to demand the assistance, not only of the +Servians, but of the Montenegrins, the most implacable of foes to the +Turkish rule. These at first appeared likely to respond to the summons. + +So numerically strong, and so complete, were the preparations for war +made by the Bosnians, that, when they took the field under Ali Kieditch, +Tahir found it impossible to stem the torrent of rebellion. Never did +the prospects of the Porte wear so gloomy an aspect, for there were +ranged against it all classes of Slaves and Bulgares, irrespective of +religion or denomination. As a last resource government convened a +Congress, comprising representatives of all classes of subject Slaves. +As might have been supposed, little unanimity prevailed in their +counsels, and no tangible advantages were thereby attained. And now a +combination of unforeseen circumstances conspired to rescue the Porte +from the pressing danger which threatened it. The neutrality preserved +by Servia, or rather its Prince, Alexander Guirgievitch, infected not +only the Bulgarian Christians, but even the Montenegrins themselves, who +actually overran Herzegovina and a portion of the Bosnian frontier +during the absence of the Mussulman Spahis of those districts. Undaunted +however, by these mishaps, the members of the Congress returned to +their homes; and, although powerless to act in concert, succeeded so +well in stirring up a feeling of animosity against the government, that +the spring of 1850 found the malcontents in a better position than ever +for the renewal of the war. But rebellion had now reached its +culminating point, and the sudden appearance of Omer Pacha, who threw +himself with impetuous daring into the heart of Bosnia, gave a very +different colouring to events. To form a just estimate of the +difficulties which he had to overcome, ere order could be re-established +in this confused chaos, it is necessary briefly to recapitulate the +various conflicting elements, revolutionary and otherwise, which had +been brought into play, the aim and inevitable result of which must have +been the utter destruction of this unhappy empire. + +There are those who profess to believe that Russia has no malevolent +designs upon Turkey, and who bring forward many plausible reasons in +support of their opinion; but this number has very materially diminished +since the disclosures which preceded the late Russian war. The character +of the Turkish people, their religion, and their social and political +institutions, may all have tended to produce the calamitous state of +affairs. Yet when we probe the matter to the bottom, there we find the +root of all evil--Russian policy and imperial ambition. It is not to say +that this monarch or that was desirous of annexing by conquest, and +holding by force of arms, a gigantic empire. Such a thought were +madness. Far more subtle is the scheme which was, and is, inherent in +every Russian ruler. It has been, and still is, their own +aggrandisement, direct or indirect, based upon the ruins of Turkey. Ably +and laboriously have they worked to effect that which still seems as +distant as ever. No sooner were the bloody days of 1828-9 past, than +they applied themselves afresh to the work of disorganisation, and in +this appeared to succeed too well. They had launched the Slave against +the Turk, and then the Christian Slave against the Mussulman Slave, +whilst at the same time the Asiatic Turk--the Turk _pur sang_--was +struggling throughout Anatolia against the reformed and European Turk. +It now remained to find a pretext to justify her in effecting an armed +intervention, that cloak for so much that is arbitrary and aggressive. +This was soon found in an insignificant rising of the Bulgarians, +brought on by her roubles lavishly dispensed by old Milosch Obrenovitch, +the ejected Servian Prince, and the sympathy felt for Kossuth and +Dembinski, who had taken refuge at Widdin. This rising, however, which +was at first directed only against the Turkish Spahis or landowners, +soon acquired more important dimensions, and on January 8, 1850, the +three Nahias of Widdin, Belgradchitch, and Verkovats, were under arms. +Having failed in an attack upon the fortress of Belgradchitch, they +retired and entrenched themselves at different spots in the adjacent +country. Better armed and provisioned, and of greater physical courage, +the Spahis soon succeeded in overcoming these disorganised masses, and +bloody was the vengeance which they took. + +'Victors in every encounter,' says Cyprien Robert, 'the Mussulman Spahis +began to visit on horseback the villages, more than two hundred in +number, which had taken part in the insurrection. The devastation that +ensued was worthy of the most barbarous time. Neither age nor sex was +spared. All the young were carried off to the vulture-nests of the +Spahis of the Balkan. In vain did Redschid Pacha enjoin milder measures; +neither he nor the Sultan could check these bloodthirsty tigers. There +needed to that end the unexpected arrival of Omer Pacha at Nish. He fell +among them like a thunderbolt, and all was silence. The Bulgarians +ceased to flee, the Spahis to pursue, and, what was more, the Russian +army of Wallachia halted at the moment it was about to cross the Danube. +That terrible Omer, the queller of so many revolts, had at Bucharest an +opportunity of making his qualities felt by the Russian Generals, and +they were completely disconcerted by his sudden arrival at Nish, when +they thought he was hemmed in by the insurgent Serba in the gorges of +Bosnia, without the means of making his way through them. The Russian +troops paused, awaiting fresh orders from St. Petersburg: orders came, +and the whole scheme was quashed. Cleverly as the Russian plot had been +laid, it was completely baffled by the rapidity of Omer Pacha's +movement.' Once again order was re-established. Serayevo was again made +the seat of the provincial government, and numerous reforms were brought +into force, all of which tended to ameliorate the condition of the +Christian population. + +Such of the chieftains as refused to make their submission were pursued +without mercy, until the province became too hot to hold them. A few, +too proud or too obstinate to yield, took refuge in the Herzegovina, +where Ali Rizvan Begovitch, then an old man, opened his fortresses to +them. But all resistance was vain before the iron will and temperate +judgement of Omer. Mostar fell, and old Ali was made a prisoner and sent +in chains to Serayevo. That place he never reached, for he was shot, +accidentally it is alleged, by a Turkish soldier while on his way +thither. The circumstances of his death will hardly bear an enquiry, and +do not reflect much credit on the successful Omer, to whom the blame, as +well as the glory he acquired in all else, must attach. It is true that +the old tyrant fully deserved his fate, since even to this day the +enormities which he committed are well remembered. The old tower on the +Narenta at Mostar used to look grim with the distorted heads of the +prisoners whom he had captured on the Montenegrin frontier. The habit of +decapitating the dead was revolting enough, but this aged sinner was not +satisfied with that: he used to drive sharp wooden poles through their +living bodies, and then leave them to die a lingering and agonising +death. Some are said to have survived their impalement as much as +forty-eight hours. The example set by the Pacha was readily followed by +those about him. Numerous are the tales of murder done by his followers, +one of whom vied with his master in deeds of murder and ferocity. This +man, the Cavass Bashee, lived entirely by plunder and rapine. A spot was +pointed out to me in the valley of the Drechnitza where a Christian was +killed by him while stooping down to drink. I also heard an amusing +anecdote regarding him, when he was completely outwitted by a poor lame +Christian. The latter was riding through a river, where the stream was +somewhat rapid. On the river's bank he was overtaken by the Cavass +Bashee, who allowed him to reach the middle of the stream, when he +ordered him to dismount, threatening to shoot him if he did not comply. +In vain he pleaded his lameness; the ruffian was obdurate. Nothing +remained but to obey. This he did, and with difficulty reached the +opposite bank. The Mussulman followed, but scarcely had he reached the +deep water when the Christian, who carried a pistol concealed, drew it, +and, aiming at his persecutor, ordered him to dismount under pain of +death. So aghast was he at this audacious effrontery, that he not only +obeyed, but departed without farther comment, leaving the Christian +master of the field. Whether he took warning from Ali Pacha's fate is +unknown, but he certainly died in the odour of sanctity, after +performing a pilgrimage to Mecca. + +Having thus established the power of the Sultan in both provinces, as +well as in Bulgaria, Omer Pacha turned his attention to the +Montenegrins, whose incursions into the Herzegovina were becoming +frequent and audacious. Penetrating the country from two converging +points, he defeated the mountaineers on every occasion, who found that +they had a very different foe to contend with from those to whom they +had been accustomed. Already had he advanced close upon Cettigne, the +capital, when the Austrian government interfered. Operations were +suspended, and General Leiningen proceeded to Constantinople, where he +demanded the total withdrawal of the Turkish forces. This was acceded +to, and Turkey thus lost the hold which it had acquired upon the lawless +Montenegrins. The idea of Ottoman decay acquired daily fresh strength, +and a maudlin sentimentality was excited in behalf of these Christian +savages. Taking advantage of this, they made constant forays across the +border, stirring up by their example such of the borderers as were +disposed to rise, and using force to compel those who would have +preferred a quiet existence under the Turkish rule. + +Such was the position of affairs when the battle of Grahovo took place +on May 13, 1858. Although the affair has been grossly exaggerated, and +the blame wrongfully imputed to Hussein Pacha, the military Commander of +the Ottoman forces, it cannot be gain-said that the Turkish power was +much weakened by the event, and the arrogance of the Christians +proportionately increased, while the change of frontier to which it +conduced tended rather to aggravate than diminish the evil. The new +boundary line was defined by an European mixed commission, which decided +on increasing Montenegro by the annexation of territory on the western +frontier, including Grahovo, which they had held since Hussein Pacha's +disaster. Whether the new frontier is calculated to promote a pacific +settlement of the question admits of debate, as the province is +penetrated almost to the centre by Turkish territory on either side: +this, if it give the latter the advantage in a military point of view, +exposes the occupants of the country, flanked by the Montenegrin +mountains, to constant visits from their unwelcome neighbours, who dash +down, kill, burn, and carry off all that they can lay hands on, and +retreat to their fastnesses before the arrival of succour. + +[Footnote N: People occupying Bosnia, Servia, Herzegovina, and +Montenegro.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages + burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch + Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by + Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek Chapels + sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to + Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties + to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and Prince + of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha returns to + Mostar--Preparations for Campaign. + + +We now arrive at that period when rebellion actually broke out among the +Christians of the Herzegovina, and when things, in short, assumed the +aspect which they now wear. + +Before entering upon any account of the various risings which have +occurred, I would remark that much blame attaches itself to the Porte, +not only because of long years of misgovernment, but also on account of +the supineness shown by its officials, who, in the presence of the most +positive proofs to the contrary, treated the idea of a rising with +supercilious disregard. Frequently whole villages came in to declare +that they should be compelled to rise, unless they received protection +and support. This was of course promised liberally, but the promises +were never redeemed, and so they were driven to rebellion against their +will, as a means of safety from the fanatical fury of their lawless +co-religionists. + +After two years of indecisive skirmishing, in which the Turks, always +exposed in small parties, generally fared the worst, the Ottoman +government appeared to awake to the necessity for pursuing more +energetic measures. This resolution was hastened by the revolt of the +villagers of Yassenik, Lipneh, Garevo, Kazantzi, Doulatchi, Vralkovitch, +Golia, Krustach, Beronschitzi, Yenevitza, Danitzi, and others in the +neighbourhood of Gasko, who joined bands of Uskoks, with whom and the +Montenegrins they attacked the blockhouse of Krustach. As a punishment, +three of these were burnt by the Turkish troops. The version of the +affair given by the opposing parties varies considerably, as may be +supposed. The Christians affirm that, after repeated acts of aggression +on the part of the Bashi Bazouks, they took refuge in the mountains, but +returned thence on being promised protection. That they were one day +astonished by perceiving the heights covered with soldiers, who entered +and sacked the village of Beronschitzi. No blood was shed, but the six +sons of one Simon Gregorovitch were taken before Ali Pacha, who ordered +them to instant execution. The seventh son is reported to have been +taken to Metokhia, where, after being tortured, he was executed. The +people escaped from Yassenik and Yenevitza, but in the former two women +are said to have been killed and thrown into the flames of the burning +houses. + +The whole of these villagers affirm that their only crime consisted in +having united with other villagers in posting videttes, to give warning +of the approach of Bashi Bazouks and Uskoks. + +This somewhat improbable story is denied by Dervisch Pacha, who gives +the following account of the matter:--The occupants of twenty-one +different villages revolted in the spring of 1859, and interrupted the +communications between Gasko and Niksich and Grasko and Mostar. They +then attacked those villages occupied by Mussulmans in the plain of +Gasko, and made raids into the district of Stolatz, from which they +carried off 6,000 head of cattle, the property of the Roman Catholics of +that district. They further compelled many Christians to join in the +revolt, who would otherwise have remained quiet. Dervisch Pacha +therefore sent Ali Riza Pacha, a General of Brigade, to restore order. +He, after taking and garrisoning Krustach, advised the rebels to send +deputies, to show the nature of the grievances of which they complained. +These were sent accordingly, headed by one Pop Boydan, a priest, and a +leading mover of the insurrection; but in place of lodging any +complaints, the delegates appeared rather in the light of suppliants +demanding pardon and favour. Meanwhile the villagers returned, but not +to live peaceably--merely with the view of getting in their crops. + +While the deputation, however, was at Nevresign, the villages of Lipneh, +Samabor, Yassenik, Yenevitza, and Beronschitzi revolted again, and cut +off the communications between Gasko, Krustach, and Niksich. They also +posted guards along a line of frontier, which they said that no Turk +should pass. When called to account by Dervisch Pacha for this breach of +faith, the deputies replied that the Christians acted through fear, +which feeling was taken advantage of by a few evil-disposed persons for +their own ends. They, however, undertook to pacify them, and wrote a +letter professedly with that object, but without effect. The disorder +increased, and numerous outrages were committed. Seven soldiers were +murdered whilst cutting wood about four miles from Metokhia; Ali Pacha's +aide-de-camp and five soldiers were cut to pieces between + +Niksich and Krustach, and seven other Mussulmans were killed. Still the +Turks hesitated to act with severity. They appealed again to the +deputies, who wrote another letter, which, as the bearers of it +affirmed, only enraged the rebels, who tore it, and trod it under foot. +But this affords little proof of the intensity of their feelings, as it +has since transpired that an arrangement had been made by the deputies +that all letters written voluntarily and in sincerity should bear a +private mark; and the letter in question was not so distinguished. Upon +the discovery of their treachery the deputies were imprisoned, and +energetic measures at once resolved upon. To give these effect, Ali +Pacha advanced at the head of a small force, and summoned the rebels to +surrender. They replied by firing on the advanced guard. The three +villages were then taken, and five men and two women killed, while a few +prisoners were made. These last were released, but one died in prison. +Such is the story told of the affair by Dervisch Pacha. + +It does not appear that Ali Pacha acquired any great credit by his +method of conducting the operations. Quitting a strong position in the +afternoon, he arrived at the villages to be attacked after nightfall. +Having fired them, he was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, which +might have been most disastrous, had he been opposed to an enterprising +enemy. + +With reference to the discrepancy manifested in the two accounts, we may +feel assured that both are highly coloured. But the deception resorted +to by the rebels, and the simple explanation given by the Turkish +officials, would tend to impart to their story the greater appearance of +truth. Had the Turks, moreover, wished to avenge the deaths of their +soldiers, or to vent their hatred of the Christians, they would have +maltreated the people of the first villages at which they arrived, in +place of marching seven miles through a difficult country to the borders +of a district which had for two years defied their efforts at reduction. + +The implication of the villagers in the numerous murders which had +occurred was proved by the discovery of some of the Turkish bayonets at +Beronschitzi, while they actually made an offer to restore the property +of the murdered aide-de-camp, provided a reward was paid for them. They +even sent a list of the effects to Ali Pacha, with the sum which they +demanded for the restoration of each article. + +I venture to give these details even at the risk of incurring the charge +of too great prolixity, as hitherto a one-sided account only has been +given to the world. Every channel of information, whether it be the +telegraph from Ragusa or the Slavonic press, does its best to mislead +the general public, by exciting sympathy for the Christians, as unjust +as it is undeserved. Even in the affair in question much stir was made +by the Slavish newspapers about the death of seven Christians, while, as +Dervisch Pacha very fairly complained, no notice was taken of the murder +of thirty-seven Mussulmans during the same period. + +Another event, which afforded a handle for the ill-wishers of Turkey, +was the pillage of the four Greek chapels of Samabor, Dobrolie, +Kazantzi, and Grachantzi. This occurred in July 1859, and the case was +investigated by the Russian Consul at Mostar, who imputed the act to +Turkish soldiers, producing in evidence the fact of a sergeant having in +his possession a kind of church vestment. The sergeant, however, did not +attempt to conceal the vestment, and accounted for his possession of it +in a manner which was deemed satisfactory by the British and other +Consuls. + +It was more probably done by Uskoks, who gutted a chapel near Nevresign +a few years before, or by the rebels themselves, at the instigation of +others, for the purpose of bringing odium upon the Turks in the eyes of +Europe. + +By these and other no less unworthy means was the agitation fostered +throughout the province, until the whole frontier became denuded of +Mussulman inhabitants, who were compelled to take shelter in Klobuk, +Niksich, and other places capable of some sort of defence. + +By the spring of 1861 affairs had assumed so serious an aspect, that +even the Porte could not but awake to the danger which threatened that +portion of the empire, and to the necessity for immediate and strenuous +measures. This danger lay not so much in the aggressive power of the +rebels themselves, as in the ulterior results which it was calculated to +produce. + +It required little foresight to understand that the movement was +destined to be the germ of a general insurrection of the Slavonic +Christians of Turkey, which would lead to the partial or entire +dismemberment of her European provinces. + +In this dilemma the Sultan's government bethought them of appealing to +the only man in the empire who was capable of grappling with the +difficulty. Omer Pacha was taken once more into favour, and was +despatched to the scene of discord. A Slave by birth, but tied to the +interests of his imperial master by the devotion of a lifetime, no more +fitting choice could have been made. With alacrity he proceeded on his +mission--a mission which required both courage and address, energy and +endurance. + +He commenced his task by issuing the following proclamation, in which he +called upon all to return to their allegiance, in full assurance that it +was the intention of the Sultan to carry out the reforms which had been +guaranteed by the Hatti Humayoun of 1855. + + 'What this proclamation is I let you all know. + + 'His Majesty the Sultan has appointed me the chief of his armies in + the Roumelian provinces, and has sent me here to carry out in this + mission all the just privileges, which have not hitherto been + fulfilled. In obedience to the commands of the Sultan, I have come + here to show to you how kind and good are the intentions of our + sovereign to his subjects, and to announce without distinction to + Mussulmans, Greeks, and Catholics together, the following + decrees:-- + + '1st. Every village has the power to name one or two chiefs as + representatives, whom I will acknowledge. + + '2nd. Every district has the power to name one or two + representatives whomsoever the people of the district may choose. + + '3rd. The Christians shall have full religious liberties, and shall + be permitted to build churches and place bells therein, like all + the rest of the subjects in the empire. + + '4th. The Zaptiehs (police) shall not be permitted to locate + themselves in your houses, but an appointed place shall be set + apart for them in every village. + + '5th. The arrangement which has been made at Constantinople + touching landowners and the agriculturists, and to which both + parties have assented, shall immediately be put into execution. + + '6th. The taxes shall be collected by your own chiefs, and + consigned by them to the officers sent by our Sultan to receive + them. + + '7th. I will further recommend to the Greek Patriarch at + Constantinople that a Bishop of your own nation should be + nominated, who knows your language and customs. + + '8th. I will take such measures as shall secure you the right of + purchasing landed property. + + 'When this proclamation shall have been promulgated to you, and + you should still have some farther favour to ask at my hands, you + may do so in writing, or by word of mouth. All that is possible for + your welfare I will endeavour to fulfill. + + 'Furthermore, it is your bounden duty to submit yourselves to your + sovereign, and to show humility to him. + +'From the Divan Marshal &c. &c. &c. &c. +--at Mostar. + + + 'When you shall have heard what I have promised, see that everyone + know of it, and what is necessary to execute let me know, and it + shall be fulfilled.' + +This proclamation, was disseminated in all the Nahias (districts), +towns, and villages, and in many instances produced a favourable result. +But it could not be expected that these assurances, even though they +should have reached them, could have made much impression on a set of +lawless brigands, who loved plunder for plunder's sake, and who were +supported both morally and practically by the agents of civilised +European powers. + +Having allowed a sufficient time to elapse for all to make their +submission, it now remained to employ force where it was requisite. But +the difficulties which Omer Pacha had to encounter were prodigious. An +unprecedented drought rendered an unusually sterile country more +incapable than ever of sustaining life, while the period which +generally elapses between the autumn rains and the killing frosts of +winter, renders the time available for military operations short and +uncertain. Add to this, the total want of provisions, stores, and other +necessaries, which his predecessors had neglected to procure, and an +empty treasury, and we may not be surprised that his mission is as yet +uncompleted. But another and still greater difficulty presented itself +to him. This related to the attitude which he should assume towards +Montenegro. + +The shortest and most efficient line to pursue, in order to arrive at +the root of the evil, would have been to have invaded and subjugated +that province. But even had he felt confident of his power to effect it, +he remembered too well the lesson of former years, when his successful +advance was checked by political interference. There was little reason +to suppose that the same power, which then intervened, would allow him +greater latitude in the present instance. The idea, therefore, was +discarded, and endeavours were made to bring about a pacific +understanding, which should result in the re-establishment of order. A +meeting between Omar Pacha and the Prince of Montenegro was consequently +agreed upon at a point close to the Lake of Scutari. Omer Pacha, +accompanied by the European commission, travelled to the spot. All +appeared to be going well. Though nothing definite was ever +promulgated, there is good reason to believe that the Turkish +Plenipotentiary would have offered the most advantageous terms to the +Prince, including an accession of territory to the NW. and W., and the +possession of Spizza, a seaport, had the meeting taken place. But at the +last moment the Prince evaded his share of the arrangement, on the +shallow excuse that his people would not permit him to cross his own +frontier. He well knew that the Sultan's representative would not demean +himself by pandering to the caprices of one by rights a subject, and +that the only way in which Omer Pacha would ever pass into Montenegro +would be at the head of his soldiers. + +In vain did the European Commissioners try to change his decision. In +vain they asserted the sincerity of the Sultan, and the safety with +which he might fulfill his agreement. They could only elicit a surly, +'Faites comprendre ces gens-là.' The indignant 'C'est assez, Monsieur,' +of the French Commissioner brought the interview to an abrupt +conclusion. The rejection, for such it must be deemed, of the Turkish +overtures, together with the boast which escaped the Prince, that he +could pacify the frontier in fourteen days, are quite sufficient proofs +of his implication in the disturbances, and would fully justify the +Turks, were they to sweep this nest of hornets from the face of the +earth. + +Unfortunately, the principle of non-intervention between a sovereign and +his subjects is a chimera, refuted as it has so signally been by the +very author of the principle. + +The Commissioners now saw that nothing more could be done save by force +of arms, and were dissolved accordingly. + +Omer Pacha returned to Mostar to continue his preparations for carrying +on hostilities, not against the Montenegrins, but against the rebellious +Christians on the Turkish side of the frontier. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz--Castle + and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the + Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My Dalmatian + Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of the Turks--Health + of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of Prisoners--Christian Cruelty. + + +Day dawned on September 14, 1861, on about as cheerless a prospect as +can well be imagined. A chilly drizzle, swept hither and thither by +strong gusts of wind, did not tend to enhance the beauty of the +surrounding country, while it portended rather ominously for the success +of the operations, the first important step in the prosecution of which +may be considered to have been begun upon that day. By nine o'clock, the +hour fixed for our departure, the wind had fallen, and the rain began, +to descend in torrents, defying all precautions in the shape of cloaks +and waterproofs. So it continued until past noon, when the clouds +cleared away, and the sun shone out bright and warm. + +There is little to interest the traveller in this part of the +Herzegovina, unless it be the existence of clusters of old tombstones, +which occur very frequently throughout the province. About one hour +before reaching Stolatz, which was our destination, we came upon one of +those ancient cemeteries, which is well worthy of notice from the +mammoth proportions of the tombstones. These are, as is usually the +case, adorned with primitive sculptures of men clad in armour, horses, +and dogs, and decapitated heads; dates are seldom found, but the +character of the work and the frequent occurrence of the cross confirms +the supposition that they were erected previous to the Turkish conquest. +On our approach to Stolatz we were met by a deputation of the country +people, and by bands of children sent out to greet the arrival of him +who is regarded as the general pacificator. The anxiety displayed by +these to do homage by kissing his stirrup-iron when mounted, or the hem +of his trousers, was by no means appreciated by Omer Pacha, who +possesses very Europeanised views on these subjects. The enthusiasm with +which he was received, however, could not be mistaken, and forms an +important element in his prospects of a successful termination of the +affair. Outside the walls a battalion of regulars was drawn up, and +every here and there some detachments of irregular soldiers. + +Stolatz is charmingly situated on both banks of a small stream, which +are covered with fig and olive trees, and at the northern extremity of +the ravine in which it is built is the old castle for which it is +famous. This was put into repair by the rebellious Ali Pacha, and was +the last position held by him before he was taken prisoner by Omer +Pacha. It is simply a rectangular enclosure, with square towers at +intervals in place of bastions, and would afford little security against +an army provided with artillery. In addition to the weakness of its +defences, it is so situated as to be formidable only to the town which +lies beneath it, since it is commanded by several points on the +surrounding hills, where batteries might be safely erected at short +ranges. On the towers and their connecting curtains are many old guns, +some mounted, and others lying as they have probably lain for centuries. +Some of these are of the time of Maria Theresa, and nearly all were +ornamented with inscriptions and designs. The custom of naming guns or +giving them mottoes is very ancient and widely spread. I remember seeing +a number of Sardinians grouped round a gun in Capua upon the day of its +surrender to the Garibaldian and Piedmontese forces. They appeared much +amused, and on enquiring the cause of their merriment, I found it to be +the result of their appreciation of the motto upon the gun, which ran as +follows:--'Ultima ratio regum.' (the last argument of kings), an +argument which at any rate told with little effect in the case of +Francis II., for the simple reason that it was introduced at the wrong +moment. Doubtless some of these relics of Eastern warfare possessed as +pointed and applicable dicta as that of Capua, and had I had sufficient +time I should have scraped off the mould and rust of accumulated ages, +and have copied some of the inscriptions. That they could be fired was +placed beyond a doubt by the promiscuous medley of explosions which +greeted us, and which I purposely abstain from calling a salute, so +unlike was it to everything one has been wont to classify under that +name. + +Omer Pacha passed that night in the house of an opulent Mussulman, while +I was billeted upon the principal Christian inhabitant, a Greek[O] +shopkeeper. These men, one of whom is to be found in most of the +principal towns and large villages, may be regarded as the Parsees of +Turkey. Their shops are tolerably well supplied with European +commodities, and their owners are far in advance of their +fellow-townsmen in cleanliness and civilisation. Yet, in spite of this, +some of the modes in which they delight to honour even the passing +stranger are far from acceptable. Among the least objectionable of these +is the encouragement of their children to seize and slobber over his +hands, the only manner of avoiding which is to keep them thrust deeply +into his pockets--an odious custom elsewhere, but here indispensable. +Before bidding a last farewell to the house of my entertainer, I must +pay a grateful tribute to its comfort and cleanliness. In vain I +pressed him to accept some return for his hospitality, and it was at +length only in the form of a present to one of the aforesaid children +that I could induce this kind-hearted family to take any memento of +their grateful guest. + +On leaving Stolatz, our route lay in a SE. direction along the +bridle-path upon the right bank of the river. During the first two +hours, the rocks on our left were quite bare and devoid of all signs of +vegetation. Afterwards they assumed a far less barren appearance, being +covered with good strong brushwood, which grows down close to the +water's edge. The water is itself clear and shallow, and at one point +suddenly disappears--an instance of that phenomenon so common in these +countries, to which allusion has already been made. Above the point of +disappearance, the valley has all the aspect of the dry bed of a river, +with its sloping banks and pebbly bottom. + +Our force, which on leaving Mostar had consisted only of a small body of +cavalry for escort purposes, and some hundreds of irregulars, was +augmented at Stolatz by half a battalion of regular infantry. That the +picturesque effect produced by these Bashi Bazouks (conspicuous among +whom were the Albanian levies) was heightened by the addition of the +regulars, in their soiled garments and woollen great coats, I cannot +pretend to say; yet let no one endeavour to depreciate the Turkish +infantry who has not seen them plodding gallantly on beneath a broiling +sun, and in a country which, by its stony roughness, would tax the +energies of the stoutest Highlander. + +Those first marches, before we joined the main army, were for us, who +were mounted, pleasant enough. Taking advantage of any clump of trees +which we might encounter--and these were not very numerous--the halt +would sound, and in an incredibly short space of time coffee and pipes +would be served to the General, his Secretary, and myself, the staff +forming themselves into a group a few paces distant. + +During these halts children or curious adults would be seen peeping from +behind the trees, bent on catching a glimpse of the Serdar Ekrem. I +noticed that he never missed an opportunity of conversing with the +country people, who would tremblingly obey his summons to come and +receive 'Bakshish,' until reassured by his kind tone and gentle manner. + +In thus speaking of Omer Pacha's moral qualities let me not be mistaken: +I do not wish to infer that he possesses a very refined mind, still less +that he is gifted with those elements which go to form the +philanthropist; but that which he does possess is much good nature, a +long-headed shrewdness, which shows him the policy of toleration, and a +general disposition to support the weak against the strong. Thus, if he +has been accused of squeezing the faithful subjects of His Imperial +Majesty the Sultan, I venture to say that these attentions on his part +have been devoted entirely to those whom he knows to have amassed money +by grinding extortion, and thus he pays them off in their own coin. + +On the night of the 15th we halted in a small encampment about five +hours beyond Stolatz, where tents were already pitched for our +reception. Here one of those sights met our view so characteristic of +the country, and so unlike anything one is accustomed to see in regular +armies. A certain amount of hay and barley had been collected, and, +having been warned to do so by one of the staff, I ordered my servant to +push on ahead, that he might make sure of a portion of the spoil. On my +arrival I went down to watch operations, and vastly amusing it was to +see the scuffle which was going on--black servants, privates of +dragoons, and staff officers all helping themselves in a manner that +would have wrung the heart of the most generous forage contractor or +commissariat officer. Here I discovered the sort of stuff of which my +servant, a Dalmatian, was made. Some one, it appears, had told him, with +what truth I know not, that a party of Greek Christians had lately made +an incursion into this very camp, killing several Turks. This, and the +reports of a few muskets, so completely unmanned him, that he stoutly +declared his intention of remaining awake during the night; and it was +only by allowing him to lie in the tent by my side that I could induce +him to try and sleep. The abject cowardice of this youth on subsequent +occasions gave me but a poor impression of the modern Dalmatian--an idea +which was confirmed by the conduct of his successor, who was, if +possible, a more pitiable poltroon than Michaele. That the position of a +servant whose master was without bed or coverlet was not particularly +enviable, I am ready to admit, and many a time did he come to complain +of incipient starvation; but at the moment it was difficult to make +allowance for these little inconveniences, which were common to us all. + +We were now approaching Bieliki, where a considerable body of troops was +massed under Dervisch Pacha, a General of Division. The character of the +country through which we passed continued the same--stony and rough, +varied only by a little low wood. + +The last march was doubly as long as its precursors, and it was late in +the evening before we reached the camp. Excepting several detachments of +irregulars posted at intervals, the country presented a most deserted +appearance; and, from accounts which I have since heard, I cannot help +fancying that the cause and effect were very closely allied, or, in +other words, that the presence of the irregulars accounted for the +absence of the general population. The semi-feudal spirit, which was in +great measure extinguished elsewhere with the destruction of the +Janissaries, is still rife in this portion of the empire; and it seems +to me that more real danger is to be apprehended by the Porte from this +independent spirit in the Mussulman population than from the +bloodthirsty hatred of the Christians. + +About four hours from Bieliki we were met by Dervisch Pacha. Here, +again, we found more Bashi Bazouks, both horse and foot, as well as a +battalion of chasseurs of the army of Constantinople. On arriving in +camp, I was told off to share the tent of a Colonel-Doctor, by name Rali +Bey, who received me most hospitably. He is a young Greek, who has +served about eight years, having entered as a Major-Doctor. (Be not +horrified, O Surgeon-Major, at so unheard-of a proceeding! Doubtless +your privileges are far greater than his, save that you have the Major +as an appendage in place of a prefix.) The aforesaid Rali Bey was far +the best specimen of a Turkish military doctor whom I ever met. As a +rule, they are not an attractive set. Almost invariably +Constantinopolitans, they jabber execrable French fluently enough, and +affect European manners in a way which is truly disgusting: add to this +a natural disregard of cleanliness, and an obtrusive familiarity, and +nothing more is wanted to complete the picture. Of their professional +capacity I am unable to speak, never, I am thankful to say, having been +compelled to intrust my constitution to their hands; but, judging from +the fact that, on leaving college, they dispense with books, I felt +inclined to attribute the singularly small amount of sickness in camp +more to fortuitous circumstances than to the _ars medendi_, as practised +by these ingenuous young men. + +The sanitary state of the army at that time contrasted very favourably +with its condition some two months later in the year. At the first +period to which I allude there were only seventy men actually in +hospital, the whole force at Bieliki amounting to 8,047 regulars and +2,900 Bashi Bazouks. Of the twelve battalions of regular infantry which +composed the force five were armed with rifles, and were termed +chasseurs in consequence. At the same time, it is fair to add that +special attention has been paid to this arm, and the naturally keen eye +of the Turkish soldiers renders their education a matter of comparative +facility. + +The night which followed our arrival at Bieliki was, I think, the most +sleepless I have ever experienced. So thoroughly tired was I, that the +deafening crashes of thunder, the forked lightning, and the deluge of +rain, which poured in torrents through the tent, might have passed +unheeded, but for the mass of minute life, which defied sleep. With +early dawn I wandered off, too glad to escape from my tormentors, and +went through the hospitals, surgery, and other buildings connected with +the permanent encampment. The irregular lines of tents gave a +picturesque appearance to the camp, which was heightened by the +configuration of the surrounding hills. Far off to the SE. rise the +rugged mountains of Montenegro, at the foot of which lies the plain of +Grahovo, a spot fraught with disastrous reminiscences to the Turks. +Important as that affair was, since Grahovo was ceded to the +Montenegrins in consequence, its details have been grossly exaggerated. +It is currently accepted that 7,000 Turks were cut to pieces by 4,500 +mountaineers, the real truth being that the latter were probably nearly +as numerous as their opponents. The Turkish force consisted of two +entire battalions and a portion of a third, and, from the impracticable +nature of the country, it would have been strange had the result been +otherwise than it was. Hemmed in and mowed down from all sides by an +unseen foe, the Turkish soldiers lost all self-reliance, it is true, and +the panic which ensued must have tended considerably to increase the +magnitude of their loss. In justice to Hussein Pacha, the Turkish +General, it should be known that the operations which placed his army in +this false position were not of his planning, but were carried out in +deference to the wishes of the Civil Governor, and against his advice. +From the above remarks I would not have it supposed that I am desirous +of detracting from the well-merited praise to which the Montenegrins are +entitled for their long and successful resistance to the Turkish arms. +Their gloriously stalwart frames, and their independent spirit, both of +which they inherit with their mountain air, entitle them to admiration +and esteem; but an undue appreciation of these should not be allowed to +warp the judgement or prejudice the mind. Some there are who invest them +with almost supernaturally noble qualities, while they attribute every +conceivable enormity to their enemies the Turks. Each of these views is +incorrect. The Osmanlis, whether it be from a consciousness of their own +decrepitude, or some other cause, appear to have lost the spirit of +cruelty which characterised their more successful days; and it is a +matter of fact that the atrocities committed by their Christian +antagonists in the Greek War of Independence, during the incursion of +the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus in 1854, or in the present +_émeute_, equal, if they do not surpass, anything which they can lay to +the charge of the Turks. Travellers are apt to form their opinions upon +the evidence of their own senses; and when such is the case, their +verdict cannot fail to be favourable to the Moslems: for things seen +with one's own eyes will always make a deeper and more lasting +impression than the most harrowing details, the scene of which is laid +in times gone by. + +It may be urged that the want of power has caused this increased +humanity; and in part it may be so, for the nature of a people can never +undergo a sudden and entire change. But I can myself vouch for the +lenity which they displayed when they have had the power, and to wit +great provocation, to have acted otherwise. The incontrovertible facts, +too, remain that Mussulman Turkey has been the first to relinquish the +unchristian custom of decapitating prisoners, and other inhuman +practices, which the so-called Christians appear little inclined to +renounce. This will, of course, meet with an indignant denial on the +part of their supporters; but it must be a strong argument which can +overcome the disgust occasioned by the sight of women without ears, +children without noses, and bleeding corpses of soldiers literally hewn +to pieces with knives, all of which I have witnessed with my own eyes. + +In matters which do not immediately concern England, no opinion is +probably entitled to so much reliance as that of a Briton, even allowing +for a certain tendency, which he often has, to measure all people and +things by his own standard; and for this reason, that he is probably +free from all political and religious bias, while we know that he cannot +be actuated by prejudices resulting from community of origin, which +invalidates the testimony of the subjects of so many other European +states. However narrow-minded Englishmen may be in their own affairs, +they are generally capable of taking a broader and sounder view of those +of their neighbours than any other people. I think, therefore, that it +speaks strongly in favour of the opinions which I have advanced, that +they are shared by all those few Englishmen whose calling has brought +them into connection with these countries, or the still smaller number +who have gone thither for their own gratification. To the former class, +more especially, I can unhesitatingly appeal, to bear me out in the +heterodox assertion that the Christians are, as a mass, greater enemies +to progress than the Turks. + +[Footnote O: I.e. of the Greek Church.] + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks + abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian + Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European + Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of + Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani--Bashi + Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in Turkey--Line of + March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National Dance--'La Donna + _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big + Head--Old Tower--Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem + Devotions--Character of Turkish Troops--System of + Drill--Peculation--Turkish Army--Letters--Scarcity of + Provisions--Return of Villagers. + + +If the past history of Tzernagora or the Black Mountain is deserving of +our admiration and wonder, its future prospects afford a no less open +field for doubt and speculation. So far all has gone well with her: the +manly character of her people, and their apparent invincibility, have +enlisted the sympathies of the world in her behalf, while identity of +religion and race have procured for her the more tangible advantages of +Russian protection. + +That the last-named power is disinterested in pursuing this policy is +not for a moment to be supposed. The price she has ever demanded for her +protection has been one too willingly paid by these lawless +mountaineers, an unremitting hostility to Turks and Turkey. For +centuries this was open and undisguised on the part both of the people +and the Vladika, by whom, despite his religious calling, the destruction +of Turks was rewarded as a distinguished national service. Such, +however, is no longer the case; although their hatred is not one whit +diminished, or their depredations less frequent than of old, they mask +them under the garb of a feigned neutrality and an unreal friendship. +Thus they protest, in the face of the most damning proofs to the +contrary, their innocence of all connivance with the Herzegovinian +rebels. Corpses of those who have been recognised as accredited leaders +they declare to be Uskoks, proscribed brigands, whom it behoves every +lover of order to hunt down and destroy. But none are deceived by these +shallow excuses, which ill corroborate the assertion which, in an +unguarded moment, escaped from the young Prince, that he would +undertake, upon the fulfillment of certain conditions, to pacify the +frontier within fourteen days. + +This tacit admission of collusion with the rebels is quite sufficient to +justify the Porte in endeavouring to overrun the province, and thus +trample out rebellion in its principal stronghold. Presupposing its +ability to effect this, we then arrive at the real debatable point, +whether such a course would be allowed by the other powers. In the case +of England the answer can hardly be doubtful; for it would ill behove a +country, in whose Parliament all religions are tolerated, to interfere +in the matter, abandoning that policy of non-intervention which she has +so openly confessed and so successfully pursued, upon the narrow grounds +of the inexpediency of permitting a Mussulman power to overrun a +Christian province, and a province, be it remembered, which legally +composes an integral portion of the Turkish empire. + +The candid announcement made by the Porte of its intention to abandon +the policy of forbearance towards Montenegro, which it has as yet +pursued, betokens the existence of a small spark of its ancient spirit, +and augurs well for its success. Should the belligerents be left to +themselves, I believe that it will succeed; but the web of political +intrigue which has grown around the question, fostered by hereditary +policy, imperial ambition, and private machination, render it difficult +to foretell the issue. The chances which render success probable are the +deference which France has of late shown to the wishes of England, the +want of union prevalent throughout the Austrian empire, and the internal +movement in Russia, which incapacitates her from doing mischief in this +part of Europe. Yet, let us not disguise from ourselves the self-evident +fact, that the views of Russia remain unaltered, that the policy of +Peter is still maintained inviolate, and that, although the last war may +have convinced her that actual self-aggrandisement will not be +tolerated, she still holds one object ever in view--the destruction of +Turkish supremacy on both banks of the Danube and the substitution of +dependent Slavism. + +Throughout European Turkey, and nowhere more than in Montenegro, has her +influence waned since the Eastern war; yet so long as she shall possess, +and so freely use, the golden key, she must and will have very great +weight. + +Of the three causes which, as I have said, tend to complicate the +Herzegovinian-Montenegrin question, private machinations have recently +been the most successful, and consequently the most injurious to order +and the general weal. The energy of some of the foreign employés has +been truly astounding, while their glib tongues and manoeuvring minds +have worked metamorphoses worthy of Robin or the Wizard of the North. +This distortion of facts was somewhat naïvely described by a French +colleague of M. Hecquard.[P] + +'Montenegro,' said the former gentleman, 'c'est une invention de +Monsieur Hecquard.' Instances of such duplicity have been frequently +brought to light. These, while they reflect little credit on the +individual, speak badly for the good faith of the government +represented, as discovery is rarely followed by punishment--frequently +quite the reverse. + +The high-handed policy which the Porte is now pursuing is the most +likely to be attended with beneficial results; for, as experience has +shown us, the system of concession is entirely useless, each addition to +their territory only making the Montenegrins the more grasping and more +avaricious. That a solution of the difficulty must in some way be +arrived at is clear. Should Turkey fail in effecting this by the means +she is now adopting, Europe will be called on to interfere; for while +things exist as at present, the developement of those countries in +agriculture or commerce is as impossible as in civilisation and +Christianity. + +The disorganised condition of the Herzegovina, with its attendant +incubus of half a million of debt, renders it certain that one of two +results must inevitably ensue: either Turkey will be compelled to +surrender that province, and possibly Bosnia also, or she will sustain a +still severer blow to her already shattered finances. Of the two evils, +the latter is the least in the opinion of the Ottoman government, and it +was this consideration which induced it to determine on the prosecution +of hostilities in 1861. Several causes combined to retard the +commencement of military operations until late in the year. The +principal reasons were, the almost unprecedented drought which prevailed +during that year, and the deference shown by Omer Pacha to the wishes +of the European Commission, then sitting at Mostar, whose members did +all in their power to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion without having +recourse to arms. In the meantime troops were being massed, and stores, +provisions, and magazines provided at Gasko, Bieliki, and Trebigné. The +country infested by the insurgents extended from Bosnia round the +frontier as far as Suttorina, in the vicinity of which Luca Vukalovitch +had established his quarters. This man, who has acquired a certain +notoriety, was a blacksmith by trade, but, preferring a life of lawless +indolence to honest labour, betook himself to his present calling. He +appears to be quite devoid of that chivalrous courage which has +distinguished many of his class, and consequently deserves neither +sympathy when free nor mercy from his captors when taken. + +On September 3 the first move was made. Columns left Bieliki and +Trebigné, which, after scouring the district surrounding Grahovo, +returned without effecting any important results. A re-distribution of +the troops then took place. Trebigné was almost denuded of regular +soldiers, its defence being intrusted to Bashi Bazouks, while the entire +force was distributed at other points of the frontier, Bieliki and Gasko +constituting a permanent base of operations. At the former of these +Dervisch Pacha was in command, a man of considerable military talent, +though thoroughly unscrupulous, while another General of Division, Osman +Pacha, had his head-quarters at Gasko. + +Such was the position of affairs on September 18, 1861. Upon the morning +of that day, intelligence was received of such a nature as to render an +immediate move advisable. An order to this effect was issued at 2 +P.M., just as I had succeeded in rendering habitable a very +smart little tent, which had previously belonged to the Spanish General +Prim, and had been given by him to Omer Pacha after the campaign on the +Danube. At 3 P.M. six battalions paraded with eight guns, and +some sappers, the whole under the command of Ali Pacha of Scutari, a +General of Brigade. For some hours our course lay in a NE. direction +along a ridge, and separated only by the intervening gorge from the +mountains of the Baniani, which ran parallel on our right. These were +known to be infested with rebels, traces of whom were found by a force +of irregulars sent to attack them during the chilly hours of morning. +Here I, for the first time, saw Omer Pacha throw off the air of easy +carelessness habitual to him, and apply himself _con amore_ to the work +before him. He selected the positions to be occupied by the outposts and +picquets, indicating to his staff such points as he considered most +worthy of their attention, and endeavouring, by his own exertions, to +atone for the shortcomings of his subordinates. The force bivouacked +that night on the side of a hill overhanging a hollow, in which was +pitched one of the small camps with which these districts are now +interspersed. The choice of ground was certainly most injudicious, and +the General expressed his annoyance in no measured terms. + +From this time the privations endured by the troops were very great. +Long marches over an almost impracticable country by day, the most +intense cold by night, without tents or extra clothing, and with little +food, were endured with uncomplaining devotion. In some measure I could +sympathise with them, having passed all the nights since leaving Mostar +without bed or blanket. Thus many a cold morning hour did I eke out in +vain search for wood to kindle a little fire; and had I to undergo the +ordeal again, I should certainly prefer to pass the night _à la belle +étoile_, with my toes to the smouldering embers of a camp fire, and my +head well wrapped up after the manner of all Easterns. + +On the second day after leaving Bieliki, our course lay due N. through a +perfect wilderness of rocks, varied only by an occasional basin, formed +by surrounding hills, and covered with a species of dwarf vegetation. +The appearance of the force, as it straggled over this wavy expanse of +stone, was curious enough, and it certainly baffles all attempts at +description; so I must ask my readers to allow their imagination to +people the _mer de glace_ with some thousands of Oriental soldiers, +regular and irregular, pipe-bearers, and household servants formidably +armed, and they will not be far from a just conception of the case. +After marching for five hours over this inhospitable tract, we halted at +the mouth of a valley where the hills open out into a small plain. This +forms the entrance to the Pass of Koryta, whence we had just emerged. It +is a spot of ill repute even amongst the barbarous inhabitants of these +regions; and more Turks have received their death-wounds from behind the +boulders, which have served to screen the assassins, or from the knives +of the ever-ready Greeks in that fatal gorge, than in any other spot of +these disordered lands. The Pass is formed by the extremities of Banyani +and Pianina, and is of much strategical importance. It was one of the +first points subsequently occupied by Omer Pacha. Many a disaster has +been brought about by the incautious recklessness of those in command of +Turkish troops, and it was with some satisfaction that I saw the heights +both in front and rear crowned by Turkish battalions, before the +remainder were allowed to pile their arms, and betake themselves to +sleep or any other recreation. It was impossible not to revert in +imagination to the scenes of blood and strife of which Koryta has been +the site, as contrasted with its appearance at that moment. Groups of +Turkish soldiers were amusing themselves by dancing a national dance, +with as much gaiety as though they had not marched a yard, and with far +more activity than one would be disposed to give them credit for +possessing. The dance, a kind of jumping reel, was accompanied by +droning music not unlike the pipes. A little farther a regimental band +was murdering the two or three European airs with which it was +acquainted. One of these, to which they showed a good-natured antipathy +by frequently murdering, was 'La Donna è Mobile,' or 'La Donna +_Amabile_,' as Omer took pleasure in calling it. And thus the day wore +on, until, late in the evening, we arrived at Tchernitza, a little town +of about 600 inhabitants. Our camp was formed on a level plot, which +looked green and pleasant after the barren country through which we had +passed. Just above the spot where the men bivouacked was a lofty mound +surmounted by a turret, from which an armed sentry of a regiment of +redif (or militia) kept watch over the surrounding country. While taking +a bird's-eye view from this point, I heard myself accosted, to my no +small astonishment, in very fair English by a Turkish officer. My new +acquaintance proved to be one Hakki Bey, a Major of Engineers, employed +on the staff of Osman Pacha. He told me that, after having passed ten +years at the Turkish Military College, he had been sent to England for +five years to complete his education. What can the world say of Turkish +education after this stupendous example? He was an officer of much +intelligence, and soon worked himself into Omer Pacha's good graces. On +the following morning I met Osman Pacha at breakfast in the +Generalissimo's tent. He answers fully to the latter's description of +him, as being a man of much feeling, and very much the reverse of what +he is represented by Mr. Oliphant. That gentleman, in his narrative of +the Trans-Caucasian campaign, calls him 'a thorough Moslem, and a hater +of all Feringhees.' Now I am at a loss to conceive on what grounds he +can base that assertion; for, excepting that he speaks no language but +his own--a very common circumstance with English gentlemen of a certain +age--he is thoroughly European in his ideas and tendencies. Of his +kindness to myself under circumstances of difficulty and danger I shall +ever entertain the most lively recollection. + +While peering about in the single street of Tchernitza, I observed a +crowd collected in one corner. The centre of attraction proved to be a +man with a big head. The unfortunate creature seemed to experience very +much the same treatment as he would have met with had he been turned +loose in the streets of London. Everybody stared, most people laughed, +and some jeered at his terrible affliction. He may have numbered some +five-and-forty years, stood about five feet four inches high, with a +head of about twice the natural size. The idiotic appearance produced by +this deformity was increased by the dimensions of his tongue, which +protruded from his mouth, and hung down at the side in the most +woe-begone manner. The poor wretch accepted the banter of the spectators +with that good-humoured indifference which leads one to hope that the +victims of such freaks of nature are insensible to the full weight of +their calamity. To the SE. of the town or village stand the ruins of an +old castle, once the favourite resort of the Dukes of Herzegovina. +Nought save the remnant of the walls remains to mark its importance in +days gone by. + +The remainder of our march to Gasko was in the plain, and presented few +objects to attract attention, unless it was another victim of fell +disease. A poor girl, suffering from elephantiasis, was one of the only +women whom I had seen for many days. Her foot was swollen to an +incredible size, and I have been since informed that it is not an +uncommon complaint in those countries. As usual, we found the force +already encamped at Gasko drawn up to receive us, four mountain guns on +either flank. These were mounted, and drawn by two mules. In places +inaccessible to wheeled carriages, they are carried, as in our own +service, by two mules, viz. the gun on one, and the carriage on the +other. + +The infantry presented a more creditable appearance than any I had yet +seen, and the encampment generally looked clean and orderly. Camp life +is under no circumstances a very agreeable phase of existence, and least +of all in Eastern countries, when divested of the excitement resulting +from the probability of an attack. In other lands there is sure to be +something to attract the mind. Staff officers in gay uniforms pass and +repass in all the importance of official haste, cornets of cavalry bent +on performing the onerous duties of galloper, and the pompous swagger of +infantry drum-majors, all combine to vary the scene and amuse the eye. +But in Turkey this is not so. All are equally dirty and unkempt, while +the hideous attempts at music have very far from a soothing effect. An +attentive listener may hear a single voice four times in the day calling +to prayer, a custom which, under no circumstances, is ever omitted. Of +the internal response to this appeal I am of course unable to judge, but +from outward appearance I should imagine it to be small. The Pachas, it +is true, indulge in the somewhat unintellectual amusement of twiddling a +chain of beads, talking on indifferent subjects the while; but I never +observed even this small tribute of respect amongst the inferior +officers. And thus the day wears on in dull monotony, until at sunset a +crash of many voices may be heard from the centre of the camp, rising up +to heaven, and calling down a blessing on their Sultan's head. + +Immediately upon his arrival at Gasko, Omer Pacha had betaken himself to +the only habitable house in the adjacent village, coming down to camp +with early morning. I consequently became the guest of Osman Pacha, who +treated me with uniform kindness. It is a strange coincidence that +almost every Turkish Pacha, whatever may have been his origin, however +low his moral character, possesses a dignity of deportment and a charm +of manner which among Europeans is deemed an infallible test of a kind +heart and high breeding. This, however, does not apply in its full sense +to Osman, for a more amiable and moral old gentleman never breathed. +Indeed, I much fear that the good qualities of his heart somewhat +eclipsed those of his head, as subsequent events will show. Many of his +remarks, however, were shrewd and pointed enough; thus, while comparing +the English with the Turkish soldier, he very candidly admitted that the +former carried off the palm in the matter of fighting, with the +following reservations--that the Turk is content to serve with a very +considerable arrear of pay, and with very little in the way of clothing +or nourishment; that he is able to endure equal if not greater fatigue +and hardship; and lastly, that he does not indulge in strong drinks. All +this must be admitted by the most prejudiced arbitrator; nor is it the +highest eulogium to which the Moslem soldier is entitled. Habits of +order and obedience, which are only sustained in European armies by the +strictest discipline, form part of the national character, and therefore +render the minuter details of military economy unnecessary. That they +will ever become sufficiently familiarised with their European clothing +as to present a smart appearance, is improbable; yet their parade +movements are even now performed with considerable accuracy and rapidity +in the loose shuffling manner in vogue amongst the French, while of +their prowess in the field we have had ample proofs on divers +occasions--whether in the European campaign of 1828, when, despite the +confusion resulting from the recent destruction of the Janissaries, they +beat the Russians at all points; or in Asia during that and the +following years, where, if not so successful, they often displayed a +heroism unsurpassed in history. Or, coming down to the present time, we +have but to recall the noble stand made at Kars and Silistria, which, +almost without defences, they held for months against the most +determined efforts of Mouravieff and Paskievitch. Singularly enduring, +brave, and obedient, they require only good leading to form them into +one of the most effective armies of the world. But this is precisely the +one thing in which they are most strikingly deficient, and of which +there is little hope of any permanent amelioration. + +In no department of the public administration are the baneful effects of +that spirit of insincerity and rapacity, which is almost universal at +Constantinople, more apparent than in the army. Money drawn upon the +authority of false returns, and eventually appropriated by the highest +people of the land, affords an example of peculation and dishonesty +which is carried out through all ranks, and the result is that the +greater portion of the army has received no pay for more than +six-and-twenty months. There is reason to believe that this system of +sending in false numerical returns has been of late carried to an +incredible extent. The nominal strength of the Turkish army is as +follows:--6 corps d'armées, each consisting of 6 regiments of 4 +battalions, each battalion numbering 1,000 effective men, with a +proportion of cavalry and artillery to each corps d'armée. + +This gives us 144,000 regular infantry; and yet I have good authority +for saying that, should Turkey enter upon a war to-morrow, she would do +so with less than 80,000 regular infantry. Of these 29 of the strongest +battalions were in the Herzegovina during the past autumn, and that +force has received a slight increase during the winter months. To the +merits of these troops I have already borne testimony. Against those by +whom they are officered I would now raise a protest, since they appeared +to be so selected without regard to any one qualification which may +entitle them to the rank. Even were the finances of the empire restored +to a flourishing condition, and other reforms instituted, the army +cannot be thoroughly effective until it is re-officered, and the new +officers duly impressed with a conviction of the just distribution of +rewards and punishments. It is deplorable that so low a sentiment should +be the only one with which to inspire the officers, in order to secure +the zealous fulfillment of their duties. But so it is: their birth and +education, and the flagrant instances of bought rewards, which are +constantly before their eyes, combine to render it the best sentiment of +which they are capable. This applies principally to the regimental +officers in the lower ranks, upon whom the efficiency of an army so much +depends. Great good is anticipated from the extended scale introduced +into the Military College, and it is said to be the intention of the +government to appoint as soon as possible officers to commands who have +passed through it, to the extinction of the old system of conferring the +highest rank upon Pachas, whether fitted for the position or not. + +Excepting the chief of the staff, and some of the aides-de-camp, the +staff in the field was composed of engineer officers, most of whom had +passed some years in France or Belgium, while one had remained five +years in England. But these are men of a very different stamp from the +general run of regimental officers, who appear to think it the greatest +privilege of their position to get very drunk whenever the opportunity +offers itself, thus presenting a curious contrast with the remarkable +sobriety of their men. One evening I chanced to witness a scene as +amusing as it was characteristic of the people among whom I lived. A +post had arrived, and Osman Pacha's private Secretary was occupied in +dispensing the letters. The officers were admitted to his tent, and the +childish glee which they displayed was diverting in the extreme. Not +only did they mark their gratitude by kissing every portion of the +Secretary's garments on which they could lay hand, but danced about, +showing the epistles to all who approached. Fortunately, perhaps, few of +these could read, so the breach of confidence was not very great. I have +often noticed that an Oriental, when he does shake off the apathetic +reserve habitual to him, becomes more excited and enthusiastic than +warmer-blooded nations. At any rate they seem to possess a full measure +of that natural instinct of joy at receiving tidings of loved ones in +far distant lands. One of these letters was from the wife of an officer, +who had not heard from her for many months, and whose last reports had +informed him of the destruction of his house by fire. The apparent +indifference with which he had received the first announcement +completely gave way to a flood of happiness on hearing of the safety of +those he loved. Verily they are not so devoid of feeling as is generally +supposed--these fatalist Turks. + +The arrival of Dervisch Pacha with six battalions from Bieliki, which +was now occupied by two battalions of redif, converted Gasko into the +sole base of operations. The rain, which had for the past few days +fallen in torrents, would have enabled Omer Pacha to have commenced +hostilities on a greater scale, but for the dearth of provisions, which +should have reached the frontier long since. It now became apparent that +little could be done during the remaining months of the year, for nature +had effected for the rebels whatever the indolence of the Turkish +commanders had left undone. The magnificent harvest of the preceding +year, which the rebels had appropriated, and the extraordinary drought +which had prevailed during the spring and summer of 1861, combined to +diminish the Turkish prospects of success. Moreover, the object of the +Generalissimo was not so much to hunt down the rebels as to inspire them +with confidence in the leniency of the Sultan's rule, while he, at the +same time, occupied the country in such force as to convince them of the +necessity of eventual submission. Already were the good effects of this +measure manifested in the rapid return of the inhabitants to the +surrounding villages. Metokhia, Aphtoria, and Lubniak, all in the close +vicinity of the Turkish camp, had been deserted by their occupants, who, +like the majority in the plain of Gasko, are of the Mussulman religion. +These now returned to their desolated homes. + +[Footnote P: The French Consul at Scutari and member of the European +Commission, a man as remarkable for talent as for cunning and love of +intrigue.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer + Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack + Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of + Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish Women--Defects + of Government by Mudir and Medjlis. + + +The ennui produced by a long halt after a series of consecutive marches +had by this time taken such a hold on me, that with delight I heard Omer +Pacha's announcement of his intention to send a force with provisions +for the town and garrison of Niksich, whose proximity to Montenegro +placed them in the position of a beleaguered garrison, and rendered them +dependent upon the government for the ordinary necessaries of life. For +this duty Osman Pacha was detached, taking with him seven battalions and +four guns, which were subsequently reinforced by an eighth battalion +from Krustach. For the first three hours our route lay in the valley of +Gasko, which looked green and fertile, though showing few signs of +cultivation. The ruins of a church were the only antiquarian relics +which I noticed on the march. At the extremity of the valley the pathway +winds to the SE., having the rugged Piwa, looking bleak and bare, on the +left, and the more wooded heights of Baniani on the right. The +configuration of the hills, and the sharp outline of the country +generally, combined with the indescribably wild and rocky character of +some parts of the foreground, and the sloping grass banks in others, to +produce a picture at once grand and picturesque; but it was a picture of +which the eye soon wearied and the appreciation palled. There, as +throughout the whole march to Niksich, the country abounds with the most +magnificent defensible positions; natural parapets, whence a most +destructive fire might be poured upon an advancing foe, and incapable of +being turned by any flank movement; positions, in short, constructed for +the enactment of a second Thermopylæ. No signs of humanity were to be +found in that barren region. Here and there the carcass of a stray +horse, which had died probably of pure inanition, and afforded a scanty +meal to the birds and beasts of prey, was the only sign of aught that +had ever beat with the pulse of life. Leaving the main body, I came up +with a small party of engineer officers, employed in taking the angles +on the line of march. The serious inconvenience resulting from the want +of a good map of these countries is now much felt. True, it was +partially removed by the existence of a map of Montenegro, including a +portion of the Herzegovinian frontier, drawn by Major Cox[Q], R.E., and +published by the Topographical Department, a copy of which I had +presented to Omer Pacha, and which was much appreciated by him. Very +properly, however, he proposes that the country shall be surveyed by +Turkish officers, and a map constructed upon their observations. Its +accuracy will be somewhat doubtful, if we may judge from the crude +manner in which they set to work. The only instruments employed were +prismatic compasses, with which they jotted down angles at all the +salient points, an orderly dragoon counting his horse's paces in the +intervening time, which was occasionally as much as twenty minutes. +Passing these I reach the advance guard, and still pressing on I soon +find myself alone. No, not quite alone; another turn of the rocks brings +me abreast of a strange companion, his long flowing dress of yellow +surge, and Dervish's hat, with its hair-fringe, proclaim him to be one +of that large class of religious devotees who live in indolence by +working upon the superstition of their co-religionists. My friend, +however, was a man of some affluence, and very superior in all respects +to the generality of his order. By birth an Affghan, he has spent many +years in the Herzegovina, and had followed the army for some weeks +before I chanced to meet him. Wherever there was a prospect of work or +danger there were his little bay stallion and tufted lance always to be +seen. There was something weird-like in his presence, as he now sat +like a statue on his horse, and anon darted forward with a flourish of +his lance, sending up wreaths of blue smoke from the inseparable +chibouque. We thus rode in company until we overtook the small force of +irregulars, who had been sent in advance of the main body. This constant +use of, and great reliance on, the Bashi Bazouks, is most prejudicial to +the efficiency of the service; for while it tends to deteriorate the +spirit of the regulars by depriving them of the first chance of meeting +the enemy, it exposes the others to the influence of bribery, which +constitutes so prominent a feature of Oriental warfare. Omer Pacha well +understands the disadvantages resulting therefrom, and will soon have +established a more healthy system. Already he has succeeded in inspiring +the troops with a degree of self-confidence, quite unprecedented, by +merely avoiding that error into which Turkish Generals so often fall, of +detaching small bodies of troops, who are cut up by the enemy without +object and without result. Individually, he is perhaps somewhat +destitute of the _élan_ which is generally associated with the character +of a Guerilla chief, and yet without detracting from his character as a +master in the art of modern war, there is no species of campaigning +which he understands so well as that which he has successfully waged in +Montenegro and the other hill countries of the Turkish empire. Energy +and caution are the two qualities indispensable to success in these +countries, and these he possesses to an eminent degree. It may be deemed +presumptuous in me to pass an opinion upon one whose fame is world-wide; +but that very fact must be my excuse, that those who are entitled to +universal admiration are likewise subject to universal criticism. I have +heard it urged that Fuad Pacha, the present Grand Vizier, who displayed +much ability in the conduct of the war against the rebels in Thessalyand +Epirus in 1854, would have succeeded better in the present hostilities. +But, on the other hand, if the Grand Vizier be gifted with a greater +amount of dash, Omer Pacha possesses a cooler judgement and a larger +experience than any man in the Turkish empire; and before leaving the +subject, I would call attention to the meritorious service which he has +rendered to the Sultan under all circumstances. Disgraced without cause, +he has faithfully adhered to the country of his adoption, displaying +through good report and evil report an integrity which does honour to +his principles. For, be it remembered, that he is bound by no ties of +blood or nationality, and that treachery to Turkey would probably serve +as a passport to the highest honours in Austria or Russia. + +Apologising for this digression, I would now return to Osman Pacha and +the column whom I have left so far to the rear. Late in the afternoon we +arrived at Krustach, a position somewhat similar to Koryta, and of +equal importance as regards the military occupation of the country. The +valley is at this point shut in on either hand by hills of just +sufficient height to give an advantageous command to a defending force; +these are connected by a cross range, that present an apparently +impassable barrier to an advancing foe. This position is surmounted by a +small fort with a court-yard, whose walls are pierced for musketry. Four +guns of indifferent quality are here mounted, commanding the approaches +on either side, while three guard-houses, each capable of holding two or +three companies, have been built on the most elevated positions, +flanking the approach from the NW. The garrison consisted of two +battalions commanded by a Wallack colonel, who might have passed but for +his fez for an officer in the Russian service, so much did he resemble +one of that nation in physiognomy. He appeared to be an active and +intelligent officer, and had, I heard, rendered good service during the +Eastern war. The appearance of the valley that night was strange and +picturesque. Hundreds of fires stretched far up the sides of the cradle +of hills in which our bivouac was formed, while a regular line of light +marked the chain of outposts which crowned the surrounding heights. +Head-quarters might be recognised by a large paper lantern suspended on +a high stick close to the camp-fire, around which lay Osman Pacha, one +of his staff, the Affghan Dervish, and myself, all sleeping quite as +comfortably as though we had never known a bed. Trumpets sounded at 5 +A.M. for a start; and, having ascended to the fort, we found +the sun struggling for the mastery with the clouds on the tops of the +adjacent hills. The army was now in full motion; the regular infantry +defiled in something like order down the narrow path, which had been +imperceptible to us on the preceding evening. The Bashi Bazouks, on the +other hand, might be seen streaming down the hill-side, jumping, +rolling, and tumbling in strange confusion. Having inspected the fort we +joined in with these, and rode down a descent, which would have been +impracticable for any save the sure-footed iron-plated horses of the +East. After traversing the valley for some miles, the rugged line of +Piwa closed in upon us on the left, and a black impenetrable mountain +seemed to bar our farther progress. After three quarters of an hour's +ascent we were glad to halt. Clambering to a grassy knoll, we made a +frugal meal of the hardest of biscuit soaked in muddy water, the only +food, by the way, which the troops tasted from the time of leaving Gasko +until their return. These biscuits are manufactured at Constantinople, +and are so hard as to be uneatable unless soaked; they, however, form a +good substitute for bread, which is seldom to be procured. But we must +not linger too long, for already the sun is high in the heavens. On, +on, once more, brave little horses and unflinching men; your labours +will soon be rewarded: and thus they toiled on, until, with sobbing +flanks and perspiring brows, the highest requisite point was reached. +Stretching away to our right front was a grassy glade, looking like +velvet after the stony wilderness we had just left: a pine wood on the +left gave it all the appearance of an English park, which was only +dispelled by the extraordinary sight which now met the eye. Behind a dip +in the ground were collected a considerable body of irregular horse and +foot, who were awaiting our approach in all the magnificence of banners, +kettledrums, sackbuts, psalteries, and all kinds of possible and +impossible instruments of music. No sooner did we approach than away +they went, horse and foot, shouting and blowing and waving their flags. +The idea seemed contagious, for it was instantaneously followed by Osman +Pacha and everyone who bestrode any kind of beast, prominent amongst +whom the Affghan might be seen, flourishing his lance well to the fore. +The glade opened out into a valley of inconsiderable size, which has +witnessed more than one encounter between the Christians and Turks. Only +the previous winter an engagement took place, in which the Turks, +notwithstanding that they remained masters of the position, had from +forty to fifty men put _hors de combat_. The timber here was of far +finer growth than any I had yet seen, and the numerous oaks and elms +lying with uptorn roots betokened the violence of the storms which rage. +Many of them were lying midway across our line of march, and it was +found necessary to remove them to admit of a free passage. This was soon +effected, though perhaps with a little more noise than is consistent +with English ideas of order. We had by this time entered the Pass of +Dugah, formed by the extremities of Piwa on the left, and Banian on the +right. The slopes on either hand are wooded, that of Banian to much the +greatest extent. It is some fifteen miles in length, and consists of a +series of open spaces, connected by narrow defiles, whose bottoms +resemble the bed of a dry stream. The scenery is generally pretty, and +abounds with interest from its being a constant bone of contention +between the rival factions. As a defensive position it is undoubtedly +strong; but there is nothing in the nature of the ground in reality to +impede the advance of a determined force. While halted in one of the +open spaces which I have mentioned, we discovered a hole or cavern in +the side of the hill, capable of holding at least two hundred men. +Doubtless this is a constant resort of the freebooters and other lawless +ruffians who infest this part of the country. It was here that the +European Consuls were nearly meeting their deaths, although accompanied +by the Secretary of the Montenegrin Prince, when employed in making +arrangements for the relief of Niksich, which was then invested. + +It was dark before we reached the extremity of the valley, and little +did we then think under what circumstances we should next see it. The +latter portion of our march lay through a wood of hazel and other small +trees, intersected here and there by pathways. Here we were met by more +irregulars, and, debouching from the high land, we found a portion of +the garrison of Niksich drawn up on the opposite bank of a little stream +which flowed beneath us. The contour of the surrounding country is very +remarkable: the gray heights of Piwa behind us, Drobniak to our left, +and Banian looking green by comparison on the right, while the rocky +mountains of Karatag form a dark and gloomy foreground to the picture. + +During the ensuing night the rain descended in torrents, rendering the +spongy ground on which we had bivouacked very much the reverse of a +desirable resting-place. In vain I waited for an improvement in the +weather, which only became worse and worse; and eventually I started in +pursuit of that portion of the troops which had left at early dawn in +charge of the provisions for Niksich. These consisted of 65,000 okes of +meal and biscuit, with a few head of horned cattle. The last commodity +appeared to me to be scarcely necessary, as we met some hundreds of +bullocks being driven out to graze in the valley, while the presence of +our force rendered such a measure safe. How these were generally +supplied with forage I am at a loss to conjecture, since the Mussulman +population were unable to venture more than one mile from the town, +except in bodies of 500 armed men. The distance to the town from the +commencement of the valley is about six miles, through a broad and +well-watered pasture land. In parts this has been ploughed and devoted +to the produce of grain, burnt stubble of which denoted the destructive +ferocity of the neighbouring Montenegrins. The new line of frontier +recently defined by the European Commission scarcely tends to promote a +pacific adjustment of existing difficulties. On the contrary, the line +of demarcation as it now is must inevitably lead to further +complications. Situated at the apex of a triangle, the town and plain of +Niksich offer a tempting bait to the lawless brigands, who infest the +mountains which form two of its sides, and who keep the unfortunate +Mussulman population in terror of their lives. At the south-eastern +extremity of the plain stands the town of Niksich, a small, dirty, and +irregular collection of buildings, all huddled together in the closest +possible vicinity to the ruined fort, as though seeking the protection +of its mouldering walls. Of the origin of the fort I could learn little, +save from an inscription over the arched entrance, from which it +appears to have been built by the son of an old and influential Albanian +chieftain about 200 years ago. Two square towers, containing five pieces +of ordnance, form the principal feature in the defensive works; but the +whole place is in so ricketty a condition that, were a cannonade to be +opened from its walls, they would inevitably come down about the ears of +their defenders. From the easternmost of these towers the town runs out +some few hundred yards towards the Montenegrin frontier; but all egress +upon that side is out of the question, as there is ever a bullet in +readiness for anyone who may be so rash as to cross a certain green +patch of grass, which appears to be accepted as the legitimate boundary +of the two provinces, although not precisely specified as such. At this +point the Turkish sentries are withdrawn, but farther to the south a +small white building serves as a guard-house, whence sentries are +supplied to form a cordon round that portion of the frontier. On +arriving at Niksich, we--that is, Osman Pacha's principal staff officer +and myself--paid a visit to the Mudir, whom we found sitting in +dignified conclave with his whole Medjlis. The Mudir, a magnificent +Albanian, standing about six feet four inches, and of proportionate +girth, welcomed us most cordially, and appeared a person of far greater +intelligence than most of his class. He bitterly lamented the increase +of suffering, resulting from the change in the line of frontier. +'Attacks by the Montenegrins and their friends,' said he, 'are now of +daily occurrence, and there seems to be no chance of any improvement in +our condition.' He expressed great confidence, however, in the +advantages to be derived from Omer Pacha's arrival, and took a clear and +sound view of things generally. He argued, correctly enough, that the +rebels would stand a good chance of being literally starved into +submission during the ensuing winter and spring, since the occupation of +the country by the Turkish troops had prevented them from getting in +their harvest, while the benighted frenzy which they had themselves +displayed in the wanton destruction of the crops had deterred the +neighbouring landowners from cultivating their fields. But the open +intelligent face of our friend, the Mudir, lit up, more especially when +telling us of some of the dours which he had made against the rebels; +and in good sooth he looked better fitted for such employment, judging +from his great length and breadth, than for sitting hour after hour on +his haunches, emitting clouds of tobacco-smoke, and reflecting upon the +individuality of God, and the plurality of wives, reserved in the next +world for all those who say their prayers regularly, and kill a +sufficient number of Feringhees in this. These stereotyped notions, +however, regarding the tenets of Mahometanism are fast losing credence, +just in proportion as the growth of European ideas is undermining its +very foundation. I do not say that Mussulmans are becoming more +religious or more elevated from their contact with Christian peoples. +Indeed, I rather incline to the opposite opinion; but the European +tendencies which prevail are marked clearly enough by the facile +adroitness with which the followers of the Prophet contrive to evade the +injunctions of the Koran, whether it be in the matter of wines and +strong drinks, or the more constitutional difficulty touching loans, +debts, and the like. For myself, I rather incline to the view of the old +Pacha, who, after listening with his habitual patience to the +long-winded arguments of a Protestant missionary, completely +dumb-foundered that excellent divine by remarking that he (the Pacha) +felt quite convinced of the similarity of their creeds, since the only +apparent difference was, that the Christian has three Gods and one wife, +while the Mussulman has three wives and one God. Even in this last +matter, the plurality of wives, a marvellous amendment is visible. It is +probably owing to the expense attendant thereon, and also to the little +fact, that it is not quite in accordance with the spirit of the age to +drown, or otherwise destroy, those women who indulge their very +pardonable and womanly frailty of wrangling and fighting one with +another. But, granting all this, it is impossible not to perceive that +the position of Turkish women is daily improving. All of a certain +class receive some education; and I never yet spoke to any intelligent +Turk on the subject without hearing him deplore the existence of those +laws in the Koran which would deprive the world of that which renders it +most enjoyable. That the time will come when the religious influences of +Mahometanism will cease to offer a bar to all progress and advancement, +is sufficiently evident, and it consequently behoves Europe to guard +against the re-establishment of moral heathenism on the ruin of +fanatical Islamism. + +Returning to the council-chamber of the Mudir of Niksich, I would call +attention to the similarity of expression and venerable appearance of +nearly every member of the Medjlis. This is one of the faults of the +system, that an undue preponderance is thereby given to the ideas of a +certain class. + +From the experience of those Europeans who have had good opportunities +of forming an opinion, it would seem that this double government of +Pacha and Medjlis works badly, owing to the ignorance and want of +capacity of those from whom the latter are selected. It would, +therefore, be far more salutary were they only permitted to advise in +place of having a vote; absolute authority being vested in the Pacha, +who should be held personally responsible that the rights of the people +be not infringed, and rigorously punished if convicted of malpractices. +Many will doubtless deny the advantages to be thus derived; but it is +self-evident that in half-civilised countries power should be in the +hands of as few as possible. + +It is not my intention to enter the lists as the champion of the Ottoman +Government, whose apathy and insincerity cannot be too strongly +condemned; but I contend that governments, like everything else, must be +judged by comparison, and that the only true measure of the merits of a +government is the moral and social condition of the people whom it +rules. The Turkish Government, whether regarded in its central or +provincial bearings, is decidedly in advance of its subjects. In its +diplomatic relations, in monetary and financial schemes, Turkey has at +any rate acquired a certain amount of credit, while an increase of the +revenue from four to nearly twelve millions within the past thirty +years, and the continued increase of the Christian population, is a +certain proof of the diminution of oppression, and proves conclusively +that a remnant of vitality still exists in her veins. + +[Footnote Q: The British member of the European Commission for defining +the frontier of Montenegro.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy + repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish Soldiers + murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched Camp + assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive Character of + Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation--Military Uniforms--Return + to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum--Express + Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified + Barrack--Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European + Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian + Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of + Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The + Meredits--Instincts of Race. + + +On our return from the town we found the leading battalions in the act +of crossing the stream which separates the valley from the overhanging +woodland. The 900 ponies, now deprived of their burden, carried in lieu +thereof sick soldiers from Niksich, or such as preferred riding to +walking. Little order prevailed, and it is only wonderful that the +consequences of entering a defile more than an hour after midday should +not have proved more disastrous than they actually did. In vain I added +my remonstrances to those of some of the staff, who were intelligent +enough to predict evil. The order had been issued. The advance guard had +already marched, and it was too late to countermand the departure. Thus +saying, Osman Pacha crossed the stream and ascended to the high ground, +now covered with a confused mass of bipeds and quadrupeds. At this +moment the rain, which had ceased during the past hour, began to descend +once more in torrents, accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning and +thunder, which, though still distant, reverberated through the woods +with grand effect. In the midst of this we retraced our steps until +about 4 P.M., when the centre of the column, with the baggage +and head-quarters, defiled from the woods into one of the open spaces, +of which mention has been made. The General informed me of his intention +to halt there until the morning; and he could not have found a spot +better calculated for the purpose, since, by massing the troops in the +centre, they would have been out of range of the surrounding heights, +and a double line of sentries would have been the only precaution +absolutely necessary. For some reason he, however, subsequently changed +his mind, and the delay which had taken place only made matters worse. +The advance guard of four battalions, under Yaya Pacha, had continued +the march in ignorance of the halt of the main body, and were ere this +out of hearing or chance of recall. Scarcely had we recommenced our +advance when a dropping shot in the rear gave us the first announcement +that the enemy had taken advantage of our false step, and was bent on +harassing what would now assume the appearance of a retreat. + +The shots, which were at first few and distant, soon increased, and by +the time that the Affghan and myself had reached the rear of the column +the action appeared to have become general. Ali Pacha, who commanded the +rear-guard, now committed the grave error of halting the three +battalions of his brigade, and wasted most valuable time in performing +desultory movements, and in firing volleys of grape and musketry, +without arriving at any practical results. At one point, however, the +rebels, who were advancing in force with loud cries of fanatical +vengeance, received a substantial check. Two companies of Turks had been +concealed on either side of the defile, which was narrow at this point. +Concealment was facilitated by approaching darkness, and it was only at +a given signal that they rose and poured a deadly volley into the ranks +of the advancing foe, who immediately fell back. This circumstance +appeared to damp their ardour, and they contented themselves with +running in small parties along the flank of our line of march; two or +three would dash down the sloping banks, and, having discharged their +pieces without aim or precision, would return to the safety afforded by +the rocks and trees. It was between 6 and 7 o'clock before the order to +resume the march was issued. And now began a scene which none who +witnessed are likely to forget to their dying day: deeply tragical it +might have been, but fortunately circumstances combined to render it +merely ridiculous, as reflected in the mirror of memory. The rain still +fell heavily, lying in places to the depth of nearly a foot, and +converting all the ground that was not rocky into a slippery quagmire. +So profound was the darkness, that it was literally impossible to see +any object six inches from one's eyes, and it was only by the occasional +flashes from the firelocks of the persevering enemy and the forked +lightning that we could realise the surrounding scene. By the light of +the last were revealed horses and men falling in all directions, and I +may safely say, that some of the 'crumplers' received that night would +have shaken the nerve of the hardest steeplechase rider. For my own part +I preferred walking, after my horse had fallen twice, and with this +object proceeded to dismount, but on bringing my leg to the ground, as I +imagined, I made a rapid descent of about eight feet. On clambering up I +was met with a sharp blow on the face from what I believe to have been +the butt of a Turkish musket, and my horse was not to be found. About +half an hour later, while feeling for the road, to my great +satisfaction, I placed my hand upon my English saddle, and thus +repossessed myself of my steed. No need to dilate farther on the events +of that disastrous evening. Suffice to say that, after some hours more +of scrambling and toiling, falling frequently over the stones and trees +which were strewn plentifully across the path, we reached the spot +where the advanced body had arrived some four hours previously, and had +succeeded, in spite of the rain, in kindling a few fires. It was close +upon midnight when Ali Pacha arrived at head-quarters to report that the +rear-guard had reached the bivouac, though nothing was known as to the +losses incurred in men, horses, or provisions. All that was certain was +that one gun had been abandoned, the mule which carried it having rolled +down a ravine. This was never found, as the rebels, who passed the night +within ten minutes' walk of our bivouac, had carried it off before the +arrival of the force sent back at daybreak to effect its recovery. Our +loss, however, proved to be insignificant--two killed and six wounded, +and a few ponies, &c., missing. As might be supposed, the Slavish +newspapers magnified the affair into a great and decisive victory for +the rebels. It is true that it reflected little credit on Osman Pacha; +and it might have been fully as disastrous to the Turks as their worst +enemies could have desired, had not the intense darkness of the night, +the heavy rain, and the want of pluck in the Christians (a fault of +which they cannot in general be accused), combined to get them out of +the scrape without any serious loss. The two whose deaths it was +impossible to disallow, as their mangled bodies gave evidence thereof, +were foully butchered by these long-suffering Christians. It came about +as follows:--An officer and three soldiers had remained a little in rear +of the column, being footsore with the march. As the rebels came swiftly +and quietly along, one of the soldiers, believing them to be a Turkish +regiment, made some observation. In a moment he and his comrade were +seized, and, while receiving many assurances of safety, were stripped to +the skin. The officer and the third soldier instantly concealed +themselves behind some of the projecting rocks, within ten yards of the +spot, and thus became auditors of the ensuing tragedy. No sooner had the +rebels stripped their unfortunate captives, than they fell upon them en +masse, literally making pin-cushions of their naked bodies. Throughout +that long and painful night did those two men lie hid in jeopardy of +their lives, and glad must they have been when they saw the rebels +retracing their blood-stained steps on the following morning, and more +grateful still when the arrival of the Turkish force enabled them to +feel assured of life and liberty. The following afternoon we returned to +Krustach, where we found a Montenegrin emissary, who was journeying +homeward, having had an interview with Omer Pacha. He was a finely built +and handsome man, dressed in his national costume, with a gold-braided +jacket, and decorated with a Russian medal and cross, for his services +against Turkey at a time when Russia was at peace with that power. He +had been Superintendent of the Montenegrin workmen at Constantinople, +and had consequently seen something of European manners, although +unacquainted with any language save Slave and some Turkish. He told me +that he had left 400 followers in Piwa; but this I found did not exactly +coincide with a statement he had made to Omer Pacha, and it subsequently +transpired that his body guard amounted to about double that number. +This worthy asked me to accompany him to Cettigne, but circumstances +conspired to prevent my accepting the invitation; and so we separated, +he to Cettigne, we to Gasko on the following day. + +During one of the halts on the line of march, I found the mouth of what +must have been a coal-pit of large dimensions. The entrance of this was +on the bank of a dry stream, and several masses of what appeared to be a +concrete of lignite and coal betokened the existence of the latter in a +purer form within the bowels of the surrounding country. This I showed +to Omer Pacha, who said that he would adopt my suggestion of having it +worked by military labour for the purpose of consumption during the +winter months. In several places, I subsequently came across the same +characteristics, which convince me of the existence of a spurious +description of coal in large quantities in the province. In Bosnia it +is plentiful, and of a very superior quality. + +Some miles before we reached the camp we were met by Omer Pacha and his +staff. + +As may be supposed, the most extravagant reports of the extent of our +disaster had preceded us. The most moderate of these involved the death +of Ali Pacha (no great loss by the way), and about 1,000 men put _hors +de combat_. Omer's face wore a grave expression when we met, and his 'Eh +bien, Monsieur, nous avons perdu un canon sans utilité' boded ill for +the peace of Osman Pacha. It was a pleasing duty to be able to refute +the assertion that this last had lost his head on the occasion in +question. Although guilty of grievous error of judgement, the other more +pitiful charge could hardly be laid to his account, since he never for a +moment lost his habitual sangfroid and self-possession. + +The subsequent operations during 1861 were scarcely of a more decisive +nature than those in the early part of the campaign. They consisted for +the most part of slight skirmishes, which, though unimportant in +themselves, tended to establish the Turks in their occupation of the +country, and produced a good moral effect. + +One event, however, deserves notice, as giving fair evidence of the +respective merits of the belligerent parties. In pursuance of the plan +which he had originally devised, Omer Pacha established a permanent +fortified camp in Piwa. Twelve battalions under Dervisch Pacha were +concentrated at this point; and at the time of the contest which I am +about to describe, Omer Pacha was himself present. Reduced to the +greatest straits by famine and the presence of the Turkish troops, and +inspired doubtless by the knowledge of the Generalissimo's presence in +the camp, the rebels resolved to make a desperate onslaught upon the +entrenchments. + +On the morning of October 26, a strong force was despatched from camp to +procure forage, wood, and other necessaries. While thus employed, the +enemy, favoured by the formation of the surrounding country, made a +sudden and well-sustained attack upon this force, in conjunction with a +consentaneous assault upon the entrenchments. With more judgement than +is generally found amongst Turkish commanders, the foraging party was +brought back to camp, though not before it had suffered a considerable +loss. In the meantime charge upon charge was being made by the +half-naked savages who formed the Christian army, against the enclosed +space which was dignified by the name of an entrenched camp. Three times +they forced an entrance, and three times were they driven out at the +point of the bayonet, while the guns mounted on the works made wide gaps +in their retreating columns. After several hours' hard fighting, in +which both sides displayed exemplary courage, the assailants were +compelled to withdraw, leaving many hundred dead upon the field. The +Turkish loss was something under a hundred, owing to the advantage they +derived from fighting under the cover of their guns and walls. + +Shortly after this event Omer Pacha returned to Mostar, contenting +himself with holding the various passes and other points on the +frontier, which enabled him to keep an unremitting watch over the +disturbed district. + +Early in the spring of 1862 he returned to the frontier, which he will +doubtless pacify before the extreme heat and drought shall have forced +him to suspend military operations. With this view eighteen battalions +of infantry and 3,000 irregulars have been concentrated at and about +Trebigné, which he has this year made his base of operations. The +judicious disposal of his troops, which he has effected, have driven +Luca Vukalovitch and his band of hornets to take refuge in Suttorina, +adjacent to the Austrian territory. This circumstance caused the +Austrians at the end of last year to enter that district for the purpose +of destroying certain batteries, which were considered to be too close +to the Austrian frontier. The legality of this measure is doubtful; yet +it may be believed that the step was not taken with any view to +promoting hostilities with Turkey. + +The final success of the Turkish arms can scarcely be long delayed, +since starvation must inevitably effect all in which the sword may fail. +The armed occupation of the country during the past year has at any rate +so far worked good, that it has effectually prevented the rebellious +Christians from getting in the crops which belonged to themselves or +their weaker neighbours, while it has enabled such of the Mussulmans as +chose to do so to reap their harvest in security. Should these +expectations, however, not be realised, the result would indeed be +serious to the Ottoman empire. In such case either her already rotten +exchequer must receive its death-blow, or she will be compelled to +evacuate the Herzegovina, a course which would be gladly welcomed by her +enemies, since it would probably be but the first step towards the +dismemberment of the whole empire. + +Before quitting the army, I would fain pay a passing tribute to the good +qualities of the Turkish soldiers. Having seen them under circumstances +of no ordinary difficulty and privations, I found them ever cheerful and +contented with their unenviable lot. Uninfluenced by feelings of +patriotism--for such a word exists not in their language--unaffected by +the love of glory, which they have not sufficient education to +comprehend, the only motives by which they are actuated are their +veneration for their Sultan and the distinctive character of their +religion. It would be well for their Sultan did he appreciate the +sterling military qualities of his people. With good management and +honest reform, an army might be created which, if inferior in _matériel_ +to those of certain European powers, would in the matter of _personnel_ +be sufficiently good to render the Turkish dominions perfectly secure +from hostile invasion, which is now very far from the case. At present, +unfortunately, his whole attention is devoted to the manning and +equipment of the navy, for the amelioration of which large sums of money +are paid and heavy debts incurred. The visionary character of his +ambitious projects on this head is apparent to all but himself, since +the Turkish navy can scarcely be expected ever to attain more than a +fifth or sixth-rate excellence. The recent changes in the dress of the +army betoken that some attention has been devoted of late to the +subject. Nothing can be more desirable than an assimilation of the +uniform to the natural style of costume; and the loose Zouave dresses of +the army of the Turkish imperial guard[R] are not only better adapted to +soldiers who do not indulge in the luxury of beds and the like, than the +tight-fitting garments heretofore in use, but present a far more +workmanlike appearance, for the simple reason that they understand +better how to put them on. + +After a month's sojourn in the tents of the Osmanlis, the rapid +shortening of the days warned me of the necessity for pushing on if I +wished to see the more peaceable portion of the country, before the +snows of winter should render travelling impossible. Already the day had +arrived when the first fall of snow had taken place in the previous +year. + +Despite the hardships indispensable from the kind of life we had been +living, it was with much regret that I bade farewell to my hospitable +entertainers, and started once more on my solitary rambles. For the +first day, at least, I was destined to have company, as the Pacha of +Bosnia's private Secretary was about to return to Bosna Serai, having +fulfilled a mission on which he had been sent to the camp of the +Commander-in-Chief. My object was to return to Mostar by way of +Nevresign, which, as well as being new ground to me, forms a portion of +the projected line of defence. After waiting no less than five hours and +a half for an escort of Bashi Bazouks, who, with true Turkish ideas of +the value of time, presented themselves at 12.30, having been warned to +be in attendance at 7 A.M., we at length got under weigh. These +irregulars were commanded by Dervisch Bey, one of the principal Beys in +that neighbourhood. Some twenty years ago his father, a devout +Mussulman, and a cordial hater of Christians, whom, it must be +acknowledged, he lost no opportunity of oppressing, built for himself a +large square house flanked with towers, and otherwise adapted for +defensive purposes. This is situated about six miles from Gasko, and +here he lived in considerable affluence. Taken one day at an unguarded +moment, he was murdered by the Christians, and his mantle descended upon +his son, who, if he has not the same power or inclination to oppress, +shows himself perfectly ready to do battle on all occasions against the +murderers of his father. This individual, then, mounted on a good +useful-looking horse, and loaded with silver-hilted daggers, pistols, +and other weapons of offence, was destined to be our guide. Our road lay +through a long narrow defile, which, like most parts of the Herzegovina, +abounds with positions capable of defence. After five hours' travelling +we arrived at Zaloum, a small military station situated at the highest +point of the pass. I did not see any attempt at fortifications; but, as +all the villages are built quite as much with a view to defence as +convenience, these are hardly necessary. Every house is surrounded by a +court-yard, in most cases loopholed. Taking up our quarters at the only +house capable of affording the most ordinary shelter, we passed the +evening, as far as I was concerned, pleasantly enough. The Secretary, a +middle-aged and very affable Slave, was also somewhat of a _bon vivant_, +and, with the help of sundry adjuncts which he carried with him, we made +a very good meal. The habit of drinking rakee, eating cheese, and other +provocatives of thirst before dining, is quite as rife in these parts of +the empire as at Stamboul, and it frequently happens that the +dinner-hour of a fashionable man is later than in London during the +height of the season. Breakfasting at twelve, they do not touch food +again till dinner-time, and even then their repeated nips of rakee taken +in the hour previous to the repast renders them little disposed for +eating. Shortly after we had commenced dinner at Zaloum, a great +chattering and confusion in the court-yard proclaimed a new arrival. +This proved to be Asiz Bey, an aide-de-camp of Omer Pacha, who was on +his road to Mostar. Snatching a hurried meal, he once more mounted, and +pushed on in the darkness, with the intention of not pulling rein again +until his arrival in Mostar. Later in the evening an excited +agriculturist made his appearance, and with much humility demanded the +return of his pack-saddle, which he affirmed that one of my servants had +stolen. It fell out in this wise: I had engaged a certain youth of the +Greek faith, named Giovanni, to look after my baggage-ponies, which he +invariably allowed to stray whenever most required. On the occasion of +our leaving Gasko one of these was, as usual, absent without leave, and +on his being discovered, the pack-saddle in which these long-suffering +animals pass their existence had been removed. Giovanni, whose +pilfering habits were only equalled by his disregard of truth, replaced +the missing article in the simplest way, by doing unto others as they +had done unto him, and appropriated the first saddle he came across. To +allow the saddle to return to Gasko was impossible, as I could not have +proceeded on my journey without it; so I induced the owner to part with +it at a considerable profit, mulcting Giovanni of the same. The +following morning we descended into the plain of Nevresign, one of the +seven or eight large plains in the province. + +The road approaching the town passes between two cemeteries--that of the +Mussulmans on the right being the most pleasantly situated, for thus it +was that, even in death, they were more regarded than their +less-favoured Christian brethren. On the outskirts I noticed a very +primitive movable house, strongly characteristic of the kind of life led +by the people: it consisted of two skates, with a hurdle laid across for +flooring and others for walls, the whole being thatched. In this the +shepherd sleeps when he pens his cattle: this he does in a very small +space, shifting his position every night, and thus practically manuring +the country. The town itself has little worthy of notice, save the new +fortified barrack which the Turks are constructing. No labourers were, +however, engaged upon it at the time of my visit: it consists of an +oblong work, with bastions at the angles, on each of which it is +intended to mount three guns. It was proposed to build accommodation +for 1,600 men, but the size of the work did not appear to me to warrant +the belief that it would hold so many. There will be no necessity for +the townspeople to take shelter within its walls in the event of an +attack, as it immediately overhangs the town, and is itself commanded by +the hills in its rear. The engineer officer who conducted me over it +informed me that an earthwork would be thrown up on the most commanding +position, and two block-houses built at other points. The arrangements +for obtaining a supply of water appeared simple; and as it is the only +attempt at modern fortification which I have seen in Turkey, I shall be +curious to hear of its completion. + +Leaving Nevresign one crosses two mountains, which, with the exception +of about an hour and a half distance, are traversed by a road. Save one +in course of construction from Mostar to Metcovich, it is the only +attempt at road-making in the province. It is bad enough, as all Turkish +roads are, their engineers having not the slightest idea of levelling. +They take the country as they find it, apparently thinking that a +zigzag, no matter at what slope the angles may be, is the highest +triumph of their art. Until our arrival at Blagai, six miles from +Mostar, an escort was deemed necessary, though it was really of not the +slightest use, since the rebels, if so inclined, might have disposed of +the whole party without once showing themselves. On nearing Mostar I +looked with curiosity for any signs of progress in the new powder +magazine or barracks, which are situated in the plain outside the town. +They both appeared in precisely the same condition as when I left, save +for the absence of some hundreds of ponies, which were at that moment +eating mouldy hay at Gasko and its vicinity. In the barrack square +several block-houses which Omer Pacha had ordered appeared to be in a +state of completion. These are made of wood and have two stories, each +house being capable of containing about two companies of infantry. The +walls are loopholed and of sufficient thickness to resist musket balls: +the use to which they were to be applied was the protection of working +parties and small detachments during the construction of more permanent +defences; and as the rebels are without carcases or liquid fire-balls or +other scientific implements of destruction, it is possible that they may +answer their purpose well enough. + +At the British Consulate I found Mr. H., the Consul at Bosna Serai, who +was on his road to Ragusa, where the European Commission for carrying +out reforms in Turkey was about to reassemble, with the view of watching +the progress of events. Little good could be expected to result from +their deliberations, for matters had not been in any way simplified +since their adjournment two months before. The sincerity of the +individual members of the Commission cannot be called in question; but +what avails that, when other agents of the governments so represented +apply themselves with assiduity to stultify the very measures which +their colleagues are endeavouring to effect. As might have been +anticipated, their sittings at Ragusa proved as ineffectual as those at +Mostar, and in three weeks' time they once more adjourned, and have not +since reassembled. Whatever difference of opinion may have existed +amongst the members on this point, at any rate they professedly agreed +that it is for the interest of these provinces that the Turkish rule +should remain inviolate, but that this rule must be very decidedly +ameliorated. Of its sincerity in wishing to bring this about the Porte +will find it difficult to convince the Christian malcontents, so deeply +rooted is their mistrust. Secret agents are not wanting to check any +spirit of wavering which may show itself in the insurgents. In the +meanwhile both Bosnia and Herzegovina are being rapidly exhausted. Even +in peaceable times, the people of the Herzegovina had to draw their +supplies of grain from Bosnia, while the import trade of both provinces +more than doubled the export in value. The demand for horses for +military purposes has of late still farther crippled commercial +enterprise, as the people are thereby deprived of the only means of +transport in the country. At Mostar, even, it was impossible to buy +coals, as the peasants were afraid of exposing their horses to the +probability of being pressed, with the certainty of remaining unpaid. + +The foregoing remarks may appear to corroborate ill my oft-repeated +assertion of the immunity of the Christians from persecution by the +constituted Mussulman authorities. A distinction should be made between +oppression and misgovernment, the existence of which last is fully +admitted on all hands. It applies in an almost equal degree to the +professors of all religions in Turkey; and when the Christians have been +induced by designing minds, as has sometimes been the case, to pour out +to the world a torrent of grievances, these have been proved in almost +all instances to have been as much imaginary as real; such at least was +the opinion of the Grand Vizier, after his visit of enquiry through +European Turkey in 1860; and his views, which might otherwise be deemed +prejudiced, were supported by Mr. L----, the Consul-General at Belgrade, +who was deputed by the British Ambassador to attend the Ottoman +functionary. That gentleman's opinion--concurred in, as it is, by almost +all British officials--is especially worthy of attention, since the +greater part of his life has been passed in the Turkish dominions, and a +large share of his attention devoted to this particular subject. At +Widdin, a petition was presented, signed by 300 persons, complaining of +the local authorities. These names were mostly forgeries, and even the +alleged grievances were of a trivial nature; outrages, and forced +conversion to Islamism, could nowhere be proved. The source whence the +petition emanated may be shrewdly guessed, since M. Sokoloff, the +Russian Consul at Widdin, was removed to Jerusalem only a few days +before the commencement of the enquiry. One subject of complaint was the +appointment of the bishops by the patriarch at Constantinople, which +strongly confirms the supposition of its Russian origin. The petition +was moreover presented by one Tuno, a Rayah, who had been turned out of +the Medjlis for corruption, and was at the time a hanger-on at the +Russian consulate. Those few who acknowledged to having signed the +document, stated that they believed it to have been a remonstrance +against the pig tax. + +The second ground of complaint was that the Cadi had interfered in the +affairs of the Christians; i.e. in matters of inheritance, and in the +administration of the property of minors. This also proved untenable, +although, in the course of the enquiry, it transpired that something of +the sort had occurred at Crete, which was ingeniously perverted to suit +their purpose on the occasion in question. + +Thirdly, it was alleged that the Christian members of the Medjlis were +allowed no voice in its deliberations. This the Bishop even denied. Had +they said that their opinions were of little weight, it would have been +nearer the truth. Nor can we wonder at this, since it is in vain that we +look for any spirit of independence among the Christian members; and +this not more in consequence of the domineering spirit of the Turks, +than from the natural disposition of the Christians, which is cringing +and corrupt. Time and education can alone effect a change for the +better. The government may, by the promulgation of useful edicts, and by +the establishment of schools common to all religions, materially hasten +this desirable end; but in the present condition of the Christian +population, it is questionable whether more harm than good would not +result from the proclamation of social equality. + +The veritable grounds of complaint, on which the petition in question +did not touch, it is within the power of the government to remove; and +this, we may confidently anticipate, will be done. + +Equality before the law is the principal and first thing to be +established, and such at present is not the case. Christian evidence, +for example, is received in criminal, but not in civil causes, i.e. in +questions concerning property. Moreover, even in criminal causes of any +importance, the decision of the inferior courts, where Christian +evidence is admissible, is referred for confirmation to superior courts, +where such testimony is not accepted. In defence of this it is urged, +that Turkish property would be endangered, if, in the present +demoralised state of society, Christian evidence were admitted. But, +while advancing this argument, it is forgotten that this state is +traceable to the lax and vicious system pursued in the Mussulman courts, +where, as the only way of securing justice for the Christians, Mussulman +witnesses are allowed to give false evidence. + +Another abuse, of which the most is made by the enemies of Turkey, is +the forcible abduction of Christian girls by Mussulmans. The practice +has, however, almost died out, except in northern Albania; and yet it is +this alone which formed the groundwork of the most important of Prince +Gortschakoff's charges, viz. the forced conversion of Christians to +Islamism. It would, doubtless, fall into disuse in that part of the +country, were the offence dealt with as an ordinary police affair; but +the clumsy machinery of Turkish law, however sincere may be its object, +has done little to diminish the evil. Many schemes have been devised for +its prevention. One was to make the girl appear before the court which +rejects Christian evidence, and declare herself a Christian or +Mussulman. If she confessed her faith, she was returned to her friends, +and the ravisher nominally punished; but, as they almost always declared +themselves to be Mahomedans, the Christians complained that fear or +other undue pressure had been put upon them. To obviate this, it was +decided that the girl should be sequestered in the house of the Bishop +for three days previous to her making her profession of faith. This has, +however, been discontinued, as it produced much scandal; and the +question remains undecided. + +Instincts of race are far stronger in Turkey than is generally supposed. +In Albania, where the Mussulmans are deemed more fanatical than +elsewhere, these are more powerful than even the instincts of religion. +Thus, while other Christians are looked down upon and treated with +severity, the Miridits, who are of Albanian blood, are allowed to wear +their arms, and admitted to equal privileges with their Mahomedan +fellow-countrymen. In Bosnia, more than anywhere throughout the empire, +the question has been one of feudal origin, that is to say, of a +privileged and unprivileged class, analogous to that which now occupies +the Russians; although in Bosnia the former class has been gradually +losing importance, and sinking into a lower position. + +To the demoralised condition of the Christians themselves, then, +combined with Turkish misgovernment, resulting from their +semi-civilisation, may the existing unsatisfactory state of affairs be +attributed, and not to any systematic oppression. It is the want of +this, which renders it difficult for the Porte, now that the central +power has been strengthened at the expense of the local, to take any +decided steps for improving the position of the Christians; all that it +can do is to place all upon a footing of legal equality, to encourage +education, and to promote everything which shall have for its object the +developement of the natural resources of the country. + +[Footnote R: The 1st Corps d'Armée of the empire.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza--Subterraneous + Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman Tombs--Coins and + Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry Trees--Blagai--Source of + Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain of Mostar--Legends--Silver + Ore--Mineral Products of Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley + of the Drechnitza. + + +The week following upon my return to Mostar was devoted to excursions to +different spots in the vicinity of the town. In one instance the +pleasure was enhanced by the anticipation of some duck-shooting; for, as +the event will show, the expectation was never realised. Our destination +was Blato, a plain about nine miles distant, which all maps represent as +a lake, but which does not deserve the name, as it is only flooded +during the winter months. The party consisted of M. Gyurcovich, the +Hungarian dragoman of the British consulate; the Russian Consul; his +domestic, a serf strongly addicted to the use of ardent drinks, of which +he had evidently partaken largely on the occasion in question; a French +doctor, who had many stories of the Spanish war, in which he had served; +two other individuals, and myself. + +About one hour from Mostar, we arrived at the source of the Radobolya, +which flows through Mostar and falls into the Narenta near the old +bridge. The road was sufficiently well defined, although needing repair +in places. The walls on either side, as well as its general +construction, proclaim its Roman origin. It was doubtless a part of the +great main road from the east to Dalmatia. It is only at occasional +points that it is so easily discernible, but sufficient evidence exists +to show that on quitting the Albanian mountains it passed Stolatz, +crossed the bridge at Mostar, and continued thence by a somewhat +circuitous route to Spalatro. On emerging from the defile through which +we had been marching, the plain of Blato lay extended before us, some +nine or ten miles in length and four in breadth. The land, which must be +extremely fertile, is cultivated in the spring, but only those cereals +which are of the most rapid growth are produced; such as millet, Indian +corn, and broom seed, from which a coarse description of bread is made. +The Lichnitza, which runs through it, is a mere stream. It takes its +rise near the Austro-Bosnian frontier, and loses itself in the hills +which surround Blato. The plain is porous and full of holes, from which, +in the late autumnal months, the waters bubble up. This continues until +the river itself overflows, covering the entire plain to a considerable +depth, in some parts as much as thirty-six feet. The original passage +under the hills, by which the water escaped, is said to have been +filled up at the time of the Turkish conquest. If such be true, it might +be reopened with little cost and trouble, and the plain would thus be +rendered most valuable to the province. + +Arrived at the scene of operations, we lost little time in getting to +work. A still evening, and a moon obscured by light clouds, promised +well for sport; and we should doubtless have made a large bag had +ordinary precautions been taken. These, however, were not deemed +necessary by the majority of the party, who walked down in the open to +the river's edge, smoking and chattering as though they expected the +'dilly-dills to come and be killed' merely for the asking. The result, I +need not say, was our return almost empty-handed. Late in the evening we +assembled round a large fire, to eat the dinner which our servants had +already prepared; after which we courted sleep beneath the soothing +influences of tales of love and war as related by our Æsculapian friend, +who undeniably proved himself to have been a very Don Quixote. Early the +following morning we were again afoot, and a few partridges, hares, and +quail rewarded our exertions. Amongst the hills, where most of the game +was shot, I noticed several old Roman tombs. Many of these were merely +large shapeless blocks of stone, while others were of the proper +sarcophagus form, ornamented with sculptures of considerable merit. On +some were depicted men in armour, with shields and long straight swords, +while others had two men with lances aimed at a deer between them. The +absence of anything like moulding on the sides proves their great +antiquity. In its place we find a rather graceful pattern, vines with +leaves and grapes predominating; or, as in other cases, choruses of +women holding hands and dancing. In no instance did I detect anything +denoting immorality or low ideas, so prevalent in the sculptures of +intermediate ages. Amongst these tombs, as also on the sites of the +ancient towns, curiosities and coins are found. Of the last, small +Hungarian silver pieces, and large Venetian gold pieces, are the most +numerous; although Roman copper coins are by no means rare. Stones +engraved with figures of Socrates and Minerva were shown to me, as +having been found in the province, and it is only two years since, that +two golden ear-rings of fifteen drachms weight, and about the size of +pigeons' eggs, were dug up in the neighbourhood of Blato. About the same +time a ring was found, of which the Pacha obtained possession. It was of +iron, set with a stone only three tenths of an inch in diameter, on +which were most beautifully engraved no fewer than nine figures of +classical deities. + +The ensuing day I devoted to a double expedition to Boona and Blagai. +The former of these is about six miles distant, on the plain from +Mostar. It consists of a few houses built by the rebellious Ali Pacha, +who was Vizier at the time of Sir Gardner Wilkinson's visit to +Herzegovina. That functionary's villa, which is now the country-house of +the British Consul, is a moderate-sized yellow house, with little to +recommend it save its situation at the confluence of the Boona and the +Narenta. The former is spanned by a large bridge of fourteen arches, +upon one of which is a Turkish inscription, from which it appears that +it was repaired by the Turks in the year of the Hegira 1164--that is to +say, 113 years ago. + +The bridge is in all probability of Roman construction, though the +Turkish habit of erasing all inscriptions, and substituting others in +Turkish in their place, renders it impossible to fix precise dates. Near +the villa stands a square house intended for the nurture of silk-worms, +while a garden of 30,000 mulberry trees shows that Ali Pacha had +pecuniary considerations in view as well as his domestic comfort. From +Boona to Blagai is about six miles, and here also is a bridge of five +arches across the Boona. Leaving the village, which stands on the banks +of the river, we proceeded to its source. Pears, pomegranates, olives, +and other fruit trees grow in great luxuriance, and two or three mills +are worked by the rush of water, which is here considerable. The cavern +from which the river pours in a dense volume, is about eight feet high, +and situated at the foot of a precipitous cliff, under which stands a +kiosk, the abode of our fighting friend the Affghan Dervish. Thence we +proceeded to the castle, which stands on the summit of a craggy height, +overlooking the village on the one side, and the road to Nevresign on +the other. Speaking of this, Luccari says, 'Blagai stands on a rock +above the river Bosna, fortified by the ancient Voivodas of the country +to protect their treasure, as its name implies, Blagia (or Blago) +signifying treasure.'[S] + +It was governed by a Count, and the Counts of Blagai performed a +distinguished part in the history of Herzegovina. Some of them, as the +Boscenovich and the Hranich, are known for their misfortunes, having +been compelled to seek refuge in Ragusa at the time of the Turkish +invasion; and the last who governed 'the treasure city of Blagai' was +Count George, who fled to the Ragusan territory in 1465.[T] The view to +the southward over the plain country is extremely picturesque, but this +portion of the battlements are completely ruined. On the north side they +are in good preservation, and there wells exist, the cement of which +looked as fresh as though it had been recently renovated. + +In one of the batteries a brass gun was lying, of about 9lbs. calibre, +with vent and muzzle uninjured. In the interior of the fort, shells of +dwelling-houses, distributed angularly, denote the part of the building +which was devoted to domestic purposes. In these the woodwork of the +windows may still be seen, as well as stones projecting from the walls, +on which the flooring of the upper stories must have rested. At the main +entrance an oak case is rivetted into the wall to receive the beam, +which barred the door. At the foot of the hill is a ruined church, in +which some large shells of about thirteen inches diameter were strewed +about. One of these was lying on the road side, as though it had been +rolled from the castle above. + +Having now seen all the lions of the neighbourhood, I bethought me of +leaving Mostar once more, but this time with the intention of working +northward. The ordinary route pursued by those whom business calls from +Mostar to Bosna Serai is by Konitza, a village situated on the frontier, +nearly due north of Mostar. To this course I at first inclined, but was +induced to change my plans by the prospect of some chamois-hunting, in +the valley of the Drechnitza. Having laid in a supply of bread and other +necessaries, we, i.e. M. Gyurcovich and myself, made an early start, in +hopes of reaching our destination on the same night. + +Following the right bank of the Narenta, our course lay for a short time +through the northernmost of the two plains at whose junction Mostar is +situated. These, from the smooth and round appearance of the stones, +with which their surface is strewed, lead to the supposition that this +at one time was the bed of an important lake: this idea is confirmed by +the legends of the country, which affirm the existence of rings in the +sides of the mountains, to which it is rumoured that boats were moored +of old. Whether this be true or not, the appearance of the place lends +probability to the statement. + +Shortly after leaving the town, there is a small square tower close to +and commanding the river, which is here fordable. As we proceeded +farther north it becomes rocky and narrow, and some small rapids occur +at intervals. The bad state of the roads, and the ill condition of our +baggage horses, rendered it necessary to halt several hours short of the +point which we had intended to reach that night. Having, therefore, +cleared out an outhouse devoted in general to looms, green tobacco, +hens, cats, and the like, we made our arrangements for passing the +night. While thus engaged a peasant brought me a tolerably large +specimen of silver ore, which he stated that he had found in the hills +on the Bosnian frontier, where he assured me that any amount was to be +obtained. His veracity I have no reason to doubt, although unable to +proceed thither to confirm his statement by my own testimony. It is +certain, however, that the mountains of Bosnia are unusually rich in +mineral products. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, iron, coal, black +amber, and gypsum, are to be found in large quantities; silver being the +most plentiful, whence the province has received the name of Bosnia +Argentina. The manifold resources of the country in this respect have +unfortunately been permitted to remain undeveloped under the Ottoman +rule, while the laws laid down relative to mining matters are of such a +nature as to cripple foreign enterprise. In this proceeding, the Turkish +government has committed the error of adhering to the principles and +counsels of France, which is essentially a non-mining country. In three +places only has any endeavour been made to profit by the secret riches +of the earth, viz. at Foinitza, Crescevo, and Stanmaidan, where iron +works have been established by private speculation. The iron is of good +quality, but the bad state of the roads, and the difficulty of procuring +transport, render it a far less remunerative undertaking than would +otherwise be the case. Good wrought iron sells at three-halfpence the +pound. Were a company formed under the auspices of the British +government, there is little doubt that they might be successfully +worked, since there is nothing in the nature of the country to render +the construction of a road to the coast either a difficult or expensive +operation. Continuing our course on the right bank of the Narenta, we +arrived at a lofty mound, evidently of artificial construction, situated +at a bend of the river. Traces of recent digging were apparent, as +though search had been made for money or curiosities. It was just one of +those positions where castles were built of yore, its proximity to the +river being no small consideration in those days of primitive defences. +A short distance from its base were two tombstones, sculptured with more +than ordinary care and ability. One of these represented a man with a +long sword and shield, faced by a dog or fox, which was the only portion +of the engraving at all effaced. + +At a spot where a spring issued from the rocks, we were met by a party +of Irregulars, shouting and firing their matchlocks in a very indecorous +manner. They were doubtless going their rounds, bent on plunder, as is +their wont; and living at free quarters. The place where we encountered +them was wild in the extreme, and well adapted for deeds of violence. It +was indeed only in the preceding spring, that a murder was committed on +that very spot. Nor was it the first murder that had been done there. +Some years previously two Dalmatian robbers concealed themselves behind +the adjacent rocks, with the intention of murdering two Turks, who were +carrying money to Bosna Serai. These Turks, however, detected the +movements of the assassins, and as one of the Christians fired, one of +the Turks returned the shot, each killing his man. Sequel: the second +Christian ran away; the surviving Turk carried off his companion's money +in addition to his own. + +At one part of our route a landslip of large dimensions had taken place, +covering the slope to the river with large stones and blocks of red +marble. This, as well as white, black, and gray marble, are found in +large quantities in the surrounding hills. The river at this point is +turgid and rocky, and there are two or three rapids almost worthy of the +name of falls. The narrow rocky ledge, which constitutes the only +traversable road, immediately overhangs the water, having a sheer +descent on the right of nearly 200 feet. The edge of this precipice is +overgrown with grass and shrubs to such a degree as to render it very +dangerous. Indeed it nearly proved fatal to my horse and myself: the +bank suddenly gave way, and but for the fortunate intervention of a +projecting ledge, which received the off fore and hind feet of the +former, we should inevitably have been picked up in very small pieces, +if anyone had taken the trouble to look for us. + +Having now journeyed about ten hours from Mostar, our road wound to the +left, leaving the Narenta at its confluence with the Drechnitza, which +waters the valley of the same name. Close to its mouth, which is +spanned by a neat two-arched bridge, a Ban is said to have lived in +former days; and a solitary rock projecting from the hills on the left +bank is pointed out as his favourite resort. The summit of this is +smoothed off, and traces of an inscription still exist, but too much +defaced to be deciphered. + +[Footnote S: Luccari.] + +[Footnote T: Gardner Wilkinson, vol. ii.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopædia--Feats of Skill--Legend of + Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of Druga--Excavations--Country + Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud Effendi--Old + Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian Frontier--Vidosa--Parish + Priest--National Music--Livno--Franciscan Convent--Priestly + Incivility--Illness--Quack Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military + Ambulance--Bosna Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and + Bridges--Mussulman Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman + Pacha. + + +The family with whom we purposed spending the succeeding days were +reputed to be the wealthiest of the Christians in that part of the +country. It will perhaps convey a more correct impression of their +means, if we say that they were less poverty-stricken than others. A few +cows, some half-dozen acres of arable land, and a fair stock of poultry, +constituted their claim to being considered millionaires. The household +consisted, besides father and mother, of two rather pretty girls, two +sons, and their cousin, who cultivated the land and hunted chamois +regularly every Sunday. Besides these there were some little boys, whose +only occupation appeared to be to bring fire for the pipes of their +elders. Our arrival, and the prospect of a bye day after the chamois, +threw all the men of the party into a state of great excitement. Minute +was the inspection of our guns, rifles, and revolvers, the latter +receiving much encomium. An old Turk, who had been summoned to take part +in the morrow's excursion, eyed one of those for some time, and at +length delivered himself of the following sentiment: 'They say there is +a devil: how can this be so, when men are so much more devilish?' I am +afraid the salvation of Sir William Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, &c. &c., +would be uncertain were they to be judged on the same grounds. While +waiting for our dinner of fowls made into soup and baked potatoes, the +sons brought a book, which the priest, with more regard for preserving +his reputation for learning than veracity, had told them was a bad book. +It proved to be a German Encyclopædia. On hearing this one remarked, +'Oh, then it will do for cigarettes.' While regaling ourselves on wine +and grapes, which one of the hospitable creatures had walked twelve +miles to procure, we received visits from the male population of the +village, who, like all the people of the valley, are much addicted to +chamois-hunting. Their conversation, indeed, had reference exclusively +to sport, varied by a few feats of skill, hardly coming under the former +name. One villager asserted positively that he had seen a man at Livno +shoot an egg off another's head. This was instantly capped by another, +who affirmed that he had witnessed a similar feat at the same place. His +story ran thus: 'At the convent of Livno, all the Roman Catholic girls +of the district are married. On one occasion a young bride was receiving +the congratulations of her friends, when a feather which had been +fastened across her head became loosened, and waved around it. A +bystander remarked that he would be a good shot who could carry away the +feather without injuring the head. The girl upon hearing this looked +round and said, "If you have the courage to fire, I will stand." Upon +which the bystander drew a pistol and shot away the truant feather.' + +The valley of Drechnitza is wild and rocky, but sufficiently wooded to +present a pleasing aspect. The timber is in many places of large girth, +and might easily be transported to the sea. It is invested also with +more than common interest by the primitive character of its people, and +the legends which associate it with the early history of the province. + +At present only four villages remain in the valley; that where our hosts +lived being the most ancient. They indeed spoke with pride of having +occupied their present position since before the conquest, paying only a +nominal tribute of one piastre and a half until within the last thirty +years, since which time their privileges have been rescinded. + +On the left bank of the Drechnitza, about half-way between its +confluence with the Narenta and the house of our hosts, is a small +valley named Petral; it derived its name from the following +circumstances:--For seven years after the rest of Bosnia and the +Herzegovina had been overrun by the Turks under Mehemet II., the people +of this valley maintained an unequal combat with the invaders. The +gallant little band were under the orders of one Peter, who lived in a +castle on the summit of a height overlooking the plain; this plain could +only be approached by two passes, one of which was believed to be +unknown to the Turks. In an evil hour an old woman betrayed the secret +of this pass, and Peter had the mortification one morning of looking +down from his castle upon the armed Turkish legion, who had effected an +entrance during the night. Like a true patriot, he sank down overcome by +the sight, and died in a fit of apoplexy; whence the valley has been +called Petral to this day. + +A few ruins mark the spot where the church stood of yore, and four +tombstones are in tolerably good preservation. Beneath these repose the +ashes of a bishop and three monks; the date on one of them is +A.D. 1400. + +Early the following morning we started for the bills, where the chamois +were reported to be numerous. After about three hours' climbing over a +mass of large stones and rocks, the ascent became much more precipitous, +trees and sand taking the place of the rocks. In course of time we +reached a plateau, with an almost perpendicular fall on the one side, +and a horizontal ridge of rock protruding from the mountain side +beneath. Four of the party, which numbered eight guns in all, having +taken up positions on this ridge, the remainder, with a posse of boys, +made a flank movement with the view of taking the chamois in reverse. +The shouting and firing which soon commenced showed us that they were +already driving them towards us from the opposite hills. The wood was +here so thick that occasional glimpses only could be obtained of the +chamois, as they came out into the open, throwing up their heads and +sniffing the air as though to detect the danger which instinct told them +was approaching. Two or three of the graceful little animals blundered +off, hard hit, the old Turk being the only one of the party who +succeeded in killing one outright. The bound which followed the +death-wound caused it to fall down a precipice, at the bottom of which +it was found with its neck dislocated, and both horns broken short off. +If the ascent was difficult, the descent was three-fold more so. The +rocks being the great obstacle to our progress, the mountaineers managed +well enough, jumping from one to another with the agility of cats; but +to those unaccustomed to the kind of work, repeated falls were +inevitable. How I should have got down I really cannot say, had I not +intrusted myself to providence and the strong arm of one of those sons +of nature. + +The strong exercise which I had taken rendering me anything but disposed +for a repetition of the sport on the ensuing day, M.G. left me on his +return journey to Mostar, while I proceeded on my solitary way. This, +however, was not so cheerless as I had anticipated, as the two sons of +the house expressed a wish to accompany me as far as Livno on the +Bosnian frontier, where their uncle, a village priest, held a cure. For +several hours we remained on the left bank of the Drechnitza, which we +forded close to its source. On the heights upon our right, fame tells of +the existence of a city, now no more; and it is certain that a golden +idol weighing 23 lbs. was found in the locality. Buoyed up by hopes of +similar success, fresh gold-diggers had been recently at work, but with +what result I am unable to say. + +Bearing away now to the W. we entered the valley of the Druga, a little +rocky stream. Two roads were reported practicable, the longer taking a +winding course past Rachitna, the other, which I selected, being more +direct, but far more rocky and difficult; the ascent at one point was +more severe than anything I ever recollect having seen. + +Leaving Druga we descended into the plain of Swynyatcha, a small open +space, which is again connected with Duvno by a pass. The hills on the +left of this pass are called Liep, those on the right Cesarussa. Here, +too, report speaks of the existence of a city in former days, and the +discovery of a large hag of gold coins, like Venetian sequins, has +induced some speculative spirit to commence excavations on a large +scale. But these, I regret to say, have not as yet been attended with +any success. A very fair road has been recently made through this pass, +and the traffic which has resulted from it ought to convince the people +of the utility of its construction. We met many ponies carrying +merchandise from Livno to Mostar, while long strings of carts drawn by +eight bullocks were employed in carrying wood to the villages in the +plain of Duvno. These carts are roughly built enough, but answer the +purpose for which they are intended, viz. slow traffic in the plains. +The axle-trees and linch-pins are made of wood, and indeed no iron at +all is used in their construction. The plain of Duvno is one of the +largest in the province: its extreme length is about fifteen miles, and +villages are placed at the foot of the hills, round its entire +circumference. The most important of these is the seat of a Mudir, to +whom I proceeded at once on my arrival. Although afflicted with a +hump-back, he was a person of most refined manners. His brother-in-law, +Mahmoud Effendi, who is a member of the Medjlis, was with him, and added +his endeavours to those of the Mudir to render my stay at Duvno +agreeable. Having complimented the great man upon the appearance of his +Mudirlik, he laughingly replied, 'Oh, yes, they must work because it is +so cold'--a statement which I felt anything but disposed to question. +The wind was blowing down the plain at the time in bitterly cold blasts, +and I understand that such is always the case. The vegetation appeared +good, in spite of a seeming scarcity of water. + +The people of the district are nearly all Catholics, which may be +attributed to its proximity to Dalmatia and the convents of Bosnia. They +are orderly and well-behaved, according to the Mudir's account; but I +also gathered from some Catholics to whom I spoke that this good +behaviour results from fear more than love, as the few Turks have it all +their own way. In the centre of the plain are some old tombs, some of a +sarcophagus shape, others merely rough flat stones, whilst here and +there interspersed may be seen some modern crosses--a strange admixture +of the present and the past. After a somewhat uncomfortable night in the +one khan which the town possesses, I presented myself with early dawn at +the house of the Mudir. Although not yet 8 o'clock, I found him with the +whole Medjlis in conclave around him. Thence the entire party +accompanied me to inspect the fort, or such part of it as had escaped +the ravages of time. It was rather amusing to see the abortive attempts +at climbing of some of these fur-coated, smoke-dried old Mussulmans, who +certainly did not all equal the Mudir in activity. The fort is a +quadrilateral with bastions, and gates in each of the curtains; in two +of the bastions are eight old guns, dismounted: these are all of Turkish +manufacture, some having iron hoops round the muzzles. + +In the SW. corner is a round tower, evidently copied from the Roman, if +not of genuine Roman origin. For what purpose the fort was built, or by +whom, I was unable to learn. It is said, however, to have been +constructed about two centuries ago[U], and there is a Turkish +inscription on it to that effect; but, as I have said before, no +reliance can be placed upon these. There are many buildings within the +walls, and one mosque is reputed to have existed a hundred years before +the rest of the fort. + +Shortly after leaving the village we arrived at the frontier line of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is, however, unmarked. Already the country +presented a greener and more habitable appearance, which increased as we +continued our journey. Towards evening we stopped at a little village +named Vidosa, where the uncle of my hunting companions held the post of +parish priest. Having sent one of his nephews in advance to warn him of +my arrival, he was waiting to receive me, and invited me to stay at his +house with great cordiality. Notwithstanding that the greater portion of +it had been destroyed by fire a few months previously, I was very +comfortably housed, and fully appreciated a clean bed after the rough +'shakes down' to which I was accustomed. That the kitchen was +luxuriously stocked, I am not prepared to say; but the priest was +profuse in his apologies for the absence of meat, proffering as an +excuse that Roman Catholics do not eat it on Friday, a reason which +would scarcely hold good, as I arrived on a Saturday. Of eggs and +vegetables, however, there was no lack. Vegetable diet and dog Latin are +strong provocatives of thirst, and the number of times that I was +compelled to say '_ad salutem_' in the course of the evening was +astonishing. The old priest appeared more accustomed to these copious +libations than his younger assistant, who before he left the table +showed unmistakable signs of being 'well on.' Both vicar and curate wore +moustachios, and the flat-topped red fez, which distinguishes their +profession. The curate had received a certain amount of education at one +of the Bosnian convents, whence he had been sent to Rome, where he had, +at any rate, attained a tolerable proficiency in Italian, and a few +words of French. Another occupant of the house, who must not be allowed +to go unmentioned, was the priest's mother, a charming old lady in her +ninety-seventh year. Age had in no way impaired her faculties, and she +was more active and bustling than many would be with half her weight of +years. + +In the evening the nephews made their appearance, having dined with the +domestics. The remaining hours were devoted to singing, if such can be +termed the monotonous drawl which constitutes the music of the country. +In this one of the brothers was considered very proficient: the subjects +of the songs are generally legendary feats of Christians against the +conquering Turks, which, however little they may have conduced to bar +the progress of the invaders, sound remarkably well in verse. Sometimes, +as in the present case, the voice is accompanied by the guesla, a kind +of violin with one or three strings. + +The priest, although a man of small education and strong prejudices, +appeared to be possessed of much good sense. He deplored the state of +things in Herzegovina, and said that much misery would ensue from it, +not only there, but in all the neighbouring provinces. As an instance of +the severity of the government demands, he mentioned that 1,400 +baggage-horses had been recently taken from the district of Livno alone, +as well as more than 400 horse-loads of corn, for all of which promises +of payment only had been made. For the accuracy of his statements I am +not prepared to vouch, but I give them as they were given to me. He did +not, however, complain so much of the quantity, as of the injudicious +mode of proceeding, in making such large demands at one time. + +A few hours took me to the town of Livno, on the outskirts of which is +the Catholic convent. Mass was being performed at the time; but I found +the Guardiano, 'Padre Lorenzo,' and one of the Fratri disengaged. After +keeping me waiting for some time in a very cold vaulted room, these two +came to me, though their reception of me contrasted very unfavourably +with that of the simple village priest. The convent is for monks of the +Franciscan order, of whom there were five besides the Superior. It is a +large, rambling, and incomplete building of white stone, and in no way +interesting, having only been completed about six years. After mass came +dinner, which was provided more with regard to quantity than quality, +and at which the holy men acquitted themselves _à merveille_. Excepting +a young priest of delicate appearance and good education, the brethren +appeared a surly and ill-conditioned set. So ill-disguised was the +discontent conveyed in the ungracious 'sicuro' vouchsafed in reply to my +petition for a bed, that I ordered my traps to be conveyed forthwith to +the best khan in the town, and, having failed to find favour with the +Christians, sought the aid of the Mussulman Kaimakan, from whom at any +rate my English blood and Omer Pacha's Buruhltee insured me advice and +assistance. + +The Austrian Consul also received me with much civility, and most +obligingly placed his house at my disposal, although compelled to start +for Spolatro on business. For some reason best known to himself, he +begged of me to return to Mostar, insisting on the impracticability of +travelling in Bosnia in the present state of political feeling. This, +coupled with the specimen of priestly civility which I had experienced +in the convent of Goritza, inclined me to alter the route which I had +proposed to myself by Foinitza to Bosna Serai. In lieu of this route, I +resolved upon visiting Travnik, the former capital of Bosnia, before +proceeding to Bosna Serai (or Serayevo, as it is called in the +vernacular), the present capital of the province. In fulfillment of this +plan, I started on the morning of the 21st, though suffering from fever +and headache, which I attributed to a cold caught in the damp vaults of +the Franciscan convent. With each successive day my illness became more +serious, and it was with difficulty that I could sit my horse during the +last day's journey before reaching Travnik. At one of the khans en +route, I put myself into the hands of the Khanjee, who with his female +helpmate prescribed the following remedies:--He directed me to place my +feet in a basin of almost boiling tea, made out of some medicinal herbs +peculiar to the country, the aroma from which was most objectionable. He +then covered me with a waterproof sheet which I carried with me, and, +when sufficiently cooked, lifted me into bed. Though slightly relieved +by this treatment, the cure was anything but final; and on my arrival at +Travnik I was far more dead than alive. There an Hungarian doctor, to +whom I had letters of introduction, came to visit me, and prescribed a +few simple remedies. One day I hazarded the remark that stimulants were +what I most required; upon which the learned doctor observed, with +proper gravity, that brandy would probably be the most efficacious +remedy, as he had often heard that English soldiers lived entirely on +exciting drinks. Ill as I was, I could scarcely refrain from laughing at +the drollery of the idea. + +After a few days' stay at Travnik my medical adviser began, I fancy, to +despair of my case; and on the same principle as doctors elsewhere +recommend Madeira to hopeless cases of consumption, he advised me to +continue my journey to Bosna Serai. The difficulty was to reach that +place. Here, however, the Kaimakan came to my help, and volunteered to +let out on hire an hospital-cart belonging to the artillery. I accepted +his offer, and after a few days' stay at Travnik set forward on my +journey to Bosna Serai. The carriage was a species of Indian dâk ghari, +with side doors, but without a box-seat; it was drawn by artillery +horses, ridden by two drivers, while a sergeant and gunner did escort +duty. Fortunately the vehicle had springs, which must have suffered +considerably from the jolting which it underwent, although we only +proceeded at a foot's pace. + +After three days' journey we reached Bosna Serai, where I was most +kindly received by Mr. Z., the acting British Consul, and by M.M., the +French Consul, with whom I stayed during the three weeks that I was +confined to my room by illness. + +Bosna Serai, or Serayevo, is probably the most European of all the large +towns of Turkey in Europe. It is not in the extent of the commerce which +prevails, nor in the civilisation of its inhabitants, that this +pre-eminence shows itself; but in the cleanly and regular appearance of +its houses and streets, the condition of which last would do credit to +many a Frankish town. This happy state of things is mainly attributable +to the energy and liberality of the present governor of Bosnia, Osman +Pacha, who, notwithstanding his advanced years, has evinced the greatest +desire to promote the welfare of the people under his charge. In the +nine months of his rule which had preceded my visit, he had constructed +no less than ninety miles of road, repaired the five bridges which span +the river within the limits of the town, and introduced other reforms +which do him honour, and have procured for him the gratitude and +goodwill of all classes of his people. The system which he has +introduced for the construction of roads is at once effective and +simple. By himself making a small portion of road near the capital, he +succeeded in demonstrating to the country people the advantages which +would result from the increased facility of traffic. By degrees this +feeling spread itself over the province, and the villagers apply +themselves, as soon as the crops are sown, to making new portions of +road, which they are further bound to keep in repair. This is obviously +the first and most indispensable step in the developement of the +resources of the country. It would be well for the Sultan were he +possessed of a few more employés as energetic, able, and honest as Osman +Pacha. + +I regretted that the rapidity of his movements prevented my taking leave +of him and his intelligent secretary. But, a few nights before my +departure, an express arrived bringing intelligence of a rising in +Turkish Croatia, near Banialuka. The news arrived at 9 P.M., +and the energetic Pacha was on the road to the scene of the disturbance +by 6 A.M. the following morning. The émeute proved trifling; +not being, as was at first reported, a Christian insurrection, but a +mere ebullition of feeling on the part of the Mussulmans of that +district, who are the most poverty-stricken of all the inhabitants of +the province. + +[Footnote U: This can scarcely be correct, as everything implies far +greater antiquity.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo--Mineral + Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The + Bosna--Trout-fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen + Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the + Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--Culpa + River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to + Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian Troops--Probable + Policy--Water-Mills--Semlin--Belgrade. + + +The shortening days, and the snow, which might now be seen in patches on +the mountain sides, warned us of approaching winter, and the necessity +for making a start in order to ensure my reaching Constantinople before +the Danube navigation should be closed. My illness and other +circumstances had combined to detain me later than I had at first +intended, and I was consequently compelled to abandon the idea of +visiting either Svornik or Banialuka, two of the largest and most +important towns in the province. The former of these places is +interesting as being considered the key of Bosnia, in a military point +of view; the latter, from the numerous remains, which speak eloquently +of its former importance. The navigation of the Save, too, having +become practicable since the heavy rains had set in, I resolved upon +the simplest route of reaching Belgrade, viz., that by Brod. In coming +to this decision, I was influenced also by my desire to see the valley +of the Bosna, in and above which the road lies for almost the whole +distance. No site could have been more judiciously chosen, than that in +which Serayevo is built. Surrounded by beautiful hills and meadows, +which even in November bore traces of the luxuriant greenness which +characterises the province, and watered by the limpid stream of the +Migliaska, its appearance is most pleasing. As we rattled down the main +street at a smart trot on the morning of the 16th November, in the +carriage of Mr. H., the British Consul, it was difficult to believe +oneself in a Turkish city. The houses, even though in most cases built +of wood, are in good repair; and the trellis-work marking the feminine +apartments, and behind which a pair of bright eyes may occasionally be +seen, materially heightens the charms of imagination. The road for the +first six miles was hard and good. It is a specimen of Osman Pacha's +handiwork, and is raised considerably above the surrounding fields, the +sides of the road being rivetted, as it were, with wattles. At the end +of that distance, and very near the confluence of the Migliaska and the +Bosna, I separated from my friends, who were bent on a day's shooting. +From the number of shots which reached my ear as I pursued my solitary +journey, I should imagine that they must have had a successful day. The +love of sport is strongly developed in the people of these provinces, +and nature has provided them with ample means of gratifying their +inclination. Besides bears, wolves, boars, foxes, roebucks, chamois, +hares, and ermines, all of which are plentiful in parts of the country, +birds of all kinds abound; grey and red-legged partridges, blackcock, +ducks of various kinds, quail, and snipe, are the most common; while +flights of geese and cranes pass in the spring and autumn, but only +descend in spring. Swans and pelicans are also birds of passage, and +occasionally visit these unknown lands. The natives are clever in +trapping these animals. This they do either by means of pitfalls or by +large traps, made after the fashion of ordinary rat-traps. + +Before continuing my journey, I visited the hot springs, which rise from +the earth at a stone's throw from the main road. Baths were built over +them by Omer Pacha, on the occasion of his last visit to Bosnia, for the +benefit of the sick soldiers, and such others as chose to use them. +Besides two or three larger baths, there are several intended for one +person, each being provided with a kind of cell, as a dressing room. The +waters are considered most efficacious in all cases of cutaneous +diseases, and were at one time in great request for every kind of +disorder, real and imaginary. From what I could gather from the +'Custos,' I should say that they are now but little frequented. Leaving +the Migliaska, which is here spanned by a solid bridge of ten arches, we +crossed the Bosna in about half an hour. Scattered along the river bank, +or in some sheltered nook, protected by large trees alike from the heat +and the eyes of curious observers, might be seen the harems of various +pachas, and other grandees connected with the province. After four hours +farther march, we arrived at Ekshesoo, where 1 located myself in the +khan for the night. My first step was to send for a jug of the mineral +water, for which the village is famous, and at one period of the year +very fashionable. The water has a strong taste of iron, and when fresh +drawn, effervesces on being mixed with sugar, wine, or other acids. It +is in great repute with all classes, but the Jews are the most addicted +to its use. No Hebrew in Serayevo would venture to allow a year to +elapse without a visit to the springs; they generally remain there for +two or three days, and during that time drink at stated hours gallon +after gallon of the medicated fluid. The following night I arrived at +Boosovatz, where I left the Travnik road, which I had been retracing up +to that point. The water of the Bosna is here beautifully transparent; +and at about an hour's distance is a spring, the water of which is +considered the best in Bosnia. The Pacha has it brought in all the way +to Serayevo, yet, notwithstanding this, I saw many persons in the +village suffering from goitre, a by no means uncommon complaint in +Bosnia. The cause for the prevalence of this affliction is difficult to +understand, unless we attribute it to the use of the river water, which +is at times much swollen by the melting snow. + +10th November: rain fell in torrents, much to my disgust, as the scenery +was very beautiful. The road, which is a portion of the old road +constructed by Omer Pacha, skirts the banks of the river, which winds +sometimes amongst steep wooded hills, at others in the smooth green +plains. At one point we were obliged to ford it; the stream was rather +deep and rapid, and I certainly experienced a sensation of relief when I +saw my baggage pony fairly landed on the opposite bank, without further +injury to his load than a slight immersion. The fishing of the Bosna is +not so good as that of the Narento and some other rivers of Bosnia and +Herzegovina. Let me not be accused of a partiality for travellers' +tales, when I say that trout of 60 lbs. have been killed in the latter +province. In external colour these are veritable trout, the flesh, +however, having a yellowish appearance, something between the colour of +trout and salmon; the smaller fish are of excellent quality and are +very abundant. Three hours after leaving Boosovatz we reached Tzenitza, +a small town where a little trade is carried on. While sitting in the +public room of the khan, the post from Brod arrived en route to Bosna +Serai. The man who carried it came in wet and mud-bespattered, and +declared the road to be quite impassable; a bit of self-glorification +which I took for what it was worth. Had I not been pressed for time I +should have myself been inclined to give way to the importunities of all +concerned, to postpone my journey to Vranduk until the following day; +but seeing no prospect of any improvement in the weather, I deemed it +prudent to push on. + +Another difficulty, however, here presented itself. The Tchouch of +Zaptiehs positively declined to give me a guide; and it was only by +sending for the Mudir, and threatening to write a complaint to the +Serdar Ekrem, that I succeeded in obtaining one. This escort duty is the +principal work of the mounted Zaptiehs. Ten piastres a day, or twenty +pence, is what is usually paid them by those who make use of their +services. They, of course, pay for the keep of their own horses out of +their regular official salary. The rain now gave place to snow, which +fell in considerable quantities for two or three days. The cold was +intense, and it was only by halting at every khan, generally about three +hours apart, that it was possible to keep the blood in circulation. On +the morning of the 20th the sun shone out bright and comparatively warm, +although everything bore a most wintry aspect. Beautiful as the scenery +must be when spring has clothed the trees with green, or when the early +autumnal tints have succeeded the fierce heat of summer, the appearance +of the country clad in its snowy garments might well compare with either +of these. The hills, rugged in parts, and opening out at intervals into +large open plains, trees and shrubs groaning with their milk-white +burden, or sparkling like frosted silver in the moonlight, and above all +the river, now yellow and swollen, rushing rapidly along, produced an +effect characteristic and grand. + +About ninety miles from Serayevo the river becomes much broader, and +swollen as it was by the recent rain and snow, presented a very fine +appearance. + +On its right bank stands the town of Maglai, which is prettily situated +in the side of a basin formed by the hills, a craggy eminence apparently +dividing the town into two parts. Behind these, however, the houses +meet, sloping down close to the river's edge. On the very summit of the +central mound is an old fort mounting five guns, which command the +river, but would otherwise be of little use. The only means of +communication between either bank, is a ferry-boat of rude construction. +After leaving this town there still remained four hours of my journey +to be accomplished, before arriving at Schevaleekhan, where I intended +passing the night. Unaccustomed as I was to anything like luxury, I was +positively staggered at the total absence of even the commonest +necessaries of life. At Maglai I had endeavoured without success to buy +potatoes, fruit, and even meat; but here neither bread, eggs, nor +chickens, which are nearly always procurable, were to be found. Having +received the inevitable 'Nehmur' to every one of my demands, I could not +help asking what the inhabitants themselves eat; and being told that +they lived upon vegetables, asked for the same. Judge, then, of my +astonishment when told that there were none. Fortunately my kind friends +at Bosna Serai had not sent me away empty-handed, or assuredly I should +have felt the pangs of hunger that day. + +At all times a khan is a painful mockery of the word hotel, as it is +often translated. Picture to yourself a room about eight feet square, +with windows not made to open, a stove which fills one-third of the +entire space, and a wooden divan occupying the other two-thirds; the +whole peopled by innumerable specimens of the insect creation, and you +have a very fair idea of an ordinary khan. If there be a moment when one +is justified in the indulgence of a few epicurean ideas, it is when +inhabiting one of these abodes of bliss. + +About an hour from Schevaleekhan we crossed an arm of the Bosna by means +of a ferry-boat; a little farther on the left bank stands a town of 300 +houses, built very much after the same principle as Maglai. Like that +place it has an eminence, around which the houses cluster. This is also +surmounted by a fort with three guns, two small and one large. The Mudir +told me with no little satisfaction that it was the last place taken by +the Turks, when they conquered Bosnia. Profiting by my experience of the +previous day, I took the precaution of buying a chicken, some bread, and +a few more edibles, on my way through the town. Provisions were, +however, both scarce and execrable in quality. Meat is indeed rarely to +be obtained anywhere, as sheep are never killed, and bullocks only when +superannuated and deemed unfit for further physical labour. Chickens are +consequently almost the only animal food known. The method of killing +them is peculiar. The children of the house are generally selected for +this office. One secures a very scraggy fowl, while another arms himself +with a hatchet of such formidable dimensions as to recall in the +beholder all sorts of unpleasant reminiscences about Lady Jane Grey, +Mauger, and other historic characters. The struggling bird is then +beheaded, and stripped of his plumage almost before his pulses have +ceased to beat. The first occasion on which I saw one of these +executions, I could not help thinking of a certain cicerone at Rome, +who, albeit that he spoke very good French and Italian, always broke out +in English when he saw a picture of a martyrdom of any kind soever; +'That one very good man, cut his head off.' The man had but one idea of +death, and the same may be said of these primitive people, who look upon +decapitation as the easiest termination to a half-starved life. + +Leaving Kotauski, where I passed the night of the 21st, at 7 +A.M., I reached Brod at 8.30 in the evening. The distance is +considerable, but might have been accomplished in a far shorter time, +had not the country been one sheet of ice, which rendered progression +both difficult and dangerous. Each person of whom I enquired the +distance told me more than the one before, until I thought that a +Bosnian 'saht' (hour) was a more inexplicable measure than a German +'stunde' or a Scottish 'mile and a bittoch.' At length, however, the +lights of Brod proclaimed our approach to the Turkish town of that name. +On the left bank of the Save stands Austrian Brod, which, like all the +Slavonic towns near the river, is thoroughly Turkish in character. Late +as it was, I hoped to cross the river the same night, and proceeded +straight to the Mudir, who raised no objections, and procured men to +ferry me across. But we had scarcely left the shore when we were +challenged by the Austrian sentry on the other side. As the garrisons +of all the towns on the frontier are composed of Grenzer regiments, or +confinarii, whose native dialect is Illyric, a most animated discussion +took place between the sentry on the one hand, and the whole of my +suite, which had increased considerably since my arrival in the town. My +servant Eugene, who had been educated for a priest, and could talk +pretty well, tried every species of argument, but without success; the +soldier evidently had the best of it, and clenched the question with the +most unanswerable argument--that we were quite at liberty to cross if we +liked; but that he should fire into us as soon as we came into good +view. There was therefore no help for it, and unwillingly enough, I +returned to a khan, and crossed over early the following morning. At his +offices, close to the river, I found M.M., le Directeur de la +Quarantine, and general manager of all the other departments. He +accompanied me to the hotel, which, though not exactly first-rate, +appeared luxurious after my three months of khans and tents. I was +somewhat taken aback at finding that the steamer to Belgrade was not due +for two days, and moreover that the fogs had been so dense that it had +not yet passed up on its voyage to Sissek; whence it would return to +Belgrade, calling at Brod, and other places en route. + +It therefore appeared the better plan to go up in it to Sissek, than to +await its return to Brod. By this means I was enabled to see many of the +towns and villages on the Bosnian, Slavonian, and Croatian frontiers. +Leaving my servant and horses at Brod, I went on board the steamer as +soon as it arrived. The scene I there found was curious. In a small +saloon, of which the windows were all shut, and the immense stove +lighted, were about thirty persons, three or four of whom were females, +the remainder merchants and Austrian officers. The atmosphere was so +oppressive that I applied for a private cabin, a luxury which is paid +for, in all German companies, over and above the regular fare. I was +told that I might have one for eleven florins a night. To this I +demurred, but was told that any reduction was impossible; it was the +tariff. At length the inspector came on board; to him I appealed, and +received the same answer. After a little conversation, he agreed to +break through a rule. I might have it for seven florins. No! well, he +would take the five which I had originally offered; and so I got my +cabin. That it was the nicest little room possible, I must admit, with +its two large windows, a maple table, a large mirror, and carpeted +floor; and a very much pleasanter resting-place than the hot saloon. The +night was rainy and dark, and we lay-to throughout the greater part of +it, as is the invariable rule on the Save, and even on the Danube +during the autumn months. At eight on the following morning we touched +at Gradiska. There are two towns of the name, the old one standing close +to the river, and embellished with a dilapidated castle; the new town +being about an hour's distance inland. + +About noon we reached Cenovatz, which, like the other towns and villages +on the frontier, might be mistaken rather for a Turkish than a German +town. + +The Castle of Cenovatz is an irregular quadrilateral, with three round +and one square tower at the angles. It is now occupied by priests. It is +interesting from its connection with the military history of the +country. There, on a tongue of land which projects into the river, waved +the flag of France during the occupation of the Illyrian provinces by +the old Napoleon, while on the main land on either side the sentinels of +Austria and Turkey were posted in close juxtaposition. Hence it has +received the name of "la lingua di tré regni." + +At six o'clock the same evening we entered the River Culpa, at the mouth +of which is the town of Sissek. + +It has a thrifty and cleanly appearance, and possesses two very fair +inns. The saloon of one of these appeared to be the rendezvous of the +opulent townspeople. Music, chess, billiards, and tobacco-smoke, +appeared to be the amusements most in vogue; the indulgence in the +latter being of course universal. Here I took leave of my companions of +the steamer, whose loss I much regretted, especially M. Burgstaller, a +gentleman of much intelligence, who requested me to examine his silk, +manufactured at Carlstadt, for the International Exhibition. On the +ensuing morning, I crossed the Culpa, and inspected the works connected +with the new railway to Trieste. It is intended to be in a state of +completion by the end of the coming autumn. Several Englishmen are +employed on the line, but I did not happen to come across any of them; +every information was, however, given me by a Croatian gentleman, who +has the superintendence of one-half of the line. Moravian iron is used +in preference to English, although its value on delivery is said to be +the greater of the two. + +Sissek was in ancient days a place of no small importance. There, Attila +put in to winter his fleet during one of his onslaughts on the decaying +Roman empire. Traces of the ancient city are often dug up, and many +curiosities have been found, which would delight the heart of the modern +antiquarian. The return voyage to Brod was not remarkable for any +strange incident, the passengers being almost entirely Austrian +officers. The number of troops massed by that power on her Slavonian and +Croatian frontier would infer that she entertains no friendly feelings +to her Turkish neighbours. These amount to no less than 40,000 men, +dispersed among the villages in the vicinity of Brod, and within a +circumference of fourteen miles. At Brod itself no fewer than 4,000 +baggage-horses were held in readiness to take the field at any moment. +It requires no preternatural foresight to guess the destination of these +troops. They are not intended, as some suppose, to hold in check the +free-thinking Slavonic subjects of Austria. Nor is that province used as +a penal settlement for the disaffected, as others would infer. The whole +history of Austria points to the real object with which they have been +accumulated, viz. to be in readiness to obtain a footing in Bosnia, in +the event of any insurrection in that province of sufficient importance +to justify such a measure. The utility of such a step would be +questionable, as climate and exposure have more than once compelled the +Austrians to relinquish the idea, even after they had obtained a +substantial footing in the province. The motives which would induce them +to make another attempt are palpable enough; for, besides the advantages +derivable from the possession of so beautiful and rich a country, +Austria sees with alarm the increase of revolutionary principles in a +province in such close proximity to her own. And yet she has small +reason for fear, since no single bond of union exists between the +Slaves on either bank of the Save. + +But even if this were not the case, surely her soundest policy would be +to support and strengthen in every way the Turkish Government, since +their interests are identical, viz. the preservation of order among the +Slavish nations of the world. + +After leaving Brod, the banks of the river become flat and +uninteresting; that on the Bosnian side is to a certain extent covered +with low brushwood. After passing the Drina, which forms the boundary +between Bosnia and Servia, it becomes still less interesting; the only +objects of attraction being the numerous mills with which the river is +studded. On the morning of the 29th we moored off the wharf at Semlin, +but just too late to enable me to cross over to Belgrade by the +morning's steamer. During the day, which I was compelled to pass in the +town, I received much attention from General Phillipovich, who commanded +the garrison, to whom I tender my sincere thanks. In the evening I +crossed over to Belgrade (the white city), the capital of the +principality of Servia. + + + + +SERVIA: + +ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL CONDITION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +The erroneous notions prevalent throughout Europe relative to the +internal condition of Servia, are mainly traceable to two causes. The +first of these is the wilful misrepresentation of facts by governments +to their subjects, while the other, and a far more universal one, is the +indifference inherent in flourishing countries for such as are less +successful, or which have not been brought into prominence by +contemporaneous events. We English are operated upon by the last of +these influences. We are contented to accept the meagre accounts which +have as yet reached us, and which give a very one-sided impression, as +is but natural, the whole of the materials having been collected at +Belgrade. I am not aware that anyone has during the past few years +written upon the subject; and having been at some pains to obtain the +means of forming a just estimate of the character and condition of the +Servian people, I must fain confess to very different ideas concerning +them to those which I had previously entertained, based upon the perusal +of Ranke and Von Engel, or the lighter pages of Cyprien Robert and +Paton. + +The retrograde movement, but too apparent, gives cause for serious +regret, not only to those who are politically interested in the +well-being of the country, but to all who desire to see an advanced +state of civilisation and a high moral standard amongst a people who +pride themselves on the universality of Christianity within their +limits. + +The present population is about one million, and is said to be +increasing at the rate of ten per cent., but so crudely compiled are the +statistics, that doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of this +statement. Of this million of souls, 200,000 at the lowest estimate are +foreigners; the greater portion being Austrian subjects, and the +children of those Servians who on three separate occasions migrated to +the northern banks of the Danube. What has induced them to return to +their ancestral shores, whether it be Austrian oppression, or an +unlooked-for patriotism, it is hard to say; but whatever the motives, +they have not proved of sufficient strength to awaken the dormant apathy +inherited with their Slavish blood. Save those who have settled at +Belgrade, and who drive a most lucrative and usurious trade, they have +sunk back contentedly to a level with the rest of their compatriots. + +The scanty population is only one of the many signs of the decadence of +a country for whose future such high hopes were entertained, and whose +name is even now blazoned forth as a watchword to the Christians of +Turkey. In reality, a comparison with most Turkish provinces, and more +especially with those in which the Mussulman element predominates, will +tell very favourably for the latter. Roumelia, for example, with a +smaller area, contains a larger population, produces more than double +the revenue, while land is four times as valuable, the surest test of +the prosperity of a country. This last is easily accounted for by the +lamentable indolence of the masses, who are contented to live in the +most abject poverty, neglecting even to take advantage of a naturally +fertile soil. Yet must it not be supposed that indifference to its +possession prompts this contempt for the cultivation of land. There is +probably no province so much enclosed, and where the mania for +litigation in connection therewith is so rife as Servia. An +insurmountable obstacle is thus thrown in the way of foreign enterprise, +by the narrow-mindedness of the people. + +The same want of energy has had the most baneful effect upon commerce, +the very existence of which is merely nominal. Even at Belgrade the +common necessaries of life are daily imported from the Austrian banks of +the Danube. No one is more alive to the deplorable state of affairs than +the reigning Prince, whose long residence in the capitals of Europe has +familiarised him with their bustling scenes of thriving activity. Well +will it be for Servia and himself, if he shall turn the experience which +he has acquired to some practical account. Any doubts which he may +previously have entertained regarding the misery of the country, and the +moral degradation of his subjects, were removed effectually by all that +he witnessed in a recent expedition into the interior--miserable hovels, +uncultivated fields, magnificent forests wantonly destroyed, were the +sights which met him at every turn. At length some restrictions have +been placed on the wilful abuse of the greatest source of wealth which +the country possesses. Nor are they premature, for the reckless +destruction of the forests, combined with a failure of the acorns during +the past year, produced serious distress. Already has the export trade +of pigs diminished by one-third of the average of former years. This is +immediately owing to the necessity of feeding them on Indian corn, a +process which proves too expensive for their poverty-stricken owners, +and which in this respect places the pig and its proprietor upon an +equality. The latter live almost entirely upon maize and sliegovich, a +kind of rakee made out of plums, and extremely fiery. + +The mode of treatment of their women, an infallible sign of civilisation +or the reverse, was brought prominently to the Prince's notice by the +following circumstance:--Having, in company with the Princess, visited +the cottage of a thriving pig-owner, he observed the presence of three +daughters of the house. These young ladies showed unmistakeable signs of +approaching old-maidism, and the parental philosophy settled the +question of their future pretty conclusively. 'Why,' said he, in reply +to a question put by the Prince touching the solitary condition of the +damsels, 'should I allow them to marry, when each of them is worth more +than three fat pigs to me.' Manners must have changed very much for the +worse since the days of Ami Boué, or it is difficult to conceive upon +what he founds his assertion that labour is not imposed upon Servian +women. Indeed it would be surprising were it not so, when they are +subjected by the laws of the land to the indignity of the bastinado, +from which even men, save soldiers, are exempted in Mahometan Turkey. + +The absence of that blind subjection to a bigoted priesthood which +distinguishes the other Christian populations, would seem to indicate a +certain independence of spirit, but unhappily the accompanying symptoms +are not so encouraging. With contempt for its ministers, has come +disregard for the ordinances of the Church, the services of which are +but scantily attended. Yet notwithstanding the irreligion which is +spreading fast throughout the land, little tolerance is shown for +adherents to other than the Greek Church. For example, Catholics are +compelled to close their shops on the Greek feasts, of which there are +not a few, under penalty of a fine. In the same liberal spirit the mob +are permitted to break the windows of such houses as are not illuminated +on these occasions. + +An ignorant and narrow-minded man is generally also vain. The same law +is equally applicable to nations. A fancied superiority over the +Christians of the other Turkish provinces cannot escape the notice of +the most casual observer. That Servia has acquired some fame for +military exploits is true, and far be it from me to detract from the +praise due to her efforts to achieve and maintain her independence. The +successes of their fathers, however, over the small irregular Turkish +levies to which they were opposed, do not warrant the present population +in indulging in the vapid boastings too often heard, of their ability to +drive the Turks to Constantinople, were they permitted so to do. In a +word, they forget that they owe their present position, not to their own +prowess, but to foreign intervention; without which the province would +probably have shared the fate of Bosnia, Albania, Epirus, and the +Pashaliks of Rutschuk and Widdin, all which were as independent as +themselves, but were reconquered by the Turks, no European power having +extended to them the safeguard of a guarantee. + +Whether the protection accorded to Servia has worked beneficially is for +my readers to judge. The abstract question of the advantages thus +conferred admits of debate, and for my own part I believe the present +miserable state of the province to be mainly owing to the European +guarantee. She was not sufficiently enlightened to profit by the +advantages presented to her, and the honourable self-reliance which was +the result of a successful resistance to the Turkish arms has given +place to a feeling of indolent security. Nor is this the worst. A +principal feature in a country under guarantee is the total want of +responsibility in those vested with administrative power. Upon this the +Servian rulers presume to a preeminent degree, and indulge in many acts +of presumption which would be impossible were they not fully alive to +the fact that the conflicting interests of the guaranteeing powers, +added to their own insignificance (which perhaps they overlook), exempt +them from any fear of chastisement. + +The principle of supporting the independence of a province forming a +component geographical part of an empire, must have but one result, that +of weakening the mother state, without, as experience has shown, +ameliorating the condition of the province. Independently, therefore, of +the drain upon the Turkish finances, for the maintenance of troops from +time to time on the Servian frontier, to counteract revolutionary +propaganda, her influence throughout her Slavish provinces is much +weakened. Although in a position as anomalous as it must be unpalatable, +the Ottoman Government deserves credit for abstaining so entirely from +any species of interference in the internal affairs of the country; for +be it remembered that the province is still tributary to the Porte. The +hattischeriff of 1834, by which, on the evacuation of the country, the +Sultan retained the right of garrisoning the fortresses, has never been +strictly adhered to, and may at some future period lead to +complications. Belgrade is secure from any efforts which may be made +against it, but the other forts are hardly worthy of the name, and were +only used as a place of refuge in case of attack. The Servians now +complain of the infringement of the hattischeriff, and M. Garaschanin +has but lately returned from Constantinople, whither he was sent on a +special mission in connection with this subject. He endeavoured to +procure an order for the withdrawal of all Mussulmans from the villages +which they now occupy in the vicinity of the forts. This demand would +appear just in the letter of the law, but for the neglect on the part +of the Servian Government of one of the conditions, which was, that +before resigning their property, the Mussulmans should receive an +equivalent in money. The payment of this has been evaded, and the Porte +consequently declines to interfere in the matter; should the Sultan +hereafter accede to the demand, it would be no great sacrifice, as he +would still retain Belgrade. Situated as that fortress is, at the +confluence of the Danube and the Save, surrounded with strong and +well-ordered fortifications, and commanding every quarter of the town, +its occupation in the event of hostilities would at once determine the +fate of the province. + +The city may be fairly said to represent the sum of civilisation in the +country. In addition to 2,000 Austrian subjects, the population is of a +very polyglot character, who, however much they may have added to the +importance, have deprived the town of its national appearance. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Before alluding to the financial or military resources, it will be well +to pass in brief review the events of the past few years, of which no +chronicle exists. These, if devoid of any special interest, tend +considerably to our enlightenment regarding the much vexed question of a +south Slavonic kingdom, and at the same time of Russia's prospects of +aggrandisement south of the Danube. The neutral attitude preserved by +Servia during the war in 1854-55, must have been a grievous +disappointment to the Emperor Nicholas. Had she risen consentaneously +with the irruption of the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus, the +revolt might have become general, and would have been fraught with +consequences most perplexing to the Sultan's allies. This neutrality may +be attributed to the position assumed by Austria throughout that +struggle, combined with the independence of Russian influence manifested +by the then reigning family of Servia. No sooner was peace declared, +than Russia applied herself to the task of producing a state of feeling +more favourable to herself in the Slavonic provinces. While adhering to +her traditional policy of fomenting discord, and exciting petty +disturbances with the view of disorganising and impeding the +consolidation of Turkey, she redoubled her efforts to promote her own +influence by alienating the Greek Christians from their spiritual +allegiance to the Archimandrite, and transferring it to the Czar. Nor to +attain this end did she scruple to resort to presents, bribes, and even +more unworthy means. That her efforts have not met with more signal +success than has as yet attended them, is due to the indifference +displayed by the people on these subjects. + +One measure which was deemed most important was the substitution in +Servia of the Obrenovitch family for that of Kara George. This occurred +in 1858; and during the lifetime of Milneh, Russian influence was ever +in the ascendant. The familiar roughness of tone and manner assumed by +that Prince towards his uncultivated people procured for him great +weight; while his astute cunning, his hatred of Turkey, and his Russian +bias, would have given a most valuable ally to that power, had she +procured his restoration before her armies crossed the Pruth. +Fortunately no opportunity presented itself for him to promote actively +the cause of his imperial master; and the two years which he survived +his return to power are marked only by occasional ill-judged and +bloodthirsty emeutes, as prejudicial to his people as they were +ineffectual in overthrowing Turkish supremacy. + +The eastern policy of France, during the Italian war, was subjected to +many powerful conflicting influences. The chances of creating a +diversion in the rear of Austria, owing to the unsettled state of the +Turkish provinces, was probably thought of. Why the idea was abandoned +is not for us here to enquire; but it may be in part attributed to the +display of force which Turkey for once put forth at the right moment. Be +this as it may, no disturbance took place until the winter of 1859, +when, upon the withdrawal of the Turkish troops, fresh rumours of an +insurrectionary nature were heard. These are well known to have been +encouraged and circulated by the Servian Government, which calculated +upon foreign support, at any rate that of Russia. But Russia has no wish +to precipitate a crisis. The disastrous results of Prince Gortschakoff's +mission have, at any rate, taught her the impolicy of plucking at the +fruit before it is ripe. Her own internal reorganisation, moreover, +occupies her sufficiently, and renders any active interference for the +moment impracticable. Even were it otherwise, were Russia able and +willing to renew the struggle in behalf of her co-religionists, the +report of Prince Dolgorouki as to the amount of assistance likely to be +derived from them, would hardly tend to encourage her in her +disinterested undertaking. This envoy arrived at Belgrade in the latter +part of 1859, while Prince Gortschakoff's charges were issued shortly +after his return, and were doubtless based upon his reports. (Yet it is +more than probable that the primary object of his mission was to enquire +into and to regulate the revolutionary movements, which at that moment +had acquired a certain degree of importance.) The Bulgarian emissaries +told him frankly that no rising could be looked for in those provinces, +unless Russia took the initiative. They reminded him that in 1842, when +Baron Lieven visited Belgrade, the Bulgarians were induced by the +promises of Prince Michael Obrenovitch to rise en masse. These promises +were never fulfilled, and the insurrection was put down with great +barbarities by the neighbouring Albanian levies. This single fact is +tolerably conclusive as to the unreality of a south Slavonic +insurrection, of which so much has been said, and to promote which so +much trouble has been taken. Even were the discontent tenfold as +deep-rooted as it now is, the Turkish Government might rely on the +Mussulman population and the Arnauts to suppress any rising of the +Christians. The chief danger to Turkey lies in the truculent nature of +those whom she would be compelled to let loose upon the insurgents, and +who would commit excesses which might be made an excuse for foreign +intervention. The attainment of this ignoble end has been and still is +the policy pursued by more than one power. Prince Milosch played +admirably into their hands, not foreseeing that in the general +bouleversement which would be the result, the independence of Servia +might be disregarded. The invasion of the Bosnian frontier by bands of +Servian ruffians was a measure well calculated to arouse the fury of the +Mussulmans; and if such has not been the case, it may be attributed to +the rapid dispersion of the miscreants. Little credit, indeed, accrued +to Servia in these hostile demonstrations, for while the bands were +composed of the lowest characters, and could only be brought together by +payment, they quickly retreated across the frontier at the first show of +resistance. It is significant that these bands were in nearly all cases +led by Montenegrins, a fact which indicates the decline of that spirit +of military adventure to which the Haiduks of old (robbers) could at +least lay some claim. Discreditable as these proceedings were, worse +ensued. + +On the 5th of August a murderous attack was made upon a party of +Mussulmans in the close vicinity of Belgrade, upon which occasion eight +were killed and seventeen wounded. No fire-arms were used, probably to +avoid alarming the garrison. The absence on that night from the capital +of both Prince Milosch and his son, furnishes just grounds for +suspecting them of complicity in the affair, while the presence of +Sleftcha (notoriously a creature of Russia), and Tenko, among the +murderers, clearly shows where and with what views the crime was +devised. On the same night, five Mussulmans who were sleeping in a +vineyard at Kladova, on the Bulgarian frontier, were murdered by +Servians, while an attack was made upon a third party. The prospects of +a country whose princes connive at, and whose ministers commit murder, +cannot be very brilliant. Whether other atrocities might have met with +the sanction of Milosch it is impossible to say, for death cut him off +in the latter part of September, 1860, full of years and crimes. Not the +least of these was the death of Kara George, who was treacherously +murdered at his instigation. But let us pass from so unattractive a +retrospect to a consideration of the character and policy of the living +prince who now holds the reins of government. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +The appointment of Prince Michael to the vacant throne of Servia was the +first step towards the substitution of hereditary for elective +succession. One of the first measures of the new prince was to induce +the Skuptschina, or National Assembly, to legalise for the future that +which had been an infraction of the law. The sixteen years which +intervened between 1842, when Michael was ejected, and 1858, when Prince +Milosch was reinstated, were passed by the former in the various +capitals of Europe. The high Vienna notions which he imbibed during that +period have deprived him of the sympathy and affection of his +semi-civilised subjects, as much as the uncultivated mind of his father +deprived him of their respect. Nor does the lack of sympathy appear to +be one-sided. And, in truth, that mind must be possessed of no ordinary +amount of philanthropy which can apply itself to the improvement of a +people at once so ignorant and vain, and who evince withal so little +desire for enlightenment. + +At the time of his accession the Russian element, as has been shown, was +strong in the Ministry. Sleftcha and the Metropolitan were her +principal agents. It was to be expected, therefore, that he would +adhere to the family principles, and sell himself body and soul to his +great benefactor. But it frequently happens that persons who have risen +to unexpected eminence turn upon those by whom they have been raised. +This would appear to be somewhat the case with Prince Michael, who +certainly does not show the same devotion to Russia as did his father. +It may be that he has not noted in the foreign policy of that power the +disinterestedness which she so loudly professes. If such be his views, +who can controvert them? To the character of the man, combined with his +peculiarly irresponsible condition (owing to the guarantee), may be +ascribed his present line of conduct. Ambitious, obstinate, and devoted +to intrigue, his character is no more that of a mere puppet than it is +of one likely to attain to any great eminence. At first, it must be +acknowledged that he played into the hands of Russia most unreservedly. +No endeavours were spared to stir up discontent and rebellion in the +surrounding provinces. Little credit is due to the sagacity of those by +whom these machinations were contrived. For example, petitions were sent +to all the foreign consulates purporting to come from the Christian +subjects of Turkey on the frontiers of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and setting +forth the miserable condition to which they had been reduced by +Mussulman oppression. The sympathy which might have been felt for the +sufferers was somewhat shaken by attendant circumstances, which threw +doubts on the authenticity of the letters. It appears that these arrived +from the two frontiers by the same post, while, on comparison, they were +found to be almost identical in form and wording. + +Great results were also anticipated from the Emigration movement, to +which the early part of 1861 was devoted. Russia, while endeavouring to +promote the emigration of Bulgarians to the Crimea, did not discourage +the efforts of Servia to induce them to cross her frontier with the view +of settling. Several thousands did so, and these came principally from +the Pachaliks of Widdin and Nish. Amongst these were many criminals and +outlaws, who were admitted by the Servians, in violation of their +charter. Considerable excitement prevailed, and subscriptions were set +on foot for their benefit, but the movement appears to have died a +natural death, as nothing is now heard of it. The émigrés cannot have +been too well satisfied with the position in which they found +themselves, since the greater number soon returned whence they came, in +spite of Mussulman oppression. + +Since the failure of this scheme, the Prince has applied all his +energies to the acquisition of independent power. He first endeavoured +to effect it by means of a deputation to the Sublime Porte. Failing in +this, he resorted to the internal means at his disposal, and has gained +his point. The principal objects which he had in view, and which he has +succeeded in carrying out, were the declaration of hereditary +succession, and the abrogation of the Ustag or Constitution, by which +his power was limited. The Senate, as the deliberative body may be +termed, originally consisted of 17 members. They were in the first +instance nominated by the then reigning prince, but could not be removed +by him, while vacancies were filled up by election among themselves. The +whole of these rules he has now set aside, and, albeit he has given a +colouring of justice to his proceedings by restoring the original number +of members, and some other customs which had fallen into abeyance, he +has virtually stripped them of all power. With great astuteness he +induced the Skuptschina to deprive the Senate of legislative functions, +and immediately afterwards to relinquish them itself, thus placing +absolute power in his hands. This grossly illegal action has met with +some faint resistance, but the Prince will without doubt carry out his +wishes. He has only to fear internal discontent, as he is entirely +independent by virtue of the guarantee, not only of the European powers, +but even of Turkey. It is true that this very policy cost him his throne +in 1838, but with years he has gained prudence, and he is now pursuing +it with far greater caution. The Servians, too, having sunk +immeasurably in the social scale, are less likely to stand upon their +rights, or to give him the same trouble as heretofore. + +Up to the present time all these schemes have weighed but little in the +scale against the one absorbing ambition of his life. In a word, Michael +is a hot Panslavist. Of this he makes no secret, and he has probably +shared hitherto, in common with all Servians, very exaggerated notions +of the importance which Servia would assume were the dismemberment of +Turkey to take place. Their self-conceived superiority over the other +Christians of European Turkey, induces the Servians to regard the +northern provinces in the same light as do the Greeks the southern. The +ambition of Michael, however, is not satisfied with the prospect of +dominion over the undeveloped countries south of the Danube. His +conversation, character, and previous history all point to one +conclusion--that he aspires to sway the destinies of the Slavish +provinces of Austria, and maybe of Hungary itself. His marriage with an +Hungarian lady of the name, and it is to be presumed of the stock of the +great Hunyadi family, would appear to give some consistency to these +dreams. The chief drawbacks to its fulfilment are the unreality of the +agitation among the Slavish populations, the power of Turkey to crush +any insurrection unaided from without, and the honour and interest of +Great Britain, which are staked on the preservation of the Ottoman +empire from foreign aggressions. Although he may indulge in such day +dreams, it is impossible but that a man of Prince Michael's calibre must +be alive to all the opposing elements which will defer the +accomplishment of them to a remote period. Notwithstanding natural +prejudices, which in his case, however, are not very strong, it is +probable that he now sees the inutility, and understands how visionary +are the ambitious projects which he once entertained touching Servia. +Such, at least, is the opinion of those who have the best opportunities +of forming a correct judgement in the matter. Whatever may be his own +intellect, whatever his ability to conceive and execute, Servia is too +degraded to carry him through. To be the nucleus of a large kingdom, +certain elements are necessary, in which she is strikingly deficient. +Among these may be placed tried and flourishing institutions, unity of +sentiment and purpose amidst all classes, and a due appreciation of the +advantages of education and commerce; while last, but perhaps the most +important of all, is civil and religious liberty of the highest order. +In all of these, I repeat, Servia is eminently wanting. + +A very slight glimpse also at her financial and military resources will +show how far she is fitted to take even a leading part in any emeute +which circumstances may hereafter bring about. The total revenue of the +country has up to this time amounted to 200,000_l._ sterling. This has +been raised by a tax of $5 levied on about 40,000 males. Nearly the +whole sum is expended in paying and equipping the army, and in the +salary of officials. Dissatisfied with the small amount of revenue, the +Prince undertook, during the past year, to reorganise the taxation. An +impost upon property was projected in lieu of the capitation tax, but +having, unfortunately, started without any very well-defined basis, the +system broke down, actually producing a smaller revenue than was yielded +by the original method. Equally abortive, as might have been +anticipated, was the scheme for raising a militia of 50,000 men. +Presupposing, for the sake of argument, a strong military spirit to be +rife among the people, the financial condition of the country would +render the idea untenable, since it is with difficulty that the 1,800 +soldiers who constitute the regular army can be maintained. Granting +even the willingness to serve, and the ability of the government to pay +them, the population of the country would not, according to ordinary +statistics, furnish so large a force. The greatest number that could be +calculated on in the event of war would be about 40,000 men, and these +only in a war in which the national sympathy might be deeply enlisted. +How many of this number would remain in arms, would probably depend on +the amount of plunder to be obtained, and the nature of the resistance +which they might encounter. + +The matérial of the existing force is about on an equality with that of +most continental armies. A portion of the troops are armed with rifles, +and the remainder with unbrowned muskets. One battery of artillery forms +the aggregate of that arm of the service. There are 70 guns at the +arsenal at Kragiewatz, but they are all old and unfit for field service. +A French Colonel has lately been imported to fill the combined offices +of War-Minister and Commander-in-Chief. This, and, indeed, the whole of +the recent internal policy, leaves very little doubt of the source +whence emanate these high-flown ideas. It cannot be better expressed +than as a _politique d'ostentation_, which is, if we may compare small +things with great, eminently French. The oscillation of French and +Russian influence, and the amicable manner in which their delegates +relinquish the field to each other alternately, implies the existence of +a mutual understanding between them. Whether this accord extends to a +wider sphere and more momentous questions, time alone will show. +Meanwhile, the Prince continues to indulge in dreams of a Panslavish +kingdom, and of the crumbs which may fall to his own share, while he +neglects the true interests of his country, with which his own are so +intimately blended. Let him apply himself to the developement of her +internal resources, to the promotion of education and civilisation among +the people, and, above all, let him root out that spirit of indolence +which has taken such firm hold upon all classes. It is his policy to do +all this, that Servia may be in a position to assume that leading place +among the Slavonic races which she arrogates to herself, should +unforeseen circumstances call upon her to do so. With her he must stand +or fall; therefore, setting aside more patriotic motives, self-interest +renders it imperative on him to apply himself zealously to her +regeneration. + +With regard to his foreign policy, he cannot do better than act up to +the conviction which he has himself more than once expressed, that 'the +interests of Servia are identical with those of Turkey.' For, should the +disruption of the Ottoman empire take place--the probability of which is +at any rate no greater than in the time of our grandfathers--it will not +be effected by internal revolution, but by foreign intervention; and +credulous must he be who can believe in the disinterestedness of those +who would lend themselves to such a measure. Thus, in the partition +which would ensue, Servia might find even her former independence +overlooked. + +Let me add, that if I have alluded in strong terms to the condition of +the people, I have done it in all sincerity, regretting that Servia +should thus cast away the sympathy which, were she bent on +self-advancement, would pour in upon her from every side. If, again, I +may appear presumptuous in dictating the duties which devolve upon her +Prince, I am prompted to it by the supineness which he has as yet +evinced in promoting the desire for civilisation. Let him delay no +longer, for, should events so dispose themselves that Servia should be +weighed in the balance, she will, unless an amendment takes place, be +indeed found miserably wanting. + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +In conclusion, I would venture to call attention to the fact that the +preceding pages were written before events had assumed the aspect which +they now wear. Actual hostilities had not then commenced against +Montenegro; the Turkish Government had not then contracted the loan +which has opened up new prospects for the finances of the country. + +That Omer Pacha has not already brought the war to a close is to be +regretted, but let those who criticise the slowness of his movements +weigh well all the disadvantages against which he has to contend. + +It would be useless to enumerate these again, as they are alluded to +more than once in the course of this volume. Suffice it to say, then, +that if Cettigné be taken and Montenegro occupied before the end of the +present year, Omer Pacha will have placed another feather in his cap, +and will have materially increased the debt of gratitude to which he is +already entitled. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +The following is an extract of a letter from the young Prince of +Montenegro, addressed to the Consuls of the Great Powers. The sentiments +which it expresses are creditable enough, and, did his acts corroborate +his words, he would be well entitled to the sympathy which he demands. + + Cettigné, le 30 juillet 1861. + + Monsieur le Consul, + + A l'occasion de la récente et grave mésure prise par la Turquie + envers le Montenégro, je crois devoir rompre le silence et faire + connaître succinctement à MM. les Consuls des Grandes Puissances + qu'elle a été tenue depuis un an par le Montenegro vis-à-vis de + l'empire ottoman. + + Depuis mon avènement j'ai employé tout mon pouvoir à maintenir la + tranquillité. Sur les frontières je n'ai rien négligé pour éloigner + tout motif de collision, pour calmer les animosités séculaires qui + séparent les deux peuples, en un mot, pour donner à la Turquie les + preuves les plus irréfragables de meilleur voisinage. + + Dans une occasion toute récente je me suis rendu avec empressement + au désir exprimé par les Grandes Puissances de me voir contribuer + autant qu'il était dans mon pouvoir au soulagement des malheureux + enfermés dans la forteresse de Niksich. J'ai été heureux de pouvoir + en pareilles circonstances donner une preuve de déference aux + Grandes Puissances, et de pouvoir répondre, comme il convenait à un + souverain et un peuple chrétien, à l'appel fait à ses sentiments + d'humanité. Je ne me suis point arrêté devant la considération d'un + intérêt personnel. + + +LONDON +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. +NEW-STREET SQUARE + +[Illustration: THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY.] + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + +***** This file should be named 17288-8.txt or 17288-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/8/17288/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. 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George Arbuthnot. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 1%; font-size: smaller; text-align: left; color: gray;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem span.i16 {display: block; margin-left: 16em;} + .poem span.i6 {display: block; margin-left: 6em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Herzegovina + Or, Omer Pacha and the Christian Rebels + +Author: George Arbuthnot + +Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17288] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. (This file was made using scans of +public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital +Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="image01" name="image01"> + <img src="images/01.jpg" + alt="A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC." + title="A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC." /></a><br /> + <span class="caption">A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC.</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h1>HERZEGOVINA;</h1> + +<h3>OR</h3> + +<h2>OMER PACHA AND THE CHRISTIAN REBELS.</h2> + + +<h3>WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF SERVIA, ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL +CONDITION.</h3> + + +<h2>BY LIEUT. G. ARBUTHNOT, R.H.A., F.R.G.S.</h2> + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="image02" name="image02"></a> + <img src="images/02.jpg" + alt="Official Seal of Omer Pacha" + title="Official Seal of Omer Pacha" /> +</div> + + +<h4> +LONDON:<br /> +LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN.<br /> +1862.<br /> +</h4> + +<h5> +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.<br /> +NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> +</h5> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagev" name="pagev"></a>Pg v</span></p> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>The wanderings of an unknown in an unknown land may not be a subject of +universal interest, and as such require a few words of apology, or +possibly of defence.</p> + +<p>To convey an accurate idea of a country the inhabitants of which differ +from ourselves in creed, origin, and in all their habits of life, it +would be necessary to have passed a lifetime amongst them. It may +therefore be deemed presumptuous in me to attempt so comprehensive a +task, upon the meagre experience of a few short months. And such it +would be, did I entertain such aspirations. The impossibility, however, +of identifying myself with a people, with whose very language I have but +a slight acquaintance, would banish such a thought. My object is rather +to describe briefly and simply everything that presented<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevi" name="pagevi"></a>Pg vi</span> itself to my +own notice; upon the evidence of which, coupled with the observations of +the few who have devoted any attention to the condition of these +countries, I have founded my views and opinions. Far be it from me to +assume that they have more claim to be regarded as correct, than the +opinions of others who may differ from me. Above all, if any of my +remarks on the subject of the Greek and Latin religions should appear +somewhat severe, I would have it clearly understood, that nowhere is +allusion intentionally made to these churches, save in the relation +which they bear to the Illyric Provinces of European Turkey.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <a id="image03" name="image03"></a> + <img src="images/03.jpg" + alt="Signature of Author in Turkish Characters" + title="Signature of Author in Turkish Characters" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii" name="pagevii"></a>Pg vii</span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b><span class="smcap">Preface</span></b></td> + <td align='right'>Pages <a href='#pagev'>v</a>—<a href='#pagevi'>vi</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b><span class="smcap">Contents</span></b></td> + <td align='right'><a href='#pagevii'>vii</a>—<a href='#pagexi'>xi</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b><span class="smcap">List of Illustrations</span></b></td> + <td align='right'><a href='#pagexii'>xii</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER I.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Object of Travels—Start—Mad Woman—Italian +Patriot—Zara—Sebenico—Falls of Kerka—Dalmatian +Boatmen—French Policy and Austrian Prospects—Spalatro—Palace +of Diocletian—Lissa—Naval +Action—Gravosa—Ragusa—Dalmatian Hotel—Change of Plans</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page1'>1</a>—<a href='#page15'>15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER II.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Military Road to Metcovich—Country Boat—Stagno—Port of +Klek—Disputed Frontier—Narentine Pirates—Valley of the +Narenta—Trading Vessels—Turkish Frontier—Facilities for +Trade granted by Austria—Narenta—Fort Opus—Hungarian +Corporal—Metcovich—Irish Adventurer—Gabella—Pogitel—Dalmatian +Engineer—Telegraphic Communication—Arrival at +Mostar—Omer Pacha—Object of Campaign</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page16'>16</a>—<a href='#page32'>32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER III.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Herzegovina—Boundaries—Extent—Physical +Features—Mountains—Mineral Products—Story of Hadji Ali +Pacha—Forests—Austrian Timber +Company—Saw-Mill—Rivers—Towns—Villages—Population—Greek +Catholics—Church Dignitaries—Roman Catholics—Monks—Franciscan +College—Moral Depravity—Fine Field for Missionary Labour</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page33'>33</a>—<a href='#page49'>49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageviii" name="pageviii"></a>Pg viii</span><b>CHAPTER IV.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Introduction of Christianity—Origin of Slavonic +Element—First Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia—Their +Origin—Tenets—Elect a Primate—Disappearance—Dookhoboitzi, +or Combatants in Spirit—Turkish Conquest—Bosnian +Apostasy—Religious Fanaticism—Euchlemeh—Commission under +Kiamil Pacha—Servian Emissaries—National Customs—Adopted +Brotherhood—Mahommedan Women—Elopements—Early Marriages</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page50'>50</a>—<a href='#page64'>64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER V.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Agricultural Products—Cereals—Misapplication of +Soil—Tobacco—Current Prices—Vine Disease—Natural +Capabilities of Land—Price of Labour—Dalmatian +<i>Scutors</i>—Other Products—Manufactures—Commerce—Relations +with Bosnia—Able Administration of Omer Pacha—Austria +takes alarm—Trade Statistics—Imports—Exports—Frontier +Duties—Mal-administration—Intended Reforms</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page65'>65</a>—<a href='#page75'>75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VI.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Government—Mudirliks—Mulisarif—Cadi of +Mostar—Medjlis—Its Constitution and Functions—Criminal and Commercial +Tribunals—Revenue and Taxes—Virgu—Monayene-askereh—Customs—Tithes—Excise—Total +Revenue—Police</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page76'>76</a>—<a href='#page83'>83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VII.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Omer Pacha—Survey of Montenegro—Mostar—Bazaars—Mosques—Schools—Old +Tower—Escape of Prisoners—Roman +Bridge—Capture by Venetians—Turkish Officers—Pacha's +Palace—European Consulates—Clock-Tower—Emperor's +Day—Warlike Preparations—Christian Volunteers—Orders +to March</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page84'>84</a>—<a href='#page93'>93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER VIII.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bosnia—Turkish Invasion—Tuartko II. and Ostoya +Christich—Cruel Death of Stephen Thomasovich—His +Tomb—Queen Cattarina—Duchy of Santo Saba becomes a Roman +Province—Despotism of Bosnian Kapetans—Janissaries—Fall +of Sultan Selim and Bairaktar—Mahmoud—Jelaludin +Pacha—Expedition against Montenegro—Death of<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageix" name="pageix"></a>Pg ix</span> +Jelaludin—Ali Pacha—Revolted Provinces reconquered—Successes +of Ibrahim Pacha—Destruction of Janissaries—Regular +Troops organised—Hadji Mustapha—Abdurahim—Proclamation—Fall +of Serayevo—Fresh rising—Serayevo +taken by Rebels—Scodra Pacha—Peace of Adrianople—Hussein +Kapetan—Outbreak of Rebellion—Cruelty of Grand Vizier—Ali +Aga of Stolatz—Kara Mahmoud—Serayevo taken—War with +Montenegro—Amnesty granted</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page94'>94</a>—<a href='#page117'>117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER IX.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hussein Pacha—Tahir Pacha—Polish and Hungarian +Rebellions—Extends to Southern Slaves—Congress +convened—Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina—Arrival of Omer +Pacha—Elements of Discord—Rising in Bulgaria put down by +Spahis—Refugees—Ali Rizvan Begovitch—Fall of Mostar, and +Capture of Ali—His suspicious Death—Cavass +Bashee—Anecdote of Lame Christian—Omer Pacha invades +Montenegro—Successes—Austria interferes—Mission of +General Leiningen—Battle of Grahovo—Change of +Frontier—Faults of new Boundary</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page118'>118</a>—<a href='#page127'>127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER X.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Insurrection of Villagers—Attack Krustach—Three Villages +burnt—Christian Version—Account given by Dervisch +Pacha—Deputation headed by Pop Boydan—Repeated Outrages by +Rebels—Ali Pacha of Scutari—His want of Ability—Greek +Chapels sacked—Growth of Rebellion—Omer Pacha restored to +Favour—Despatched to the Herzegovina—Proclamation—Difficulties +to be encountered—Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and +Prince of Montenegro—Evaded by the Prince—Omer Pacha +returns to Mostar—Preparations for Campaign</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page128'>128</a>—<a href='#page140'>140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XI.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Leave Mostar for the Frontier—Mammoth +Tombstones—Stolatz—Castle and Town—Christian Shopkeeper—Valley of the +Stolatz—Disappearance of River—Temporary Camp—My +Dalmatian Servant—Turkish Army Doctors—Numerical Force of +the Turks—Health of the Army—Bieliki—Decapitation of +Prisoners—Christian Cruelty</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page141'>141</a>—<a href='#page164'>164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagex" name="pagex"></a>Pg x</span><b>CHAPTER XII.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tzernagora—Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels—Turks +abandon System of Forbearance—Chances of Success—Russian +Influence—Private Machination—M. Hecquard—European +Intervention—Luca Vukalovich—Commencement of +Hostilities—Dervisch Pacha—Advance on Gasko—Baniani—Bashi +Bazouks—Activity of Omer Pacha—Campaigning in +Turkey—Line of March—Pass of Koryta—The Halt—National +Dance—'La Donna<i>Amabile</i>'—Tchernitza—Hakki +Bey—Osman Pacha—Man with Big Head—Old +Tower—Elephantiasis—Gasko—Camp Life—Moslem Devotions—Character +of Turkish Troops—System of Drill—Peculation—Turkish +Army—Letters—Scarcity of Provisions—Return of Villagers</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page155'>155</a>—<a href='#page173'>173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XIII.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Expedition to Niksich—Character of Scenery—Engineer +Officers—Want of Maps—Affghan Dervish—Krustach—Wallack +Colonel—Bivouac—Bashi Bazouks—Pass of Dougah—Plain of +Niksich—Town and Frontier—Albanian Mudir—Turkish +Women—Defects of Government by Mudir and Medjlis</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page174'>174</a>—<a href='#page189'>189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XIV.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Return to Gasko—Thunderstorm—Attacked by Rebels—Enemy +repulsed—Retrograde Movement—Eventful Night—Turkish +Soldiers murdered—Montenegrin Envoy—Coal-Pit—Entrenched +Camp assaulted—Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar—Distinctive +Character of Mahometan Religion—Naval Reorganisation—Military +Uniforms—Return to Mostar—Dervisch Bey—Zaloum—Express +Courier—Giovanni—Nevresign—Fortified +Barrack—Mostar—Magazine—Barracks—Wooden Block-houses—European +Commission—Tour of the Grand Vizier—Enquiry into Christian +Grievances—Real Causes of Complaint—Forcible Abduction of +Christian Girls—Prince Gortschakoff's Charges—The +Meredits—Instincts of Race</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page190'>190</a>—<a href='#page214'>214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XV.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Excursion to Blato—Radobolya—Roman Road—Lichnitza—Subterraneous +Passage—Duck-shooting—Roman +Tombs—Coins and Curiosities—Boona—Old Bridge—Mulberry +Trees—Blagai—Source of Boona River—Kiosk—Castle—Plain<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexi" name="pagexi"></a>Pg xi</span> +of Mostar—Legends—Silver Ore—Mineral Products of +Bosnia—Landslip—Marbles—Rapids—Valley of the Drechnitza</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page215'>215</a>—<a href='#page226'>226</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XVI.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wealthy Christians—German Encyclopædia—Feats of +Skill—Legend of Petral—Chamois-hunting—Valley of +Druga—Excavations—Country Carts—Plain of Duvno—Mahmoud +Effendi—Old Tombs—Duvno—Fortress—Bosnian +Frontier—Vidosa—Parish Priest—National Music—Livno—Franciscan +Convent—Priestly Incivility—Illness—Quack +Medicines—Hungarian Doctor—Military Ambulance—Bosna +Serai—Osman Pacha—Popularity—Roads and Bridges—Mussulman +Rising in Turkish Croatia—Energy of Osman Pacha</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page227'>227</a>—<a href='#page242'>242</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>CHAPTER XVII.</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Svornik—Banialuka—New Road—Sport—Hot +Springs—Ekshesoo—Mineral Waters—Celebrated Springs—Goitre—The Bosna—Trout +Fishing—Tzenitza—Zaptiehs—Maglai—Khans—Frozen +Roads—Brod—The Save—Austrian Sentry—Steamer on the +Save—Gradiska—Cenovatz—La lingua di tré Regni—Cūlpa +River—Sissek—Croatian Hotel—Carlstadt Silk—Railway to +Trieste—Moravian Iron—Concentration of Austrian +Troops—Probable Policy—Watermills—Semlin—Belgrade</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page243'>243</a>—<a href='#page258'>258</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b>SERVIA:</b></td> + <td align='left'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Its Social, Political, and Financial Condition</td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page261'>261</a>—<a href='#page285'>285</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></b></td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page286'>286</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><b><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></b></td> + <td align='right'><a href='#page287'>287</a>—<a href='#page288'>288</a></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexii" name="pagexii"></a>Pg xii</span></p> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href='#image01'><span class="smcap">A Moonlight Bivouac</span></a></td> + <td align='right'><i>Frontispiece.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href='#image02'><span class="smcap">Official Seal of Omer Pacha</span></a></td> + <td align='right'><i>On Title-page.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href='#image03'><span class="smcap">Signature of Author in Turkish Characters</span></a></td> + <td align='right'><i>page</i>vi</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href='#image04'><span class="smcap">Map of Montenegro</span></a></td> + <td align='right'><i>To face page</i> 1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href='#image05'><span class="smcap">Map of Slavonic Provinces of European Turkey</span></a></td> + <td align='right'> " 288</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="image04" name="image04"></a><a href="images/04large.jpg"> + <img src="images/04.jpg" + alt="Map of Montenegro." + title="Map of Montenegro." /></a> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page1" name="page1"></a>Pg 1</span></p> +<h2>HERZEGOVINA.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h4>Object of Travels—Start—Mad Woman—Italian +Patriot—Zara—Sebenico—Falls of Kerka—Dalmatian Boatmen—French +Policy and Austrian Prospects—Spalatro—Palace of +Diocletian—Lissa—Naval Action—Gravosa—Ragusa—Dalmatian +Hotel—Change of Plans.</h4> + + +<p><i>'Omer Pacha will proceed with the army of Roumelia to quell the +disturbance in Herzegovina.'</i> Such, I believe, was the announcement +which confirmed me in the idea of visiting the Slavonic provinces of +European Turkey. Had any doubts existed in my mind of the importance +attached by the Ottoman government to the pacification of these remote +districts, the recall to favour of Omer Pacha, and the despatch of so +large a force under his command, would have sufficed to remove them. As +it was, the mere desire to keep myself <i>au courant</i> of the events of the +day, together with the interest which all must feel<span class="pagenum"><a id="page2" name="page2"></a>Pg 2</span> in the condition of +a country for whom England has sacrificed so much blood and treasure, +had made me aware that some extraordinary manifestation of feeling must +have occurred to arouse that apathetic power to so energetic a measure. +Of the nature of this manifestation, little or no reliable information +could be obtained; and so vague a knowledge prevails touching the +condition of these provinces, that I at once perceived that personal +observation alone could put me in possession of it. The opinions of such +as did profess to have devoted any attention to the subject, were most +conflicting. Whilst some pronounced the point at issue to be merely one +between the Turkish government and a few rebellious brigands, others +took a far more gloomy view of the matter, believing that the first shot +fired would prove the signal for a general rising of the Christian +subjects of the Porte, which, in its turn, was to lead to the +destruction of Turkish suzerainty in Europe, and to the consummation of +the great Panslavish scheme. To satisfy myself on these points, then, +was the main object of my travels,—to impart to others the information +which I thus obtained, is the intention of this volume.</p> + +<p>On August 31, 1861, I left Trieste in the Austrian Lloyd's steamer, +bound for Corfu, and touching <i>en route</i> at the ports on the Dalmatian +coast. Having failed in all my endeavours to ascertain the exact +whereabouts<span class="pagenum"><a id="page3" name="page3"></a>Pg 3</span> of the Turkish head-quarters, I had secured my passage to +Ragusa, reckoning on obtaining the necessary information from the +Ottoman Consul at that town; and in this I was not disappointed.</p> + +<p>It is not my intention to enlarge upon this portion of my travels, which +would indeed be of little interest; still less to tread in the steps of +Sir Gardner Wilkinson, whose valuable work on Dalmatia has rendered such +a course unnecessary; but rather to enter, with log-like simplicity, the +dates of arrival and departure at the various ports, and such-like +interesting details of sea life. If, however, my landsman-like +propensities should evince themselves by a lurking inclination to 'hug +the shore,' I apologise beforehand.</p> + +<p>My fellow-passengers were in no way remarkable, but harmless enough, +even including an unfortunate mad woman, whose mania it was to recount +unceasingly the ill-treatment to which she had been exposed. At times, +her indignation against her imaginary tormentors knew no bounds; at +others, she would grow touchingly plaintive on the subject of her +wrongs. That she was a nuisance, I am fain to confess; but the treatment +she experienced at the hands of her Dalmatian countrymen was +inconsiderate in the extreme. One who professed himself an advocate for +sudden shocks, put his theory into practice by stealing quietly behind +his patient, and cutting short her lugubrious perorations with a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page4" name="page4"></a>Pg 4</span> deluge +of salt water. This was repeated several times, but no arguments would +induce her to allow her wet clothes to be removed, so it would not be +surprising if this gentleman had succeeded in 'stopping her tongue' +beyond his expectations. The only other lady was young and rather +pretty, but dismally sentimental. She doated on roses, was enamoured of +camelias, and loved the moon and the stars, and in fact everything in +this world or out of it. In vain I tried to persuade her that her cough +betrayed pulmonary symptoms, and that night air in the Adriatic was +injurious to the complexion.</p> + +<p>The man-kind on board included an Austrian officer of engineers, a +French Consul, and a Dalmatian professor. Besides the above, there was +an Italian patriot, whose devotion to the 'Kingmaker' displayed itself +in a somewhat eccentric fashion. With much mystery, he showed me a +portrait of Garibaldi, secreted in a watchkey seal, while his waistcoat +buttons and shirt studs contained heads of those generals who served in +the campaign of the Two Sicilies. It was rather a novel kind of +hero-worship, though, I fear, likely to be little appreciated by him who +inspired the thought.</p> + +<p><i>September 1.</i>—Landed at Zara at 6.30 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span>, and passed a few +hours in wandering over the town and ramparts. These last are by no +means formidable, and convey very little idea of the importance which +was<span class="pagenum"><a id="page5" name="page5"></a>Pg 5</span> attached to the city in the time of the Venetian Republic. The +garrison is small, and, as is the case throughout Dalmatia, the soldiers +are of Italian origin. The Duomo is worthy of a visit; while the +antiquarian may find many objects of interest indicative of the several +phases of Zarantine history. Here, in a partially obliterated +inscription, he may trace mementos of Imperial Rome; there, the +Campanile of Santa Maria tells of the dominion of Croatian kings; while +the winged lion ever reminds him of the glory of the Great Republic, its +triumphs, its losses, and its fall. On leaving we were loudly cheered by +the inhabitants, who had collected in large numbers on the shore. A few +hours' run brought us abreast of Fort St. Nicholas, and ten minutes +later we dropped anchor in the harbour of Sebenico. Here the delight of +the people at our arrival was somewhat overwhelming. It vented itself in +an inordinate amount of hugging and kissing, to say nothing of the most +promiscuous hand-shaking, for a share of which I myself came in. My +first step was to negotiate with four natives to row me to the Falls of +Kerka, about three hours distant. This I had succeeded in doing, when, +having unfortunately let them know that I was English, they demanded +seven florins in place of four, as had been originally agreed. Resolving +not to give way to so gross an imposition, I was returning in quest of +another boat, when I met a troop of some six or seven girls, young,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page6" name="page6"></a>Pg 6</span> +more than averagely good-looking, and charmingly dressed in their +national costume. I presume that my T.G. appearance must have amused +them; for they fairly laughed,—not a simpering titter, but a good +honest laugh. To them I stated my case, and received a proper amount of +sympathy. One offered to row me herself, while another said something +about 'twenty florins and a life,'—which, whatever it may have meant, +brought a blush to the cheek of the pretty little volunteer. At this +juncture the boatmen arrived, and on my assurance that I was perfectly +satisfied with the company to which they had driven me, which my looks, +I suppose, did not belie, they came to terms. Leaving the bay at its NW. +extremity, where the Kerka flows into it, we proceeded about four miles +up that river. At this point it opens out into the Lake of Scardona, +which is of considerable size, and affords a good anchorage. There is an +outlet for the river to the N., close to which is situated the little +town of Scardona. The banks of the river here begin to lose their rocky +and precipitous appearance, assuming a more marshy character, which +renders it unhealthy in the summer. The Falls are approached by a long +straight reach, at the end of which they form a kind of semicircle, the +entire breadth being about 250 feet. In winter, or after heavy rains, +the effect must be very grand; but at the time of my visit they were, in +consequence of the great<span class="pagenum"><a id="page7" name="page7"></a>Pg 7</span> drought, unusually small. Below the falls is a +mill worked by a Levantine, who appears to drive a flourishing trade, +grinding corn for Sebenico, Zara, and many other places on the coast.</p> + +<p>The Dalmatian boatmen are a very primitive set in everything save money +matters. One asked, Are the English Christians? while another asserted +most positively, that he had taken an Englishman to see the Falls in the +year <i>1870</i>. Their style of rowing resembles that in vogue among the +Maltese and Italians, excepting that they make their passenger sit in +the hows of the boat. This, at any rate, has the advantage of keeping +him to windward of themselves, which is often very desirable. Another +point of difference is, that they wear shoes or slippers,—the latter +being, in some instances, really tasteful and pretty.</p> + +<p>The moon was high ere we reached the ship, where I found all the +passengers assembled upon deck. One after another they disappeared +below, until I was left alone. I know no spot so conducive to reflection +as the deserted deck of a ship at anchor on a lovely night, and in a +genial latitude. In this instance, however, my thoughts assumed more of +a speculative than retrospective character, large as was the field for +the indulgence of the latter. The shades of emperors and doges faded +away, giving place to the more terrestrial forms of living sovereigns; +and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page8" name="page8"></a>Pg 8</span> the wild shouts of the Moslem conquerors resolved themselves into +the 'Vive l'Empereur' of an army doing battle for an idea. Let Austria +look to herself, that, when the hour of struggle shall arrive, as arrive +it will, she be not found sleeping. Should Napoleon once more espouse +the Italian cause, should he hurl his armies upon the Quadrilateral, who +can doubt but that a diversion of a more or less important character +will be attempted in the rear of the empire? But even though he should +let slip the notable occasion presented to him by a rising among the +Italian subjects of Austria, the evil day will only be postponed. I +believe that, not content with the humiliation of that power at +Villafranca, he will take advantage of any opportunity which disorder in +the neighbouring Turkish provinces may offer him to aim a blow at her on +her Dalmatian frontier, as a means to the gigantic end of crippling her, +and with her ultimately the entire German Confederation. It is a great +scheme, and doubtless one of many in that fertile brain. If Austria +should resolve to defend her Venetian territory, as it may be presumed +she will, she should spare no labour to strengthen her fortresses in the +Adriatic. On the Dalmatian coast, Zara, Lissa, Pola, and Cattaro are all +capable of making a very respectable defence in the event of their being +attacked; while, to quote the words of Rear-Admiral Count Bernhard von +Wüllersdorf and Urban, 'An Aus<span class="pagenum"><a id="page9" name="page9"></a>Pg 9</span>trian squadron at Cattaro would be very +dangerous to any hostile squadron on the Italian coast, as its cruisers +would cut off all transports of coal, provisions, &c. &c.,—in a word, +render the communication of the hostile squadron with the Mediterranean +very difficult.... Lissa is the keystone of the Adriatic. This island, +the importance of which in former times was never denied, commands the +straits which lead from the southern to the northern half of the +Adriatic.... The naval force at Lissa ought to be a local one, +consisting of light fast gun-boats to cruise in the narrow waters, to +which might be added some plated ships to keep open communications, on +the one hand, between Lissa and the mainland, and on the other hand +acting with the gun-boats to bar the passage to hostile vessels.' The +publication of the article from which the above is extracted in the +'Oesterreichische Militar Zeitschrift,' proves sufficiently that the +Austrian government is aware of the necessity which exists for taking +precautionary measures; and the lesson which they learnt in 1859 ought +to have induced them to adopt a more energetic policy in their military +and naval affairs.</p> + +<p>The defences of Sebenico consist of three small forts: St. Nicholas, +containing seventeen mounted guns, is at the entrance of the bay, while +San Giovanni and Santa Anna, situated on rising ground, command the +town, harbour, and land approaches. The precise number of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page10" name="page10"></a>Pg 10</span> guns which +they contain, I was unable to learn. The very meagre character of the +information which I am in a position to impart on these subjects +requires, I am aware, some apology. The difficulty of obtaining it +during the short stay of a steamer must be my excuse. May it be +accepted!</p> + +<p><i>September 2.</i>—Steamed into the port of Spalatro at 10.30 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> +There is both an outer and inner harbour, the latter affording a good +anchorage to vessels of any burden; yet, notwithstanding this, we were +compelled, for the first time since leaving Trieste, to lie off at some +distance from the quay. The origin of Spalatro dates from the building +of the palace of Diocletian in 303, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> This glorious pile, +however much it may offend against the rules of architecture, is well +entitled to rank among the noblest monuments of imperial Rome. Its +mammoth proportions, the novelty of conception evinced in many parts, +together with its extraordinary state of preservation, render it alike +unique, while the circumstances connected with its building impart to it +an unusual interest. Wearied with the affairs of state, Diocletian +retired to Salona, where he passed the remaining nine years of his life +in profound seclusion. Of the use to which he applied his wealth during +that period, a record still exists in the golden gate and the Corinthian +columns which decorate that regal abode; while we learn what were his +pursuits<span class="pagenum"><a id="page11" name="page11"></a>Pg 11</span> from his own memorable reply to Maximian, when urged by him to +reassume the purple. 'Utinam Salonis olera nostris manibus insita +invisere posses, de resumando imperio non judicares;' or, as it has been +somewhat freely translated by Gibbon—'If I could show you the cabbages +I have planted with my own hands at Salona, you would no longer urge me +to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power.'<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> + +<p>Nor has nature been less bountiful than man to this most favoured spot. +The description given by Adams conveys a very accurate impression of the +character of the surrounding country. 'The soil is dry and fertile, the +air pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summer +months, the country seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to which +the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views from +the palace are no less beautiful than the soil and climate are inviting. +Towards the W. lies the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, +in which a number of small islands are scattered in such a manner as to +give this part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the N. side +lies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona, and the country +beyond it appearing in sight forms a proper contrast to that more<span class="pagenum"><a id="page12" name="page12"></a>Pg 12</span> +extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents both to the S. +and the E. Towards the N. the view is terminated by high and irregular +mountains situated at a proper distance, and in many places covered with +villages, woods, and vineyards.'<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> Like most other relics of antiquity, +the time-honoured walls of Spalatro have been witnesses of those varied +emotions to which the human heart is subject. Thither Glycerius the +prelate retired, when driven by Julius Nepos from the imperial throne. +There, too, in a spirit of true Christian charity, he heaped coals of +fire on the head of his enemy, by affording him a sanctuary when +dethroned in his turn by Orestes, the father of Augustulus. Again, a +little while, and within the same walls, where he had deemed himself +secure, Julius Nepos fell a victim to the assassin's knife, and +subsequently we find the houseless Salonites sheltering themselves +within its subterraneous passages, when driven from their homes by the +fury of the invading Avars. The memory of all these is passed away, but +the stones still remain an undying testimony of a happy king.</p> + +<p>Having passed some hours in the town and palace, I adjourned to one of +the few small <i>cafés</i> in the principal street. While sipping my +chocolate, I was accosted by an elderly priest, who most civilly +enquired whether<span class="pagenum"><a id="page13" name="page13"></a>Pg 13</span> he could help me in any way during my stay at +Spalatro. He proved to be a person of much intelligence, and, +notwithstanding that his knowledge of English extended only to a few +conversational words, he had read Sir Gardner Wilkinson's work on +Dalmatia, and, as his remarks showed, not without profiting thereby. At +4.30 the same afternoon we arrived at Lissa, the military port of +Austria in this part of the Adriatic. It is interesting to English +travellers, its waters having been the scene of a naval action in which +an English squadron, commanded by Captain Hoste, defeated a French +squadron carrying nearly double as many guns. During the great war the +island belonged to England, and indeed a portion of it is called to this +day the Cittá Inglese. It at one time acquired a certain importance in a +mercantile point of view, sardines being the staple article of commerce.</p> + +<p>The same night we touched at Curzola, and at 4 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> on +September 3 anchored at Gravosa, the port of debarcation for Ragusa. +Taking leave of my friends on board, I landed at about 5 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span>, +and, having committed my luggage, a small bullock trunk, saddle-bags, +and a saddle, to the shoulders of a sturdy facchino, and myself to a +very rickety and diminutive cart, I proceeded on my way to Ragusa. The +drive, about a mile and a half in distance, abounds with pretty views, +while the town of Ragusa itself is as picturesque<span class="pagenum"><a id="page14" name="page14"></a>Pg 14</span> in its interior +detail as it is interesting from its early history. The grass-grown +streets, the half-ruined palaces, and the <i>far niente</i> manners of the +people, give little indication of the high position which the Republic +once achieved. Yet, despite all these emblems of decay, there are no +signs of abject poverty, but rather a spirit of frugal contentment is +everywhere apparent.</p> + +<p>Arriving at an hour when, in the more fastidious capitals of Europe, +housemaids and milkmen hold undisputed sway, I found groups of the +wealthier citizens collected under the trees which surround the café, +making their morning meal, and discussing the local news the while. +Later in the day ices and beer were in great demand, and in the evening +the beauty and fashion of Ragusa congregated to hear the beautiful band +of the regiment 'Marmola.' The hotel, if it deserve the name, is scarce +fifty yards distant; it possesses a <i>cuisine</i> which contrasts favourably +with the accommodation which the house affords.</p> + +<p>The <i>table d'hôte</i> dinner is served in a kind of vaulted kitchen, the +walls of which are hung round with scenes illustrative of the Italian +campaign. The series, which comprises desperate cavalry charges, death +wounds of general officers, and infantry advancing amidst perfect +bouquets of shot and shell, closes appropriately with the pacific +meeting of the two Emperors at Villafranca.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page15" name="page15"></a>Pg 15</span></p> + +<p>Here, then, I proposed to take up my quarters, making it the +starting-point for expeditions to the Val d'Ombla, the beautiful Bocche +di Cattaro, and Cettigne, the capital of Montenegro; but it was destined +otherwise, and night found me on board a country fishing-boat, the +bearer of despatches to Omer Pacha at Mostar, or wherever he might +happen to be.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page16" name="page16"></a>Pg 16</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h4>Military Road to Metcovich—Country Boat—Stagno—Port of +Klek—Disputed Frontier—Narentine Pirates—Valley of the +Narenta—Trading Vessels—Turkish Frontier—Facilities for Trade +granted by Austria—Narenta—Fort Opus—Hungarian +Corporal—Metcovich—Irish Adventurer—Gabella—Pogitel—Dalmatian +Engineer—Telegraphic Communication—Arrival at Mostar—Omer +Pacha—Object of Campaign.</h4> + + +<p>The change in my plans, and my precipitate departure from Ragusa, were +the results of information which I there received. From M. Persich, the +Ottoman Consul, whom I take this opportunity of thanking for his +courtesy and kindness, I learned that the Turkish Generalissimo might be +expected to leave Mostar for the frontier at any moment, and that the +disturbed state of the country would render it perilous, if not +impossible, to follow him thither. This determined me to push on at +once, postponing my visit to Montenegro to a more fitting season. To +make some necessary purchases, and to engage a servant, was the work of +a few hours, and, being supplied by the Captano of the Circolo with the +necessary visés and letters of recommendation to the subordinate +officials through whose districts I should have to pass, it only +remained<span class="pagenum"><a id="page17" name="page17"></a>Pg 17</span> to decide upon the mode of travelling which I should adopt, +and to secure the requisite conveyance. My first point was Metcovich, a +small town on the right bank of the Narenta, and close to the frontier +lines of Dalmatia and Herzegovina. Three modes of performing the journey +were reported practicable,—viz. on horseback, by water, or by carriage. +The first of these I at once discarded, as both slow and tedious; the +choice consequently lay between the remaining two methods: with regard +to economy of time I decided upon the latter. But here a difficulty +arose. The man who possessed a monopoly of carriages, for some reason +best known to himself, demurred at my proceeding, declaring the road to +be impassable. He farther brought a Turkish courier to back his +statement, who at any rate deserved credit, on the +tell-a-good-one-and-stick-to-it principle, for his hard swearing. I +subsequently ascertained that it was untrue; and had I known a little +more of the country, I should not have been so easily deterred, seeing +that the road in question is by far the best which exists in that part +of Europe. It was constructed by the French during their occupation of +Dalmatia in the time of Napoleon, and has been since kept in good order +by the Austrian government. Being thus thwarted in my plans, I made a +virtue of necessity, engaged a country boat, and got under weigh on the +evening of the day on which I had<span class="pagenum"><a id="page18" name="page18"></a>Pg 18</span> landed at Gravosa. The night was +clear and starry; and as my boat glided along before a light breeze +under the romantic cliffs of the Dalmatian coast, I ceased to regret the +jolting which I should have experienced had I carried out my first +intention. Running along the shore for some ten hours in a +north-westerly direction, we reached Stagno, a town of small importance, +situated at the neck of a tongue of land in the district of Slano, and +which connects the promontory of Sabioncello with the mainland; ten +minutes' walk across the isthmus brought us again to the sea. The +luggage deposited in a boat of somewhat smaller dimensions, and better +adapted for river navigation, we once more proceeded on our journey.</p> + +<p>A little to the north of Stagno is the entrance to the port of Klek, a +striking instance of right constituted by might. The port, which, from +its entrance, belongs indisputably to Turkey, together with the land on +the southern side, is closed by Austria, in violation of every principle +of national law and justice.</p> + +<p>Previous to 1852, many small vessels used to enter it for trading +purposes, and it was not until Omer Pacha in that year attempted to +establish it as an open port that Austria interfered, and stationed a +war-steamer at its mouth.</p> + +<p>In 1860 the restriction was so far removed that Turkish vessels have +since been allowed to enter with provisions for the troops.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page19" name="page19"></a>Pg 19</span></p> + +<p>To the isolated condition of these provinces, coupled with the ignorance +which prevails at Constantinople relative to the affairs of the +interior, must be attributed the indifference which the Porte has as yet +manifested regarding the preservation of its just rights. The importance +to be attached to the possession by Turkey of an open port upon the +coast cannot be overrated, since through it she would receive her +imports direct from the producing countries, while her own products +could be exported without being subjected to the rules and caprices of a +foreign state. Nor are the Turkish officials in these quarters at all +blind to the injury that accrues to Turkey, from the line of policy +which Austria is now pursuing; but while they see and deplore the +mildness with which their government permits its rights to be thus +violated, they neglect to take any steps which might induce it to appeal +to the arbitration of Europe. Were this done, there could be little +doubt of the result; for, since the land on one side of the harbour, +without question, belongs to Turkey, it would appear only just that she +should have control over the half of the channel. But even were this to +be accorded (which is most improbable, since it would prove dangerous to +the trade of Trieste), the point at issue would still be far from +settled. Any concessions will be unavailing so long as the present line +of demarcation between the two countries shall<span class="pagenum"><a id="page20" name="page20"></a>Pg 20</span> exist; for while Turkey +draws the line of limit from a point near the entrance of the harbour to +the village of Dobrogna, Austria maintains the boundary to run from that +village to a point farther within the port, by which arrangement she +includes a small bluff or headland, which commands the entire harbour. +She asserts her right to this frontier, upon the grounds of its having +been the line drawn by the French during their occupation of Dalmatia. +The Turks deny the truth of this, and state that the lines occupied by +the French can still be traced from the remains of huts built for the +protection of their sentries. Moreover, since the Austrians have also +stated that the French, when in Dalmatia, did not respect the rights of +the Sultan, but occupied Suttorina and Klek, the argument that they +assume the frontier left them by the French is hardly entitled to much +consideration. That Austria is very unlikely to open Klek of her own +free will, I have already said; nor can she be blamed for the +determination, since she must be well aware that, in the event of her +doing so, English goods at a moderate price would find a far readier +market than her own high-priced and indifferent manufactures. In a word, +she would lose the monopoly of trade which she at present possesses in +these provinces. But, on the other hand, were Turkey animated by a +spirit of reprisal, she might throw such obstacles in the path of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page21" name="page21"></a>Pg 21</span> her +more powerful neighbour as would almost compel her to abandon the system +of ultra-protection.</p> + +<p>The military road from Cattaro to Ragusa and Spalatro encroaches upon +Turkish territory, and the telegraphic wire which connects Cattaro with +Trieste passes over both Suttorina and Klek. The Austrian government +would find it very inconvenient were the Porte to dispute the right of +passage at these points. Should Turkey ever be in a position to force +the adoption of the frontier, as defined by herself, the value of Klek +in a military point of view will be immeasurably increased; for, while +the port itself would be protected by her guns, the approach to it is +perfectly secure, although flanked on either side by Austrian territory. +The waters of the harbour open out into the bay of Sabioncello from +seven to eight miles in width, so that a vessel in mid-channel might run +the gauntlet with impunity.</p> + +<p>Towards evening we entered the Narenta, the principal river of Dalmatia +and Herzegovina, by one of the numerous mouths which combine to form its +delta. Its ancient name was the 'Naro,' and it is also called by +Constantine Porphyrogenitus 'Orontium.' Later it acquired an unenviable +notoriety, as being the haunt of the 'Narentine Pirates,' who issued +thence to make forays upon the coast, and plundered or levied tribute on +the trading vessels of the Adriatic. At one time they became so powerful +as to be able to carry on a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page22" name="page22"></a>Pg 22</span> regular system of warfare, and even gain +victories over the Venetian Republic, and it was not till 997 +<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> that they were reduced to submission by the Doge Pietro +Orseolo II., and compelled to desist from piracy.</p> + +<p>The valley of the Narenta is but thinly populated, a circumstance easily +accounted for by the noxious vapours which exhale from the alluvial and +reed-covered banks of the stream.</p> + +<p>The lowlands, moreover, which lie around the river's bed are subject to +frequent and rapid inundations. Excepting one party of villagers, who +appeared to be making merry around a large fire close to the bank, I saw +no signs of human habitation.</p> + +<p>The croaking of many frogs, and the whirr of the wild fowl, as they rose +from their marshy bed at our approach, were the only signs of life to be +perceived, though higher up we met a few rowing boats, and one of the +small coasting vessels used for the transport of merchandise. These +boats are generally from twenty to thirty tons burden, and are employed +for the conveyance of ordinary goods from Trieste, whence the imports of +Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Herzegovina are for the most part derived. +Their rates of freight are light, averaging from 10<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> per +cwt., chargeable on the bulk. The more valuable or fragile articles are +brought to Macarsca, a port on the Dalmatian coast, near the mouth of +the Narenta, in steamers<span class="pagenum"><a id="page23" name="page23"></a>Pg 23</span> belonging to the Austrian Lloyd's Company, +whence they are despatched by boat to Metcovich. The expense attendant +on this route prevents its being universally adopted. Insurance can be +effected as far as Metcovich at 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> per cwt. on +the value declared, according to the season of the year.</p> + +<p>Metcovich may be regarded as the <i>Ultima Thulé</i> of civilisation in this +direction. Once across the frontier, and one may take leave of all one's +preconceived ideas regarding prosperity or comfort. Everything appears +at a standstill, whether it be river navigation or traffic on the land. +The apathy of the Turkish government presents a striking contrast to the +policy of Austria, who clearly sees the value to be attached to the +trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who, while throwing every obstacle +in the way of competition, evinces unwonted energy to secure the +monopoly which she now possesses. During the past few years she has +granted many facilities for the growth of commercial relations between +Herzegovina and her own provinces. Thus, for instance, the transit dues +on the majority of imports and exports have been removed, a few articles +only paying a nominal duty on passing into Turkey. Wool, skins, hides, +wax, honey, fruits, and vegetables, are allowed into Dalmatia free of +duty. A grant of 1,200,000 florins has, moreover, been recently made<span class="pagenum"><a id="page24" name="page24"></a>Pg 24</span> +for the regulation of the channel of the Narenta, with the view of +rendering it navigable by small steamers, which will doubtless prove a +most profitable outlay. It is to be hoped that the Turkish government +will take steps to continue the line to Mostar, which is quite +practicable, and could be effected at a small expense.</p> + +<p>The Narenta takes its rise at the foot of the small hill called Bolai, a +spur of the Velesh range of mountains. Its route is very circuitous, the +entire distance from the source to its mouth being about one hundred and +thirty miles, while its average width is computed at about one hundred +and forty yards. It is subject to rapid rises between the months of +September and May, caused by rains in the mountains and the melting +snow, and a rise of twelve feet in three or four hours is by no means +uncommon. As a source of communication it might be invaluable to the +province, but in its present state it is perfectly useless, since the +hardness of its waters renders it unfit for irrigation. It has many +tributary streams, amongst the most important of which are the Boona, +Bregava, Rama, Radopolie, Trebitza, and Cruppa.</p> + +<p>On its right bank, and some miles above the mouth, is a small town, +which rejoices in the imposing name of Fort Opus, albeit it possesses +neither walls, fortifications, nor other means of defence. As the night +was already far advanced when we arrived, I resolved to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page25" name="page25"></a>Pg 25</span> stay there a +few hours before continuing the row to Metcovich, which I should +otherwise have reached before daylight, and have been compelled to lie +off the town during the damp hours of morning. Neither sentry nor health +officer appeared to interdict our landing; and having found a miserable +outhouse, which served as a cabaret, I was preparing to snatch a few +hours' sleep as best I might, when an Hungarian corporal, employed in +the finance department, came to the rescue, and undertook to find me a +bed. Of its quality I will abstain from speaking; but such as it was, it +was freely given, and it took much persuasion to induce the honest +fellow to accept any remuneration. His post can hardly be a pleasant +one, for malaria and fever cause such mortality, that the station is +regarded much in the same light as is the gold coast of Africa by our +own government servants. As a set-off against these disadvantages, my +friend was in receipt of 2<i>d.</i> per day additional pay. May he pass +unscathed through the ordeal!</p> + +<p>By 2 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> I had again started, and reached Metcovich at 5 +<span class="smcap">a.m.</span> on September 5. Here M. Grabrich, the principal merchant +of the place, put me in the way of procuring horses to take me to +Mostar, about nine hours distant. My destination becoming known, I was +beset with applications for my good offices with Omer Pacha. Some of +these were petitions for<span class="pagenum"><a id="page26" name="page26"></a>Pg 26</span> contracts for supplying the army, though the +greater number were demands for arrears of payment due for the supply of +meal, and the transport of horned cattle and other provisions to the +frontier. One of the complainants, a Greek, had a grievance of a +different and much more hopeless nature. He had cashed a bill for a +small amount offered him by an Irish adventurer. This, as well as +several others, proved to be forgeries, and the money was irretrievably +lost. Although travelling under an assumed name, and with a false +passport, I subsequently discovered the identity of the delinquent with +an individual, whom doubtless many who were with Garibaldi during the +campaign of the Two Sicilies will call to mind. He was then only +remarkable for his Calabrian costume and excessive amount of swagger. +When at Niksich I learned that he had escaped through that town into +Montenegro, and he has not, I believe, since been traced.</p> + +<p>No punishment can be too severe for a scoundrel who thus brings English +credit into disrepute, and disgraces a name which, although little known +in these regions, is deservedly respected.</p> + +<p>From Metcovich the traveller may proceed to Mostar by either bank of the +river. I was recommended to take the road on the northern side, which I +did, and ten minutes' ride brought us to the frontier, where a +custom-house official insisted upon unloading<span class="pagenum"><a id="page27" name="page27"></a>Pg 27</span> the baggage so recently +arranged. In vain I remonstrated, and brandished my despatches with +their enormous red seals in his face. His curiosity was not to be so +easily overcome. When he had at length satisfied himself, he permitted +us to depart with a blessing, which I acknowledge was far from +reciprocated. The first place of any importance which we passed is +Gabella. It stands on an eminence overhanging a bend of the river, by +whose waters three of its sides are washed. In former days it was +defended by two forts, whose guns swept the river in either direction, +and commanded the approach upon the opposite bank. In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1694 +it was taken by Cornaro, and remained in the hands of the Venetians +until <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1716, when they evacuated it, blowing up the greater +part of its defences.</p> + +<p>Immediately above the town, the Narenta traverses the plain of Gabella, +which is one of the largest and most productive in the country.</p> + +<p>The plains of Herzegovina are in reality nothing more than valleys or +basins, some of which are so hemmed in by hills, that the streams +flowing through them can only escape by percolation, or through +subterranean channels. This last phenomenon frequently occurs, and no +better example can be given of it than the Trebinitza, which loses +itself in the ground two or three times. After the last of these +disappearances nothing is known for certain of its course, although a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page28" name="page28"></a>Pg 28</span> +large river which springs from the rocks in the Val d'Ombla, and empties +itself into the Adriatic near Ragusa, is conjectured to be the same.</p> + +<p>Gabella, as well as Popovo, Blato, and other plains, is inundated in the +winter, and remains in that state during three or four months.</p> + +<p>They are traversed by means of punts, and excellent wild-duck shooting +may be had by those who do not fear the exposure inseparable from that +sport.</p> + +<p>From this point the river entirely changes its aspect, losing the +sluggish character which distinguishes it during its passage through the +Austrian territory. Indeed, throughout its whole course, from its rise +until it opens out into the plain of Gabella, its bed is rocky, and the +current rapid and even dangerous, from the number of boulders which rise +above the surface, or lie hid a little below the water line. It here +receives the waters of the Trebisat or Trebitza, and the Bregava, the +former flowing from the NW., the latter from the district of Stolatz in +the SE. A few miles higher up is a narrow valley formed by two ranges of +hills, whose rocky declivities slope down to, or in some places +overhang, the river's bed. From one spot where the hills project, there +is a pretty view of the town of Pogitel on the left bank. A large +mosque, with a dome and minaret and a clock-tower, are the principal +objects which catch the eye; but, being pressed for time, I was unable +to cross<span class="pagenum"><a id="page29" name="page29"></a>Pg 29</span> the river, and cannot therefore from my own observation enter +into any accurate details. The position is, however, exactly described +by Sir Gardner Wilkinson as follows: 'It stands in a semicircular +recess, like an immense shell, in the side of the hill, and at the two +projecting extremities the walls run down from the summit to the river, +the upper part being enclosed by a semicircular wall, terminated at each +end by a tower.'</p> + +<p>Half way between Metcovich and Mostar is a little village, which boasts +an humble species of Khan.</p> + +<p>Here I found the engineer in charge of the telegraph, a Dalmatian by +birth. His head-quarters are at Bosna Serai, but he was then making a +tour for the purposes of inspection and repair.</p> + +<p>The telegraphic communication throughout the Ottoman Empire is now more +general than its internal condition would warrant us in supposing. +Indeed, in travelling through the country, one cannot fail to be struck +by the strange reversal of the general order of things. Thus, for +instance, both telegraph and railways have preceded the construction of +ordinary roads.</p> + +<p>And therein lies one of the principal causes of the hopelessness of +Turkish civilisation; that it has been prematurely forced upon her, and +that, in order to keep a position among the European nations, she is +driven to adopt the highest triumphs of European intelligence without +passing through the intermediate stages<span class="pagenum"><a id="page30" name="page30"></a>Pg 30</span> by which they have been +acquired. The rapidly remunerative nature of a telegraphic service is +obviously sufficient reason for its being thus early established; but +its duties devolve entirely, not upon Turks, but upon the foreign +employés of the government. It is, moreover, little used by the +Mussulman population, and consequently tends but little to the +enlightenment of the masses. On the subject of roads, I shall have +occasion to speak hereafter, and must therefore beg the indulgent reader +to accompany me along the bridle-path which takes us to the capital of +Herzegovina.</p> + +<p>Descending from the hills our progress became more rapid; yet, despite +this, it was some hours after sunset before we entered the suburbs. As +usual in a Turkish town, dogs and gravestones were to be found in +abundance, the latter with their turbanned heads looking spectral and +grim in the cold moonlight. Saving an occasional group of Mussulmans +sitting silent and pompous in the dusty road, the city appeared +perfectly deserted; and, as my now jaded ponies scrambled over the +ill-paved streets, I began to speculate on the probability of passing +the night <i>al fresco</i>. As may be conceived, then, it was with +considerable satisfaction that I found myself, chibouque in hand, +awaiting the arrival of the Pacha, who, notwithstanding the lateness of +the hour, had expressed his intention of seeing me immediately. No one +can have a greater horror than<span class="pagenum"><a id="page31" name="page31"></a>Pg 31</span> myself of that mania which possesses +some travellers for detailing conversations with Eastern dignitaries, +which, for the most part, consist of ordinary civilities, imperfectly +translated by an half-educated dragoman.</p> + +<p>In the present instance, however, I deem no apology necessary for +dwelling upon this first or subsequent conversations; since anything +from the lips of such a man at so critical a moment must, to say the +least, be of interest, even though it should be without any actual +political importance. Having discussed the relative attitudes of the +European powers with regard to Turkey, and spoken most unreservedly on +the subject of French and Russian intrigues, he expressed great interest +in the opinions formed by the public of the different countries on the +Herzegovinian and Montenegrin question. The principal topic of +conversation, however, was the campaign then about to be opened against +the Herzegovinian rebels, and the preparations which he had made for +carrying it out.</p> + +<p>While fully alive to the difficulties attending his task, resulting from +political complications, and the physical features of the country, he +ever spoke with confidence of the ultimate success of the Turkish armies +and the general pacification of the country. If any man be competent to +bring about this desirable consummation it is himself; for he possesses, +to an eminent degree, that caution which is indispensable to the +successful conduct<span class="pagenum"><a id="page32" name="page32"></a>Pg 32</span> of an offensive war in a mountainous country, and +which is so much at variance with the haphazard arrangements usually +found among Turkish generals.</p> + +<p>In using the words <i>offensive war</i>, I mean to imply operations carried +on from a regular base, and in accordance with the generally accepted +rules of warfare, in contra-distinction to the guerilla fighting as +practised by the insurgent mountaineers. In its more literal sense, Omer +Pacha's mission can hardly be deemed offensive; his object is, not to +overrun territory, nor even to seek a combat with the enemy, but rather +to place the country in such a state of defence as will render it secure +from the incursions of those brigands who, having thrown off the Turkish +rule, have sought a refuge in the fastnesses of Montenegro, whence, in +conjunction with the lawless bands of that province, they make forays +across the frontier, carrying fire and sword in their wake, respecting +neither age nor sex,—rebels to their sovereign, and a disgrace to +Christianity.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page33" name="page33"></a>Pg 33</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h4>Herzegovina—Boundaries—Extent—Physical +Features—Mountains—Mineral Products—Story of Hadji Ali +Pacha—Forests—Austrian Timber +Company—Saw-Mill—Rivers—Towns—Villages—Population—Greek +Catholics—Church Dignitaries—Roman Catholics—Monks—Franciscan +College—Moral Depravity—Fine Field for Missionary Labour.</h4> + + +<p>Herzegovina<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> or Bosnia Inferior, formerly the duchy of Santo Saba, is +bounded on the N. by Bosnia, on the E. by Servia, on the W. by Dalmatia, +and on the S. by Montenegro and the Adriatic.</p> + +<p>Its greatest length, from Duvno in the NW., to Priepolie in the S., is +about a hundred and twenty miles, and its greatest breadth from Konitza, +on the Bosnian frontier, to the port of Klek, is about seventy-two +miles.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> It contains an approximate area of 8,400 square miles, with a +population, of about thirty-five souls to the square mile.<a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> A glance +at any map, imperfect in detail as those yet published have been, will +convey a tolerable idea of the nature of the country.</p> + +<p>The ranges of mountains which intersect the greater part of the province +are a portion of the Dinaric<span class="pagenum"><a id="page34" name="page34"></a>Pg 34</span> Alps. Along the Dalmatian and Montenegrin +frontiers these are barren and intensely wild, and in many places, from +the deep fissures and honeycomb formation of the rocks, impassable to +aught save the chamois, the goat, or the indigenous mountaineer.</p> + +<p>Proceeding inland, the country assumes a more habitable aspect: plains +and pasture-lands capable of high cultivation are found at intervals, +while even the mountains assume a more fertile appearance, and have a +better depth of soil, which is well adapted for the cultivation of the +olive and the vine. Dense forests, too, of average growth cover the +mountain sides as we approach the Bosnian frontier, which, although +inferior to those of Bosnia itself, would prove most remunerative to the +government were they properly worked. But, unfortunately, the principle +of isolation which the Porte has adopted with regard to these remote +provinces, together with the want of enterprise among its inhabitants, +the result of four hundred years of indolence on the one hand and +oppression on the other, renders it problematical whether their ample +resources will ever be developed. Should Turkey, however, arise from her +lethargy, should genuine civilisation spread its branches over the land, +we may then confidently anticipate a glorious future for her +south-Slavonic provinces, doubting not that they will some day become +'the noblest jewel in their monarch's diadem.'</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page35" name="page35"></a>Pg 35</span></p> + +<p>To convey an accurate idea of a province so little known as the +Herzegovina, it will be best to enumerate the various physical features +by which it is distinguished. Thus the highest and most important +mountains are Dormitor in the district of Drobniak, on the Montenegrin +frontier, and Velesh, which forms a rugged background to the plain of +Mostar, the highest point being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. +Besides these, there are many others of nearly equal altitude, viz. +Flam, Hergud, Prievolie, Vrau, Hako, Fartar, Belen, Stermoshnik, +Bielevoda, Chabolie, Vrabcha, and Zavola. The perfect sea of rock which +the southern part of the province presents to the eye is of grey +limestone, varied however by a slatey stratum. Of the mineral products +of the mountains little accurate knowledge prevails; gold, silver, and +lead are said to exist, but I could not hear of their having ever been +found to any extent. A firman was granted some years ago to one Hadji +Ali Pacha, ceding to him for fifteen years the privilege of exploring +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and working any mines which he might there +discover. His application for this firman does not, however, in any way +prove the existence of these minerals throughout the country generally, +since it has proved to have been a mere cloak for diverting suspicion +from many previous dishonest actions of which he had been guilty. His +story is worthy of narration, as being<span class="pagenum"><a id="page36" name="page36"></a>Pg 36</span> no bad instance of the career of +a Turkish <i>parvenu</i>, whose only qualifications were a little education +and a large amount of effrontery.</p> + +<p>Hadji Ali Pacha commenced his career as a clerk in the pay of the great +Mehemet Ali Pacha, Viceroy of Egypt, but, having deserted to the Turks, +he was employed by them in the capacity of Uzbashee or Captain. Fearful +of falling into the hands of the Egyptians, he fled from his post, and, +having made his way to Constantinople, contrived, by scheming and +bribery, not only to efface the memory of the past, but to secure the +appointment of Kaimakan or Lieut.-Colonel, with which grade he was sent +to Travnik in command of a regiment. Tahir Pacha, the Governor of +Bosnia, had about this time been informed of the existence of some gold +mines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji Ali to obtain samples for +transmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all the +valuable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, on +their arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner was +this decision arrived at, than Hadji Ali imported the necessary +machinery and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores, +and in this way amassed immense wealth. Rumours having got abroad of +what was going on, and the suspicions of Tahir being aroused, the +unfortunate Austrian was put secretly out of the way, and, as a blind, +the unprincipled ruffian procured the firman<span class="pagenum"><a id="page37" name="page37"></a>Pg 37</span> to which allusion has been +made. It need hardly be said that he never availed himself of the +privileges which it conferred upon him. Some time after these +transactions, he applied for leave to visit Austria, on the plea of +ill-health, but doubtless with the view of changing the gold. This was +refused, and he was obliged to employ a Jew, who carried it to Vienna, +and disposed of it there. In 1850, when Omer Pacha came to restore order +in Bosnia, which had then revolted, Hadji Ali was sent with two +battalions to the relief of another detachment; upon this occasion he +communicated with the enemy, who cut off his rear-guard, and otherwise +roughly handled the Turkish troops. Upon this, Omer Pacha put him in +chains, and would have shot him, as he richly deserved, had he not known +that his enemies at Constantinople would not fail to distort the true +features of the case. He therefore sent him to Constantinople, where he +was shortly afterwards released, and employed his gold to such good +purpose, that he was actually sent down as Civil Governor to Travnik, +which he had so recently left a prisoner convicted of robbery and +treason. He was, however, soon dismissed for misconduct, and entered +once more into private speculations. In 1857 he purchased the tithes of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and employed such ruffians to collect them as to +make perfect martyrs of the people, some of whom were even killed by his +agents. Exasperated beyond endurance,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page38" name="page38"></a>Pg 38</span> the people of Possavina rose en +masse, and although the movement was put down without difficulty, it +doubtless paved the way for the discord and rebellion which has been +attended with such calamitous results. This is precisely one of those +cases which has brought such odium on the Turkish government, and which +may so easily be avoided for the future, always providing that the Porte +be sincere in its oft-repeated protestations of a desire for genuine +reform. Ali Pacha was at Mostar in the beginning of 1858, when the +movement began, but was afraid to venture into the revolted districts to +collect his tithes. The Governor, therefore, made him Commandant of the +Herzegovinian irregulars, in which post he vindicated the character +which he had obtained for cruelty and despotism. Subsequently he was +appointed Kaimakan of Trebigné, but the European Consuls interfered, and +he has now decamped, owing a large sum to government, the remnant of his +contract for the tithes.</p> + +<p>The sides of some of the mountains are covered, as I have before said, +with dense forests of great value. There the oak, ash, elm, beech, +walnut, red and white pine, and the red and yellow maple, grow in rich +profusion, awaiting only the hand of man to shape them into 'the tall +mast' and the 'stately ship.' But man, in these benighted lands, is +blind to the sources of wealth with which his country teems, and to +nature it is left in the lapse of years to 'consume the offspring she +has<span class="pagenum"><a id="page39" name="page39"></a>Pg 39</span> herself produced.' The difficulty of transporting the timber to a +market has been always alleged by the natives as their reason for +neglecting to turn the forests to account; but this is a paltry excuse, +for with abundance of rivers to float it to the coast, and a neighbour +so anxious to monopolise the trade of the country as Austria has shown +herself, little doubt can be entertained of the possibility of its +advantageous disposal. As far back as 1849 an Austrian Company, +foreseeing the benefits which would accrue from the employment of +capital in these parts, obtained a concession of the pine forests for +twenty years. Saw-mills were built near Mostar, and roads and shoots +were constructed. About 5,000 logs had been cut and exported, when the +works were stopped by Omer Pacha on his arrival to suppress rebellion in +the country in 1850. This arbitrary measure on his part has been much +reprehended, and does without doubt require explanation.</p> + +<p>It should, however, be remembered that the contract, which was likely to +prove most remunerative to the Company, and of but little advantage to +the Turkish government, had been granted by Ali Pacha of Stolatz, the +last Civil Governor, to whom a tithe of the products was being paid. He +had in the meanwhile thrown off his allegiance, and consequently the +only blame which can attach to Omer Pacha is a want of judgement, caused +by over-zeal for the interests of his government.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page40" name="page40"></a>Pg 40</span> The case was +afterwards litigated, and the Porte was mulcted 200,000 florins as an +indemnity for their breach of the contract. This was liquidated from Ali +Pacha's property, and the firman has been renewed for fourteen years +since 1859. The Austrian government has, however, forbidden the Company +to avail themselves of it, as its members are engaged in legal +proceedings. The only saw-mill which I met with in the country was one +at Boona, worked by an Hungarian, who is apparently doing a lucrative +business.</p> + +<p>The rivers in the country are of no great size or importance, but might +in most cases be turned to account for the transport of timber or for +irrigation. The waters of some of the large rivers, it is true, are +injurious to vegetation from their hardness, but this does not apply to +all. After the Narenta, the following are the most important:—the +Trebenitza, Pria, Taro and Moratcha, Yanitza, Boona, Boonitza, Bregava, +Kruppa, Trebisat or Trebitza, Drechnitza, Grabovitza, Biela, +Kaladjin-Polok, and the Drina. It might be expected from its vicinity to +Bulgaria, where such fine lakes are found, that the same would be the +case in Herzegovina; but it is not so: Blato, which is marked as a lake +in all maps, is only such in winter, as with early spring the waters +disappear.</p> + +<p>The only towns in the province worthy of mention, besides Mostar, are +Fochia and Taschlijeh. They each<span class="pagenum"><a id="page41" name="page41"></a>Pg 41</span> contain about 10,000 inhabitants. The +other towns are nothing more than large villages, with a bazaar. They +are the seats of the district governments, such as Stolatz, Trebigné, +Konitza, Niksich, Duvno, Chainitza, and others. The houses in these are +not conspicuous for cleanliness, while those in the smaller villages are +still less desirable as residences. They generally consist of some +scores of huts, built of rough stones, without windows or chimneys, and +roofed with boards, which are again covered with straw. They seldom +contain more than one room, which the family occupies, in conjunction +with the poultry and domestic animals. The furniture of these luxurious +abodes consists of a hand-loom, two or three iron pots, a few earthen +vessels, and some wooden spoons. The bedding is a coarse woollen +blanket, which serves as a cloak in rainy or wet weather, and as a +mattress and coverlet for the whole family, without distinction of sex.</p> + +<p>The population of the Herzegovina amounts to about 182,000, divided as +follows:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Catholics</td> + <td align='left'>52,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Greek Church</td> + <td align='left'>70,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mussulmans</td> + <td align='left'>60,000</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Originally these were all of the same stock; and their present +divisions, while constituting an element of safety for Turkey, are most +prejudicial to the well-<span class="pagenum"><a id="page42" name="page42"></a>Pg 42</span>being of the country. The Greek faith +predominates in the southern and eastern parts of the province. Its +adherents are distinguished for their activity and cunning,—qualities +which have rendered them far wealthier than their brethren of the +Catholic communion. The possession of comparative wealth, and the +consciousness of the moral support granted them by Russia, has made them +presumptuous and over-bearing, hating alike all sects and creeds which +differ from their own. Their ignorance is only equalled by the +fanaticism which often results therefrom; and so bitter is their +detestation of the Roman Catholics, that more than one instance has been +known of its leading to foul acts of murder. Unoffending peasants have +been taken in the revolted districts, and ordered to kneel and make the +sign of the cross, to prove the truth of their assertions that they were +not Mussulmans. The wretched creatures confidently did so in accordance +with the Roman Catholic form, and their lives were unceremoniously +forfeited to the bigotry and ferocity of their unrelenting judges. Nor +are either tolerance or humanity in any way advocated by the priests, +who are generally as illiterate and narrow-minded as their flocks, and +whose influence, which is very great, is generally employed for evil. +The priesthood are divided into Archimandrite, Igumens (chiefs of +monasteries), Monks, and Priests, all of whom are natives of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page43" name="page43"></a>Pg 43</span> the +province, where their whole lives have been passed. Of late years, +however, many have been sent to receive their education in Russia. Some +of these have now returned, but have not given signs of any desire to +ameliorate the spiritual condition of the people. The Church has always +been governed by a Vladika or Metropolitan, named from Constantinople. +Like most other appointments from that capital, this was generally paid +for, and its possessor consequently did not hesitate to employ every +means in his power to reimburse himself. This, and the fact that he was +never a native of the country, rendered him most unpopular; so that +while the priests (little as they may deserve it) are regarded with +reverence by the people, the Vladika was respected by neither the one +nor the other. At present the office is vacant, none having been +appointed since the demise of the last who occupied the episcopal chair. +That event occurred in the commencement of 1861, and his attempts at +extortion were so frequent and undisguised, that his death must have +been felt as a great relief by the people. Petitions were sent at that +time to Constantinople, praying for the appointment of a Slavish +Metropolitan; but, independently of the difficulty of finding anyone of +sufficient education among the Bosnian clergy, political considerations +have induced the Porte to prevent the Patriarch complying with the +demand; for, however bad in other respects<span class="pagenum"><a id="page44" name="page44"></a>Pg 44</span> they may have been, the +Metropolitans have always remembered that their allegiance was due to +the Patriarch of Constantinople, and not to the schismatic branch of the +Greek Church, over which the Czar exercises both temporal and spiritual +sway. Were a Slavish Metropolitan appointed, Russian influence would be +dangerously augmented, and the task of transferring the allegiance of +the people from their proper ecclesiastical head to the Russian Emperor, +as has been attempted in Bulgaria, would here become easy of +accomplishment.</p> + +<p>In the N. and W. the Romish faith finds the greatest number of +supporters, who look to Austria as their guiding star in all matters +connected with religion. In their ranks are comprised the +agriculturalists and artisans of the province, few being engaged in +commerce. As regards education or enlightenment they are no farther +advanced than their Greek compatriots: few can read or write their own +language, and the knowledge of any other tongue is most exceptional. +Learning, in its broader sense, is indeed confined exclusively to the +convents, and, until very recently, no attempt of any kind was made by +the priests to promote a desire for education or advancement among the +people, their whole thoughts being bent on self-aggrandisement, and the +acquisition of personal wealth. Careful enquiry has established the fact +that no less<span class="pagenum"><a id="page45" name="page45"></a>Pg 45</span> than 60,000<i>l.</i> is annually paid in fees, penances, and +gifts to the Church by the Roman Catholic section of the population; and +we may fairly infer that the Greek priests extort an equally large sum. +Of late schools have been established in different parts of the +province, but the subjects of education are too confined to work any +salutary change in the rising generation. Nor is it probably intended +that such should be the case.</p> + +<p>The Roman Catholics cordially return the hatred of the Greeks, marriages +with whom are forbidden by the Catholic clergy. They are also inimical +to the Mussulman population, by whom they are regarded as serfs. But +this hostility is nurtured in secret, rarely displaying itself in overt +acts of aggression. Four hundred years of oppression have completely +broken their spirit, and they only ask to be allowed to enjoy in peace a +fair portion of the fruits of their labour.</p> + +<p>The Church is governed by two bishops. One, resident at Mostar, bears +the title of Bishop of Azotto, and Vicar-Apostolic of the Herzegovina. +The other, called the Bishop of Trebigné, lives at Ragusa, which is also +included in his see. He has, however, a Vicar resident in the district +of Stolatz. As in Bosnia, the monks are all of the Franciscan order. +Considerable attention is paid to their education, and they are in every +way immeasurably superior to the parochial clergy. In connection with +that brotherhood a college has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="page46" name="page46"></a>Pg 46</span> for some years established, about +twelve miles distant from Mostar. The subjects of education there are +Latin, Italian, Slavish, Church History, and Theology. From this college +the students proceed to Rome, where they are admitted into the +Franciscan order.</p> + +<p>In the above remarks, I have endeavoured to show that the Christianity +which exists in these provinces is merely nominal, since it is devoid of +all those gentle and humanising principles which should distinguish it +from Islamism, whose tenets have been ever propagated by conquest and +the sword. The vices which more especially accompany and mar the beauty +of true Christian civilisation here hold unrestrained dominion, and both +Greeks and Catholics present a painful combination of western cunning +and intrigue and oriental apathy, while they are devoid of that spirit +of devotion and dignified resignation to the will of Providence which +preeminently characterise the religion of Mahomet. Living on the +confines of the two hemispheres, they have inherited the sins of each, +without the virtues of either the one or the other. Nearly all adults +are addicted to drunkenness, while the use of foul and indelicate +language is almost universal,—men, women, and children employing it in +common conversation. So long as such a state of things shall prevail, it +is clearly impossible that any material improvement can be brought +about; and until the people show some<span class="pagenum"><a id="page47" name="page47"></a>Pg 47</span> inclination to improve their own +condition, the sympathy or consideration of others is uncalled-for and +misplaced. The perpetual Russian whine about eight millions of +Christians being held in galling subjection by four millions of Turks is +a miserable deception, which, although it may serve as a pretext for +their own repeated acts of interference, cannot mislead those who have +seen anything of these countries, or who have been brought into contact +with their Christian inhabitants. The most effective course, probably, +which either the bitterest enemy or the warmest friend of the Ottoman +government could pursue, would be to disseminate the seeds of true +Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the land. And I say +this advisedly; for on the future conduct of the Porte would depend +whether such a course might lead to the establishment of Turkish +supremacy, or to its irretrievable overthrow. That an enlightened +nation, 'at unity in itself,' could cast off the yoke of an oppressive +and tottering despotism can easily be imagined, while, on the other +hand, a throne based upon principles of justice and progression would +acquire fresh stability with each step made by its subjects in the path +of civilisation. It is, indeed, strange that so fine a field for British +missionary labour has been so long uncared-for and untried. Nowhere is +there more ample scope for exertion of this nature than in the European<span class="pagenum"><a id="page48" name="page48"></a>Pg 48</span> +provinces of Turkey; for while the Christian population could not but +contrast the simple purity of the missionary life with the vicious +habits and grasping avarice of their own clergy, the Mussulmans would +see Christianity in a very different light from that in which they have +been accustomed to regard it. Nor would any obstacles be thrown in the +way by the Turkish government; nay, instances have even occurred of +Protestant missionaries receiving encouragement and support: for, +whatever may be said to the contrary, no nation is more tolerant of the +exercise of other religions than these same much-abused Moslems. +Whatever is to be done, however, should be done at once, for never was +it more urgently needed. The American struggle seems to have paralysed +the missionary labours of that nation, which had heretofore displayed +much energy in proclaiming the glad tidings of great joy in these +benighted lands. For England, then, it would appear, is reserved the +noble task of rescuing these unfortunates from a state of moral +darkness, as profound as that which envelopes the savage tribes of +central Africa, or the remotest islands of the Pacific. That we have +remained so long indifferent to the urgent appeals of the talented and +earnest, though somewhat prejudiced, advocate of Slavonic institutions, +Count Valerian Krasinski, is a matter of surprise and deep regret; for +surely no country can be more replete with interest to Protestant<span class="pagenum"><a id="page49" name="page49"></a>Pg 49</span> +England than that which may be regarded as the cradle of Protestantism, +and whose fastnesses afforded a refuge during four centuries of +persecution to the 'early reformers of the Church, the men who supplied +that link in the chain which connected the simplicity of primitive +doctrines with the present time.'</p> + +<p>The affinity which exists between the Church of England in the early +days of the Reformation and the Pragmatic section which glory in Huss +and Jerome, is too close to be easily overlooked. Nor need Bosnia (taken +collectively) succumb in interest to any Slavonic province, whether it +be regarded as the stronghold of freedom of religious opinion, or as the +scene of one of the greatest and most important triumphs of Islamism.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page50" name="page50"></a>Pg 50</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h4>Introduction of Christianity—Origin of Slavonic Element—First +Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia—Their Origin—Tenets—Elect +a Primate—Disappearance—Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in +Spirit—Turkish Conquest—Bosnian Apostasy—Religious +Fanaticism—Euchlemeh—Commission under Kiamil Pacha—Servian +Emissaries—National Customs—Adopted Brotherhood—Mahommedan +Women—Elopements—Early Marriages.</h4> + + +<p>Authorities differ as to the time when Christianity was first introduced +into Bosnia. Some say that it was preached by the apostle St. James, +while others affirm that it was unknown until the year 853 +<span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, when St. Cyril and Methodius translated the Scriptures +into the Slavonic tongue; others again say that it dates back as far as +the seventh century, when the Emperor Heraclius called the Slavonic +nations of the Chorvats or Croats, and the Serbs or Servians, from their +settlement on the N. of the Carpathian Mountains, to the fertile regions +S. of the Danube. The warlike summons was gladly obeyed by those valiant +men, who had unflinchingly maintained their independence, whilst their +Slavish brethren, inhabiting the country between the Volga and the Don, +had submitted to the iron yoke of the all-conquering Avars. These last +were in their<span class="pagenum"><a id="page51" name="page51"></a>Pg 51</span> time expelled by the Croats and Serbs, and thus was +Slavism established from the Danube to the Mediterranean. But these +important results were not achieved without great sacrifice; and, +wearied of war and bloodshed, the successful Slavonians devoted +themselves to agriculture and industry, neglecting those pursuits which +had procured for them a permanent footing in the Greek empire. Taking +advantage of this defenceless state, resulting from their pacific +disposition, Constans II. made war upon the country of Slavonia, in +order to open a communication between the capital on the one side, and +Philippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian II. (685-95 and +708-10) also made a successful expedition against the Slavonians, and +transplanted a great number of prisoners, whom he took into Asia Minor. +The Greek empire having become reinvigorated for some time under the +Slavonian dynasty, Constantine Copronymus (741-75) advanced in his +conquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the S. of Thessalonica, which +is evident from an inspection of the frontiers of the empire, made by +order of the Empress Irene in 783. The Emperor Michael III. (842-67) +sent an army against the Slavonians of the Peloponnesus, which conquered +them all with the exception of the Melugi and Eseritœ, who inhabited +Lacedæmonia and Elis, and they were all finally subjugated by the +Emperor Basilicus I., or the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page52" name="page52"></a>Pg 52</span> Macedonian (867-86), after which the +Christian religion and Greek civilisation completely Hellenised them, as +their brethren on the Baltic were Germanised.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> That the Latin faith +subsequently obtained a permanent footing in these provinces, is due to +the influence of the Kings of Hungary, who took the Bosnian Bans under +their special protection; and thus it happened that the Bosnian nobles +almost universally adopted the religion of their benefactors,—not so +much from conviction, it is surmised, as from an appreciation of the +many feudal privileges which it conferred, since they afterwards +renounced Christianity entirely, rather than relinquish the rights which +they had begun to regard as hereditary. The remote position of these +countries, however, and the antagonism of the Eastern and Western +Churches, combined to retard the development of the Papal doctrines, +while a still more important counterpoise presented itself, in the +appearance of the sect of Patarenes, towards the close of the twelfth +century. The sect was founded by an Armenian doctor, named Basil, who +was burnt for his opinions by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, and whose +followers, being banished, retired into Bulgaria, where they made many +converts, and took the name of Bogomili—'chosen of God,' or 'implorers +of God's mercy.' They thence spread their<span class="pagenum"><a id="page53" name="page53"></a>Pg 53</span> tenets into France by means +of pilgrims and traders, who were on their return to that country, and +by degrees laid the seeds of doctrines subsequently taken up by Peter +Bruysius, and afterwards by Henry and by Peter Valdo, the founder of the +Waldenses, and by others in other places. Availing themselves of the +various Caliphs' tolerance of all Christian sects, they carried their +opinions with their commerce into Africa, Spain, and finally into +Languedoc, a neighbouring province, to Moorish Iberia, where Raymond, +Count of Toulouse, gave them shelter and protection.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p> + +<p>The same opinions were held by the Paulicians of Spain, who, having +received much encouragement from the Kings of Arragon and Castile, also +disseminated their doctrines throughout France, in the southern +provinces of which they met with great success. There they received the +name of Albigenses, from the town of Albiga or Alby. They afterwards +spread into Italy, where they received the name of 'Patarenes,' as some +suppose from the 'sufferings' which they endured, though other fanciful +reasons are assigned for the bestowal of the name. The tenets of these +early reformers 'have been transmitted through various sects under the +different denominations of Vallenses, Paulicians, Patarenes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page54" name="page54"></a>Pg 54</span> Cathari +(Puritans), Bogomili, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, Bohemian Brethren +or Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Protestants to the present +day.' No very lucid account of their articles of faith has been handed +down to our times, and some suppose that they entertained the Manichæan +doctrines of the existence of the two principles, and of the creation of +the spiritual world by the good, and of matter by the evil One. +Krasinski appears to favour this supposition; but it is far more +probable that, with the name indiscriminately bestowed as a term of +opprobrium upon all who differed from the canons of the Romish Church, +they have received the credit of supporting the doctrines of the +Manichæans. This much, however, is certain,—that they denied the +sovereignty of the Pope, the power of the priests, the efficacy of +prayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory;<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a> while they +rejected all images, relics, and the worship of the saints. Whether the +advent of the sect into Bosnia was from the Bulgarian or Italian side is +unknown; but, be this as it may, it is beyond a doubt that they were +most favourably received (in 1197) by Kulin, who was at that time Ban of +the province. His wisdom was so great, and his reign so prosperous, that +long after his death it was a proverbial saying in Bosnia, upon the +occurrence of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page55" name="page55"></a>Pg 55</span> a fruitful year, 'the times of Kulin are come back.' Both +he himself, his wife, and Daniel, Bishop of Bosnia, embraced the new +doctrines, which consequently gained ground rapidly in the country.</p> + +<p>In obedience to a summons from Pope Innocent III., Kulin repaired to +Rome to give an account of his conduct and faith. Having succeeded in +diverting suspicions about his orthodoxy, he returned to Bosnia, where +he gave out that the Pope was well satisfied with his profession of +faith,—a slight equivocation, which will hardly bear an enquiry,—and +thus induced many more to join the Patarenes. Hearing of this, the Pope +requested the King of Hungary to compel Kulin to eject them from the +country, at the same time ordering Bernard, Archbishop of Spalatro, +publicly to excommunicate Daniel, the refractory Bishop.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Never was heard such a terrible curse.<br /></span> +<span class="i4">But what gave rise<br /></span> +<span class="i4">To no little surprise<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Was, that nobody seemed one penny the worse;'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>though possibly the believer in the validity of Papal bulls, bans, and +so forth, may plead in excuse that the curse was never actually +pronounced. The King also contented himself with a friendly caution to +the Ban, who thenceforward demeaned himself with more circumspection. On +the death of Kulin, Andrew, King<span class="pagenum"><a id="page56" name="page56"></a>Pg 56</span> of Hungary, gave the Banate of Bosnia +to Zibislau, under whom the doctrines of the Patarenes continued to +flourish. The fears of Pope Honorius II. being aroused, he sent +Acconcio, his Legate, into Bosnia to suppress them. So far from +effecting this, he saw their numbers daily and hourly increase, until in +1222 they elected a Primate of their own, who resided on the confines of +Bulgaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed by his Vicars the filial +congregation of Italy and France.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> They destroyed the cathedral of +Crescevo, and Bosnia became entirely subject to their influence. From +that time, until the latter part of the fourteenth century, they +contrived to keep a footing in the country, although subjected to much +persecution by successive Popes and the Kings of Hungary, and oftentimes +reduced to the greatest straits. Occasional glimpses of sunshine buoyed +up their hopes, and the following anecdote, quoted by Sir Gardner +Wilkinson, is illustrative of the sanguine view which they were +accustomed to take of the ways of Providence. 'Many of the Patarenes had +taken refuge, during the various persecutions, in the mountains of +Bosnia; and on the eve of St. Catherine (November 24) in 1367, a fire +was seen raging over the whole of the country they occupied, destroying +everything there, and leaving the mountains entirely<span class="pagenum"><a id="page57" name="page57"></a>Pg 57</span> denuded of wood. +The Roman Catholics considered this event to be a manifest judgement of +heaven against the wicked heretics; but the Patarenes looked on it as a +proof of divine favour, the land being thereby cleared for them and +adapted for cultivation.' In 1392 the sect flourished under Tuartko +(then King of Bosnia), and, further, made great progress during the +first half of the following century. Their cause was openly espoused by +Cosaccia, Duke of Santo Saba, or Herzegovina, and by John Paulovich +Voivode of Montenegro. So far all went well; but Stephen, King of +Bosnia, having in 1459 ordered all Patarenes to leave his kingdom or +abjure their doctrines, their cause received a severe shock, and 40,000 +were obliged to take refuge in the Herzegovina, where they were welcomed +by Stephen Cosaccia. From that time no farther direct trace remains of +this important and widely-spreading sect; though Krasinski speaks of the +existence of a sect in Russia called 'Dookhoboitzi,' or combatants in +spirit, whose doctrines have great affinity to those professed by the +Patarenes, and whom he believes to have been transplanted from Bosnia to +Russia, their present country.</p> + +<p>But this triumph of Papal oppression was not destined to be of long +duration. Already was the tide of Mussulman conquest threatening to +overrun Germany; and Bosnia, after suffering severely from the wars<span class="pagenum"><a id="page58" name="page58"></a>Pg 58</span> +between Hungary and the Turks, was conquered, and annexed by the latter +in 1465. The religious constancy of the Bosnian nobles was now sorely +tried, for they found themselves compelled to choose between their +religion and poverty, or recantation and wealth. Their decision was soon +made, and the greater portion renounced Christianity and embraced +Islamism, rather than relinquish those feudal privileges, for the +attainment of which they had originally deserted their national creed. +Their example was ere long followed by many of the inhabitants of the +towns, and thus an impassable gulf was placed between them and the great +body of the people, who remained faithful to Christianity, and regarded +the renegades with mistrust and abhorrence. These for the moment were +benefited greatly by their apostasy, receiving permission to retain not +only their own estates, but also to hold in fief those belonging to such +as had refused to deny Christ. With the bitterness characteristic of +renegades, they now became the most inveterate enemies of those whose +faith they had abjured, oppressing them by every means within their +power. The savage tyranny which they exercised would doubtless have +driven very many to emigration, had a place of refuge presented itself; +but in the existing condition of the surrounding countries such a course +would have in no way profited them, but would rather have aggravated +their misery. A few, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page59" name="page59"></a>Pg 59</span> succeeded in escaping into Hungary, but +the mass submitted to their fate, and were reduced to poverty and +insignificance.</p> + +<p>The rancorous ill-treatment which they experienced at the hands of their +fanatical oppressors, was without doubt increased by the fact that these +found themselves a small and isolated band, all-powerful upon the +immediate spot they occupied, but surrounded by states which were +implacable enemies to their religion; while the remote position of these +provinces, and the difficulty of communication, have combined to render +the people, even now, less tolerant than the more legitimate devotees of +Mahometanism. That idea of superiority over other peoples and religions, +which the Mussulman faith inculcates, was eagerly embraced by them at +the time of their first perversion, and conspired to make them zealots +in their newly-adopted creed. The feeling was inherited, and even +augmented, with each succeeding generation, until it has become the +prominent feature of the race. To such an extent has this been indulged, +that the Bosniac Mussulmans of the present day not only despise all +other religions, but look upon the Mahommedans of other parts of the +empire as very little superior to the Christians. The apathy and +indifference to progress which has inevitably ensued upon the adoption +of Islamism, has made its effects strikingly apparent in these +provinces; and although entirely<span class="pagenum"><a id="page60" name="page60"></a>Pg 60</span> deprived of all those Seignorial +rights which their ancestors possessed, the Mussulman population appear +perfectly satisfied with the lazy independence procured for them by the +produce and rents of the land, of which they are the sole proprietors. +The Christians, on the other hand, are invariably the tenants, as it is +beneath the dignity of a Mussulman to turn his hand to any kind of +manual labour, i.e. so long as he can find a Christian to do it.</p> + +<p>The Euchlemeh, or arrangement for the tenure of land, has long existed +in this part of the empire, and has worked well whenever it has not been +abused. The original terms of the contract provided that the proprietor +should give the land and the seed for sowing it, receiving in return +one-third of the produce in kind. The commission of which Kiamil Pacha +was President in 1853, endeavoured, whilst regulating the taxation of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, to ameliorate the condition of the tenant as +regards the rental of land. They decreed that he should be supplied with +animals, implements, seeds, and also a house in which to live, while +yielding to the proprietor in return from 25 to 50 per cent. of the +products, according to the more or less prolific nature of land in the +different parts of the provinces. These terms were cheerfully accepted +by the agriculturalists, by whom they were considered just. The internal +state of the Ottoman empire, unfortunately,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page61" name="page61"></a>Pg 61</span> renders it impossible that +these conditions should in all cases be adhered to, and without doubt +the tenants are often compelled to pay from 10 to 20 per cent. more than +the legal rent. These instances, however, are less frequent than they +were a few years ago, and very much less frequent than the depreciators +of Turkey would have us to believe. The most scrupulous observance of +the terms of the Euchlemeh will be enforced by the Ottoman government if +it be alive to its own interests, and the more so that the infraction of +it has been, and will always be, turned to account by those who would +fain see rebellion and discord prevailing in the Turkish provinces, +rather than unity and peace.</p> + +<p>In 1860 no fewer than nine Servian emissaries were caught in the +Herzegovina, who were endeavouring to fan the discontent and ill-feeling +already existing amongst the agricultural classes. That province has +indeed been for a long time employed by the advocates of Panslavism, or +by the enemies of Turkey in general, as a focus of agitation, where +plans are hatched and schemes devised, the object of which is to +disorganise and impede the consolidation of the empire. The conduct of +Servia, as well as of greater and more important nations, has been most +reprehensible, and with it the forbearance of Turkey, notwithstanding +the corruptness of her government and the fanaticism of the Mussulman<span class="pagenum"><a id="page62" name="page62"></a>Pg 62</span> +population, has contrasted most favourably. Little wonder, then, that +ill-blood should have existed between these rival factions, and that the +party possessing power should have been prompted to use it for the +oppression of those whom they have had too much reason to regard as +their implacable foes. Yet, in spite of these opposing elements, many +points of striking resemblance still remain inspired by, and indicative +of, their former consanguinity of origin and identity of creed. The most +important of these, perhaps, is their retention of the Slavonic tongue, +which is employed to the exclusion of Turkish, almost as universally by +the Mussulmans as by the Christians. Some of their customs, too, prove +that a little spark of nationality yet exists, which their adoption of +Islamism has failed to eradicate. Thus, for example, the principle of +adopted brotherhood is eminently Slavonic in its origin. The tie is +contracted in the following manner:—Two persons prick their fingers, +the blood from each wound being sucked by the other. This engagement is +considered very binding, and, curiously enough, it is sometimes entered +into by Christians and Mussulmans mutually. Again, a man cuts the hair +of a child, and thus constitutes himself the 'Coom,' or, to a certain +degree, assumes the position of a godfather. It not unfrequently happens +that a Mussulman adopts a Christian child, and vice versâ.</p> + +<p>In their domestic arrangements they vie in discom<span class="pagenum"><a id="page63" name="page63"></a>Pg 63</span>fort and want of +cleanliness, notwithstanding the post-prandial ablutions common to all +Easterns.</p> + +<p>The Mussulman females, up to the time of their marriage, show themselves +unreservedly, and generally appear in public unveiled; while in one +respect, at any rate, they have the advantage of many more civilised +Christians than those of Turkey,—that they are permitted, in the matter +of a husband, to choose for themselves, and are wooed in all due form. +Parents there, as elsewhere, are apt to consider themselves the best +judges of the position and income requisite to insure the happiness of +their daughters, and where such decision is at variance with the young +lady's views, elopement is resorted to. Of the amount of resistance +encountered by the bridegrooms on these occasions, I regret that I am +not in a position to hazard an opinion. Polygamy is almost unknown, a +second wife being seldom taken during the lifetime of the first. Since +it is to the expense attendant upon this luxury that such abstinence is +probably to be attributed, it really reflects great credit upon the +Bosnian Benedicts that the meal-sack has been so seldom brought into +play,—that ancient and most expeditious Court of Probate and Divorce in +matrimonial cases. After marriage, the women conceal themselves more +strictly than in most other parts of Turkey. Perhaps in this the +husbands act upon the homœopathic principle, that prevention is better +than<span class="pagenum"><a id="page64" name="page64"></a>Pg 64</span> cure; for divorces are unheard of, and are considered most +disgraceful. Marriages are contracted at a much earlier age by the +Christian than by the Mahommedan women, and it is no uncommon thing to +find wives of from twelve to fourteen years of age. This abominable +custom is encouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy, whose revenues are +thereby increased.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page65" name="page65"></a>Pg 65</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h4>Agricultural Products—Cereals—Misapplication of +Soil—Tobacco—Current Prices—Vine Disease—Natural Capabilities +of Land—Price of Labour—Dalmatian <i>Scutors</i>—Other +Products—Manufactures—Commerce—Relations with Bosnia—Able +Administration of Omer Pacha—Austria takes Alarm—Trade +Statistics—Imports—Exports—Frontier +Duties—Mal-administration—Intended Reforms.</h4> + + +<p>The agricultural products of the Herzegovina are wheat, barley, rice, +linseed, millet, tobacco, and grapes. Of the cereals, Indian corn is +most cultivated, and forms the staple article of consumption, as is also +the case in Servia and the Danubian principalities. The little wheat +that is grown is found in the northern and eastern parts of the +province, where the soil is better adapted for it; but nowhere is it +either abundant or of good quality. The best which is sold in the towns +is imported from Bosnia. Barley is more extensively grown, and horses +are fed upon it here and throughout Turkey generally. Linseed is only +grown in small quantities in the northern parts, while the district of +Gliubinski is almost entirely devoted to the culture of rice. As the +quantities produced barely suffice for home consumption, no exportation +of cereals can be<span class="pagenum"><a id="page66" name="page66"></a>Pg 66</span> expected to take place. This circumstance, together +with its rugged appearance, naturally procures for the province the +character of being sterile and unproductive, and such it doubtless is +when compared with Bulgaria, Roumelia, or the fruitful plains of +Wallachia; but it has certain resources peculiar to itself, which, if +properly developed, would materially change the aspect of the country, +and obtain for it a more desirable reputation. It is eminently adapted +for the cultivation of those articles of Eastern necessity and Western +luxury, tobacco and the vine. Numerous patches of land, now either +fallow or sown with grain, for which they are neither suited by their +size or the nature of their soil, might be turned to good account for +the growth of tobacco; and such would doubtless be the case were there +an outlet for its exportation, which at present, unfortunately, does not +exist. Only a sufficiency, therefore, is grown to meet the local +demands, and to supply the contiguous Turkish provinces. Three qualities +are produced, the prices of which have been for some time fluctuating. +Previous to the Christian outbreak the best of these, grown in the +district of Trebigné, sold for about 11<i>d.</i> per pound, while the +cheapest was to be procured at 3<i>d.</i> per pound.</p> + +<p>In alluding to the capabilities of the province for the production of +the vine, I might also have mentioned the olive and the mulberry, both +of which would thrive.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page67" name="page67"></a>Pg 67</span> Of these the vine alone, however, has as yet +occupied the attention of the agriculturalists; and though it is largely +cultivated in the southern and western parts, not one-tenth part of the +land adapted to it is thus employed.</p> + +<p>The same obstacle which impedes the more extensive cultivation of +tobacco, is also in a measure applicable to the manufacture of wine, at +least as far as regards its quality. At present quantity is far more +considered, and the result is that, in place of manufacturing really +valuable wines, they poison both themselves and all who have the +misfortune to partake of it. It is only fair to add that one +description, which I tasted at Mostar, appeared to be sound, and gave +promise of becoming drinkable after some months' keeping. The vine +disease, which showed itself some years back, has now disappeared; and +the crops, which during six or seven seasons deteriorated to an +astonishing degree, have now reassumed their former healthy appearance.</p> + +<p>The numerous hills which intersect the province might also be covered +with olive groves, and it would be of great advantage to the country +could the people be induced to follow the example of their Dalmatian +neighbours, who have covered almost inaccessible points of their country +with that useful tree.</p> + +<p>The climate is well adapted to the nurture of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page68" name="page68"></a>Pg 68</span> silkworm, and the +mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly throughout the province: were these +turned to account there can be little doubt that in a few years large +quantities of silk might be exported. A few of the natives have reared +worms successfully for several years, and the silk thus obtained has +been employed for domestic purposes. The disease, which for so many +years inflicted such serious loss on the silk producers of Europe, is +unknown in the Herzegovina. Whether this immunity is to be attributed to +the climate, or the nature of the leaf upon which the silkworm feeds, it +is impossible to say, but it is none the less a veritable fact. Cotton +might also be grown to a small extent, but the same drawbacks would +apply here as elsewhere in Turkey, viz. the difficulty of obtaining, and +the high price of labour.</p> + +<p>This has been rapidly increasing during the last twelve years. In 1850, +a mason or carpenter received five piastres or 10<i>d.</i> a day, while a +common labourer obtained 6<i>d.</i> Now the former finds no difficulty in +earning 2<i>s.</i> per diem, while the latter receives 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for short +days, and 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> for long days. The shorthandedness consequent upon +the Christian rising, has of course contributed to this rise in wages; +but the province was at no time self-supporting in this respect. A large +number of <i>scutors</i> or labourers from Dalmatia cross the frontier in the +spring, and hire themselves out during the summer<span class="pagenum"><a id="page69" name="page69"></a>Pg 69</span> months. The decrease +in the number of these was, I am told, very perceptible during the +Italian war, in consequence of the demand for recruits.</p> + +<p>The other products of the country are wool, hides, skins, honey, and +wax, which are exported to Austria. Large numbers of sheep and horned +cattle are, moreover, annually exported to the Dalmatian markets.</p> + +<p>The only manufactures of which I could find specimens were coarse +woollen blankets, twist, and carpets. The blankets and carpets are +mostly exported to Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Servia. Besides these, a kind +of cotton cloth is made in the houses by the women, from imported +cotton, and is applied solely to domestic uses, and is not regarded as +an article of commerce.</p> + +<p>In considering the question of the trade of the Herzegovina, the +attention should be directed, not so much to what it actually is, as to +what it might be under the fostering care of an enlightened government. +And yet, it is not to the producing and consuming capabilities of the +province itself that its possible importance in a commercial point of +view is attributable, but rather to its position on the confines of the +East and West, and to the fact of its containing within its limits the +natural outlets for the trade of that portion of the Ottoman empire.</p> + +<p>It is, in fact, in its relation to Bosnia, that it is entitled to most +attention; and if we deplore that such<span class="pagenum"><a id="page70" name="page70"></a>Pg 70</span> natural resources as it +possesses have not been more fully developed, we have still greater +reason to lament that the world is thus debarred communication with the +most romantic and beautiful province of European Turkey. It is also the +natural route for the commerce of a portion of Servia, whose exports and +imports would thus quickly pass to and from the sea. Its value, however, +appears never to have been properly appreciated by the Turkish +government, and Omer Pacha, in 1852, was the first employé of that power +who ever appreciated its importance in a commercial point of view. He +appears to have indicated the measures necessary for developing its +resources, and for attracting the trade of the neighbouring provinces +from their expensive and indirect channel into their legitimate route. +The prospects of the province were rapidly brightening under his +sagacious administration, when Austria took alarm, and effectually +impeded all farther progress by closing the only port adapted for the +transmission of its mercantile resources. She thus secures for herself a +monopoly of trade, forcing the inhabitants of all the Turkish provinces, +in that quarter, to purchase their imports at high prices from her, and +to sell their produce to Austrian merchants, who, fearing no +competition, themselves determine its price. The object of Austria in +thus retarding the development of Bosnia is sufficiently obvious, since +that which would be a gain to Turkey would be a loss<span class="pagenum"><a id="page71" name="page71"></a>Pg 71</span> to herself. And +were events so to dispose themselves as to render this probable, she +would doubtless find a pretext to justify a military occupation of the +country. This she has done on several occasions, and the large force now +massed upon the northern bank of the Save only awaits some national +demonstration to effect an armed intervention. This is, however, +trenching upon another subject, to which I may have hereafter to allude.</p> + +<p>Approximate calculations of the trade of the Herzegovina show that the +imports amount annually to about 150,000<i>l.</i>, while the exports do not +produce more than 70,000<i>l.</i> This comparison proves that a very large +amount of specie must be extracted every year from the country, for +which no material counterpoise exists, since the merchandise imported is +to supply the wants of the people, and does not consequently tend to +enrich the province. It follows therefore, naturally, that it is +becoming daily more poverty-stricken, and in place of advancing with +advancing civilisation, it is stagnating or even declining in +prosperity.</p> + +<p>These imports are computed to amount to about 70,000 horse-loads in +quantity, while the transit trade to Bosnia is estimated at 50,000 more. +Of these about 10,000 horse-loads are of salt from Dalmatia.</p> + +<p>The main source whence these provinces are supplied is Trieste, where +large depots exist, established expressly<span class="pagenum"><a id="page72" name="page72"></a>Pg 72</span> for this purpose. Thither the +traders proceed once a year, to lay in a supply of goods for the ensuing +twelve months. They purchase at credits varying from six to twelve +months, paying high prices for a very indifferent class of goods. These +consist for the most part of cotton and woollen manufactures, cotton +twist, silks, iron in bars sheets and plates, tin, lead, brass, +hardware, glass, sugar, coffee, and other colonial products. Gold lace, +velvet, and silks are also imported from Bosna Serai, and silks and some +kinds of cotton prints from Constantinople by way of Salonica and +Serajevo. Like most semi-civilised nations, the people of Herzegovina +are much addicted to showy colours in their dress. Those most in favour +are scarlet, green, and blue; but the dyes soon fade, and the cloth is +anything but durable. It is invariably of French or German manufacture; +is of coarse quality, and is worn next the skin by the country people. +In the towns, grey long cloths, dyed dark blue, constitute the principal +article of clothing among the Christians, the general character of dress +being the same throughout the province. The exports consist of sheep's +wool, hides, sheep and goats' skins, furs, and wax, to Trieste; cattle, +sheep, goats, pigs, tallow, and eels, to Dalmatia; woollen blankets, red +and yellow leather prepared from sheep skins, carpets, tobacco, wine, +and fruits, to the neighbouring Turkish provinces. Pipe-sticks are also +sent from Bosna Serai,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page73" name="page73"></a>Pg 73</span> to Egypt, through the Herzegovina, while knives, +manufactured at Foulcha from country-made steel, are also sent in +considerable quantities to Egypt. All imports and exports pay a duty of +three per cent. on their value, and until recently produce exported to +the neighbouring Turkish provinces paid the unreasonable duty of ten per +cent. This grievous impediment to commerce has, thanks to the efforts of +the European Consuls, been abolished, and they now pay the same duty as +exports to other countries.</p> + +<p>It may be noted, as a symptom of the centralising policy which the Porte +is adopting, that the government now farms the customs of these +provinces, in place of selling the right of doing so to the highest +bidder, as was formerly the case.</p> + +<p>Having thus contrasted the actual with the possible condition of the +province, we cannot but enquire the causes which lead thereto; and it is +impossible to disguise from ourselves, that to mal-administration is +primarily attributable this deplorable state of things. Add to this the +total absence of all means of internal communication, and we have quite +sufficient to cripple the energies of a more industrious and energetic +people than those with whom we are dealing. The first object of the +government, then, should be to inspire the people with confidence in its +good faith, and to induce them to believe that the results of their +labour will not<span class="pagenum"><a id="page74" name="page74"></a>Pg 74</span> be seized by rapacious Pachas or exorbitant landowners; +and, above all things, it is necessary that Turkish subjects, even if +they are not accorded greater favours in their own country than those of +other powers, should at least be placed upon a footing of equality, +which is far from being the case at present.</p> + +<p>It would appear that the government is really sincere in its intention +of making roads through the country generally, and when this is done a +new era may be anticipated. In the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina, only +one road has until very recently existed. It was made by Omer Pacha in +1851, and connects Bosna Serai with Brod, a town situated upon the +southern bank of the Save. From Metcovich to Bosna Serai, which is the +high road for the trade of the country, the line of route is but a path +formed by the constant traffic, and, while always difficult to traverse, +is in winter frequently closed altogether. It is indispensable that a +central high road should be made, and no point could be more +advantageously adopted as a base than the port of Klek, near which +asphalte is found in large quantities.</p> + +<p>Were a good trunk-road established, connecting that point with Bosna +Serai, branch roads might soon be made throughout the province. The +nature of the country is not such as would render the difficulty of +doing this insuperable, and the rivers over which it<span class="pagenum"><a id="page75" name="page75"></a>Pg 75</span> would pass are +already spanned by good and serviceable bridges, the relics of better +days. That the expense attending it would soon be defrayed by the +increased traffic is acknowledged by all, and we may therefore hope ere +long to see the deficiency remedied.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page76" name="page76"></a>Pg 76</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h4>Government—Mudirliks—Mulisarif—Cadi of Mostar—Medjlis—Its +Constitution and Functions—Criminal and Commercial +Tribunals—Revenue and +Taxes—Virgu—Monayene-askereh—Customs—Tithes—Excise—Total +Revenue—Police.</h4> + + +<p>The Herzegovina is divided into fourteen districts or mudirliks, named +as follows, viz.:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Districts</td> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>Chief Towns</td> + <td align='left'>No. of Villages<br />in each District</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mostar</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Mostar</td> + <td align='center'>45</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Duvno</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Duvno</td> + <td align='center'>25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Gliubinski</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='center'>31</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Stolatz</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Stolatz</td> + <td align='center'>22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Trebigné</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Trebigné</td> + <td align='center'>51</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Niksich</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Niksich</td> + <td align='center'>28</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tashlijeh</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Tashlijeh</td> + <td align='center'>16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Priepolie</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='center'>22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Chainitza</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Chainitza</td> + <td align='center'>14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kolashin</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='center'>56</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Fochia</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Fochia</td> + <td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Gasko</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Gasko</td> + <td align='center'>20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Nevresign</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Nevresign</td> + <td align='center'>14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Pogitel</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Pogitel</td> + <td align='center'>13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a>Konitza</td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='center'>19</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page77" name="page77"></a>Pg 77</span></p> + +<p>These districts, with the exception of Mostar (which is the seat of the +Central Provincial Government), are under the supervision of a Mudir, +who is assisted by a Council, a Cadi or Judge, and a Tax-collector. The +province is governed by a Mutisarif named from Constantinople, who is +subject in certain things to the Pacha of Bosnia. The Mudirs are +appointed by the Mutisarif, subject to the approval of the government at +Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The Cadi of Mostar is a very important personage, and has all the +district Cadis under his orders. He is an unsalaried officer, his +remuneration consisting of the fees of office, and whatever else he can +lay hands on.</p> + +<p>The Medjlis, or Council for the province, was selected by Kiamil +Effendi, the Turkish Commissioner in 1853, and vacancies have since been +filled up by the votes of the majority of their number, subject to +confirmation at Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The Medjlis consists of about ten native Mussulmans, one Roman Catholic, +and one Greek, so that the Christian interests are but indifferently +represented.</p> + +<p>Appeal can be made against its decision to the Medjlis Kebir at Bosna +Serai.</p> + +<p>All legal matters are arbitrated by the Medjlis since the abolition of +the various tribunals, which were founded in 1857. One of these was for +the trial of criminal causes. It consisted of a President, and six<span class="pagenum"><a id="page78" name="page78"></a>Pg 78</span> +members, and another was a commercial tribunal for the settlement of +petty commercial disputes. These have both fallen into abeyance; and, +seeing that Christian evidence is not accepted in the civil causes, it +is difficult to understand how the Christian population could ever have +benefited, at any rate by the latter.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p><i>Revenues and taxes.</i>—The revenue of the province is derived from the +following sources, viz.—</p> + +<p><i>Virgu</i> (income tax).</p> + +<p><i>Monayene-askereh</i>, or the tax paid by the Christians in lieu of +military service. It is, however, one of the grievances alleged by the +Christians, who declare their willingness to serve; but as many +Mussulmans would willingly pay the tax to be exempted from the chance of +enlistment, the hardship applies to all parties.</p> + +<p><i>Customs, tithes, excise.</i></p> + +<p>The Virgu is a species of income tax, inasmuch as it is a rate levied +ostensibly on the wealth of individuals; but, instead of being a per +centage on the income, it has resolved itself into a mere capitation +tax, and is ill-adapted, as such a tax must always be, to the relative +wealth of individuals. A certain sum was arbitrarily fixed upon to be +paid by the province. The government appears to have omitted to enquire +whether the wealth of the country would enable it to pay so large a sum +as that demanded. In 1853, the tax was divided into<span class="pagenum"><a id="page79" name="page79"></a>Pg 79</span> three portions, +according to the numbers of each persuasion, and has been thus collected +ever since.</p> + +<p>In the same sweeping manner these sums have been equally apportioned to +each household, poor and rich paying alike. Thus the Mussulmans, who +possess nearly all the land in the province, and who are generally in +affluent circumstances, but who form the smallest portion of the +population, pay least. The Virgu has been unscrupulously levied, and has +given rise to much discontent, more especially among the Latins, who are +the poorest classes.</p> + +<p>These complain bitterly, and harrowing stories are told of women, about +to become mothers, being compelled to pay the tax on the chance of the +infant being a male. Such things may have occurred some years ago, but +the spirit of cruelty appears to have died out, or is at all events kept +in the background by the Moslems of the present day.</p> + +<p>The Monayene-askereh was first imposed when the people were relieved +from the Haradj. It is levied on males from fourteen to seventy, and was +found so grievous, that the Porte has seen fit to direct that only about +one-half of the original amount shall be raised. This alleviation has +existed during the last three years.</p> + +<p><i>Customs.</i>—These consist of a duty of three per cent. ad valorem on all +imports and exports to and from foreign countries, as well as the same +amount demanded<span class="pagenum"><a id="page80" name="page80"></a>Pg 80</span> under the form of transit dues for goods passing from +one Turkish province to another. This has lately been reduced from 12 +per cent. to its present rate.</p> + +<p>The next source of revenue is the amount realised by the tithes. Since +1858 these have been farmed by the government, but previous to that year +they were sold by auction, as in other provinces, to the highest bidder. +The arrangement was complicated enough, for they underwent no less than +four sales: 1st. In each district for the amount of the district. 2nd. +At Mostar, where each district was again put up, and given to the person +offering 10 per cent. above the price realised at the first sale. 3rd. +At Bosna Serai for the entire province. And lastly at Constantinople,—the +highest bidder in this fourfold sale becoming the farmer. This system +exposed the tithe payers to much oppression, for it not uncommonly +happened that the farmer found he had paid more for his purchase than +he could legally claim from the people, so that, instead of 10 per +cent., 15 or 20 per cent. could alone remunerate him; and this he found +no difficulty in getting, as the government unfortunately bound itself +to help him. None but the farmers of the tithes really knew what the +produce was, so that any demand of theirs was considered by the +government to be a bonâ fide claim, and was upheld.</p> + +<p>The government was frequently cheated, and, further,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page81" name="page81"></a>Pg 81</span> defrauded of large +sums of money, as in the case of Hadji Ali Pacha; but it is a question +whether so much will be realised by the present system, since greater +facilities exist for roguery on the part of the agriculturalists, to say +nothing of the corruptness of its own officials.</p> + +<p>The excise consists of a per centage on the sale of wine, spirits, shot, +lead, earthenware, snuff, tobacco, and salt; of tolls on produce brought +into the towns for sale; of fees for permission to distil, to roast and +grind coffee, and to be a public weigher; also of a tax on taking +animals to the grazing grounds,<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a> and of licenses to fish for eels and +leeches: these are caught plentifully in the plain of Gabella when +flooded, and are of good quality.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p><i>Revenue.</i>—The taxes of the province produce annually about 9,135,000 +piastres, taking the piastre at 2<i>d.</i> English.</p> + +<p>This sum may be divided as follows: viz.—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='left'>Piastres</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Virgu</td> + <td align='right'>1,700,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tithes</td> + <td align='right'>5,000,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Monayene-askereh</td> + <td align='right'>1,285,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Customs</td> + <td align='right'>600,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Excise</td> + <td align='right'>550,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'></td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>9,135,000</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page82" name="page82"></a>Pg 82</span></p> + +<p>The above shows that the province yields to the imperial treasury a +yearly sum of about 79,000<i>l.</i> sterling, from a taxation of about 8<i>s.</i> +per head on the population. The amount may appear small; but when it is +considered that the taxes are not equitably levied, that the heaviest +share falls upon the poorest inhabitants, and that a great part of the +amount is in direct taxation, it cannot be considered light. The burden, +too, weighs with undue severity upon the faithful subjects of the Porte, +since they are compelled to pay the share which would fall upon those +who have rebelled against the Turkish authority.</p> + +<p>There is one branch of the public administration which eminently +requires readjustment. This is the police force. Ill-paid and badly +organised, it follows as a matter of course that it is inefficient to +perform the duties required of it. It is divided into horse and foot, +and is paid as follows per month:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Horse</td> + <td align='center'>Piastres</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Binbashee (or Chief Officer)</td> + <td align='right'>1,000 per month</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Uzbashee (or Captain)</td> + <td align='right'>600 " </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tchonch (Corporal or Sergeant)</td> + <td align='right'>250 " </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Nefer (Private)</td> + <td align='right'>150 " </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Foot</td> + <td align='center'>Piastres</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tchonch</td> + <td align='right'>100 per month</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Nefer</td> + <td align='right'>75 " </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The Zaptiehs have frequently duties to perform which should only be +intrusted to men of honesty and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page83" name="page83"></a>Pg 83</span> sagacity, and it is consequently of +great importance to render the service attractive to trustworthy men. To +effect this the pay, more especially in the lower grades, should be +increased, and circumspection used in the selection of recruits. At +present this is far from being the case, many men of notoriously bad +character being employed, and these are driven to peculation and theft +for the means of supporting life. The mounted portion find their own +horses and forage, is very dear in many parts of the province.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page84" name="page84"></a>Pg 84</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h4>Omer Pacha—Survey of +Montenegro—Mostar—Bazaars—Mosques—Schools—Old Tower—Escape of +Prisoners—Roman Bridge—Capture by Venetians—Turkish +Officers—Pacha's Palace—European +Consulates—Clock-Tower—Emperor's Day—Warlike +Preparations—Christian Volunteers—Orders to March.</h4> + + +<p>During the week which intervened between my arrival and the removal of +head-quarters to the seat of war, I had several interviews with Omer +Pacha. On these occasions he showed much kindness of disposition, and +took great trouble to explain to me the arrangements which he made for +the prosecution of the war against Montenegro in 1852, and to describe +the nature of campaigning in that province.</p> + +<p>He expressed himself much pleased with a map of Montenegro which I had +presented to him, drawn by Major Cox, R.E., British Commissioner for +determining the new boundary line, but detected the absence of one or +two traversable paths, the existence of which I found to be correct when +I subsequently accompanied the army to those districts. The map, +however, I may observe, is very superior, both in accuracy and +minuteness of detail, to any other survey which has as yet appeared.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page85" name="page85"></a>Pg 85</span></p> + +<p>While awaiting the departure of the Generalissimo for the seat of war, +to which he had kindly invited me to accompany him, I employed myself in +wandering about those crooked byways, and studying the many phases of +Turco-European humanity. That my impressions of the town were very +favourable, I am not prepared to state; but I believe that in point of +cleanliness it is superior to many. It is situated on both banks of the +Narenta, in a gorge which opens out into two small plains, at its N. and +S. extremities. The eastern and larger part is built on an acclivity, +and contains the bazaar, government offices, and the houses of the +traders and the richer inhabitants. The western part is occupied by the +poorer classes, who are for the most part Catholics, and are employed in +agricultural pursuits. The gardens, which supply the town with +vegetables, are upon this side, and the soil is more fruitful, though +marshy and feverish. On the eastern side it is healthy, sandy, and dry. +The dwelling-houses are generally small and comfortless, indifferently +built, and roofed with stone. As in India, they are always surrounded +with a compound—for it cannot be called garden—which gives the town a +rambling and extended appearance.</p> + +<p>The shops are small and ill-supplied, and the streets narrow and +tortuous, except the two main ones, which are tolerably broad, and run +parallel to each other in a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page86" name="page86"></a>Pg 86</span> nearly straight course N. and S. They have +raised footpaths, roughly constructed, and swarming with animal life, as +is to be expected in the luxurious East. There are no fewer than thirty +mosques in the town, whose minarets give it a beautiful and picturesque +appearance, albeit that the buildings themselves are imperfect, and +ungainly in architectural detail. The Mussulmans have a school in the +town, where Turkish and Slavish are taught. Girls are, however, debarred +this advantage, and indeed no institution of any kind exists throughout +the province for their training or instruction. The result is that the +female population is, if possible, in a lower state of degradation than +the male. The religious and secular education of the Christians is as +little considered as that of the Mussulmans. Thus the only place of +worship which the Greeks possess is a small chapel on the outskirts, to +which is attached a school for boys, which is attended by about two +hundred children. Since Omer Pacha's arrival during the past year, a +peal of bells has been placed in this chapel. The superstition which +prevails amongst Turks, 'that bells drive away good spirits from the +abodes of men,' renders this concession the more grateful, and it is +only another proof that the Mussulmans of the present day are not so +intolerant as they are represented. No restrictions, indeed, are placed +upon religious ceremonies or public processions of any<span class="pagenum"><a id="page87" name="page87"></a>Pg 87</span> kind. With +regard to church bells, I may add that their use has always been +considered tantamount to a recognition of Christianity as the +established religion of the place. In some towns, where Christians +predominated, the concession had been made long before their +introduction at Mostar.</p> + +<p>The Roman Catholics have no church in Mostar. Service is performed at +the Austrian Consulate, and also at a convent, about two miles distant, +where the Bishop of Mostar resides. This circumstance has led to the +concentration of the Catholic community in that neighbourhood. The +Catholic school for boys adjoins the convent; it is, however, thinly +attended, and but indifferently conducted.</p> + +<p>The British Consulate being closed in consequence of the absence of the +Vice-Consul, M. Zohrab, who was acting as temporary Consul at Bosna +Serai, I took up my abode at a khan overlooking the river. The situation +was pretty, and the house newly restored; but this did not deprive it of +some relics of animal life, which somewhat disturb the equanimity of the +new comer, but which he soon learns to regard with indifference. +Descending the stairs, and passing through the stable, which is, as is +usually the case, immediately beneath the lodging rooms, we must turn +sharply to the right; and, after clambering up some rough and broken +steps, we arrive at the main street, which runs for about a mile<span class="pagenum"><a id="page88" name="page88"></a>Pg 88</span> +through the centre of the town, varied only by arched gateways placed at +intervals along its course. Against the first of these a Turkish sentry +indolently leans, if he be not seated on the kerbstone at the corner. +Passing through this we come to a second gate, where the peaceful +traveller, unconscious of offence, is angrily accosted. The meaning of +all this is that he is requested to throw away and stamp upon his +cigarette, the old tower on the left being used as a magazine. Round it +a weak attempt at a <i>place d'armes</i> is apparent, Omer Pacha having +ordered some of the neighbouring houses to be pulled down. Nor was this +done before it was necessary, a fire having broken out a short time +before in its vicinity. On that occasion the inhabitants destroyed a few +houses, and imagined the fire to be extinguished. The wind rose, and it +broke out again, taking the direction of the magazine. Upon this, the +whole population took to the country, and the prisoners, who were +located close by, escaped in the general confusion. Had it not been +providentially extinguished, the <i>place of Mostar would have known it no +more</i>. The prison is a plain white house, which does not look at all as +if it had ever been the sort of place to have long defied the ingenuity +of a Jack Sheppard, or even an accomplished London house-breaker of our +own day.</p> + +<p>The tower to which allusion has been made is built<span class="pagenum"><a id="page89" name="page89"></a>Pg 89</span> on the eastern side, +and immediately above the beautiful bridge which spans the Narenta, and +for which Mostar<a name="FNanchor_K_11" id="FNanchor_K_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_K_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a> has ever been famous. The Turks attribute its +erection to Suleyman the Magnificent, but it was probably built by the +Emperor Trajan or Adrian, since the very name of the town would imply +the existence of a bridge in very early days. The Turkish inscriptions, +which may be traced upon the abutments at the E. end of the bridge, +probably refer to some subsequent repairs. At any rate too much reliance +must not be placed in them, as the Turks have been frequently convicted +of removing Roman inscriptions and substituting Turkish ones in their +place. The beauty of the bridge itself is heightened by the glimpse to +be obtained of the mosques and minarets of Mostar, washed by the turbid +waters of the Narenta, and backed by the rugged hills which hem it in. +'It is of a single arch, 95 ft. 3 in. in span, and when the Narenta is +low, about 70 feet from the water, or, to the top of the parapet, 76 +feet.'<a name="FNanchor_L_12" id="FNanchor_L_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_L_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a></p> + +<p>There is a second tower at the extremity of the bridge on the left bank, +which is said to be of more modern construction.</p> + +<p>Mostar is not a fortified city, nor is it important in a strategical +point of view. The only traces of defensive works which exist are +portions of a crenellated wall of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page90" name="page90"></a>Pg 90</span> insignificant construction. This +accounts for the ease with which the Venetians were enabled to take +possession of and burn its suburbs by a sudden raid in 1717. 'The town +was built,' says Luccari, 'in 1440, by Radigost, Major-Domo of Stefano +Cosaccia;' but in asserting this, he overlooks the existence of the +Roman road to Trebigné, which is very superior to anything built by +either Slaves or Turks, and places its Roman origin beyond a doubt. Some +suppose it to be the ancient Sarsenterum. That it was selected by the +Turks as the capital of the province immediately after the conquest, and +considerably enlarged, appears very probable, and the towers which flank +the bridge were probably built at that period or a little earlier, +though the eastern one is said to be raised upon a Roman basement.</p> + +<p>Continuing our ramble we pass through another gate, and come to an +uncomfortable looking hill. We have not to mount far, however, before we +approach an archway, with two sentries, rather more alert than the +others whom we have seen. Officers are passing backwards and forwards, +looking fussy and important, as Turks always do when they get rid of +their habitual apathy. In their small waisted coats <i>à la Française</i>, +surmounted by the <i>inevitable fez</i>, they present a strange combination +of the Eastern and Western soldier.</p> + +<p>The house in the interior of the court-yard is the palace, usually +occupied by the Mulisarif, but devoted,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page91" name="page91"></a>Pg 91</span> during his stay in these parts, +to Omer Pacha, the Serdar Ekrem and Rumili Valessi, or Governor-General +of European Turkey. In the vicinity of the palace may be seen the +flagstaffs of the Prussian and Austrian Consulates, while that of Great +Britain appears at no great distance, and in the rear of the +clock-tower, which distinguishes Mostar from most other Turkish towns. +Let us now return to the main street, which continues in unbroken +monotony for something less than half a mile. If gifted with sufficient +patience to continue our stroll out of the town, we come upon the +principal burial-ground. On the E. high hills hem us in, while the tiny +stream of the Narenta comes winding from the N.</p> + +<p>During my stay at Mostar the town was enlivened by the occurrence of the +Emperor Alexander's birthday, or the 'Emperor's day,' as it is called. +In celebration of this auspicious event, the Russian Consul kept open +house, everyone who could muster decent apparel being admitted. After +the ceremony of blessing the Muscovite flag had been performed by the +Greek Bishop, a select few sat down to a kind of breakfast, which did +credit to the hospitality of his Imperial Majesty's representative. +Thither I accompanied Omer Pacha, who was attended by a small suite. +This was the only occasion on which I ever observed anything like +display in the Turkish General. His gold-<span class="pagenum"><a id="page92" name="page92"></a>Pg 92</span>embroidered dress resembled +that of a Marshal of France; his breast was literally covered with +decorations, in the centre of which was the Grand Cross of the Bath, and +he carried a magnificently-jewelled sword, the gift of the late Sultan, +Abdul Medjid. He did not, however, remain long, and on emerging I could +not help contrasting the festivities within with the signs of warlike +preparation which jostled one at every turn, the first fruits, in great +measure, of Russian imperial policy. Strings of ponies laden with +forage, and provisions for the army on the frontier, passed +continuously, and the streets presented a more than usually gay and +variegated appearance. Omer Pacha was throughout indefatigable. +Detachments of irregulars arrived daily, some of which were immediately +pushed up to the scene of operations; others were retained at Mostar; +but whether they went, or stayed behind, he inspected them alike, and +was always received with marked enthusiasm. I must not omit to mention +that amongst these reinforcements was a body of 1,000 Christians, who, +however, were never sent to the frontier. Fine fellows they were, all +armed with rifles of native construction. These arms of precision are +mostly made in Bosnia, where there are two or three establishments for +that purpose.</p> + +<p>Thus the days wore on; and, having provided myself with horses, and such +few things as are deemed<span class="pagenum"><a id="page93" name="page93"></a>Pg 93</span> indispensable for campaigning, I was delighted +to receive a message from the Generalissimo, on the night of the 13th, +intimating his intention of leaving Mostar at 8 (<i>à la Franca</i>) on the +following morning.</p> + +<p>But before I enter upon my personal experiences in the camp of the +Osmanlis, I would fain give some account of the previous history of this +agitated province; passing in brief review those causes which combined +to foster a revolutionary spirit in the country, and dwelling more +especially on the events of the last four years, during which that +spirit has so culminated as to convince even the Porte of the necessity +which exists for the immediate employment of coercive measures.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page94" name="page94"></a>Pg 94</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h4>Bosnia—Turkish Invasion—Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich—Cruel +Death of Stephen Thomasovich—His Tomb—Queen Cattarina—Duchy of +Santo Saba becomes a Roman Province—Despotism of Bosnian +Kapetans—Janissaries—Fall of Sultan Selim and +Bairaktar—Mahmoud—Jelaludin Pacha—Expedition against +Montenegro—Death of Jelaludin—Ali Pacha—Revolted Provinces +reconquered—Successes of Ibrahim Pacha—Destruction of +Janissaries—Regular Troops organised—Hadji +Mustapha—Abdurahim—Proclamation—Fall of Serayevo—Fresh +rising—Serayevo taken by Rebels—Scodra Pacha—Peace of +Adrianople—Hussein Kapetan—Outbreak of Rebellion—Cruelty of +Grand Vizier—Ali Aga of Stolatz—Kara Mahmoud—Serayevo taken—War +with Montenegro—Amnesty granted.</h4> + + +<p>The history of Bosnia under the Roman empire is possessed of too little +interest to call for any particular observation; but, considered as one +of the most fertile and beautiful of the European provinces, overrun by +the Moslem armies, it is well entitled to the mature consideration of +all who take an interest in the important question now at issue, to wit, +the fusion of the Eastern and Western worlds.</p> + +<p>The immediate cause of the invasion of Bosnia by the Turks, was the +dispute between Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich for the throne of that +country. The former called the Turks to his assistance; Ostoya, the +Hungarians. A war between these two nations was the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page95" name="page95"></a>Pg 95</span> consequence, and +the Turks gained considerable footing in Bosnia about 1415. Ostoya and +Tuartko being both dead, Stephen Thomas Christich was elected King, and +was obliged to promise an annual tribute of 25,000 ducats to Sultan +Amurath II., thirteen years after which he was murdered by his +illegitimate son, Stephen Thomasovich, who was crowned by a Papal legate +in 1461, and submitted to the Turks. But having refused to pay the +tribute due to the Porte, he was seized and flayed alive, by order of +Sultan Mahomet, and at his death the kingdom of Bosnia was completely +over-thrown.<a name="FNanchor_M_13" id="FNanchor_M_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_M_13" class="fnanchor">[M]</a></p> + +<p>Previous to this, the Turks had frequently menaced the Bosnian kingdom, +but it was not until June 14, 1463, that they actually invaded the +country, to reduce Stephen to obedience. In vain did Mathias, King of +Hungary, endeavour to stem the advancing torrent. The Turks carried all +before them, until they besieged and took Yanitza, the then capital of +the province, and with it the King and the entire garrison. Nor was this +effected in fair fight, but through the treachery of Stephen's first +minister, who opened the gates of the fortress by night, and so admitted +the Turkish soldiers.</p> + +<p>With more generosity than was usually shown by these Eastern barbarians, +Mahomet agreed to leave the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page96" name="page96"></a>Pg 96</span> King in possession of his throne on +condition of his paying an annual tax to the Porte. The payment of this, +as I have said, was evaded by his successor, although the old national +manuscripts do not even allow this apology for the barbarous treatment +which he experienced at the hands of the Turks. These affirm that the +King and all his troops, as well as the townspeople, were invited by +Mahomet to hear the official ratification of the agreement. But, at a +given signal, the Turkish soldiers, who had been in concealment, fell +upon the helpless assemblage, and massacred them in cold blood, shutting +up the King Stephen in a cage, where he subsequently died of despair; +and thus ended the Bosnian kingdom. That his position was sufficiently +hopeless to bring about this calamitous result, can scarcely be doubted; +but unfortunately the tomb of Stephen still exists, which proves +tolerably conclusively that his death was of a more speedy, if not of a +more cruel, nature. An inscription is upon it to the effect, 'Here lies +Stephen, King of Bosnia, without his kingdom, throne, and sceptre, and +without his skin.' Of all the family of the unfortunate monarch, the +only one who escaped was his Queen, Cattarina, who fled to Rome, where +she lies buried in the Chapel of Santa Helena.</p> + +<p>After the death of Stephen Thomasovich the Turks destroyed Michiaz. The +nobles, driven from their<span class="pagenum"><a id="page97" name="page97"></a>Pg 97</span> estates, fled to Ragusa; and Stephen, +'Herzog' or Duke of Santo Saba, seeing that Turkish garrisons had +occupied Popovo, Rogatiza, Triburio, Tzeruitza, and Kerka, became so +alarmed, that he offered to pay increased tribute; when, his ministers +refusing to consent to this arrangement, he was obliged to send to +Ragusa for his eldest son Stephen, and give him up as a hostage to the +Porte: he having afterwards abjured Christianity, received the name of +Ahmet, married a daughter of Bajazet II., and was made a Vizier. The +Kingdom of Bosnia and the Duchy of Santo Saba from that time became +provinces of Turkey, the latter under the name of Herzegovina, which it +still retains, and which it had received from the title of 'Herzog' or +Duke, given by Tuartko to its first Governor.</p> + +<p>The apostasy of the Bosnian nobles which occurred shortly after the +Turkish conquest, may be regarded as the only event of importance which +has since marked the history of these provinces. The deteriorating +effects which have ever followed the adoption of Islamism are here +conspicuously apparent; for in proportion as the country has sunk into +insignificance, so the moral state of the people has fallen to a lower +standard. Nor is this so much to be attributed to any particular vices +inculcated by the Mahomedan creed, as to the necessary division of +religious and political interests, and the undue monopoly of power by a +small proportion of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page98" name="page98"></a>Pg 98</span> inhabitants. That this power has been used +without mercy or consideration must be acknowledged; but be it +remembered that</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">'Their tyrants then<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Were still at least their countrymen,'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>and that the iniquities perpetrated by the renegade Beys cannot be with +justice laid to the charge of their Osmanli conquerors. It would, +indeed, be strange had four hundred years of tyranny passed over this +miserable land, without leaving a blight upon its children which no time +will ever suffice to efface.</p> + +<p>As years wore on, other and more important conquests absorbed the +attention of the Mussulman rulers, and the rich pasture-lands of Bosnia, +and the sterile rocks of Herzegovina, were alike left the undisputed +property of the apostate natives of the soil. Thence arose a system of +feudal bondage, to a certain extent akin to that recently existing in +Russia, but unequalled in the annals of the world for the spirit of +intolerance with which it was carried out. Countless are the tales of +cruelty and savage wrong with which the old manuscripts of the country +abound, and these are the more revolting, as perpetrated upon those of +kindred origin, religion, and descent. The spirit of independence +engendered by this system of feudality and unresisted oppression could +only lead to one result—viz. the increase of local at the expense of +the central authority. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="page99" name="page99"></a>Pg 99</span> increasing debility of the paternal +government tended to strengthen the power of the provincial Magnates; +and the Beys, the Spahis, and the Timariots, stars of lesser magnitude +in their way, could not but be expected to adhere to the cause of the +all-powerful Kapetans rather than to the transient power of a Vizier +appointed by the Porte.</p> + +<p>This last-named official, whose appointment was then, as now, acquired +by successful intrigue or undisguised bribery, was never certain of long +tenure of office, and invariably endeavoured by all the means in his +power to remunerate himself while the opportunity should last.</p> + +<p>The disregard entertained for life in those times, and the indifference +manifested by the Ottoman government for this portion of the empire, +often rendered it the safer policy for the Vizier to make common cause +with the recusant Kapetans, who were too powerful to be subdued by +force, and too wily to be entrapped by treachery or fraud.</p> + +<p>But another and more self-subsistent power had taken deep root +throughout the Ottoman dominions, and nowhere more than in those +provinces which lie between the Save and the Adriatic. 'In Egypt,' says +Ranke, 'there was the power of the Mameluke Beys revived immediately +after the departure of the French; there was the protectorate of the +Dere Beys in Asia<span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>Pg 100</span> Minor; the hereditary authority of the Albanian +chieftains, the dignity of the Ayans in the principal towns, besides +many other immunities—all of which seemed to find a bond of union and a +centre in the powerful order of the Janissaries.' Of all the provinces +of the empire Bosnia was perhaps the most deeply imbued with the spirit +of this faction, the last memento of that ancient chivalry which had +carried fire and sword over a great part of civilised Europe.</p> + +<p>But to that same spirit of turbulent independence, the very germ of +existence of the Janissaries, and so predominant among the natives of +Bosnia, may in a great measure be attributed the successes of the +Turkish arms in Europe in the campaign of 1828, an era fraught with +danger to the whole Ottoman empire, dangers which the newly-organised +battalions of the imperial army would have been unable to overcome but +for the aid of the wild horsemen of the West. That the same spirit +exists as did in bygone times I do not say; but whatever does yet remain +of chivalrous endurance or reckless daring is to be found among the +Mussulman, and not amongst the Christian, population.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth +century, affairs assumed so critical an aspect that it became incumbent +upon the central government to adopt some coercive measure. Sultan Selim +was the first who endeavoured to suppress these<span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>Pg 101</span> turbulent spirits. He +was unequal to the task, and fell a victim to their revengeful +displeasure. 'Bairaktar, the hero of those times,' was equally +unsuccessful, and the imperial authority bid fair to perish from the +land; but in those days there arose one who, like our own Cromwell, +moulded circumstances to his will, resolute of purpose, fearing and +sparing none. But if Mahmoud was stern and inexorable to rebels, he is +entitled to more praise than is usually accorded him, for the +steadfastness of purpose with which he applied himself to the +restoration of system and order, in the place of the chaos which he had +himself brought about. And let us not omit to mention the dignified +courage with which he prepared to meet the calamities which now crowded +thick upon him. With the mere nucleus of a semi-organised army he held +out for two years, both in Europe and Asia, without one ally, against +the herculean efforts of Russia to overthrow his kingdom.</p> + +<p>There are not wanting those who, besides stigmatising him as deceitful +and cruel, cast in his teeth that he failed to carry out the schemes of +reform, which they consider to have been visionary and unmeaning. But +these, while commenting on what he left undone, forget how much he did, +and how little aid he received from without. Well would it be for Turkey +this day had either of his sons inherited the vigour, the perseverance, +or even the honesty of old Mahmoud.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>Pg 102</span></p> + +<p>Since the accession of Mahmoud to the throne, Bosnia and Herzegovina +have been the seat of perpetual, though intermittent, warfare. Short +time did he allow to elapse before he gave unmistakable signs of his +determination to effect a radical change in the state of these +provinces. With this view he sent as Vizier Jelaludin Pacha thither, +with orders to punish with extreme severity all who should show any +signs of discontent. This man, who is said to have belonged to the sect +of Bektashi, an order of Mahomedan monks, did not live like other +Pachas. He neither kept a harem nor a court, and devoted himself +exclusively to fulfilling the duties of his mission. To do this more +effectually, he used to go about in disguise, visiting even the +Christian places of worship, and thus obtaining a real knowledge of the +feelings and wishes of the people. Now as he practised incorruptible, +inexorable justice, his rule was as popular among the Rayahs as it was +odious to the Bosnian nobles, against whose independence all his laws +and measures were directed.</p> + +<p>Having taken Mostar and Trebinitza by storm, he at length succeeded in +subduing the whole country. Although nominally recalled, in deference to +a petition preferred by the nobles of Bosnia, Jelaludin was in reality +advanced to a more exalted position of confidence. To him was intrusted +the conduct of an expedition against Montenegro, which failed; and +little more is heard<span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>Pg 103</span> about him until 1821, when he died, as some think, +by poison administered by his own hand.</p> + +<p>In conformity with a preconceived plan of operations, an expedition was +sent in 1820 against Ali Pacha, the most powerful of those who had +ventured to throw off the Ottoman rule.</p> + +<p>The operations were successful both by sea and land, and at first all +appeared to be progressing satisfactorily. But the extraordinary +fertility of resource which characterised the old man, saved him once +more; and while the Suliots in his pay overran Epirus in 1821, he +succeeded in rousing the whole Greek population to revolt. Although he +himself fell during the outbreak, the disastrous results which he had +succeeded in effecting lived long after him, not only in Greece, but in +Bulgaria, Bosnia, and other parts of the Turkish empire.</p> + +<p>The death of Jelaludin, and the revolutionary movement which had spread +throughout the empire, led to the restoration of the old state of things +in Bosnia. The powerful nobles once more resumed their sway, and the few +supporters of the Sultan were compelled to fly the country.</p> + +<p>The reconquest by the Porte of the revolted countries, and the mighty +change which the iron hand of Mahmoud effected in the internal condition +and administration of all parts of his empire, cannot be more forcibly +described than in the words of Ranke. He says: 'We<span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>Pg 104</span> must recollect that +the Sultan succeeded in extinguishing all these rebellions, one after +another, as soon as he had put down the most formidable. We will not +enquire by what means this was effected: enough to say, that he at last +re-established his authority on the Danube, as in Epirus. Even the Morea +seemed doomed to a renewal of the Moslem sway. Ibrahim Pacha landed +there with the troops from Egypt in 1825. He annihilated rather than +subjugated its population, and changed the country, as he himself said, +into a desert waste; but at least he took possession of it, step by +step, and everywhere set up the standard of the Sultan.'</p> + +<p>Having been so far successful, the Sultan adopted a more comprehensive +plan.</p> + +<p>Mahomed Ali's successful enterprises served as his model from the first. +Mahomed Ali led the way in Egypt by the annihilation of ancient +privileges, and it was not until he had succeeded that Mahmoud resolved +to pursue a similar course.</p> + +<p>'A fearful rivalry in despotism and destruction then began between the +two. They might be compared to the reapers in Homer, cutting down the +corn in all directions. But the vassal had been long engaged in a +process of innovation. In spite of the opposition of his Janissaries, he +had accomplished his purpose of establishing regular regiments, clothed +and disciplined after the European system.' The fact that it was these<span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>Pg 105</span> +troops which, after so many fruitless attempts, at last conquered +Greece, made a profound impression on the Sultan. He reverted to the +ideas of Selim and Bairaktar, and the establishment of regular troops +seemed to him the only salvation of his empire. Therefore, on May 28, +1826, in a solemn sitting of his Council of State, at which the +Commissioner who had lately been in Ibrahim's camp was present, was +pronounced the 'fetwah,' that, 'In order to defend God's word and +counteract the superiority of the unbelievers, the Moslems, too, would +submit to subordination, and learn military manœuvres.' The subversion +of ancient privileges, then, was the fundamental basis upon which his +reforms rested, and to this the destruction of the Janissaries put the +finishing touch.</p> + +<p>If Mahmoud found difficulty in carrying out his plans at Stamboul, how +much more hard must they have been to accomplish in the provinces; and +of these, as I have before said, Bosnia was the most strongly imbued +with a spirit of independent feudalism.</p> + +<p>In Bosnia, therefore, as was anticipated, the greatest resistance to the +innovation was experienced.</p> + +<p>Upon the death of Jelaludin, Hadji Mustapha had been appointed Vizier, a +man of small capacity, and little suited to those stormy times.</p> + +<p>He, and the six commissioners who had been sent with him from +Constantinople, were driven out, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>Pg 106</span> compelled to take refuge in +Servia, whence they returned to Constantinople.</p> + +<p>Again the dominion of the Sultan in these provinces appeared to hang +upon a slender thread; and indeed it was only saved by the sagacity of a +single man.</p> + +<p>Upon the ejection of Hadji Mustapha, Abdurahim, the Pacha of Belgrade, +was appointed Vizier of Bosnia. Gifted with great penetration and +ability for intrigue, he contrived to win over many of the native +chieftains, while he worked upon the jealousy entertained by the Prince +of Servia for the Bosnian nobles, and thus succeeded in raising a small +army, with which he took the initiative in hostilities. Ranke tells us: +'He was fortunate enough to secure the assistance of the Kapetan +Vidaitch of Svornik. Svornik is regarded as the key of Bosnia. It seems +that the Agas of Serayevo had already conceived some suspicion of +Vidaitch, for they were themselves about to take possession of the +place. But Abdurahim anticipated them, and Vidaitch admitted him into +the fortress.'</p> + +<p>A paramount advantage was gained by this. Abdurahim now felt strong +enough to speak in a decisive tone in the Bujurdi, in which he announced +his arrival.</p> + +<p>'I send you from afar,' he therein said, 'O Mahomedans of Bosnia, the +greeting of the faith, and of brotherly union. I will not call to mind +your folly: I come to open your eyes to the light. I bring you the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>Pg 107</span> most +sacred commands of our most mighty Sultan, and expect you will obey +them. In that case I have power to forgive you all your errors; choose +now for yourselves. It rests with you to save or to lose your lives. +Reflect maturely, that you may have no cause to repent.'</p> + +<p>This proclamation, which may be regarded as a model of terseness and +expressive earnestness, had a wonderful effect. Still Serayevo was not +gained without a struggle, confined however principally to the citizens +within its walls.</p> + +<p>Upon gaining possession of the town, the new Vizier carried out to the +letter the judgements which he had pronounced against the contumacious. +All who were taken in arms were put to death without mercy, and it was +not until he had taken a bloody vengeance on his enemies that he +consented to make a triumphal entry into Serayevo.</p> + +<p>During the feudal times, when the Sultan's authority was more nominal, +the Vizier was only permitted to remain a few hours in the capital, +whence he returned to his palace at Travnik; but Abdurahim deemed it +necessary to establish the seat of government in that very town, which +had ever been the focus of feudality and rebellion.</p> + +<p>'Thus there was once more a master in Bosnia. No one ventured now to +mention the Janissaries. The uniforms<span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>Pg 108</span> arrived; the Kapetans were +obedient, and put them on. The whole land submitted to the new +regulations.'</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the high pressure system adopted by the Sultan, the +spirit of rebellion was still rife, and it manifested itself on the +first opportunity that occurred.</p> + +<p>The Machiavellian policy of endeavouring to hold both the Servians and +Bosnians in check, by pitting the one against the other, was of doubtful +expediency; and, as the event proved, tended materially to weaken the +imperial cause by depriving it of the aid of the Bosnian irregulars, who +had acquired a name for reckless daring second to none. The outbreak of +the Russian war was the signal for another attempt to obtain the +independence of which Abdurahim had robbed them. At this juncture, too, +they displayed the mixture of violence and cunning, so essentially the +character of barbarous nations.</p> + +<p>From every castle and town, the troops marched to the Eagle's Field, +Orlovopolie, close by Bielina, their appointed rendezvous. The Vizier +intended soon to repair thither with forces from Serayevo. Whilst +preparing to do so, it happened that the people of Visoko, an +unimportant place about six German miles from Serayevo, arrived before +that capital, instead of marching direct to Orlovopolie, as they should +have done. The Vizier sent out his Kiaia, and some of the principal +inhabitants of the city, to call them to account for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>Pg 109</span> unauthorised +change in their line of march. A Kapidji Bashi, who had just arrived +from Constantinople, accompanied the mission, and gave it still more +importance; but it was unquestionably a concerted scheme amongst the +leading men of Visoko and Serayevo. Thousands of inhabitants had already +gone, many no doubt from mere curiosity—for it was Friday, a day on +which the Turks do not work—but others with a distinct purpose. When +the mission angrily demanded that the force should march off forthwith +to the appointed place, some poor inhabitants of Visoko stepped out of +the ranks and declared that, without money, they were not in a position +to proceed a step farther; that even only to equip themselves, and march +as far as they had already arrived, some of them had been obliged to +sell their children. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia thought that such +language was not to be borne. Without hesitation, therefore, in +accordance with the principles of Turkish justice, they ordered their +followers to seize the speakers, to take them away, and behead them. The +order, however, was not so easy of execution. 'Help, true believers in +the Prophet!' exclaimed the men; 'help, and rescue us.' All seized their +weapons, the comrades of the prisoners as well as the inhabitants of +Serayevo, who were privy to the scheme, and those who were hurried along +by their example. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia had not time to<span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>Pg 110</span> mount +their horses, but were obliged to run to the city on foot, with bullets +whistling after them. The furious armed multitude arrived there with +them. The Vizier's force, about two thousand strong, attempted for a +while to stem the torrent. They tried to stand their ground wherever +they found a position, such as a bridge, a mosque, or a house, but were +far too weak to maintain it. Only a small number had time to retire into +the fortress, where the Vizier was, and thence they fired with the few +cannon they had on the lower town. But the Bosnians, with their small +arms, did far more execution, singling out their enemies, and bringing +them down with sure aim. The fighting continued for three days. At last +Abdurahim found himself compelled to think of his own safety. The +Bosnians, who found themselves victorious, would gladly have refused him +leave to retire; but the older and more experienced among them, +satisfied with the success they had obtained, persuaded the young people +to let him go. On the fourth day, a Thursday in July 1828, Abdurahim +marched away. He took the road to Orlovopolie, being allowed to take +with him the cannons he had brought. There, however, he found that the +spirit of disaffection had gained such head, that nearly all the +soldiers, whom he had expected to find, had dispersed and gone to their +homes. He thereupon repaired to Travnik, and was shortly afterwards +replaced by another Vizier of milder temper.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>Pg 111</span></p> + +<p>The state of the empire now appeared more settled, both in its domestic +and foreign relations, the peace of Adrianople having at any rate saved +the capital from fear of an attack. What success the Sultan might have +had in his endeavours to consolidate his rule in Bosnia, we are unable +to judge; since he found an antagonist to every species of reform in +Mustapha Pacha of Scutari, commonly known as Scodra Pacha, the most +mischievous, as well as the most powerful, of all the provincial +magnates since the fall of Ali Pacha. Young, warlike, and of good +descent, he constituted himself the champion of hereditary privileges, +and as such virtually threw down the gauntlet to his imperial master. +Open rebellion, however, was not the plan which he proposed to himself +by which to attain the object dearest to his heart—the re-embodiment of +the Janissaries, and the establishment of the old order of things. To +this end he consented, in 1823, to make a demonstration against the +Greek rebels, but took very good care not to render too much service to +the cause which he espoused. Thus, too, when he marched in the autumn of +1828 to the vicinity of the Danube, at the head of an army of 25,000 +irregulars, it was not with the intention of attacking the Russians, but +rather under the expectation that the necessities of the Sultan would +afford him an opportunity of procuring the re-establishment of those +'Prætorian guards of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>Pg 112</span> Turkey.' The arrogant pretensions of Scodra Pacha +were very strongly exemplified in the attitude which he assumed at the +close of the campaign of 1829. Having in the first instance shown much +dilatoriness in entering the field, he remained inactive near Widdin +during the latter part of 1828 and the commencement of 1829, when, by +operating in the rear of the Russians, he might have been most useful to +the Turkish Seraskier. The treaty of peace, however, had been signed, +and forwarded for ratification to Russia, when Scodra Pacha suddenly +electrified both parties by objecting to its terms, and announcing his +intention of continuing the war. He even marched to Philippopolis, +whence he sent a message that he would arrive at Adrianople within eight +days. This naturally caused Marshal Diebitsch some anxiety, since he was +unaware of the Pacha's real policy, and believed him to be sincere in +his protestations of vengeance against the invaders. A hasty summons was +therefore sent to General Geismar, who consequently crossed the Danube +at Rachova; and having turned, and subsequently forced, the Pass of +Anatcha in the Balkans, easily defeated the Pacha, who made but small +resistance. This and the approach of General Kisselef from Schumla put a +finishing stroke to hostilities, and Scodra returned home to brood over +the ill-success of his undertaking, and plan farther means of working +mischief to the hated Mahmoud.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>Pg 113</span></p> + +<p>The opportunity soon presented itself. Having succeeded in ridding +himself of some of the Albanian leaders, the Sultan applied himself with +vigour to the subjection of those in Bosnia who were adverse to his +rule. In 1830 he sent uniforms to Travnik, which the Vizier immediately +donned. This kindled the spark, and in the beginning of 1831 several +thousand insurgents, under the command of Hussein Kapetan, the 'Sonai od +Bosna,' or Dragon of Bosnia, attacked him in his fortress, and made him +prisoner. So great was the abhorrence professed for the adoption of +Christian clothing, that the unfortunate Vizier was compelled to perform +solemn ablutions and to recite Moslem prayers, in order to purify +himself from contamination. The standard of rebellion was now fairly +unfurled, and within a few weeks a force of 25,000 men had collected. At +the same time Mustapha Pacha, with 40,000 Albanians and others, made his +appearance on the scene of action. Without delay an advance was made <i>en +potence</i>, and it was confidently anticipated that Stamboul would fall +before the insurgent arms. But the Sultan possessed both a cunning and +able lieutenant in the Grand Vizier Redschid. This functionary contrived +to dispense bribes so judiciously among the inferior Albanian +chieftains, that they deserted en masse to the Turks, and thus rendered +it imperative on Mustapha to take refuge in his fortress at Scutari.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>Pg 114</span> +This he did in the anticipation of speedy relief by Hussein Kapetan and +the Bosnians, who, despite the dissuasion of the Servian Prince Milosch, +had already marched to the rescue. Hussein's answer to Milosch, as given +by Ranke, is very characteristic of the man: 'Take heed to thyself,' he +said; 'thou hast but little food before thee: I have overturned thy +bowl. I will have nothing to do with a Sultan with whom thou canst +intercede for me; I am ready to meet thee, always and anywhere; my sword +had smitten before thine was forged.' More modest and unpresuming was +the burden of the song which they are reported to have chanted on the +march:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">We march, brethren, to the plains of Kossovo,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Where our forefathers lost their renown and their faith.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">There it may chance that we also may lose our renown and our faith;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or that we shall maintain them, and return as victors to Bosnia.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Animated by principles which would have done credit to a Christian host, +these undisciplined Mussulmans easily overcame the Grand Vizier's army, +partly, it must be acknowledged, by the defection of the Albanians, who +had previously deserted the cause of Scodra Pacha. Had they now pushed +on, their independence would have been established; but, unfortunately, +what the Grand Vizier could not effect by force of arms he brought about +by guile. With great tact and cunning<span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>Pg 115</span> he sent emissaries to Hussein, +demanding to know the terms which they required. These were the +permission to remain in statu quo, with the appointment of Hussein as +Vizier. These conditions he was fain to grant, and so far worked upon +the Bosnians by private and official stratagem, that they commenced +their homeward march, leaving Scodra Pacha to his fate. Shortly +afterwards he was compelled to surrender. Individually his life was +spared, but his partisans did not meet with the same clemency. For the +truth of what I am about to relate I am unable to vouch, but can only +give it as it is recorded by the chroniclers of the events of those +times. Projectile machines are said to have been erected, and the +prisoners, being placed upon them, were flung against a wooden framework +studded with great iron hooks, and wherever the body of the unfortunate +victim was caught by them, there it hung until he perished by the +terrible, torturing, and protracted death.</p> + +<p>The destruction of Scodra's power was a great feather in the cap of the +Grand Vizier, who now lost no time in undermining the authority of +Hussein. In this he was assisted by the imprudence of the latter, who +committed the error of admitting Ali Aga of Stolatz into his confidence, +a man who had always adhered to the Sultan, and was distrusted +accordingly by his compatriots. Universal as was the partisan warfare +in<span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>Pg 116</span> Bosnia and Herzegovina, there was no chieftain who had supported the +brunt of so many onslaughts as Ali Aga. His castle at Stolatz, although +incapable of resisting the weapons employed in scientific warfare, was +impregnable in those times, and against such an enemy.</p> + +<p>In addition to the distrust engendered by Hussein's intimacy with All, +the absence of any ratification by the Porte of the recent treaty of +peace tended to produce discord in the province. Taking advantage of +this, the Grand Vizier nominated a new Pacha, Kara Mahmoud, a creature +devoted to government interest. He invaded the country with 30,000 men, +and finally succeeded, in spite of a gallant resistance, in taking +Serayevo, the capital. The perseverance which he employed in a sinking +cause did credit to Hussein, who was nobly supported by the faithful and +brave Al Pacha Vidaitch, who had no less than eight horses killed under +him in the battle which took place before the walls of Serayevo.</p> + +<p>Kara Mahmoud established himself there, and deposed in succession all +the Kapetans except Ali Aga of Stolatz, who had made his appearance at a +critical moment of the battle before Serayevo, and thus turned the +tables against his former friend, Hussein Pacha.</p> + +<p>Having thus far succeeded in his undertaking, Redschid Pacha turned his +attention to Montenegro,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>Pg 117</span> which had been the source of chronic +heartburnings since 1804. The nature of the country, and the want of +organisation in the Turkish forces, however, once more enabled the +mountaineers successfully to repel the invaders. A more important +expedition against them was in contemplation, when the Egyptian war +broke out, and the services of the Grand Vizier and his army were +required to combat their former ally, Ibrahim Pacha. Previous to +quitting the country, the Grand Vizier promulgated an amnesty to all +those refugees who had fled into Austria, except Hussein Kapetan, Ali +Vidaitch, and Kruppa Kapetan. A firman was subsequently given, +permitting even these to return to Turkey, although interdicting their +residence in Bosnia. On arriving at Constantinople they received their +pardon, and Ali Vidaitch returned to Bosnia; Hussein's fate is more +uncertain. From that time until 1849 order prevailed in Bosnia, +although, as subsequent events proved, a rebellious spirit still existed +amongst the more important chieftains, with whom personal aggrandisement +took precedence of the interests of the Sultan, their sovereign.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>Pg 118</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h4>Hussein Pacha—Tahir Pacha—Polish and Hungarian +Rebellions—Extends to Southern Slaves—Congress +convened—Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina—Arrival of Omer +Pacha—Elements of Discord—Rising in Bulgaria put down by +Spahis—Refugees—Ali Rizvan Begovitch—Fall of Mostar, and Capture +of Ali—His suspicious Death—Cavass Bashee—Anecdote of Lame +Christian—Omer Pacha invades Montenegro—Successes—Austria +interferes—Mission of General Leiningen—Battle of Grahovo—Change +of Frontier—Faults of new Boundary.</h4> + + +<p>And so time wore on, and Bosnia enjoyed a kind of fitful repose. There +and in Herzegovina the feudal system had lost much of its primeval +vigour, although a barbarous independence still prevailed, more +especially in the latter province, where Ali Aga of Stolatz showed +symptoms of forsaking the <i>treacherous fidelity</i> which had secured for +him his high position. Whatever feeling of disaffection might have been +cherished, either in Bulgaria or Bosnia, was effectually checked: in the +former by the judicious tyranny of Hussein, Vizier of Widdin, in the +latter by the iron yoke of Tahir Pacha, who fully entered into the +Sultan's projects for reform.</p> + +<p>The social condition of these two provinces rendered necessary a certain +variety in the policy of their rulers.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>Pg 119</span> Thus, while Hussein may be +regarded as the apostle of political Islamism in Europe, Tahir +endeavoured to introduce the European element. He consequently +identified himself, to a dangerous extent, with the Christian +population, abolishing forced labour, equalising the taxes, and +effecting other reforms calculated to upset the old, and establish the +<i>Nisame Jedid</i>, or new order of things.</p> + +<p>At this juncture the flames of revolutionary war broke forth in Poland +and Hungary. The proximity of these countries, and the affinity of their +Slavonic origin, could not fail to disseminate the same spirit on the +southern bank of the Save. A wild enthusiasm took possession of both +Serbs<a name="FNanchor_N_14" id="FNanchor_N_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_N_14" class="fnanchor">[N]</a> and Bulgares, before which the aged and decrepid Viziers felt +themselves powerless.</p> + +<p>If it be difficult to realise the position of the Sultan, who thus found +himself at variance with his Christian subjects in Bulgaria, and his +Bosnian Spahis, the attitude assumed by these factions is equally +incomprehensible. Blinded by one insane desire to throw off their +allegiance to the Sultan, they espoused the Russo-Austrian cause, +demanding their annexation to some Slave country. Thus, by a clever +stroke of policy, Austria contrived to secure to herself the cooperation +of both the Hungarian and Serb Slaves. And here we<span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>Pg 120</span> may note a curious +coincidence, which still farther complicated matters. Whatever may have +been their prejudices against the Slavonic Christians, the Bosnian +Spahis found it expedient to demand the assistance, not only of the +Servians, but of the Montenegrins, the most implacable of foes to the +Turkish rule. These at first appeared likely to respond to the summons.</p> + +<p>So numerically strong, and so complete, were the preparations for war +made by the Bosnians, that, when they took the field under Ali Kieditch, +Tahir found it impossible to stem the torrent of rebellion. Never did +the prospects of the Porte wear so gloomy an aspect, for there were +ranged against it all classes of Slaves and Bulgares, irrespective of +religion or denomination. As a last resource government convened a +Congress, comprising representatives of all classes of subject Slaves. +As might have been supposed, little unanimity prevailed in their +counsels, and no tangible advantages were thereby attained. And now a +combination of unforeseen circumstances conspired to rescue the Porte +from the pressing danger which threatened it. The neutrality preserved +by Servia, or rather its Prince, Alexander Guirgievitch, infected not +only the Bulgarian Christians, but even the Montenegrins themselves, who +actually overran Herzegovina and a portion of the Bosnian frontier +during the absence of the Mussulman Spahis of those districts. Undaunted +however, by these<span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>Pg 121</span> mishaps, the members of the Congress returned to +their homes; and, although powerless to act in concert, succeeded so +well in stirring up a feeling of animosity against the government, that +the spring of 1850 found the malcontents in a better position than ever +for the renewal of the war. But rebellion had now reached its +culminating point, and the sudden appearance of Omer Pacha, who threw +himself with impetuous daring into the heart of Bosnia, gave a very +different colouring to events. To form a just estimate of the +difficulties which he had to overcome, ere order could be re-established +in this confused chaos, it is necessary briefly to recapitulate the +various conflicting elements, revolutionary and otherwise, which had +been brought into play, the aim and inevitable result of which must have +been the utter destruction of this unhappy empire.</p> + +<p>There are those who profess to believe that Russia has no malevolent +designs upon Turkey, and who bring forward many plausible reasons in +support of their opinion; but this number has very materially diminished +since the disclosures which preceded the late Russian war. The character +of the Turkish people, their religion, and their social and political +institutions, may all have tended to produce the calamitous state of +affairs. Yet when we probe the matter to the bottom, there we find the +root of all evil—Russian policy and imperial ambition. It is not to say +that this monarch or that was<span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>Pg 122</span> desirous of annexing by conquest, and +holding by force of arms, a gigantic empire. Such a thought were +madness. Far more subtle is the scheme which was, and is, inherent in +every Russian ruler. It has been, and still is, their own +aggrandisement, direct or indirect, based upon the ruins of Turkey. Ably +and laboriously have they worked to effect that which still seems as +distant as ever. No sooner were the bloody days of 1828-9 past, than +they applied themselves afresh to the work of disorganisation, and in +this appeared to succeed too well. They had launched the Slave against +the Turk, and then the Christian Slave against the Mussulman Slave, +whilst at the same time the Asiatic Turk—the Turk <i>pur sang</i>—was +struggling throughout Anatolia against the reformed and European Turk. +It now remained to find a pretext to justify her in effecting an armed +intervention, that cloak for so much that is arbitrary and aggressive. +This was soon found in an insignificant rising of the Bulgarians, +brought on by her roubles lavishly dispensed by old Milosch Obrenovitch, +the ejected Servian Prince, and the sympathy felt for Kossuth and +Dembinski, who had taken refuge at Widdin. This rising, however, which +was at first directed only against the Turkish Spahis or landowners, +soon acquired more important dimensions, and on January 8, 1850, the +three Nahias of Widdin, Belgradchitch, and Verkovats, were under arms. +Having failed in an<span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>Pg 123</span> attack upon the fortress of Belgradchitch, they +retired and entrenched themselves at different spots in the adjacent +country. Better armed and provisioned, and of greater physical courage, +the Spahis soon succeeded in overcoming these disorganised masses, and +bloody was the vengeance which they took.</p> + +<p>'Victors in every encounter,' says Cyprien Robert, 'the Mussulman Spahis +began to visit on horseback the villages, more than two hundred in +number, which had taken part in the insurrection. The devastation that +ensued was worthy of the most barbarous time. Neither age nor sex was +spared. All the young were carried off to the vulture-nests of the +Spahis of the Balkan. In vain did Redschid Pacha enjoin milder measures; +neither he nor the Sultan could check these bloodthirsty tigers. There +needed to that end the unexpected arrival of Omer Pacha at Nish. He fell +among them like a thunderbolt, and all was silence. The Bulgarians +ceased to flee, the Spahis to pursue, and, what was more, the Russian +army of Wallachia halted at the moment it was about to cross the Danube. +That terrible Omer, the queller of so many revolts, had at Bucharest an +opportunity of making his qualities felt by the Russian Generals, and +they were completely disconcerted by his sudden arrival at Nish, when +they thought he was hemmed in by the insurgent Serba in the gorges of +Bosnia, without the means of making<span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>Pg 124</span> his way through them. The Russian +troops paused, awaiting fresh orders from St. Petersburg: orders came, +and the whole scheme was quashed. Cleverly as the Russian plot had been +laid, it was completely baffled by the rapidity of Omer Pacha's +movement.' Once again order was re-established. Serayevo was again made +the seat of the provincial government, and numerous reforms were brought +into force, all of which tended to ameliorate the condition of the +Christian population.</p> + +<p>Such of the chieftains as refused to make their submission were pursued +without mercy, until the province became too hot to hold them. A few, +too proud or too obstinate to yield, took refuge in the Herzegovina, +where Ali Rizvan Begovitch, then an old man, opened his fortresses to +them. But all resistance was vain before the iron will and temperate +judgement of Omer. Mostar fell, and old Ali was made a prisoner and sent +in chains to Serayevo. That place he never reached, for he was shot, +accidentally it is alleged, by a Turkish soldier while on his way +thither. The circumstances of his death will hardly bear an enquiry, and +do not reflect much credit on the successful Omer, to whom the blame, as +well as the glory he acquired in all else, must attach. It is true that +the old tyrant fully deserved his fate, since even to this day the +enormities which he committed are well remembered. The old tower on<span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>Pg 125</span> the +Narenta at Mostar used to look grim with the distorted heads of the +prisoners whom he had captured on the Montenegrin frontier. The habit of +decapitating the dead was revolting enough, but this aged sinner was not +satisfied with that: he used to drive sharp wooden poles through their +living bodies, and then leave them to die a lingering and agonising +death. Some are said to have survived their impalement as much as +forty-eight hours. The example set by the Pacha was readily followed by +those about him. Numerous are the tales of murder done by his followers, +one of whom vied with his master in deeds of murder and ferocity. This +man, the Cavass Bashee, lived entirely by plunder and rapine. A spot was +pointed out to me in the valley of the Drechnitza where a Christian was +killed by him while stooping down to drink. I also heard an amusing +anecdote regarding him, when he was completely outwitted by a poor lame +Christian. The latter was riding through a river, where the stream was +somewhat rapid. On the river's bank he was overtaken by the Cavass +Bashee, who allowed him to reach the middle of the stream, when he +ordered him to dismount, threatening to shoot him if he did not comply. +In vain he pleaded his lameness; the ruffian was obdurate. Nothing +remained but to obey. This he did, and with difficulty reached the +opposite bank. The Mussulman followed, but scarcely had he reached the +deep water when the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>Pg 126</span> Christian, who carried a pistol concealed, drew it, +and, aiming at his persecutor, ordered him to dismount under pain of +death. So aghast was he at this audacious effrontery, that he not only +obeyed, but departed without farther comment, leaving the Christian +master of the field. Whether he took warning from Ali Pacha's fate is +unknown, but he certainly died in the odour of sanctity, after +performing a pilgrimage to Mecca.</p> + +<p>Having thus established the power of the Sultan in both provinces, as +well as in Bulgaria, Omer Pacha turned his attention to the +Montenegrins, whose incursions into the Herzegovina were becoming +frequent and audacious. Penetrating the country from two converging +points, he defeated the mountaineers on every occasion, who found that +they had a very different foe to contend with from those to whom they +had been accustomed. Already had he advanced close upon Cettigne, the +capital, when the Austrian government interfered. Operations were +suspended, and General Leiningen proceeded to Constantinople, where he +demanded the total withdrawal of the Turkish forces. This was acceded +to, and Turkey thus lost the hold which it had acquired upon the lawless +Montenegrins. The idea of Ottoman decay acquired daily fresh strength, +and a maudlin sentimentality was excited in behalf of these Christian +savages. Taking advantage of this, they made constant forays across the +border, stirring up<span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>Pg 127</span> by their example such of the borderers as were +disposed to rise, and using force to compel those who would have +preferred a quiet existence under the Turkish rule.</p> + +<p>Such was the position of affairs when the battle of Grahovo took place +on May 13, 1858. Although the affair has been grossly exaggerated, and +the blame wrongfully imputed to Hussein Pacha, the military Commander of +the Ottoman forces, it cannot be gain-said that the Turkish power was +much weakened by the event, and the arrogance of the Christians +proportionately increased, while the change of frontier to which it +conduced tended rather to aggravate than diminish the evil. The new +boundary line was defined by an European mixed commission, which decided +on increasing Montenegro by the annexation of territory on the western +frontier, including Grahovo, which they had held since Hussein Pacha's +disaster. Whether the new frontier is calculated to promote a pacific +settlement of the question admits of debate, as the province is +penetrated almost to the centre by Turkish territory on either side: +this, if it give the latter the advantage in a military point of view, +exposes the occupants of the country, flanked by the Montenegrin +mountains, to constant visits from their unwelcome neighbours, who dash +down, kill, burn, and carry off all that they can lay hands on, and +retreat to their fastnesses before the arrival of succour.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>Pg 128</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h4>Insurrection of Villagers—Attack Krustach—Three Villages +burnt—Christian Version—Account given by Dervisch +Pacha—Deputation headed by Pop Boydan—Repeated Outrages by +Rebels—Ali Pacha of Scutari—His want of Ability—Greek Chapels +sacked—Growth of Rebellion—Omer Pacha restored to +Favour—Despatched to the Herzegovina—Proclamation—Difficulties +to be encountered—Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and Prince +of Montenegro—Evaded by the Prince—Omer Pacha returns to +Mostar—Preparations for Campaign.</h4> + + +<p>We now arrive at that period when rebellion actually broke out among the +Christians of the Herzegovina, and when things, in short, assumed the +aspect which they now wear.</p> + +<p>Before entering upon any account of the various risings which have +occurred, I would remark that much blame attaches itself to the Porte, +not only because of long years of misgovernment, but also on account of +the supineness shown by its officials, who, in the presence of the most +positive proofs to the contrary, treated the idea of a rising with +supercilious disregard. Frequently whole villages came in to declare +that they should be compelled to rise, unless they received protection +and support. This was of course promised liberally, but the promises +were never redeemed, and so they<span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>Pg 129</span> were driven to rebellion against their +will, as a means of safety from the fanatical fury of their lawless +co-religionists.</p> + +<p>After two years of indecisive skirmishing, in which the Turks, always +exposed in small parties, generally fared the worst, the Ottoman +government appeared to awake to the necessity for pursuing more +energetic measures. This resolution was hastened by the revolt of the +villagers of Yassenik, Lipneh, Garevo, Kazantzi, Doulatchi, Vralkovitch, +Golia, Krustach, Beronschitzi, Yenevitza, Danitzi, and others in the +neighbourhood of Gasko, who joined bands of Uskoks, with whom and the +Montenegrins they attacked the blockhouse of Krustach. As a punishment, +three of these were burnt by the Turkish troops. The version of the +affair given by the opposing parties varies considerably, as may be +supposed. The Christians affirm that, after repeated acts of aggression +on the part of the Bashi Bazouks, they took refuge in the mountains, but +returned thence on being promised protection. That they were one day +astonished by perceiving the heights covered with soldiers, who entered +and sacked the village of Beronschitzi. No blood was shed, but the six +sons of one Simon Gregorovitch were taken before Ali Pacha, who ordered +them to instant execution. The seventh son is reported to have been +taken to Metokhia, where, after being tortured, he was executed. The +people escaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>Pg 130</span> from Yassenik and Yenevitza, but in the former two women +are said to have been killed and thrown into the flames of the burning +houses.</p> + +<p>The whole of these villagers affirm that their only crime consisted in +having united with other villagers in posting videttes, to give warning +of the approach of Bashi Bazouks and Uskoks.</p> + +<p>This somewhat improbable story is denied by Dervisch Pacha, who gives +the following account of the matter:—The occupants of twenty-one +different villages revolted in the spring of 1859, and interrupted the +communications between Gasko and Niksich and Grasko and Mostar. They +then attacked those villages occupied by Mussulmans in the plain of +Gasko, and made raids into the district of Stolatz, from which they +carried off 6,000 head of cattle, the property of the Roman Catholics of +that district. They further compelled many Christians to join in the +revolt, who would otherwise have remained quiet. Dervisch Pacha +therefore sent Ali Riza Pacha, a General of Brigade, to restore order. +He, after taking and garrisoning Krustach, advised the rebels to send +deputies, to show the nature of the grievances of which they complained. +These were sent accordingly, headed by one Pop Boydan, a priest, and a +leading mover of the insurrection; but in place of lodging any +complaints, the delegates appeared rather in the light of suppliants +demanding<span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>Pg 131</span> pardon and favour. Meanwhile the villagers returned, but not +to live peaceably—merely with the view of getting in their crops.</p> + +<p>While the deputation, however, was at Nevresign, the villages of Lipneh, +Samabor, Yassenik, Yenevitza, and Beronschitzi revolted again, and cut +off the communications between Gasko, Krustach, and Niksich. They also +posted guards along a line of frontier, which they said that no Turk +should pass. When called to account by Dervisch Pacha for this breach of +faith, the deputies replied that the Christians acted through fear, +which feeling was taken advantage of by a few evil-disposed persons for +their own ends. They, however, undertook to pacify them, and wrote a +letter professedly with that object, but without effect. The disorder +increased, and numerous outrages were committed. Seven soldiers were +murdered whilst cutting wood about four miles from Metokhia; Ali Pacha's +aide-de-camp and five soldiers were cut to pieces between</p> + +<p>Niksich and Krustach, and seven other Mussulmans were killed. Still the +Turks hesitated to act with severity. They appealed again to the +deputies, who wrote another letter, which, as the bearers of it +affirmed, only enraged the rebels, who tore it, and trod it under foot. +But this affords little proof of the intensity of their feelings, as it +has since transpired that an arrangement had been made by the deputies +that all<span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>Pg 132</span> letters written voluntarily and in sincerity should bear a +private mark; and the letter in question was not so distinguished. Upon +the discovery of their treachery the deputies were imprisoned, and +energetic measures at once resolved upon. To give these effect, Ali +Pacha advanced at the head of a small force, and summoned the rebels to +surrender. They replied by firing on the advanced guard. The three +villages were then taken, and five men and two women killed, while a few +prisoners were made. These last were released, but one died in prison. +Such is the story told of the affair by Dervisch Pacha.</p> + +<p>It does not appear that Ali Pacha acquired any great credit by his +method of conducting the operations. Quitting a strong position in the +afternoon, he arrived at the villages to be attacked after nightfall. +Having fired them, he was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, which +might have been most disastrous, had he been opposed to an enterprising +enemy.</p> + +<p>With reference to the discrepancy manifested in the two accounts, we may +feel assured that both are highly coloured. But the deception resorted +to by the rebels, and the simple explanation given by the Turkish +officials, would tend to impart to their story the greater appearance of +truth. Had the Turks, moreover, wished to avenge the deaths of their +soldiers, or to vent their hatred of the Christians, they would have +maltreated<span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>Pg 133</span> the people of the first villages at which they arrived, in +place of marching seven miles through a difficult country to the borders +of a district which had for two years defied their efforts at reduction.</p> + +<p>The implication of the villagers in the numerous murders which had +occurred was proved by the discovery of some of the Turkish bayonets at +Beronschitzi, while they actually made an offer to restore the property +of the murdered aide-de-camp, provided a reward was paid for them. They +even sent a list of the effects to Ali Pacha, with the sum which they +demanded for the restoration of each article.</p> + +<p>I venture to give these details even at the risk of incurring the charge +of too great prolixity, as hitherto a one-sided account only has been +given to the world. Every channel of information, whether it be the +telegraph from Ragusa or the Slavonic press, does its best to mislead +the general public, by exciting sympathy for the Christians, as unjust +as it is undeserved. Even in the affair in question much stir was made +by the Slavish newspapers about the death of seven Christians, while, as +Dervisch Pacha very fairly complained, no notice was taken of the murder +of thirty-seven Mussulmans during the same period.</p> + +<p>Another event, which afforded a handle for the ill-wishers of Turkey, +was the pillage of the four Greek chapels of Samabor, Dobrolie, +Kazantzi, and Grachantzi.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>Pg 134</span> This occurred in July 1859, and the case was +investigated by the Russian Consul at Mostar, who imputed the act to +Turkish soldiers, producing in evidence the fact of a sergeant having in +his possession a kind of church vestment. The sergeant, however, did not +attempt to conceal the vestment, and accounted for his possession of it +in a manner which was deemed satisfactory by the British and other +Consuls.</p> + +<p>It was more probably done by Uskoks, who gutted a chapel near Nevresign +a few years before, or by the rebels themselves, at the instigation of +others, for the purpose of bringing odium upon the Turks in the eyes of +Europe.</p> + +<p>By these and other no less unworthy means was the agitation fostered +throughout the province, until the whole frontier became denuded of +Mussulman inhabitants, who were compelled to take shelter in Klobuk, +Niksich, and other places capable of some sort of defence.</p> + +<p>By the spring of 1861 affairs had assumed so serious an aspect, that +even the Porte could not but awake to the danger which threatened that +portion of the empire, and to the necessity for immediate and strenuous +measures. This danger lay not so much in the aggressive power of the +rebels themselves, as in the ulterior results which it was calculated to +produce.</p> + +<p>It required little foresight to understand that the movement was +destined to be the germ of a general<span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>Pg 135</span> insurrection of the Slavonic +Christians of Turkey, which would lead to the partial or entire +dismemberment of her European provinces.</p> + +<p>In this dilemma the Sultan's government bethought them of appealing to +the only man in the empire who was capable of grappling with the +difficulty. Omer Pacha was taken once more into favour, and was +despatched to the scene of discord. A Slave by birth, but tied to the +interests of his imperial master by the devotion of a lifetime, no more +fitting choice could have been made. With alacrity he proceeded on his +mission—a mission which required both courage and address, energy and +endurance.</p> + +<p>He commenced his task by issuing the following proclamation, in which he +called upon all to return to their allegiance, in full assurance that it +was the intention of the Sultan to carry out the reforms which had been +guaranteed by the Hatti Humayoun of 1855.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>'What this proclamation is I let you all know.</p> + +<p>'His Majesty the Sultan has appointed me the chief of his armies in +the Roumelian provinces, and has sent me here to carry out in this +mission all the just privileges, which have not hitherto been +fulfilled. In obedience to the commands of the Sultan, I have come +here to show to you how kind and good are the intentions of our +sovereign to his subjects, and to announce<span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>Pg 136</span> without distinction to +Mussulmans, Greeks, and Catholics together, the following +decrees:—</p> + +<p>'1st. Every village has the power to name one or two chiefs as +representatives, whom I will acknowledge.</p> + +<p>'2nd. Every district has the power to name one or two +representatives whomsoever the people of the district may choose.</p> + +<p>'3rd. The Christians shall have full religious liberties, and shall +be permitted to build churches and place bells therein, like all +the rest of the subjects in the empire.</p> + +<p>'4th. The Zaptiehs (police) shall not be permitted to locate +themselves in your houses, but an appointed place shall be set +apart for them in every village.</p> + +<p>'5th. The arrangement which has been made at Constantinople +touching landowners and the agriculturists, and to which both +parties have assented, shall immediately be put into execution.</p> + +<p>'6th. The taxes shall be collected by your own chiefs, and +consigned by them to the officers sent by our Sultan to receive +them.</p> + +<p>'7th. I will further recommend to the Greek Patriarch at +Constantinople that a Bishop of your own nation should be +nominated, who knows your language and customs.</p> + +<p>'8th. I will take such measures as shall secure you the right of +purchasing landed property.</p> + +<p>'When this proclamation shall have been promulgated<span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>Pg 137</span> to you, and +you should still have some farther favour to ask at my hands, you +may do so in writing, or by word of mouth. All that is possible for +your welfare I will endeavour to fulfill.</p> + +<p>'Furthermore, it is your bounden duty to submit yourselves to your +sovereign, and to show humility to him.</p> + +<p> +'From the Divan Marshal &c. &c. &c. &c.<br /> +—at Mostar.<br /> +</p> + + +<p>'When you shall have heard what I have promised, see that everyone +know of it, and what is necessary to execute let me know, and it +shall be fulfilled.'</p></div> + +<p>This proclamation, was disseminated in all the Nahias (districts), +towns, and villages, and in many instances produced a favourable result. +But it could not be expected that these assurances, even though they +should have reached them, could have made much impression on a set of +lawless brigands, who loved plunder for plunder's sake, and who were +supported both morally and practically by the agents of civilised +European powers.</p> + +<p>Having allowed a sufficient time to elapse for all to make their +submission, it now remained to employ force where it was requisite. But +the difficulties which Omer Pacha had to encounter were prodigious. An +unprecedented drought rendered an unusually sterile country more +incapable than ever of sustaining life,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>Pg 138</span> while the period which +generally elapses between the autumn rains and the killing frosts of +winter, renders the time available for military operations short and +uncertain. Add to this, the total want of provisions, stores, and other +necessaries, which his predecessors had neglected to procure, and an +empty treasury, and we may not be surprised that his mission is as yet +uncompleted. But another and still greater difficulty presented itself +to him. This related to the attitude which he should assume towards +Montenegro.</p> + +<p>The shortest and most efficient line to pursue, in order to arrive at +the root of the evil, would have been to have invaded and subjugated +that province. But even had he felt confident of his power to effect it, +he remembered too well the lesson of former years, when his successful +advance was checked by political interference. There was little reason +to suppose that the same power, which then intervened, would allow him +greater latitude in the present instance. The idea, therefore, was +discarded, and endeavours were made to bring about a pacific +understanding, which should result in the re-establishment of order. A +meeting between Omar Pacha and the Prince of Montenegro was consequently +agreed upon at a point close to the Lake of Scutari. Omer Pacha, +accompanied by the European commission, travelled to the spot. All +appeared to be going well. Though nothing definite was ever +pro<span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>Pg 139</span>mulgated, there is good reason to believe that the Turkish +Plenipotentiary would have offered the most advantageous terms to the +Prince, including an accession of territory to the NW. and W., and the +possession of Spizza, a seaport, had the meeting taken place. But at the +last moment the Prince evaded his share of the arrangement, on the +shallow excuse that his people would not permit him to cross his own +frontier. He well knew that the Sultan's representative would not demean +himself by pandering to the caprices of one by rights a subject, and +that the only way in which Omer Pacha would ever pass into Montenegro +would be at the head of his soldiers.</p> + +<p>In vain did the European Commissioners try to change his decision. In +vain they asserted the sincerity of the Sultan, and the safety with +which he might fulfill his agreement. They could only elicit a surly, +'Faites comprendre ces gens-là.' The indignant 'C'est assez, Monsieur,' +of the French Commissioner brought the interview to an abrupt +conclusion. The rejection, for such it must be deemed, of the Turkish +overtures, together with the boast which escaped the Prince, that he +could pacify the frontier in fourteen days, are quite sufficient proofs +of his implication in the disturbances, and would fully justify the +Turks, were they to sweep this nest of hornets from the face of the +earth.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>Pg 140</span></p> + +<p>Unfortunately, the principle of non-intervention between a sovereign and +his subjects is a chimera, refuted as it has so signally been by the +very author of the principle.</p> + +<p>The Commissioners now saw that nothing more could be done save by force +of arms, and were dissolved accordingly.</p> + +<p>Omer Pacha returned to Mostar to continue his preparations for carrying +on hostilities, not against the Montenegrins, but against the rebellious +Christians on the Turkish side of the frontier.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>Pg 141</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h4>Leave Mostar for the Frontier—Mammoth Tombstones—Stolatz—Castle +and Town—Christian Shopkeeper—Valley of the +Stolatz—Disappearance of River—Temporary Camp—My Dalmatian +Servant—Turkish Army Doctors—Numerical Force of the Turks—Health +of the Army—Bieliki—Decapitation of Prisoners—Christian Cruelty.</h4> + + +<p>Day dawned on September 14, 1861, on about as cheerless a prospect as +can well be imagined. A chilly drizzle, swept hither and thither by +strong gusts of wind, did not tend to enhance the beauty of the +surrounding country, while it portended rather ominously for the success +of the operations, the first important step in the prosecution of which +may be considered to have been begun upon that day. By nine o'clock, the +hour fixed for our departure, the wind had fallen, and the rain began, +to descend in torrents, defying all precautions in the shape of cloaks +and waterproofs. So it continued until past noon, when the clouds +cleared away, and the sun shone out bright and warm.</p> + +<p>There is little to interest the traveller in this part of the +Herzegovina, unless it be the existence of clusters of old tombstones, +which occur very frequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>Pg 142</span> throughout the province. About one hour +before reaching Stolatz, which was our destination, we came upon one of +those ancient cemeteries, which is well worthy of notice from the +mammoth proportions of the tombstones. These are, as is usually the +case, adorned with primitive sculptures of men clad in armour, horses, +and dogs, and decapitated heads; dates are seldom found, but the +character of the work and the frequent occurrence of the cross confirms +the supposition that they were erected previous to the Turkish conquest. +On our approach to Stolatz we were met by a deputation of the country +people, and by bands of children sent out to greet the arrival of him +who is regarded as the general pacificator. The anxiety displayed by +these to do homage by kissing his stirrup-iron when mounted, or the hem +of his trousers, was by no means appreciated by Omer Pacha, who +possesses very Europeanised views on these subjects. The enthusiasm with +which he was received, however, could not be mistaken, and forms an +important element in his prospects of a successful termination of the +affair. Outside the walls a battalion of regulars was drawn up, and +every here and there some detachments of irregular soldiers.</p> + +<p>Stolatz is charmingly situated on both banks of a small stream, which +are covered with fig and olive trees, and at the northern extremity of +the ravine in which it is built is the old castle for which it is +famous. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>Pg 143</span> was put into repair by the rebellious Ali Pacha, and was +the last position held by him before he was taken prisoner by Omer +Pacha. It is simply a rectangular enclosure, with square towers at +intervals in place of bastions, and would afford little security against +an army provided with artillery. In addition to the weakness of its +defences, it is so situated as to be formidable only to the town which +lies beneath it, since it is commanded by several points on the +surrounding hills, where batteries might be safely erected at short +ranges. On the towers and their connecting curtains are many old guns, +some mounted, and others lying as they have probably lain for centuries. +Some of these are of the time of Maria Theresa, and nearly all were +ornamented with inscriptions and designs. The custom of naming guns or +giving them mottoes is very ancient and widely spread. I remember seeing +a number of Sardinians grouped round a gun in Capua upon the day of its +surrender to the Garibaldian and Piedmontese forces. They appeared much +amused, and on enquiring the cause of their merriment, I found it to be +the result of their appreciation of the motto upon the gun, which ran as +follows:—'Ultima ratio regum.' (the last argument of kings), an +argument which at any rate told with little effect in the case of +Francis II., for the simple reason that it was introduced at the wrong +moment. Doubtless some of these relics of Eastern warfare<span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>Pg 144</span> possessed as +pointed and applicable dicta as that of Capua, and had I had sufficient +time I should have scraped off the mould and rust of accumulated ages, +and have copied some of the inscriptions. That they could be fired was +placed beyond a doubt by the promiscuous medley of explosions which +greeted us, and which I purposely abstain from calling a salute, so +unlike was it to everything one has been wont to classify under that +name.</p> + +<p>Omer Pacha passed that night in the house of an opulent Mussulman, while +I was billeted upon the principal Christian inhabitant, a Greek<a name="FNanchor_O_15" id="FNanchor_O_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_O_15" class="fnanchor">[O]</a> +shopkeeper. These men, one of whom is to be found in most of the +principal towns and large villages, may be regarded as the Parsees of +Turkey. Their shops are tolerably well supplied with European +commodities, and their owners are far in advance of their +fellow-townsmen in cleanliness and civilisation. Yet, in spite of this, +some of the modes in which they delight to honour even the passing +stranger are far from acceptable. Among the least objectionable of these +is the encouragement of their children to seize and slobber over his +hands, the only manner of avoiding which is to keep them thrust deeply +into his pockets—an odious custom elsewhere, but here indispensable. +Before bidding a last farewell to the house of my entertainer, I must +pay a<span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>Pg 145</span> grateful tribute to its comfort and cleanliness. In vain I +pressed him to accept some return for his hospitality, and it was at +length only in the form of a present to one of the aforesaid children +that I could induce this kind-hearted family to take any memento of +their grateful guest.</p> + +<p>On leaving Stolatz, our route lay in a SE. direction along the +bridle-path upon the right bank of the river. During the first two +hours, the rocks on our left were quite bare and devoid of all signs of +vegetation. Afterwards they assumed a far less barren appearance, being +covered with good strong brushwood, which grows down close to the +water's edge. The water is itself clear and shallow, and at one point +suddenly disappears—an instance of that phenomenon so common in these +countries, to which allusion has already been made. Above the point of +disappearance, the valley has all the aspect of the dry bed of a river, +with its sloping banks and pebbly bottom.</p> + +<p>Our force, which on leaving Mostar had consisted only of a small body of +cavalry for escort purposes, and some hundreds of irregulars, was +augmented at Stolatz by half a battalion of regular infantry. That the +picturesque effect produced by these Bashi Bazouks (conspicuous among +whom were the Albanian levies) was heightened by the addition of the +regulars, in their soiled garments and woollen great coats, I cannot<span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>Pg 146</span> +pretend to say; yet let no one endeavour to depreciate the Turkish +infantry who has not seen them plodding gallantly on beneath a broiling +sun, and in a country which, by its stony roughness, would tax the +energies of the stoutest Highlander.</p> + +<p>Those first marches, before we joined the main army, were for us, who +were mounted, pleasant enough. Taking advantage of any clump of trees +which we might encounter—and these were not very numerous—the halt +would sound, and in an incredibly short space of time coffee and pipes +would be served to the General, his Secretary, and myself, the staff +forming themselves into a group a few paces distant.</p> + +<p>During these halts children or curious adults would be seen peeping from +behind the trees, bent on catching a glimpse of the Serdar Ekrem. I +noticed that he never missed an opportunity of conversing with the +country people, who would tremblingly obey his summons to come and +receive 'Bakshish,' until reassured by his kind tone and gentle manner.</p> + +<p>In thus speaking of Omer Pacha's moral qualities let me not be mistaken: +I do not wish to infer that he possesses a very refined mind, still less +that he is gifted with those elements which go to form the +philanthropist; but that which he does possess is much good nature, a +long-headed shrewdness, which shows him the policy of toleration, and a +general disposition to support the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>Pg 147</span> weak against the strong. Thus, if he +has been accused of squeezing the faithful subjects of His Imperial +Majesty the Sultan, I venture to say that these attentions on his part +have been devoted entirely to those whom he knows to have amassed money +by grinding extortion, and thus he pays them off in their own coin.</p> + +<p>On the night of the 15th we halted in a small encampment about five +hours beyond Stolatz, where tents were already pitched for our +reception. Here one of those sights met our view so characteristic of +the country, and so unlike anything one is accustomed to see in regular +armies. A certain amount of hay and barley had been collected, and, +having been warned to do so by one of the staff, I ordered my servant to +push on ahead, that he might make sure of a portion of the spoil. On my +arrival I went down to watch operations, and vastly amusing it was to +see the scuffle which was going on—black servants, privates of +dragoons, and staff officers all helping themselves in a manner that +would have wrung the heart of the most generous forage contractor or +commissariat officer. Here I discovered the sort of stuff of which my +servant, a Dalmatian, was made. Some one, it appears, had told him, with +what truth I know not, that a party of Greek Christians had lately made +an incursion into this very camp, killing several Turks. This, and the +reports of a few muskets, so completely unmanned him, that he stoutly<span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>Pg 148</span> +declared his intention of remaining awake during the night; and it was +only by allowing him to lie in the tent by my side that I could induce +him to try and sleep. The abject cowardice of this youth on subsequent +occasions gave me but a poor impression of the modern Dalmatian—an idea +which was confirmed by the conduct of his successor, who was, if +possible, a more pitiable poltroon than Michaele. That the position of a +servant whose master was without bed or coverlet was not particularly +enviable, I am ready to admit, and many a time did he come to complain +of incipient starvation; but at the moment it was difficult to make +allowance for these little inconveniences, which were common to us all.</p> + +<p>We were now approaching Bieliki, where a considerable body of troops was +massed under Dervisch Pacha, a General of Division. The character of the +country through which we passed continued the same—stony and rough, +varied only by a little low wood.</p> + +<p>The last march was doubly as long as its precursors, and it was late in +the evening before we reached the camp. Excepting several detachments of +irregulars posted at intervals, the country presented a most deserted +appearance; and, from accounts which I have since heard, I cannot help +fancying that the cause and effect were very closely allied, or, in +other words, that the presence of the irregulars accounted for the +absence<span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>Pg 149</span> of the general population. The semi-feudal spirit, which was in +great measure extinguished elsewhere with the destruction of the +Janissaries, is still rife in this portion of the empire; and it seems +to me that more real danger is to be apprehended by the Porte from this +independent spirit in the Mussulman population than from the +bloodthirsty hatred of the Christians.</p> + +<p>About four hours from Bieliki we were met by Dervisch Pacha. Here, +again, we found more Bashi Bazouks, both horse and foot, as well as a +battalion of chasseurs of the army of Constantinople. On arriving in +camp, I was told off to share the tent of a Colonel-Doctor, by name Rali +Bey, who received me most hospitably. He is a young Greek, who has +served about eight years, having entered as a Major-Doctor. (Be not +horrified, O Surgeon-Major, at so unheard-of a proceeding! Doubtless +your privileges are far greater than his, save that you have the Major +as an appendage in place of a prefix.) The aforesaid Rali Bey was far +the best specimen of a Turkish military doctor whom I ever met. As a +rule, they are not an attractive set. Almost invariably +Constantinopolitans, they jabber execrable French fluently enough, and +affect European manners in a way which is truly disgusting: add to this +a natural disregard of cleanliness, and an obtrusive familiarity, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>Pg 150</span> +nothing more is wanted to complete the picture. Of their professional +capacity I am unable to speak, never, I am thankful to say, having been +compelled to intrust my constitution to their hands; but, judging from +the fact that, on leaving college, they dispense with books, I felt +inclined to attribute the singularly small amount of sickness in camp +more to fortuitous circumstances than to the <i>ars medendi</i>, as practised +by these ingenuous young men.</p> + +<p>The sanitary state of the army at that time contrasted very favourably +with its condition some two months later in the year. At the first +period to which I allude there were only seventy men actually in +hospital, the whole force at Bieliki amounting to 8,047 regulars and +2,900 Bashi Bazouks. Of the twelve battalions of regular infantry which +composed the force five were armed with rifles, and were termed +chasseurs in consequence. At the same time, it is fair to add that +special attention has been paid to this arm, and the naturally keen eye +of the Turkish soldiers renders their education a matter of comparative +facility.</p> + +<p>The night which followed our arrival at Bieliki was, I think, the most +sleepless I have ever experienced. So thoroughly tired was I, that the +deafening crashes of thunder, the forked lightning, and the deluge of +rain, which poured in torrents through the tent, might have passed +unheeded, but for the mass of minute life, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>Pg 151</span> defied sleep. With +early dawn I wandered off, too glad to escape from my tormentors, and +went through the hospitals, surgery, and other buildings connected with +the permanent encampment. The irregular lines of tents gave a +picturesque appearance to the camp, which was heightened by the +configuration of the surrounding hills. Far off to the SE. rise the +rugged mountains of Montenegro, at the foot of which lies the plain of +Grahovo, a spot fraught with disastrous reminiscences to the Turks. +Important as that affair was, since Grahovo was ceded to the +Montenegrins in consequence, its details have been grossly exaggerated. +It is currently accepted that 7,000 Turks were cut to pieces by 4,500 +mountaineers, the real truth being that the latter were probably nearly +as numerous as their opponents. The Turkish force consisted of two +entire battalions and a portion of a third, and, from the impracticable +nature of the country, it would have been strange had the result been +otherwise than it was. Hemmed in and mowed down from all sides by an +unseen foe, the Turkish soldiers lost all self-reliance, it is true, and +the panic which ensued must have tended considerably to increase the +magnitude of their loss. In justice to Hussein Pacha, the Turkish +General, it should be known that the operations which placed his army in +this false position were not of his planning, but were carried out in +deference to the wishes of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>Pg 152</span> Civil Governor, and against his advice. +From the above remarks I would not have it supposed that I am desirous +of detracting from the well-merited praise to which the Montenegrins are +entitled for their long and successful resistance to the Turkish arms. +Their gloriously stalwart frames, and their independent spirit, both of +which they inherit with their mountain air, entitle them to admiration +and esteem; but an undue appreciation of these should not be allowed to +warp the judgement or prejudice the mind. Some there are who invest them +with almost supernaturally noble qualities, while they attribute every +conceivable enormity to their enemies the Turks. Each of these views is +incorrect. The Osmanlis, whether it be from a consciousness of their own +decrepitude, or some other cause, appear to have lost the spirit of +cruelty which characterised their more successful days; and it is a +matter of fact that the atrocities committed by their Christian +antagonists in the Greek War of Independence, during the incursion of +the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus in 1854, or in the present +<i>émeute</i>, equal, if they do not surpass, anything which they can lay to +the charge of the Turks. Travellers are apt to form their opinions upon +the evidence of their own senses; and when such is the case, their +verdict cannot fail to be favourable to the Moslems: for things seen +with one's own eyes will always make a deeper and more lasting +impression than<span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>Pg 153</span> the most harrowing details, the scene of which is laid +in times gone by.</p> + +<p>It may be urged that the want of power has caused this increased +humanity; and in part it may be so, for the nature of a people can never +undergo a sudden and entire change. But I can myself vouch for the +lenity which they displayed when they have had the power, and to wit +great provocation, to have acted otherwise. The incontrovertible facts, +too, remain that Mussulman Turkey has been the first to relinquish the +unchristian custom of decapitating prisoners, and other inhuman +practices, which the so-called Christians appear little inclined to +renounce. This will, of course, meet with an indignant denial on the +part of their supporters; but it must be a strong argument which can +overcome the disgust occasioned by the sight of women without ears, +children without noses, and bleeding corpses of soldiers literally hewn +to pieces with knives, all of which I have witnessed with my own eyes.</p> + +<p>In matters which do not immediately concern England, no opinion is +probably entitled to so much reliance as that of a Briton, even allowing +for a certain tendency, which he often has, to measure all people and +things by his own standard; and for this reason, that he is probably +free from all political and religious bias, while we know that he cannot +be actuated by prejudices resulting from community of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>Pg 154</span> origin, which +invalidates the testimony of the subjects of so many other European +states. However narrow-minded Englishmen may be in their own affairs, +they are generally capable of taking a broader and sounder view of those +of their neighbours than any other people. I think, therefore, that it +speaks strongly in favour of the opinions which I have advanced, that +they are shared by all those few Englishmen whose calling has brought +them into connection with these countries, or the still smaller number +who have gone thither for their own gratification. To the former class, +more especially, I can unhesitatingly appeal, to bear me out in the +heterodox assertion that the Christians are, as a mass, greater enemies +to progress than the Turks.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>Pg 155</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h4>Tzernagora—Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels—Turks +abandon System of Forbearance—Chances of Success—Russian +Influence—Private Machination—M. Hecquard—European +Intervention—Luca Vukalovich—Commencement of +Hostilities—Dervisch Pacha—Advance on Gasko—Baniani—Bashi +Bazouks—Activity of Omer Pacha—Campaigning in Turkey—Line of +March—Pass of Koryta—The Halt—National Dance—'La Donna +<i>Amabile</i>'—Tchernitza—Hakki Bey—Osman Pacha—Man with Big +Head—Old Tower—Elephantiasis—Gasko—Camp Life—Moslem +Devotions—Character of Turkish Troops—System of +Drill—Peculation—Turkish Army—Letters—Scarcity of +Provisions—Return of Villagers.</h4> + + +<p>If the past history of Tzernagora or the Black Mountain is deserving of +our admiration and wonder, its future prospects afford a no less open +field for doubt and speculation. So far all has gone well with her: the +manly character of her people, and their apparent invincibility, have +enlisted the sympathies of the world in her behalf, while identity of +religion and race have procured for her the more tangible advantages of +Russian protection.</p> + +<p>That the last-named power is disinterested in pursuing this policy is +not for a moment to be supposed. The price she has ever demanded for her +protection has been one too willingly paid by these lawless +mountaineers, an unremitting hostility to Turks and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>Pg 156</span> Turkey. For +centuries this was open and undisguised on the part both of the people +and the Vladika, by whom, despite his religious calling, the destruction +of Turks was rewarded as a distinguished national service. Such, +however, is no longer the case; although their hatred is not one whit +diminished, or their depredations less frequent than of old, they mask +them under the garb of a feigned neutrality and an unreal friendship. +Thus they protest, in the face of the most damning proofs to the +contrary, their innocence of all connivance with the Herzegovinian +rebels. Corpses of those who have been recognised as accredited leaders +they declare to be Uskoks, proscribed brigands, whom it behoves every +lover of order to hunt down and destroy. But none are deceived by these +shallow excuses, which ill corroborate the assertion which, in an +unguarded moment, escaped from the young Prince, that he would +undertake, upon the fulfillment of certain conditions, to pacify the +frontier within fourteen days.</p> + +<p>This tacit admission of collusion with the rebels is quite sufficient to +justify the Porte in endeavouring to overrun the province, and thus +trample out rebellion in its principal stronghold. Presupposing its +ability to effect this, we then arrive at the real debatable point, +whether such a course would be allowed by the other powers. In the case +of England the answer can hardly be doubtful; for it would ill behove a +country, in whose<span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>Pg 157</span> Parliament all religions are tolerated, to interfere +in the matter, abandoning that policy of non-intervention which she has +so openly confessed and so successfully pursued, upon the narrow grounds +of the inexpediency of permitting a Mussulman power to overrun a +Christian province, and a province, be it remembered, which legally +composes an integral portion of the Turkish empire.</p> + +<p>The candid announcement made by the Porte of its intention to abandon +the policy of forbearance towards Montenegro, which it has as yet +pursued, betokens the existence of a small spark of its ancient spirit, +and augurs well for its success. Should the belligerents be left to +themselves, I believe that it will succeed; but the web of political +intrigue which has grown around the question, fostered by hereditary +policy, imperial ambition, and private machination, render it difficult +to foretell the issue. The chances which render success probable are the +deference which France has of late shown to the wishes of England, the +want of union prevalent throughout the Austrian empire, and the internal +movement in Russia, which incapacitates her from doing mischief in this +part of Europe. Yet, let us not disguise from ourselves the self-evident +fact, that the views of Russia remain unaltered, that the policy of +Peter is still maintained inviolate, and that, although the last war may +have convinced her that actual self-<span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>Pg 158</span>aggrandisement will not be +tolerated, she still holds one object ever in view—the destruction of +Turkish supremacy on both banks of the Danube and the substitution of +dependent Slavism.</p> + +<p>Throughout European Turkey, and nowhere more than in Montenegro, has her +influence waned since the Eastern war; yet so long as she shall possess, +and so freely use, the golden key, she must and will have very great +weight.</p> + +<p>Of the three causes which, as I have said, tend to complicate the +Herzegovinian-Montenegrin question, private machinations have recently +been the most successful, and consequently the most injurious to order +and the general weal. The energy of some of the foreign employés has +been truly astounding, while their glib tongues and manœuvring minds +have worked metamorphoses worthy of Robin or the Wizard of the North. +This distortion of facts was somewhat naïvely described by a French +colleague of M. Hecquard.<a name="FNanchor_P_16" id="FNanchor_P_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_P_16" class="fnanchor">[P]</a></p> + +<p>'Montenegro,' said the former gentleman, 'c'est une invention de +Monsieur Hecquard.' Instances of such duplicity have been frequently +brought to light. These, while they reflect little credit on the +individual, speak badly for the good faith of the government +represented,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>Pg 159</span> as discovery is rarely followed by punishment—frequently +quite the reverse.</p> + +<p>The high-handed policy which the Porte is now pursuing is the most +likely to be attended with beneficial results; for, as experience has +shown us, the system of concession is entirely useless, each addition to +their territory only making the Montenegrins the more grasping and more +avaricious. That a solution of the difficulty must in some way be +arrived at is clear. Should Turkey fail in effecting this by the means +she is now adopting, Europe will be called on to interfere; for while +things exist as at present, the developement of those countries in +agriculture or commerce is as impossible as in civilisation and +Christianity.</p> + +<p>The disorganised condition of the Herzegovina, with its attendant +incubus of half a million of debt, renders it certain that one of two +results must inevitably ensue: either Turkey will be compelled to +surrender that province, and possibly Bosnia also, or she will sustain a +still severer blow to her already shattered finances. Of the two evils, +the latter is the least in the opinion of the Ottoman government, and it +was this consideration which induced it to determine on the prosecution +of hostilities in 1861. Several causes combined to retard the +commencement of military operations until late in the year. The +principal reasons were, the almost unprecedented drought which prevailed +during that<span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>Pg 160</span> year, and the deference shown by Omer Pacha to the wishes +of the European Commission, then sitting at Mostar, whose members did +all in their power to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion without having +recourse to arms. In the meantime troops were being massed, and stores, +provisions, and magazines provided at Gasko, Bieliki, and Trebigné. The +country infested by the insurgents extended from Bosnia round the +frontier as far as Suttorina, in the vicinity of which Luca Vukalovitch +had established his quarters. This man, who has acquired a certain +notoriety, was a blacksmith by trade, but, preferring a life of lawless +indolence to honest labour, betook himself to his present calling. He +appears to be quite devoid of that chivalrous courage which has +distinguished many of his class, and consequently deserves neither +sympathy when free nor mercy from his captors when taken.</p> + +<p>On September 3 the first move was made. Columns left Bieliki and +Trebigné, which, after scouring the district surrounding Grahovo, +returned without effecting any important results. A re-distribution of +the troops then took place. Trebigné was almost denuded of regular +soldiers, its defence being intrusted to Bashi Bazouks, while the entire +force was distributed at other points of the frontier, Bieliki and Gasko +constituting a permanent base of operations. At the former of these +Dervisch Pacha was in command, a man of con<span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>Pg 161</span>siderable military talent, +though thoroughly unscrupulous, while another General of Division, Osman +Pacha, had his head-quarters at Gasko.</p> + +<p>Such was the position of affairs on September 18, 1861. Upon the morning +of that day, intelligence was received of such a nature as to render an +immediate move advisable. An order to this effect was issued at 2 +<span class="smcap">p.m.</span>, just as I had succeeded in rendering habitable a very +smart little tent, which had previously belonged to the Spanish General +Prim, and had been given by him to Omer Pacha after the campaign on the +Danube. At 3 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> six battalions paraded with eight guns, and +some sappers, the whole under the command of Ali Pacha of Scutari, a +General of Brigade. For some hours our course lay in a NE. direction +along a ridge, and separated only by the intervening gorge from the +mountains of the Baniani, which ran parallel on our right. These were +known to be infested with rebels, traces of whom were found by a force +of irregulars sent to attack them during the chilly hours of morning. +Here I, for the first time, saw Omer Pacha throw off the air of easy +carelessness habitual to him, and apply himself <i>con amore</i> to the work +before him. He selected the positions to be occupied by the outposts and +picquets, indicating to his staff such points as he considered most +worthy of their attention, and endeavouring, by his own exertions, to +atone for the shortcomings of his subordinates. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>Pg 162</span> force bivouacked +that night on the side of a hill overhanging a hollow, in which was +pitched one of the small camps with which these districts are now +interspersed. The choice of ground was certainly most injudicious, and +the General expressed his annoyance in no measured terms.</p> + +<p>From this time the privations endured by the troops were very great. +Long marches over an almost impracticable country by day, the most +intense cold by night, without tents or extra clothing, and with little +food, were endured with uncomplaining devotion. In some measure I could +sympathise with them, having passed all the nights since leaving Mostar +without bed or blanket. Thus many a cold morning hour did I eke out in +vain search for wood to kindle a little fire; and had I to undergo the +ordeal again, I should certainly prefer to pass the night <i>à la belle +étoile</i>, with my toes to the smouldering embers of a camp fire, and my +head well wrapped up after the manner of all Easterns.</p> + +<p>On the second day after leaving Bieliki, our course lay due N. through a +perfect wilderness of rocks, varied only by an occasional basin, formed +by surrounding hills, and covered with a species of dwarf vegetation. +The appearance of the force, as it straggled over this wavy expanse of +stone, was curious enough, and it certainly baffles all attempts at +description; so I must ask my readers to allow their imagination to +people the <i>mer<span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>Pg 163</span> de glace</i> with some thousands of Oriental soldiers, +regular and irregular, pipe-bearers, and household servants formidably +armed, and they will not be far from a just conception of the case. +After marching for five hours over this inhospitable tract, we halted at +the mouth of a valley where the hills open out into a small plain. This +forms the entrance to the Pass of Koryta, whence we had just emerged. It +is a spot of ill repute even amongst the barbarous inhabitants of these +regions; and more Turks have received their death-wounds from behind the +boulders, which have served to screen the assassins, or from the knives +of the ever-ready Greeks in that fatal gorge, than in any other spot of +these disordered lands. The Pass is formed by the extremities of Banyani +and Pianina, and is of much strategical importance. It was one of the +first points subsequently occupied by Omer Pacha. Many a disaster has +been brought about by the incautious recklessness of those in command of +Turkish troops, and it was with some satisfaction that I saw the heights +both in front and rear crowned by Turkish battalions, before the +remainder were allowed to pile their arms, and betake themselves to +sleep or any other recreation. It was impossible not to revert in +imagination to the scenes of blood and strife of which Koryta has been +the site, as contrasted with its appearance at that moment. Groups of +Turkish soldiers were amusing themselves<span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>Pg 164</span> by dancing a national dance, +with as much gaiety as though they had not marched a yard, and with far +more activity than one would be disposed to give them credit for +possessing. The dance, a kind of jumping reel, was accompanied by +droning music not unlike the pipes. A little farther a regimental band +was murdering the two or three European airs with which it was +acquainted. One of these, to which they showed a good-natured antipathy +by frequently murdering, was 'La Donna è Mobile,' or 'La Donna +<i>Amabile</i>,' as Omer took pleasure in calling it. And thus the day wore +on, until, late in the evening, we arrived at Tchernitza, a little town +of about 600 inhabitants. Our camp was formed on a level plot, which +looked green and pleasant after the barren country through which we had +passed. Just above the spot where the men bivouacked was a lofty mound +surmounted by a turret, from which an armed sentry of a regiment of +redif (or militia) kept watch over the surrounding country. While taking +a bird's-eye view from this point, I heard myself accosted, to my no +small astonishment, in very fair English by a Turkish officer. My new +acquaintance proved to be one Hakki Bey, a Major of Engineers, employed +on the staff of Osman Pacha. He told me that, after having passed ten +years at the Turkish Military College, he had been sent to England for +five years to complete his education. What can the world say of Turkish +education after this<span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>Pg 165</span> stupendous example? He was an officer of much +intelligence, and soon worked himself into Omer Pacha's good graces. On +the following morning I met Osman Pacha at breakfast in the +Generalissimo's tent. He answers fully to the latter's description of +him, as being a man of much feeling, and very much the reverse of what +he is represented by Mr. Oliphant. That gentleman, in his narrative of +the Trans-Caucasian campaign, calls him 'a thorough Moslem, and a hater +of all Feringhees.' Now I am at a loss to conceive on what grounds he +can base that assertion; for, excepting that he speaks no language but +his own—a very common circumstance with English gentlemen of a certain +age—he is thoroughly European in his ideas and tendencies. Of his +kindness to myself under circumstances of difficulty and danger I shall +ever entertain the most lively recollection.</p> + +<p>While peering about in the single street of Tchernitza, I observed a +crowd collected in one corner. The centre of attraction proved to be a +man with a big head. The unfortunate creature seemed to experience very +much the same treatment as he would have met with had he been turned +loose in the streets of London. Everybody stared, most people laughed, +and some jeered at his terrible affliction. He may have numbered some +five-and-forty years, stood about five feet four inches high, with a +head of about twice the natural size. The idiotic appearance produced by +this deformity was<span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>Pg 166</span> increased by the dimensions of his tongue, which +protruded from his mouth, and hung down at the side in the most +woe-begone manner. The poor wretch accepted the banter of the spectators +with that good-humoured indifference which leads one to hope that the +victims of such freaks of nature are insensible to the full weight of +their calamity. To the SE. of the town or village stand the ruins of an +old castle, once the favourite resort of the Dukes of Herzegovina. +Nought save the remnant of the walls remains to mark its importance in +days gone by.</p> + +<p>The remainder of our march to Gasko was in the plain, and presented few +objects to attract attention, unless it was another victim of fell +disease. A poor girl, suffering from elephantiasis, was one of the only +women whom I had seen for many days. Her foot was swollen to an +incredible size, and I have been since informed that it is not an +uncommon complaint in those countries. As usual, we found the force +already encamped at Gasko drawn up to receive us, four mountain guns on +either flank. These were mounted, and drawn by two mules. In places +inaccessible to wheeled carriages, they are carried, as in our own +service, by two mules, viz. the gun on one, and the carriage on the +other.</p> + +<p>The infantry presented a more creditable appearance than any I had yet +seen, and the encampment generally<span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>Pg 167</span> looked clean and orderly. Camp life +is under no circumstances a very agreeable phase of existence, and least +of all in Eastern countries, when divested of the excitement resulting +from the probability of an attack. In other lands there is sure to be +something to attract the mind. Staff officers in gay uniforms pass and +repass in all the importance of official haste, cornets of cavalry bent +on performing the onerous duties of galloper, and the pompous swagger of +infantry drum-majors, all combine to vary the scene and amuse the eye. +But in Turkey this is not so. All are equally dirty and unkempt, while +the hideous attempts at music have very far from a soothing effect. An +attentive listener may hear a single voice four times in the day calling +to prayer, a custom which, under no circumstances, is ever omitted. Of +the internal response to this appeal I am of course unable to judge, but +from outward appearance I should imagine it to be small. The Pachas, it +is true, indulge in the somewhat unintellectual amusement of twiddling a +chain of beads, talking on indifferent subjects the while; but I never +observed even this small tribute of respect amongst the inferior +officers. And thus the day wears on in dull monotony, until at sunset a +crash of many voices may be heard from the centre of the camp, rising up +to heaven, and calling down a blessing on their Sultan's head.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>Pg 168</span></p> + +<p>Immediately upon his arrival at Gasko, Omer Pacha had betaken himself to +the only habitable house in the adjacent village, coming down to camp +with early morning. I consequently became the guest of Osman Pacha, who +treated me with uniform kindness. It is a strange coincidence that +almost every Turkish Pacha, whatever may have been his origin, however +low his moral character, possesses a dignity of deportment and a charm +of manner which among Europeans is deemed an infallible test of a kind +heart and high breeding. This, however, does not apply in its full sense +to Osman, for a more amiable and moral old gentleman never breathed. +Indeed, I much fear that the good qualities of his heart somewhat +eclipsed those of his head, as subsequent events will show. Many of his +remarks, however, were shrewd and pointed enough; thus, while comparing +the English with the Turkish soldier, he very candidly admitted that the +former carried off the palm in the matter of fighting, with the +following reservations—that the Turk is content to serve with a very +considerable arrear of pay, and with very little in the way of clothing +or nourishment; that he is able to endure equal if not greater fatigue +and hardship; and lastly, that he does not indulge in strong drinks. All +this must be admitted by the most prejudiced arbitrator; nor is it the +highest eulogium to which the Moslem soldier is entitled. Habits of +order and obedience,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>Pg 169</span> which are only sustained in European armies by the +strictest discipline, form part of the national character, and therefore +render the minuter details of military economy unnecessary. That they +will ever become sufficiently familiarised with their European clothing +as to present a smart appearance, is improbable; yet their parade +movements are even now performed with considerable accuracy and rapidity +in the loose shuffling manner in vogue amongst the French, while of +their prowess in the field we have had ample proofs on divers +occasions—whether in the European campaign of 1828, when, despite the +confusion resulting from the recent destruction of the Janissaries, they +beat the Russians at all points; or in Asia during that and the +following years, where, if not so successful, they often displayed a +heroism unsurpassed in history. Or, coming down to the present time, we +have but to recall the noble stand made at Kars and Silistria, which, +almost without defences, they held for months against the most +determined efforts of Mouravieff and Paskievitch. Singularly enduring, +brave, and obedient, they require only good leading to form them into +one of the most effective armies of the world. But this is precisely the +one thing in which they are most strikingly deficient, and of which +there is little hope of any permanent amelioration.</p> + +<p>In no department of the public administration are the baneful effects of +that spirit of insincerity and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>Pg 170</span> rapacity, which is almost universal at +Constantinople, more apparent than in the army. Money drawn upon the +authority of false returns, and eventually appropriated by the highest +people of the land, affords an example of peculation and dishonesty +which is carried out through all ranks, and the result is that the +greater portion of the army has received no pay for more than +six-and-twenty months. There is reason to believe that this system of +sending in false numerical returns has been of late carried to an +incredible extent. The nominal strength of the Turkish army is as +follows:—6 corps d'armées, each consisting of 6 regiments of 4 +battalions, each battalion numbering 1,000 effective men, with a +proportion of cavalry and artillery to each corps d'armée.</p> + +<p>This gives us 144,000 regular infantry; and yet I have good authority +for saying that, should Turkey enter upon a war to-morrow, she would do +so with less than 80,000 regular infantry. Of these 29 of the strongest +battalions were in the Herzegovina during the past autumn, and that +force has received a slight increase during the winter months. To the +merits of these troops I have already borne testimony. Against those by +whom they are officered I would now raise a protest, since they appeared +to be so selected without regard to any one qualification which may +entitle them to the rank. Even were the finances of the empire re<span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>Pg 171</span>stored +to a flourishing condition, and other reforms instituted, the army +cannot be thoroughly effective until it is re-officered, and the new +officers duly impressed with a conviction of the just distribution of +rewards and punishments. It is deplorable that so low a sentiment should +be the only one with which to inspire the officers, in order to secure +the zealous fulfillment of their duties. But so it is: their birth and +education, and the flagrant instances of bought rewards, which are +constantly before their eyes, combine to render it the best sentiment of +which they are capable. This applies principally to the regimental +officers in the lower ranks, upon whom the efficiency of an army so much +depends. Great good is anticipated from the extended scale introduced +into the Military College, and it is said to be the intention of the +government to appoint as soon as possible officers to commands who have +passed through it, to the extinction of the old system of conferring the +highest rank upon Pachas, whether fitted for the position or not.</p> + +<p>Excepting the chief of the staff, and some of the aides-de-camp, the +staff in the field was composed of engineer officers, most of whom had +passed some years in France or Belgium, while one had remained five +years in England. But these are men of a very different stamp from the +general run of regimental officers, who appear to think it the greatest +privilege of their<span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>Pg 172</span> position to get very drunk whenever the opportunity +offers itself, thus presenting a curious contrast with the remarkable +sobriety of their men. One evening I chanced to witness a scene as +amusing as it was characteristic of the people among whom I lived. A +post had arrived, and Osman Pacha's private Secretary was occupied in +dispensing the letters. The officers were admitted to his tent, and the +childish glee which they displayed was diverting in the extreme. Not +only did they mark their gratitude by kissing every portion of the +Secretary's garments on which they could lay hand, but danced about, +showing the epistles to all who approached. Fortunately, perhaps, few of +these could read, so the breach of confidence was not very great. I have +often noticed that an Oriental, when he does shake off the apathetic +reserve habitual to him, becomes more excited and enthusiastic than +warmer-blooded nations. At any rate they seem to possess a full measure +of that natural instinct of joy at receiving tidings of loved ones in +far distant lands. One of these letters was from the wife of an officer, +who had not heard from her for many months, and whose last reports had +informed him of the destruction of his house by fire. The apparent +indifference with which he had received the first announcement +completely gave way to a flood of happiness on hearing of the safety of +those he loved. Verily they are not so devoid of feeling as is generally +supposed—these fatalist Turks.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>Pg 173</span></p> + +<p>The arrival of Dervisch Pacha with six battalions from Bieliki, which +was now occupied by two battalions of redif, converted Gasko into the +sole base of operations. The rain, which had for the past few days +fallen in torrents, would have enabled Omer Pacha to have commenced +hostilities on a greater scale, but for the dearth of provisions, which +should have reached the frontier long since. It now became apparent that +little could be done during the remaining months of the year, for nature +had effected for the rebels whatever the indolence of the Turkish +commanders had left undone. The magnificent harvest of the preceding +year, which the rebels had appropriated, and the extraordinary drought +which had prevailed during the spring and summer of 1861, combined to +diminish the Turkish prospects of success. Moreover, the object of the +Generalissimo was not so much to hunt down the rebels as to inspire them +with confidence in the leniency of the Sultan's rule, while he, at the +same time, occupied the country in such force as to convince them of the +necessity of eventual submission. Already were the good effects of this +measure manifested in the rapid return of the inhabitants to the +surrounding villages. Metokhia, Aphtoria, and Lubniak, all in the close +vicinity of the Turkish camp, had been deserted by their occupants, who, +like the majority in the plain of Gasko, are of the Mussulman religion. +These now returned to their desolated homes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>Pg 174</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h4>Expedition to Niksich—Character of Scenery—Engineer +Officers—Want of Maps—Affghan Dervish—Krustach—Wallack +Colonel—Bivouac—Bashi Bazouks—Pass of Dougah—Plain of +Niksich—Town and Frontier—Albanian Mudir—Turkish Women—Defects +of Government by Mudir and Medjlis.</h4> + + +<p>The ennui produced by a long halt after a series of consecutive marches +had by this time taken such a hold on me, that with delight I heard Omer +Pacha's announcement of his intention to send a force with provisions +for the town and garrison of Niksich, whose proximity to Montenegro +placed them in the position of a beleaguered garrison, and rendered them +dependent upon the government for the ordinary necessaries of life. For +this duty Osman Pacha was detached, taking with him seven battalions and +four guns, which were subsequently reinforced by an eighth battalion +from Krustach. For the first three hours our route lay in the valley of +Gasko, which looked green and fertile, though showing few signs of +cultivation. The ruins of a church were the only antiquarian relics +which I noticed on the march. At the extremity of the valley the pathway +winds to the SE., having the rugged Piwa, looking bleak and bare, on the +left, and the more wooded heights of Baniani on the right. The +configu<span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>Pg 175</span>ration of the hills, and the sharp outline of the country +generally, combined with the indescribably wild and rocky character of +some parts of the foreground, and the sloping grass banks in others, to +produce a picture at once grand and picturesque; but it was a picture of +which the eye soon wearied and the appreciation palled. There, as +throughout the whole march to Niksich, the country abounds with the most +magnificent defensible positions; natural parapets, whence a most +destructive fire might be poured upon an advancing foe, and incapable of +being turned by any flank movement; positions, in short, constructed for +the enactment of a second Thermopylæ. No signs of humanity were to be +found in that barren region. Here and there the carcass of a stray +horse, which had died probably of pure inanition, and afforded a scanty +meal to the birds and beasts of prey, was the only sign of aught that +had ever beat with the pulse of life. Leaving the main body, I came up +with a small party of engineer officers, employed in taking the angles +on the line of march. The serious inconvenience resulting from the want +of a good map of these countries is now much felt. True, it was +partially removed by the existence of a map of Montenegro, including a +portion of the Herzegovinian frontier, drawn by Major Cox<a name="FNanchor_Q_17" id="FNanchor_Q_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_Q_17" class="fnanchor">[Q]</a>, R.E., and +published by<span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>Pg 176</span> the Topographical Department, a copy of which I had +presented to Omer Pacha, and which was much appreciated by him. Very +properly, however, he proposes that the country shall be surveyed by +Turkish officers, and a map constructed upon their observations. Its +accuracy will be somewhat doubtful, if we may judge from the crude +manner in which they set to work. The only instruments employed were +prismatic compasses, with which they jotted down angles at all the +salient points, an orderly dragoon counting his horse's paces in the +intervening time, which was occasionally as much as twenty minutes. +Passing these I reach the advance guard, and still pressing on I soon +find myself alone. No, not quite alone; another turn of the rocks brings +me abreast of a strange companion, his long flowing dress of yellow +surge, and Dervish's hat, with its hair-fringe, proclaim him to be one +of that large class of religious devotees who live in indolence by +working upon the superstition of their co-religionists. My friend, +however, was a man of some affluence, and very superior in all respects +to the generality of his order. By birth an Affghan, he has spent many +years in the Herzegovina, and had followed the army for some weeks +before I chanced to meet him. Wherever there was a prospect of work or +danger there were his little bay stallion and tufted lance always to be +seen. There was something weird-like in his presence, as he now sat<span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>Pg 177</span> +like a statue on his horse, and anon darted forward with a flourish of +his lance, sending up wreaths of blue smoke from the inseparable +chibouque. We thus rode in company until we overtook the small force of +irregulars, who had been sent in advance of the main body. This constant +use of, and great reliance on, the Bashi Bazouks, is most prejudicial to +the efficiency of the service; for while it tends to deteriorate the +spirit of the regulars by depriving them of the first chance of meeting +the enemy, it exposes the others to the influence of bribery, which +constitutes so prominent a feature of Oriental warfare. Omer Pacha well +understands the disadvantages resulting therefrom, and will soon have +established a more healthy system. Already he has succeeded in inspiring +the troops with a degree of self-confidence, quite unprecedented, by +merely avoiding that error into which Turkish Generals so often fall, of +detaching small bodies of troops, who are cut up by the enemy without +object and without result. Individually, he is perhaps somewhat +destitute of the <i>élan</i> which is generally associated with the character +of a Guerilla chief, and yet without detracting from his character as a +master in the art of modern war, there is no species of campaigning +which he understands so well as that which he has successfully waged in +Montenegro and the other hill countries of the Turkish empire. Energy +and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>Pg 178</span> caution are the two qualities indispensable to success in these +countries, and these he possesses to an eminent degree. It may be deemed +presumptuous in me to pass an opinion upon one whose fame is world-wide; +but that very fact must be my excuse, that those who are entitled to +universal admiration are likewise subject to universal criticism. I have +heard it urged that Fuad Pacha, the present Grand Vizier, who displayed +much ability in the conduct of the war against the rebels in Thessalyand +Epirus in 1854, would have succeeded better in the present hostilities. +But, on the other hand, if the Grand Vizier be gifted with a greater +amount of dash, Omer Pacha possesses a cooler judgement and a larger +experience than any man in the Turkish empire; and before leaving the +subject, I would call attention to the meritorious service which he has +rendered to the Sultan under all circumstances. Disgraced without cause, +he has faithfully adhered to the country of his adoption, displaying +through good report and evil report an integrity which does honour to +his principles. For, be it remembered, that he is bound by no ties of +blood or nationality, and that treachery to Turkey would probably serve +as a passport to the highest honours in Austria or Russia.</p> + +<p>Apologising for this digression, I would now return to Osman Pacha and +the column whom I have left so far to the rear. Late in the afternoon we +arrived at<span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>Pg 179</span> Krustach, a position somewhat similar to Koryta, and of +equal importance as regards the military occupation of the country. The +valley is at this point shut in on either hand by hills of just +sufficient height to give an advantageous command to a defending force; +these are connected by a cross range, that present an apparently +impassable barrier to an advancing foe. This position is surmounted by a +small fort with a court-yard, whose walls are pierced for musketry. Four +guns of indifferent quality are here mounted, commanding the approaches +on either side, while three guard-houses, each capable of holding two or +three companies, have been built on the most elevated positions, +flanking the approach from the NW. The garrison consisted of two +battalions commanded by a Wallack colonel, who might have passed but for +his fez for an officer in the Russian service, so much did he resemble +one of that nation in physiognomy. He appeared to be an active and +intelligent officer, and had, I heard, rendered good service during the +Eastern war. The appearance of the valley that night was strange and +picturesque. Hundreds of fires stretched far up the sides of the cradle +of hills in which our bivouac was formed, while a regular line of light +marked the chain of outposts which crowned the surrounding heights. +Head-quarters might be recognised by a large paper lantern suspended on +a high stick close to the camp-fire, around which lay Osman<span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>Pg 180</span> Pacha, one +of his staff, the Affghan Dervish, and myself, all sleeping quite as +comfortably as though we had never known a bed. Trumpets sounded at 5 +<span class="smcap">a.m.</span> for a start; and, having ascended to the fort, we found +the sun struggling for the mastery with the clouds on the tops of the +adjacent hills. The army was now in full motion; the regular infantry +defiled in something like order down the narrow path, which had been +imperceptible to us on the preceding evening. The Bashi Bazouks, on the +other hand, might be seen streaming down the hill-side, jumping, +rolling, and tumbling in strange confusion. Having inspected the fort we +joined in with these, and rode down a descent, which would have been +impracticable for any save the sure-footed iron-plated horses of the +East. After traversing the valley for some miles, the rugged line of +Piwa closed in upon us on the left, and a black impenetrable mountain +seemed to bar our farther progress. After three quarters of an hour's +ascent we were glad to halt. Clambering to a grassy knoll, we made a +frugal meal of the hardest of biscuit soaked in muddy water, the only +food, by the way, which the troops tasted from the time of leaving Gasko +until their return. These biscuits are manufactured at Constantinople, +and are so hard as to be uneatable unless soaked; they, however, form a +good substitute for bread, which is seldom to be procured. But we must +not linger too long, for<span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>Pg 181</span> already the sun is high in the heavens. On, +on, once more, brave little horses and unflinching men; your labours +will soon be rewarded: and thus they toiled on, until, with sobbing +flanks and perspiring brows, the highest requisite point was reached. +Stretching away to our right front was a grassy glade, looking like +velvet after the stony wilderness we had just left: a pine wood on the +left gave it all the appearance of an English park, which was only +dispelled by the extraordinary sight which now met the eye. Behind a dip +in the ground were collected a considerable body of irregular horse and +foot, who were awaiting our approach in all the magnificence of banners, +kettledrums, sackbuts, psalteries, and all kinds of possible and +impossible instruments of music. No sooner did we approach than away +they went, horse and foot, shouting and blowing and waving their flags. +The idea seemed contagious, for it was instantaneously followed by Osman +Pacha and everyone who bestrode any kind of beast, prominent amongst +whom the Affghan might be seen, flourishing his lance well to the fore. +The glade opened out into a valley of inconsiderable size, which has +witnessed more than one encounter between the Christians and Turks. Only +the previous winter an engagement took place, in which the Turks, +notwithstanding that they remained masters of the position, had from +forty to fifty men put <i>hors de combat</i>. The timber here was of far<span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>Pg 182</span> +finer growth than any I had yet seen, and the numerous oaks and elms +lying with uptorn roots betokened the violence of the storms which rage. +Many of them were lying midway across our line of march, and it was +found necessary to remove them to admit of a free passage. This was soon +effected, though perhaps with a little more noise than is consistent +with English ideas of order. We had by this time entered the Pass of +Dugah, formed by the extremities of Piwa on the left, and Banian on the +right. The slopes on either hand are wooded, that of Banian to much the +greatest extent. It is some fifteen miles in length, and consists of a +series of open spaces, connected by narrow defiles, whose bottoms +resemble the bed of a dry stream. The scenery is generally pretty, and +abounds with interest from its being a constant bone of contention +between the rival factions. As a defensive position it is undoubtedly +strong; but there is nothing in the nature of the ground in reality to +impede the advance of a determined force. While halted in one of the +open spaces which I have mentioned, we discovered a hole or cavern in +the side of the hill, capable of holding at least two hundred men. +Doubtless this is a constant resort of the freebooters and other lawless +ruffians who infest this part of the country. It was here that the +European Consuls were nearly meeting their deaths, although accompanied +by the Secretary of the Montenegrin Prince,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>Pg 183</span> when employed in making +arrangements for the relief of Niksich, which was then invested.</p> + +<p>It was dark before we reached the extremity of the valley, and little +did we then think under what circumstances we should next see it. The +latter portion of our march lay through a wood of hazel and other small +trees, intersected here and there by pathways. Here we were met by more +irregulars, and, debouching from the high land, we found a portion of +the garrison of Niksich drawn up on the opposite bank of a little stream +which flowed beneath us. The contour of the surrounding country is very +remarkable: the gray heights of Piwa behind us, Drobniak to our left, +and Banian looking green by comparison on the right, while the rocky +mountains of Karatag form a dark and gloomy foreground to the picture.</p> + +<p>During the ensuing night the rain descended in torrents, rendering the +spongy ground on which we had bivouacked very much the reverse of a +desirable resting-place. In vain I waited for an improvement in the +weather, which only became worse and worse; and eventually I started in +pursuit of that portion of the troops which had left at early dawn in +charge of the provisions for Niksich. These consisted of 65,000 okes of +meal and biscuit, with a few head of horned cattle. The last commodity +appeared to me to be scarcely necessary, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>Pg 184</span> we met some hundreds of +bullocks being driven out to graze in the valley, while the presence of +our force rendered such a measure safe. How these were generally +supplied with forage I am at a loss to conjecture, since the Mussulman +population were unable to venture more than one mile from the town, +except in bodies of 500 armed men. The distance to the town from the +commencement of the valley is about six miles, through a broad and +well-watered pasture land. In parts this has been ploughed and devoted +to the produce of grain, burnt stubble of which denoted the destructive +ferocity of the neighbouring Montenegrins. The new line of frontier +recently defined by the European Commission scarcely tends to promote a +pacific adjustment of existing difficulties. On the contrary, the line +of demarcation as it now is must inevitably lead to further +complications. Situated at the apex of a triangle, the town and plain of +Niksich offer a tempting bait to the lawless brigands, who infest the +mountains which form two of its sides, and who keep the unfortunate +Mussulman population in terror of their lives. At the south-eastern +extremity of the plain stands the town of Niksich, a small, dirty, and +irregular collection of buildings, all huddled together in the closest +possible vicinity to the ruined fort, as though seeking the protection +of its mouldering walls. Of the origin of the fort I could learn little, +save from an inscription over the arched entrance, from<span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>Pg 185</span> which it +appears to have been built by the son of an old and influential Albanian +chieftain about 200 years ago. Two square towers, containing five pieces +of ordnance, form the principal feature in the defensive works; but the +whole place is in so ricketty a condition that, were a cannonade to be +opened from its walls, they would inevitably come down about the ears of +their defenders. From the easternmost of these towers the town runs out +some few hundred yards towards the Montenegrin frontier; but all egress +upon that side is out of the question, as there is ever a bullet in +readiness for anyone who may be so rash as to cross a certain green +patch of grass, which appears to be accepted as the legitimate boundary +of the two provinces, although not precisely specified as such. At this +point the Turkish sentries are withdrawn, but farther to the south a +small white building serves as a guard-house, whence sentries are +supplied to form a cordon round that portion of the frontier. On +arriving at Niksich, we—that is, Osman Pacha's principal staff officer +and myself—paid a visit to the Mudir, whom we found sitting in +dignified conclave with his whole Medjlis. The Mudir, a magnificent +Albanian, standing about six feet four inches, and of proportionate +girth, welcomed us most cordially, and appeared a person of far greater +intelligence than most of his class. He bitterly lamented the increase +of suffering, resulting from<span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>Pg 186</span> the change in the line of frontier. +'Attacks by the Montenegrins and their friends,' said he, 'are now of +daily occurrence, and there seems to be no chance of any improvement in +our condition.' He expressed great confidence, however, in the +advantages to be derived from Omer Pacha's arrival, and took a clear and +sound view of things generally. He argued, correctly enough, that the +rebels would stand a good chance of being literally starved into +submission during the ensuing winter and spring, since the occupation of +the country by the Turkish troops had prevented them from getting in +their harvest, while the benighted frenzy which they had themselves +displayed in the wanton destruction of the crops had deterred the +neighbouring landowners from cultivating their fields. But the open +intelligent face of our friend, the Mudir, lit up, more especially when +telling us of some of the dours which he had made against the rebels; +and in good sooth he looked better fitted for such employment, judging +from his great length and breadth, than for sitting hour after hour on +his haunches, emitting clouds of tobacco-smoke, and reflecting upon the +individuality of God, and the plurality of wives, reserved in the next +world for all those who say their prayers regularly, and kill a +sufficient number of Feringhees in this. These stereotyped notions, +however, regarding the tenets of Mahometanism are fast losing credence, +just in propor<span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>Pg 187</span>tion as the growth of European ideas is undermining its +very foundation. I do not say that Mussulmans are becoming more +religious or more elevated from their contact with Christian peoples. +Indeed, I rather incline to the opposite opinion; but the European +tendencies which prevail are marked clearly enough by the facile +adroitness with which the followers of the Prophet contrive to evade the +injunctions of the Koran, whether it be in the matter of wines and +strong drinks, or the more constitutional difficulty touching loans, +debts, and the like. For myself, I rather incline to the view of the old +Pacha, who, after listening with his habitual patience to the +long-winded arguments of a Protestant missionary, completely +dumb-foundered that excellent divine by remarking that he (the Pacha) +felt quite convinced of the similarity of their creeds, since the only +apparent difference was, that the Christian has three Gods and one wife, +while the Mussulman has three wives and one God. Even in this last +matter, the plurality of wives, a marvellous amendment is visible. It is +probably owing to the expense attendant thereon, and also to the little +fact, that it is not quite in accordance with the spirit of the age to +drown, or otherwise destroy, those women who indulge their very +pardonable and womanly frailty of wrangling and fighting one with +another. But, granting all this, it is impossible not to perceive that +the position of Turkish women is<span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>Pg 188</span> daily improving. All of a certain +class receive some education; and I never yet spoke to any intelligent +Turk on the subject without hearing him deplore the existence of those +laws in the Koran which would deprive the world of that which renders it +most enjoyable. That the time will come when the religious influences of +Mahometanism will cease to offer a bar to all progress and advancement, +is sufficiently evident, and it consequently behoves Europe to guard +against the re-establishment of moral heathenism on the ruin of +fanatical Islamism.</p> + +<p>Returning to the council-chamber of the Mudir of Niksich, I would call +attention to the similarity of expression and venerable appearance of +nearly every member of the Medjlis. This is one of the faults of the +system, that an undue preponderance is thereby given to the ideas of a +certain class.</p> + +<p>From the experience of those Europeans who have had good opportunities +of forming an opinion, it would seem that this double government of +Pacha and Medjlis works badly, owing to the ignorance and want of +capacity of those from whom the latter are selected. It would, +therefore, be far more salutary were they only permitted to advise in +place of having a vote; absolute authority being vested in the Pacha, +who should be held personally responsible that the rights of the people +be not infringed, and rigorously punished if convicted<span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>Pg 189</span> of malpractices. +Many will doubtless deny the advantages to be thus derived; but it is +self-evident that in half-civilised countries power should be in the +hands of as few as possible.</p> + +<p>It is not my intention to enter the lists as the champion of the Ottoman +Government, whose apathy and insincerity cannot be too strongly +condemned; but I contend that governments, like everything else, must be +judged by comparison, and that the only true measure of the merits of a +government is the moral and social condition of the people whom it +rules. The Turkish Government, whether regarded in its central or +provincial bearings, is decidedly in advance of its subjects. In its +diplomatic relations, in monetary and financial schemes, Turkey has at +any rate acquired a certain amount of credit, while an increase of the +revenue from four to nearly twelve millions within the past thirty +years, and the continued increase of the Christian population, is a +certain proof of the diminution of oppression, and proves conclusively +that a remnant of vitality still exists in her veins.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>Pg 190</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +<h4>Return to Gasko—Thunderstorm—Attacked by Rebels—Enemy +repulsed—Retrograde Movement—Eventful Night—Turkish Soldiers +murdered—Montenegrin Envoy—Coal-Pit—Entrenched Camp +assaulted—Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar—Distinctive Character of +Mahometan Religion—Naval Reorganisation—Military Uniforms—Return +to Mostar—Dervisch Bey—Zaloum—Express +Courier—Giovanni—Nevresign—Fortified +Barrack—Mostar—Magazine—Barracks—Wooden Block-houses—European +Commission—Tour of the Grand Vizier—Enquiry into Christian +Grievances—Real Causes of Complaint—Forcible Abduction of +Christian Girls—Prince Gortschakoff's Charges—The +Meredits—Instincts of Race.</h4> + + +<p>On our return from the town we found the leading battalions in the act +of crossing the stream which separates the valley from the overhanging +woodland. The 900 ponies, now deprived of their burden, carried in lieu +thereof sick soldiers from Niksich, or such as preferred riding to +walking. Little order prevailed, and it is only wonderful that the +consequences of entering a defile more than an hour after midday should +not have proved more disastrous than they actually did. In vain I added +my remonstrances to those of some of the staff, who were intelligent +enough to predict evil. The order had been issued. The advance guard had +already marched, and it was too late to countermand the departure. Thus +saying, Osman Pacha crossed the stream<span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>Pg 191</span> and ascended to the high ground, +now covered with a confused mass of bipeds and quadrupeds. At this +moment the rain, which had ceased during the past hour, began to descend +once more in torrents, accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning and +thunder, which, though still distant, reverberated through the woods +with grand effect. In the midst of this we retraced our steps until +about 4 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span>, when the centre of the column, with the baggage +and head-quarters, defiled from the woods into one of the open spaces, +of which mention has been made. The General informed me of his intention +to halt there until the morning; and he could not have found a spot +better calculated for the purpose, since, by massing the troops in the +centre, they would have been out of range of the surrounding heights, +and a double line of sentries would have been the only precaution +absolutely necessary. For some reason he, however, subsequently changed +his mind, and the delay which had taken place only made matters worse. +The advance guard of four battalions, under Yaya Pacha, had continued +the march in ignorance of the halt of the main body, and were ere this +out of hearing or chance of recall. Scarcely had we recommenced our +advance when a dropping shot in the rear gave us the first announcement +that the enemy had taken advantage of our false step, and was bent on +harassing what would now assume the appearance of a retreat.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>Pg 192</span></p> + +<p>The shots, which were at first few and distant, soon increased, and by +the time that the Affghan and myself had reached the rear of the column +the action appeared to have become general. Ali Pacha, who commanded the +rear-guard, now committed the grave error of halting the three +battalions of his brigade, and wasted most valuable time in performing +desultory movements, and in firing volleys of grape and musketry, +without arriving at any practical results. At one point, however, the +rebels, who were advancing in force with loud cries of fanatical +vengeance, received a substantial check. Two companies of Turks had been +concealed on either side of the defile, which was narrow at this point. +Concealment was facilitated by approaching darkness, and it was only at +a given signal that they rose and poured a deadly volley into the ranks +of the advancing foe, who immediately fell back. This circumstance +appeared to damp their ardour, and they contented themselves with +running in small parties along the flank of our line of march; two or +three would dash down the sloping banks, and, having discharged their +pieces without aim or precision, would return to the safety afforded by +the rocks and trees. It was between 6 and 7 o'clock before the order to +resume the march was issued. And now began a scene which none who +witnessed are likely to forget to their dying day: deeply tragical it +might have been, but fortunately<span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>Pg 193</span> circumstances combined to render it +merely ridiculous, as reflected in the mirror of memory. The rain still +fell heavily, lying in places to the depth of nearly a foot, and +converting all the ground that was not rocky into a slippery quagmire. +So profound was the darkness, that it was literally impossible to see +any object six inches from one's eyes, and it was only by the occasional +flashes from the firelocks of the persevering enemy and the forked +lightning that we could realise the surrounding scene. By the light of +the last were revealed horses and men falling in all directions, and I +may safely say, that some of the 'crumplers' received that night would +have shaken the nerve of the hardest steeplechase rider. For my own part +I preferred walking, after my horse had fallen twice, and with this +object proceeded to dismount, but on bringing my leg to the ground, as I +imagined, I made a rapid descent of about eight feet. On clambering up I +was met with a sharp blow on the face from what I believe to have been +the butt of a Turkish musket, and my horse was not to be found. About +half an hour later, while feeling for the road, to my great +satisfaction, I placed my hand upon my English saddle, and thus +repossessed myself of my steed. No need to dilate farther on the events +of that disastrous evening. Suffice to say that, after some hours more +of scrambling and toiling, falling frequently over the stones and trees +which were strewn<span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>Pg 194</span> plentifully across the path, we reached the spot +where the advanced body had arrived some four hours previously, and had +succeeded, in spite of the rain, in kindling a few fires. It was close +upon midnight when Ali Pacha arrived at head-quarters to report that the +rear-guard had reached the bivouac, though nothing was known as to the +losses incurred in men, horses, or provisions. All that was certain was +that one gun had been abandoned, the mule which carried it having rolled +down a ravine. This was never found, as the rebels, who passed the night +within ten minutes' walk of our bivouac, had carried it off before the +arrival of the force sent back at daybreak to effect its recovery. Our +loss, however, proved to be insignificant—two killed and six wounded, +and a few ponies, &c., missing. As might be supposed, the Slavish +newspapers magnified the affair into a great and decisive victory for +the rebels. It is true that it reflected little credit on Osman Pacha; +and it might have been fully as disastrous to the Turks as their worst +enemies could have desired, had not the intense darkness of the night, +the heavy rain, and the want of pluck in the Christians (a fault of +which they cannot in general be accused), combined to get them out of +the scrape without any serious loss. The two whose deaths it was +impossible to disallow, as their mangled bodies gave evidence thereof, +were foully butchered by these long-<span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>Pg 195</span>suffering Christians. It came about +as follows:—An officer and three soldiers had remained a little in rear +of the column, being footsore with the march. As the rebels came swiftly +and quietly along, one of the soldiers, believing them to be a Turkish +regiment, made some observation. In a moment he and his comrade were +seized, and, while receiving many assurances of safety, were stripped to +the skin. The officer and the third soldier instantly concealed +themselves behind some of the projecting rocks, within ten yards of the +spot, and thus became auditors of the ensuing tragedy. No sooner had the +rebels stripped their unfortunate captives, than they fell upon them en +masse, literally making pin-cushions of their naked bodies. Throughout +that long and painful night did those two men lie hid in jeopardy of +their lives, and glad must they have been when they saw the rebels +retracing their blood-stained steps on the following morning, and more +grateful still when the arrival of the Turkish force enabled them to +feel assured of life and liberty. The following afternoon we returned to +Krustach, where we found a Montenegrin emissary, who was journeying +homeward, having had an interview with Omer Pacha. He was a finely built +and handsome man, dressed in his national costume, with a gold-braided +jacket, and decorated with a Russian medal and cross, for his<span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>Pg 196</span> services +against Turkey at a time when Russia was at peace with that power. He +had been Superintendent of the Montenegrin workmen at Constantinople, +and had consequently seen something of European manners, although +unacquainted with any language save Slave and some Turkish. He told me +that he had left 400 followers in Piwa; but this I found did not exactly +coincide with a statement he had made to Omer Pacha, and it subsequently +transpired that his body guard amounted to about double that number. +This worthy asked me to accompany him to Cettigne, but circumstances +conspired to prevent my accepting the invitation; and so we separated, +he to Cettigne, we to Gasko on the following day.</p> + +<p>During one of the halts on the line of march, I found the mouth of what +must have been a coal-pit of large dimensions. The entrance of this was +on the bank of a dry stream, and several masses of what appeared to be a +concrete of lignite and coal betokened the existence of the latter in a +purer form within the bowels of the surrounding country. This I showed +to Omer Pacha, who said that he would adopt my suggestion of having it +worked by military labour for the purpose of consumption during the +winter months. In several places, I subsequently came across the same +characteristics, which convince me of the existence of a spurious +description of coal in large quantities in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>Pg 197</span> province. In Bosnia it +is plentiful, and of a very superior quality.</p> + +<p>Some miles before we reached the camp we were met by Omer Pacha and his +staff.</p> + +<p>As may be supposed, the most extravagant reports of the extent of our +disaster had preceded us. The most moderate of these involved the death +of Ali Pacha (no great loss by the way), and about 1,000 men put <i>hors +de combat</i>. Omer's face wore a grave expression when we met, and his 'Eh +bien, Monsieur, nous avons perdu un canon sans utilité' boded ill for +the peace of Osman Pacha. It was a pleasing duty to be able to refute +the assertion that this last had lost his head on the occasion in +question. Although guilty of grievous error of judgement, the other more +pitiful charge could hardly be laid to his account, since he never for a +moment lost his habitual sangfroid and self-possession.</p> + +<p>The subsequent operations during 1861 were scarcely of a more decisive +nature than those in the early part of the campaign. They consisted for +the most part of slight skirmishes, which, though unimportant in +themselves, tended to establish the Turks in their occupation of the +country, and produced a good moral effect.</p> + +<p>One event, however, deserves notice, as giving fair evidence of the +respective merits of the belligerent parties. In pursuance of the plan +which he had originally devised, Omer Pacha established a permanent<span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>Pg 198</span> +fortified camp in Piwa. Twelve battalions under Dervisch Pacha were +concentrated at this point; and at the time of the contest which I am +about to describe, Omer Pacha was himself present. Reduced to the +greatest straits by famine and the presence of the Turkish troops, and +inspired doubtless by the knowledge of the Generalissimo's presence in +the camp, the rebels resolved to make a desperate onslaught upon the +entrenchments.</p> + +<p>On the morning of October 26, a strong force was despatched from camp to +procure forage, wood, and other necessaries. While thus employed, the +enemy, favoured by the formation of the surrounding country, made a +sudden and well-sustained attack upon this force, in conjunction with a +consentaneous assault upon the entrenchments. With more judgement than +is generally found amongst Turkish commanders, the foraging party was +brought back to camp, though not before it had suffered a considerable +loss. In the meantime charge upon charge was being made by the +half-naked savages who formed the Christian army, against the enclosed +space which was dignified by the name of an entrenched camp. Three times +they forced an entrance, and three times were they driven out at the +point of the bayonet, while the guns mounted on the works made wide gaps +in their retreating columns. After several hours' hard fighting, in +which both sides displayed exemplary courage, the assailants were +com<span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>Pg 199</span>pelled to withdraw, leaving many hundred dead upon the field. The +Turkish loss was something under a hundred, owing to the advantage they +derived from fighting under the cover of their guns and walls.</p> + +<p>Shortly after this event Omer Pacha returned to Mostar, contenting +himself with holding the various passes and other points on the +frontier, which enabled him to keep an unremitting watch over the +disturbed district.</p> + +<p>Early in the spring of 1862 he returned to the frontier, which he will +doubtless pacify before the extreme heat and drought shall have forced +him to suspend military operations. With this view eighteen battalions +of infantry and 3,000 irregulars have been concentrated at and about +Trebigné, which he has this year made his base of operations. The +judicious disposal of his troops, which he has effected, have driven +Luca Vukalovitch and his band of hornets to take refuge in Suttorina, +adjacent to the Austrian territory. This circumstance caused the +Austrians at the end of last year to enter that district for the purpose +of destroying certain batteries, which were considered to be too close +to the Austrian frontier. The legality of this measure is doubtful; yet +it may be believed that the step was not taken with any view to +promoting hostilities with Turkey.</p> + +<p>The final success of the Turkish arms can scarcely be<span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>Pg 200</span> long delayed, +since starvation must inevitably effect all in which the sword may fail. +The armed occupation of the country during the past year has at any rate +so far worked good, that it has effectually prevented the rebellious +Christians from getting in the crops which belonged to themselves or +their weaker neighbours, while it has enabled such of the Mussulmans as +chose to do so to reap their harvest in security. Should these +expectations, however, not be realised, the result would indeed be +serious to the Ottoman empire. In such case either her already rotten +exchequer must receive its death-blow, or she will be compelled to +evacuate the Herzegovina, a course which would be gladly welcomed by her +enemies, since it would probably be but the first step towards the +dismemberment of the whole empire.</p> + +<p>Before quitting the army, I would fain pay a passing tribute to the good +qualities of the Turkish soldiers. Having seen them under circumstances +of no ordinary difficulty and privations, I found them ever cheerful and +contented with their unenviable lot. Uninfluenced by feelings of +patriotism—for such a word exists not in their language—unaffected by +the love of glory, which they have not sufficient education to +comprehend, the only motives by which they are actuated are their +veneration for their Sultan and the distinctive character of their +religion. It would be well for their Sultan did he<span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>Pg 201</span> appreciate the +sterling military qualities of his people. With good management and +honest reform, an army might be created which, if inferior in <i>matériel</i> +to those of certain European powers, would in the matter of <i>personnel</i> +be sufficiently good to render the Turkish dominions perfectly secure +from hostile invasion, which is now very far from the case. At present, +unfortunately, his whole attention is devoted to the manning and +equipment of the navy, for the amelioration of which large sums of money +are paid and heavy debts incurred. The visionary character of his +ambitious projects on this head is apparent to all but himself, since +the Turkish navy can scarcely be expected ever to attain more than a +fifth or sixth-rate excellence. The recent changes in the dress of the +army betoken that some attention has been devoted of late to the +subject. Nothing can be more desirable than an assimilation of the +uniform to the natural style of costume; and the loose Zouave dresses of +the army of the Turkish imperial guard<a name="FNanchor_R_18" id="FNanchor_R_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_R_18" class="fnanchor">[R]</a> are not only better adapted to +soldiers who do not indulge in the luxury of beds and the like, than the +tight-fitting garments heretofore in use, but present a far more +workmanlike appearance, for the simple reason that they understand +better how to put them on.</p> + +<p>After a month's sojourn in the tents of the Osmanlis,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>Pg 202</span> the rapid +shortening of the days warned me of the necessity for pushing on if I +wished to see the more peaceable portion of the country, before the +snows of winter should render travelling impossible. Already the day had +arrived when the first fall of snow had taken place in the previous +year.</p> + +<p>Despite the hardships indispensable from the kind of life we had been +living, it was with much regret that I bade farewell to my hospitable +entertainers, and started once more on my solitary rambles. For the +first day, at least, I was destined to have company, as the Pacha of +Bosnia's private Secretary was about to return to Bosna Serai, having +fulfilled a mission on which he had been sent to the camp of the +Commander-in-Chief. My object was to return to Mostar by way of +Nevresign, which, as well as being new ground to me, forms a portion of +the projected line of defence. After waiting no less than five hours and +a half for an escort of Bashi Bazouks, who, with true Turkish ideas of +the value of time, presented themselves at 12.30, having been warned to +be in attendance at 7 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span>, we at length got under weigh. These +irregulars were commanded by Dervisch Bey, one of the principal Beys in +that neighbourhood. Some twenty years ago his father, a devout +Mussulman, and a cordial hater of Christians, whom, it must be +acknowledged, he lost no opportunity of oppressing, built for himself a +large square house<span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>Pg 203</span> flanked with towers, and otherwise adapted for +defensive purposes. This is situated about six miles from Gasko, and +here he lived in considerable affluence. Taken one day at an unguarded +moment, he was murdered by the Christians, and his mantle descended upon +his son, who, if he has not the same power or inclination to oppress, +shows himself perfectly ready to do battle on all occasions against the +murderers of his father. This individual, then, mounted on a good +useful-looking horse, and loaded with silver-hilted daggers, pistols, +and other weapons of offence, was destined to be our guide. Our road lay +through a long narrow defile, which, like most parts of the Herzegovina, +abounds with positions capable of defence. After five hours' travelling +we arrived at Zaloum, a small military station situated at the highest +point of the pass. I did not see any attempt at fortifications; but, as +all the villages are built quite as much with a view to defence as +convenience, these are hardly necessary. Every house is surrounded by a +court-yard, in most cases loopholed. Taking up our quarters at the only +house capable of affording the most ordinary shelter, we passed the +evening, as far as I was concerned, pleasantly enough. The Secretary, a +middle-aged and very affable Slave, was also somewhat of a <i>bon vivant</i>, +and, with the help of sundry adjuncts which he carried with him, we made +a very good meal. The habit of drinking rakee, eating<span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>Pg 204</span> cheese, and other +provocatives of thirst before dining, is quite as rife in these parts of +the empire as at Stamboul, and it frequently happens that the +dinner-hour of a fashionable man is later than in London during the +height of the season. Breakfasting at twelve, they do not touch food +again till dinner-time, and even then their repeated nips of rakee taken +in the hour previous to the repast renders them little disposed for +eating. Shortly after we had commenced dinner at Zaloum, a great +chattering and confusion in the court-yard proclaimed a new arrival. +This proved to be Asiz Bey, an aide-de-camp of Omer Pacha, who was on +his road to Mostar. Snatching a hurried meal, he once more mounted, and +pushed on in the darkness, with the intention of not pulling rein again +until his arrival in Mostar. Later in the evening an excited +agriculturist made his appearance, and with much humility demanded the +return of his pack-saddle, which he affirmed that one of my servants had +stolen. It fell out in this wise: I had engaged a certain youth of the +Greek faith, named Giovanni, to look after my baggage-ponies, which he +invariably allowed to stray whenever most required. On the occasion of +our leaving Gasko one of these was, as usual, absent without leave, and +on his being discovered, the pack-saddle in which these long-suffering +animals pass their existence had been removed. Giovanni, whose<span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>Pg 205</span> +pilfering habits were only equalled by his disregard of truth, replaced +the missing article in the simplest way, by doing unto others as they +had done unto him, and appropriated the first saddle he came across. To +allow the saddle to return to Gasko was impossible, as I could not have +proceeded on my journey without it; so I induced the owner to part with +it at a considerable profit, mulcting Giovanni of the same. The +following morning we descended into the plain of Nevresign, one of the +seven or eight large plains in the province.</p> + +<p>The road approaching the town passes between two cemeteries—that of the +Mussulmans on the right being the most pleasantly situated, for thus it +was that, even in death, they were more regarded than their +less-favoured Christian brethren. On the outskirts I noticed a very +primitive movable house, strongly characteristic of the kind of life led +by the people: it consisted of two skates, with a hurdle laid across for +flooring and others for walls, the whole being thatched. In this the +shepherd sleeps when he pens his cattle: this he does in a very small +space, shifting his position every night, and thus practically manuring +the country. The town itself has little worthy of notice, save the new +fortified barrack which the Turks are constructing. No labourers were, +however, engaged upon it at the time of my visit: it consists of an +oblong work, with bastions at the angles, on each of which it is +intended<span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>Pg 206</span> to mount three guns. It was proposed to build accommodation +for 1,600 men, but the size of the work did not appear to me to warrant +the belief that it would hold so many. There will be no necessity for +the townspeople to take shelter within its walls in the event of an +attack, as it immediately overhangs the town, and is itself commanded by +the hills in its rear. The engineer officer who conducted me over it +informed me that an earthwork would be thrown up on the most commanding +position, and two block-houses built at other points. The arrangements +for obtaining a supply of water appeared simple; and as it is the only +attempt at modern fortification which I have seen in Turkey, I shall be +curious to hear of its completion.</p> + +<p>Leaving Nevresign one crosses two mountains, which, with the exception +of about an hour and a half distance, are traversed by a road. Save one +in course of construction from Mostar to Metcovich, it is the only +attempt at road-making in the province. It is bad enough, as all Turkish +roads are, their engineers having not the slightest idea of levelling. +They take the country as they find it, apparently thinking that a +zigzag, no matter at what slope the angles may be, is the highest +triumph of their art. Until our arrival at Blagai, six miles from +Mostar, an escort was deemed necessary, though it was really of not the +slightest use, since the rebels, if so inclined, might have disposed of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>Pg 207</span> +the whole party without once showing themselves. On nearing Mostar I +looked with curiosity for any signs of progress in the new powder +magazine or barracks, which are situated in the plain outside the town. +They both appeared in precisely the same condition as when I left, save +for the absence of some hundreds of ponies, which were at that moment +eating mouldy hay at Gasko and its vicinity. In the barrack square +several block-houses which Omer Pacha had ordered appeared to be in a +state of completion. These are made of wood and have two stories, each +house being capable of containing about two companies of infantry. The +walls are loopholed and of sufficient thickness to resist musket balls: +the use to which they were to be applied was the protection of working +parties and small detachments during the construction of more permanent +defences; and as the rebels are without carcases or liquid fire-balls or +other scientific implements of destruction, it is possible that they may +answer their purpose well enough.</p> + +<p>At the British Consulate I found Mr. H., the Consul at Bosna Serai, who +was on his road to Ragusa, where the European Commission for carrying +out reforms in Turkey was about to reassemble, with the view of watching +the progress of events. Little good could be expected to result from +their deliberations, for matters had not been in any way simplified +since their adjourn<span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>Pg 208</span>ment two months before. The sincerity of the +individual members of the Commission cannot be called in question; but +what avails that, when other agents of the governments so represented +apply themselves with assiduity to stultify the very measures which +their colleagues are endeavouring to effect. As might have been +anticipated, their sittings at Ragusa proved as ineffectual as those at +Mostar, and in three weeks' time they once more adjourned, and have not +since reassembled. Whatever difference of opinion may have existed +amongst the members on this point, at any rate they professedly agreed +that it is for the interest of these provinces that the Turkish rule +should remain inviolate, but that this rule must be very decidedly +ameliorated. Of its sincerity in wishing to bring this about the Porte +will find it difficult to convince the Christian malcontents, so deeply +rooted is their mistrust. Secret agents are not wanting to check any +spirit of wavering which may show itself in the insurgents. In the +meanwhile both Bosnia and Herzegovina are being rapidly exhausted. Even +in peaceable times, the people of the Herzegovina had to draw their +supplies of grain from Bosnia, while the import trade of both provinces +more than doubled the export in value. The demand for horses for +military purposes has of late still farther crippled commercial +enterprise, as the people are thereby deprived of the only means of +transport in the country.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>Pg 209</span> At Mostar, even, it was impossible to buy +coals, as the peasants were afraid of exposing their horses to the +probability of being pressed, with the certainty of remaining unpaid.</p> + +<p>The foregoing remarks may appear to corroborate ill my oft-repeated +assertion of the immunity of the Christians from persecution by the +constituted Mussulman authorities. A distinction should be made between +oppression and misgovernment, the existence of which last is fully +admitted on all hands. It applies in an almost equal degree to the +professors of all religions in Turkey; and when the Christians have been +induced by designing minds, as has sometimes been the case, to pour out +to the world a torrent of grievances, these have been proved in almost +all instances to have been as much imaginary as real; such at least was +the opinion of the Grand Vizier, after his visit of enquiry through +European Turkey in 1860; and his views, which might otherwise be deemed +prejudiced, were supported by Mr. L——, the Consul-General at Belgrade, +who was deputed by the British Ambassador to attend the Ottoman +functionary. That gentleman's opinion—concurred in, as it is, by almost +all British officials—is especially worthy of attention, since the +greater part of his life has been passed in the Turkish dominions, and a +large share of his attention devoted to this particular subject. At +Widdin, a petition was presented, signed<span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>Pg 210</span> by 300 persons, complaining of +the local authorities. These names were mostly forgeries, and even the +alleged grievances were of a trivial nature; outrages, and forced +conversion to Islamism, could nowhere be proved. The source whence the +petition emanated may be shrewdly guessed, since M. Sokoloff, the +Russian Consul at Widdin, was removed to Jerusalem only a few days +before the commencement of the enquiry. One subject of complaint was the +appointment of the bishops by the patriarch at Constantinople, which +strongly confirms the supposition of its Russian origin. The petition +was moreover presented by one Tuno, a Rayah, who had been turned out of +the Medjlis for corruption, and was at the time a hanger-on at the +Russian consulate. Those few who acknowledged to having signed the +document, stated that they believed it to have been a remonstrance +against the pig tax.</p> + +<p>The second ground of complaint was that the Cadi had interfered in the +affairs of the Christians; i.e. in matters of inheritance, and in the +administration of the property of minors. This also proved untenable, +although, in the course of the enquiry, it transpired that something of +the sort had occurred at Crete, which was ingeniously perverted to suit +their purpose on the occasion in question.</p> + +<p>Thirdly, it was alleged that the Christian members of the Medjlis were +allowed no voice in its deliberations.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>Pg 211</span> This the Bishop even denied. Had +they said that their opinions were of little weight, it would have been +nearer the truth. Nor can we wonder at this, since it is in vain that we +look for any spirit of independence among the Christian members; and +this not more in consequence of the domineering spirit of the Turks, +than from the natural disposition of the Christians, which is cringing +and corrupt. Time and education can alone effect a change for the +better. The government may, by the promulgation of useful edicts, and by +the establishment of schools common to all religions, materially hasten +this desirable end; but in the present condition of the Christian +population, it is questionable whether more harm than good would not +result from the proclamation of social equality.</p> + +<p>The veritable grounds of complaint, on which the petition in question +did not touch, it is within the power of the government to remove; and +this, we may confidently anticipate, will be done.</p> + +<p>Equality before the law is the principal and first thing to be +established, and such at present is not the case. Christian evidence, +for example, is received in criminal, but not in civil causes, i.e. in +questions concerning property. Moreover, even in criminal causes of any +importance, the decision of the inferior courts, where Christian +evidence is admissible, is referred for confirmation to superior courts, +where such testimony is<span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>Pg 212</span> not accepted. In defence of this it is urged, +that Turkish property would be endangered, if, in the present +demoralised state of society, Christian evidence were admitted. But, +while advancing this argument, it is forgotten that this state is +traceable to the lax and vicious system pursued in the Mussulman courts, +where, as the only way of securing justice for the Christians, Mussulman +witnesses are allowed to give false evidence.</p> + +<p>Another abuse, of which the most is made by the enemies of Turkey, is +the forcible abduction of Christian girls by Mussulmans. The practice +has, however, almost died out, except in northern Albania; and yet it is +this alone which formed the groundwork of the most important of Prince +Gortschakoff's charges, viz. the forced conversion of Christians to +Islamism. It would, doubtless, fall into disuse in that part of the +country, were the offence dealt with as an ordinary police affair; but +the clumsy machinery of Turkish law, however sincere may be its object, +has done little to diminish the evil. Many schemes have been devised for +its prevention. One was to make the girl appear before the court which +rejects Christian evidence, and declare herself a Christian or +Mussulman. If she confessed her faith, she was returned to her friends, +and the ravisher nominally punished; but, as they almost always declared +themselves to be Mahomedans, the Christians complained that fear or +other undue pressure had been put upon<span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>Pg 213</span> them. To obviate this, it was +decided that the girl should be sequestered in the house of the Bishop +for three days previous to her making her profession of faith. This has, +however, been discontinued, as it produced much scandal; and the +question remains undecided.</p> + +<p>Instincts of race are far stronger in Turkey than is generally supposed. +In Albania, where the Mussulmans are deemed more fanatical than +elsewhere, these are more powerful than even the instincts of religion. +Thus, while other Christians are looked down upon and treated with +severity, the Miridits, who are of Albanian blood, are allowed to wear +their arms, and admitted to equal privileges with their Mahomedan +fellow-countrymen. In Bosnia, more than anywhere throughout the empire, +the question has been one of feudal origin, that is to say, of a +privileged and unprivileged class, analogous to that which now occupies +the Russians; although in Bosnia the former class has been gradually +losing importance, and sinking into a lower position.</p> + +<p>To the demoralised condition of the Christians themselves, then, +combined with Turkish misgovernment, resulting from their +semi-civilisation, may the existing unsatisfactory state of affairs be +attributed, and not to any systematic oppression. It is the want of +this, which renders it difficult for the Porte, now that the central<span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>Pg 214</span> +power has been strengthened at the expense of the local, to take any +decided steps for improving the position of the Christians; all that it +can do is to place all upon a footing of legal equality, to encourage +education, and to promote everything which shall have for its object the +developement of the natural resources of the country.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>Pg 215</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +<h4>Excursion to Blato—Radobolya—Roman Road—Lichnitza—Subterraneous +Passage—Duck-shooting—Roman Tombs—Coins and +Curiosities—Boona—Old Bridge—Mulberry Trees—Blagai—Source of +Boona River—Kiosk—Castle—Plain of Mostar—Legends—Silver +Ore—Mineral Products of Bosnia—Landslip—Marbles—Rapids—Valley +of the Drechnitza.</h4> + + +<p>The week following upon my return to Mostar was devoted to excursions to +different spots in the vicinity of the town. In one instance the +pleasure was enhanced by the anticipation of some duck-shooting; for, as +the event will show, the expectation was never realised. Our destination +was Blato, a plain about nine miles distant, which all maps represent as +a lake, but which does not deserve the name, as it is only flooded +during the winter months. The party consisted of M. Gyurcovich, the +Hungarian dragoman of the British consulate; the Russian Consul; his +domestic, a serf strongly addicted to the use of ardent drinks, of which +he had evidently partaken largely on the occasion in question; a French +doctor, who had many stories of the Spanish war, in which he had served; +two other individuals, and myself.</p> + +<p>About one hour from Mostar, we arrived at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>Pg 216</span> source of the Radobolya, +which flows through Mostar and falls into the Narenta near the old +bridge. The road was sufficiently well defined, although needing repair +in places. The walls on either side, as well as its general +construction, proclaim its Roman origin. It was doubtless a part of the +great main road from the east to Dalmatia. It is only at occasional +points that it is so easily discernible, but sufficient evidence exists +to show that on quitting the Albanian mountains it passed Stolatz, +crossed the bridge at Mostar, and continued thence by a somewhat +circuitous route to Spalatro. On emerging from the defile through which +we had been marching, the plain of Blato lay extended before us, some +nine or ten miles in length and four in breadth. The land, which must be +extremely fertile, is cultivated in the spring, but only those cereals +which are of the most rapid growth are produced; such as millet, Indian +corn, and broom seed, from which a coarse description of bread is made. +The Lichnitza, which runs through it, is a mere stream. It takes its +rise near the Austro-Bosnian frontier, and loses itself in the hills +which surround Blato. The plain is porous and full of holes, from which, +in the late autumnal months, the waters bubble up. This continues until +the river itself overflows, covering the entire plain to a considerable +depth, in some parts as much as thirty-six feet. The original passage +under the hills, by which<span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>Pg 217</span> the water escaped, is said to have been +filled up at the time of the Turkish conquest. If such be true, it might +be reopened with little cost and trouble, and the plain would thus be +rendered most valuable to the province.</p> + +<p>Arrived at the scene of operations, we lost little time in getting to +work. A still evening, and a moon obscured by light clouds, promised +well for sport; and we should doubtless have made a large bag had +ordinary precautions been taken. These, however, were not deemed +necessary by the majority of the party, who walked down in the open to +the river's edge, smoking and chattering as though they expected the +'dilly-dills to come and be killed' merely for the asking. The result, I +need not say, was our return almost empty-handed. Late in the evening we +assembled round a large fire, to eat the dinner which our servants had +already prepared; after which we courted sleep beneath the soothing +influences of tales of love and war as related by our Æsculapian friend, +who undeniably proved himself to have been a very Don Quixote. Early the +following morning we were again afoot, and a few partridges, hares, and +quail rewarded our exertions. Amongst the hills, where most of the game +was shot, I noticed several old Roman tombs. Many of these were merely +large shapeless blocks of stone, while others were of the proper +sarcophagus form, ornamented with sculptures<span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>Pg 218</span> of considerable merit. On +some were depicted men in armour, with shields and long straight swords, +while others had two men with lances aimed at a deer between them. The +absence of anything like moulding on the sides proves their great +antiquity. In its place we find a rather graceful pattern, vines with +leaves and grapes predominating; or, as in other cases, choruses of +women holding hands and dancing. In no instance did I detect anything +denoting immorality or low ideas, so prevalent in the sculptures of +intermediate ages. Amongst these tombs, as also on the sites of the +ancient towns, curiosities and coins are found. Of the last, small +Hungarian silver pieces, and large Venetian gold pieces, are the most +numerous; although Roman copper coins are by no means rare. Stones +engraved with figures of Socrates and Minerva were shown to me, as +having been found in the province, and it is only two years since, that +two golden ear-rings of fifteen drachms weight, and about the size of +pigeons' eggs, were dug up in the neighbourhood of Blato. About the same +time a ring was found, of which the Pacha obtained possession. It was of +iron, set with a stone only three tenths of an inch in diameter, on +which were most beautifully engraved no fewer than nine figures of +classical deities.</p> + +<p>The ensuing day I devoted to a double expedition to Boona and Blagai. +The former of these is about<span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>Pg 219</span> six miles distant, on the plain from +Mostar. It consists of a few houses built by the rebellious Ali Pacha, +who was Vizier at the time of Sir Gardner Wilkinson's visit to +Herzegovina. That functionary's villa, which is now the country-house of +the British Consul, is a moderate-sized yellow house, with little to +recommend it save its situation at the confluence of the Boona and the +Narenta. The former is spanned by a large bridge of fourteen arches, +upon one of which is a Turkish inscription, from which it appears that +it was repaired by the Turks in the year of the Hegira 1164—that is to +say, 113 years ago.</p> + +<p>The bridge is in all probability of Roman construction, though the +Turkish habit of erasing all inscriptions, and substituting others in +Turkish in their place, renders it impossible to fix precise dates. Near +the villa stands a square house intended for the nurture of silk-worms, +while a garden of 30,000 mulberry trees shows that Ali Pacha had +pecuniary considerations in view as well as his domestic comfort. From +Boona to Blagai is about six miles, and here also is a bridge of five +arches across the Boona. Leaving the village, which stands on the banks +of the river, we proceeded to its source. Pears, pomegranates, olives, +and other fruit trees grow in great luxuriance, and two or three mills +are worked by the rush of water, which is here considerable. The cavern +from which<span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>Pg 220</span> the river pours in a dense volume, is about eight feet high, +and situated at the foot of a precipitous cliff, under which stands a +kiosk, the abode of our fighting friend the Affghan Dervish. Thence we +proceeded to the castle, which stands on the summit of a craggy height, +overlooking the village on the one side, and the road to Nevresign on +the other. Speaking of this, Luccari says, 'Blagai stands on a rock +above the river Bosna, fortified by the ancient Voivodas of the country +to protect their treasure, as its name implies, Blagia (or Blago) +signifying treasure.'<a name="FNanchor_S_19" id="FNanchor_S_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_S_19" class="fnanchor">[S]</a></p> + +<p>It was governed by a Count, and the Counts of Blagai performed a +distinguished part in the history of Herzegovina. Some of them, as the +Boscenovich and the Hranich, are known for their misfortunes, having +been compelled to seek refuge in Ragusa at the time of the Turkish +invasion; and the last who governed 'the treasure city of Blagai' was +Count George, who fled to the Ragusan territory in 1465.<a name="FNanchor_T_20" id="FNanchor_T_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_T_20" class="fnanchor">[T]</a> The view to +the southward over the plain country is extremely picturesque, but this +portion of the battlements are completely ruined. On the north side they +are in good preservation, and there wells exist, the cement of which +looked as fresh as though it had been recently renovated.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>Pg 221</span></p> + +<p>In one of the batteries a brass gun was lying, of about 9lbs. calibre, +with vent and muzzle uninjured. In the interior of the fort, shells of +dwelling-houses, distributed angularly, denote the part of the building +which was devoted to domestic purposes. In these the woodwork of the +windows may still be seen, as well as stones projecting from the walls, +on which the flooring of the upper stories must have rested. At the main +entrance an oak case is rivetted into the wall to receive the beam, +which barred the door. At the foot of the hill is a ruined church, in +which some large shells of about thirteen inches diameter were strewed +about. One of these was lying on the road side, as though it had been +rolled from the castle above.</p> + +<p>Having now seen all the lions of the neighbourhood, I bethought me of +leaving Mostar once more, but this time with the intention of working +northward. The ordinary route pursued by those whom business calls from +Mostar to Bosna Serai is by Konitza, a village situated on the frontier, +nearly due north of Mostar. To this course I at first inclined, but was +induced to change my plans by the prospect of some chamois-hunting, in +the valley of the Drechnitza. Having laid in a supply of bread and other +necessaries, we, i.e. M. Gyurcovich and myself, made an early start, in +hopes of reaching our destination on the same night.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>Pg 222</span></p> + +<p>Following the right bank of the Narenta, our course lay for a short time +through the northernmost of the two plains at whose junction Mostar is +situated. These, from the smooth and round appearance of the stones, +with which their surface is strewed, lead to the supposition that this +at one time was the bed of an important lake: this idea is confirmed by +the legends of the country, which affirm the existence of rings in the +sides of the mountains, to which it is rumoured that boats were moored +of old. Whether this be true or not, the appearance of the place lends +probability to the statement.</p> + +<p>Shortly after leaving the town, there is a small square tower close to +and commanding the river, which is here fordable. As we proceeded +farther north it becomes rocky and narrow, and some small rapids occur +at intervals. The bad state of the roads, and the ill condition of our +baggage horses, rendered it necessary to halt several hours short of the +point which we had intended to reach that night. Having, therefore, +cleared out an outhouse devoted in general to looms, green tobacco, +hens, cats, and the like, we made our arrangements for passing the +night. While thus engaged a peasant brought me a tolerably large +specimen of silver ore, which he stated that he had found in the hills +on the Bosnian frontier, where he assured me that any amount was to be +obtained. His veracity I have<span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>Pg 223</span> no reason to doubt, although unable to +proceed thither to confirm his statement by my own testimony. It is +certain, however, that the mountains of Bosnia are unusually rich in +mineral products. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, iron, coal, black +amber, and gypsum, are to be found in large quantities; silver being the +most plentiful, whence the province has received the name of Bosnia +Argentina. The manifold resources of the country in this respect have +unfortunately been permitted to remain undeveloped under the Ottoman +rule, while the laws laid down relative to mining matters are of such a +nature as to cripple foreign enterprise. In this proceeding, the Turkish +government has committed the error of adhering to the principles and +counsels of France, which is essentially a non-mining country. In three +places only has any endeavour been made to profit by the secret riches +of the earth, viz. at Foinitza, Crescevo, and Stanmaidan, where iron +works have been established by private speculation. The iron is of good +quality, but the bad state of the roads, and the difficulty of procuring +transport, render it a far less remunerative undertaking than would +otherwise be the case. Good wrought iron sells at three-halfpence the +pound. Were a company formed under the auspices of the British +government, there is little doubt that they might be successfully +worked, since there is nothing in the nature of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>Pg 224</span> country to render +the construction of a road to the coast either a difficult or expensive +operation. Continuing our course on the right bank of the Narenta, we +arrived at a lofty mound, evidently of artificial construction, situated +at a bend of the river. Traces of recent digging were apparent, as +though search had been made for money or curiosities. It was just one of +those positions where castles were built of yore, its proximity to the +river being no small consideration in those days of primitive defences. +A short distance from its base were two tombstones, sculptured with more +than ordinary care and ability. One of these represented a man with a +long sword and shield, faced by a dog or fox, which was the only portion +of the engraving at all effaced.</p> + +<p>At a spot where a spring issued from the rocks, we were met by a party +of Irregulars, shouting and firing their matchlocks in a very indecorous +manner. They were doubtless going their rounds, bent on plunder, as is +their wont; and living at free quarters. The place where we encountered +them was wild in the extreme, and well adapted for deeds of violence. It +was indeed only in the preceding spring, that a murder was committed on +that very spot. Nor was it the first murder that had been done there. +Some years previously two Dalmatian robbers concealed themselves behind +the adjacent rocks, with the intention of murdering two<span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>Pg 225</span> Turks, who were +carrying money to Bosna Serai. These Turks, however, detected the +movements of the assassins, and as one of the Christians fired, one of +the Turks returned the shot, each killing his man. Sequel: the second +Christian ran away; the surviving Turk carried off his companion's money +in addition to his own.</p> + +<p>At one part of our route a landslip of large dimensions had taken place, +covering the slope to the river with large stones and blocks of red +marble. This, as well as white, black, and gray marble, are found in +large quantities in the surrounding hills. The river at this point is +turgid and rocky, and there are two or three rapids almost worthy of the +name of falls. The narrow rocky ledge, which constitutes the only +traversable road, immediately overhangs the water, having a sheer +descent on the right of nearly 200 feet. The edge of this precipice is +overgrown with grass and shrubs to such a degree as to render it very +dangerous. Indeed it nearly proved fatal to my horse and myself: the +bank suddenly gave way, and but for the fortunate intervention of a +projecting ledge, which received the off fore and hind feet of the +former, we should inevitably have been picked up in very small pieces, +if anyone had taken the trouble to look for us.</p> + +<p>Having now journeyed about ten hours from Mostar, our road wound to the +left, leaving the Narenta at its confluence with the Drechnitza, which +waters the valley<span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>Pg 226</span> of the same name. Close to its mouth, which is +spanned by a neat two-arched bridge, a Ban is said to have lived in +former days; and a solitary rock projecting from the hills on the left +bank is pointed out as his favourite resort. The summit of this is +smoothed off, and traces of an inscription still exist, but too much +defaced to be deciphered.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>Pg 227</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> + +<h4>Wealthy Christians—German Encyclopædia—Feats of Skill—Legend of +Petral—Chamois-hunting—Valley of Druga—Excavations—Country +Carts—Plain of Duvno—Mahmoud Effendi—Old +Tombs—Duvno—Fortress—Bosnian Frontier—Vidosa—Parish +Priest—National Music—Livno—Franciscan Convent—Priestly +Incivility—Illness—Quack Medicines—Hungarian Doctor—Military +Ambulance—Bosna Serai—Osman Pacha—Popularity—Roads and +Bridges—Mussulman Rising in Turkish Croatia—Energy of Osman +Pacha.</h4> + + +<p>The family with whom we purposed spending the succeeding days were +reputed to be the wealthiest of the Christians in that part of the +country. It will perhaps convey a more correct impression of their +means, if we say that they were less poverty-stricken than others. A few +cows, some half-dozen acres of arable land, and a fair stock of poultry, +constituted their claim to being considered millionaires. The household +consisted, besides father and mother, of two rather pretty girls, two +sons, and their cousin, who cultivated the land and hunted chamois +regularly every Sunday. Besides these there were some little boys, whose +only occupation appeared to be to bring fire for the pipes of their +elders. Our arrival, and the prospect of a bye day after the chamois, +threw all the men of the party into a state of great excitement. Minute +was<span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>Pg 228</span> the inspection of our guns, rifles, and revolvers, the latter +receiving much encomium. An old Turk, who had been summoned to take part +in the morrow's excursion, eyed one of those for some time, and at +length delivered himself of the following sentiment: 'They say there is +a devil: how can this be so, when men are so much more devilish?' I am +afraid the salvation of Sir William Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, &c. &c., +would be uncertain were they to be judged on the same grounds. While +waiting for our dinner of fowls made into soup and baked potatoes, the +sons brought a book, which the priest, with more regard for preserving +his reputation for learning than veracity, had told them was a bad book. +It proved to be a German Encyclopædia. On hearing this one remarked, +'Oh, then it will do for cigarettes.' While regaling ourselves on wine +and grapes, which one of the hospitable creatures had walked twelve +miles to procure, we received visits from the male population of the +village, who, like all the people of the valley, are much addicted to +chamois-hunting. Their conversation, indeed, had reference exclusively +to sport, varied by a few feats of skill, hardly coming under the former +name. One villager asserted positively that he had seen a man at Livno +shoot an egg off another's head. This was instantly capped by another, +who affirmed that he had witnessed a similar feat at the same place. His +story ran thus: 'At the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>Pg 229</span> convent of Livno, all the Roman Catholic girls +of the district are married. On one occasion a young bride was receiving +the congratulations of her friends, when a feather which had been +fastened across her head became loosened, and waved around it. A +bystander remarked that he would be a good shot who could carry away the +feather without injuring the head. The girl upon hearing this looked +round and said, "If you have the courage to fire, I will stand." Upon +which the bystander drew a pistol and shot away the truant feather.'</p> + +<p>The valley of Drechnitza is wild and rocky, but sufficiently wooded to +present a pleasing aspect. The timber is in many places of large girth, +and might easily be transported to the sea. It is invested also with +more than common interest by the primitive character of its people, and +the legends which associate it with the early history of the province.</p> + +<p>At present only four villages remain in the valley; that where our hosts +lived being the most ancient. They indeed spoke with pride of having +occupied their present position since before the conquest, paying only a +nominal tribute of one piastre and a half until within the last thirty +years, since which time their privileges have been rescinded.</p> + +<p>On the left bank of the Drechnitza, about half-way between its +confluence with the Narenta and the house<span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>Pg 230</span> of our hosts, is a small +valley named Petral; it derived its name from the following +circumstances:—For seven years after the rest of Bosnia and the +Herzegovina had been overrun by the Turks under Mehemet II., the people +of this valley maintained an unequal combat with the invaders. The +gallant little band were under the orders of one Peter, who lived in a +castle on the summit of a height overlooking the plain; this plain could +only be approached by two passes, one of which was believed to be +unknown to the Turks. In an evil hour an old woman betrayed the secret +of this pass, and Peter had the mortification one morning of looking +down from his castle upon the armed Turkish legion, who had effected an +entrance during the night. Like a true patriot, he sank down overcome by +the sight, and died in a fit of apoplexy; whence the valley has been +called Petral to this day.</p> + +<p>A few ruins mark the spot where the church stood of yore, and four +tombstones are in tolerably good preservation. Beneath these repose the +ashes of a bishop and three monks; the date on one of them is +<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1400.</p> + +<p>Early the following morning we started for the bills, where the chamois +were reported to be numerous. After about three hours' climbing over a +mass of large stones and rocks, the ascent became much more precipitous, +trees and sand taking the place of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>Pg 231</span> the rocks. In course of time we +reached a plateau, with an almost perpendicular fall on the one side, +and a horizontal ridge of rock protruding from the mountain side +beneath. Four of the party, which numbered eight guns in all, having +taken up positions on this ridge, the remainder, with a posse of boys, +made a flank movement with the view of taking the chamois in reverse. +The shouting and firing which soon commenced showed us that they were +already driving them towards us from the opposite hills. The wood was +here so thick that occasional glimpses only could be obtained of the +chamois, as they came out into the open, throwing up their heads and +sniffing the air as though to detect the danger which instinct told them +was approaching. Two or three of the graceful little animals blundered +off, hard hit, the old Turk being the only one of the party who +succeeded in killing one outright. The bound which followed the +death-wound caused it to fall down a precipice, at the bottom of which +it was found with its neck dislocated, and both horns broken short off. +If the ascent was difficult, the descent was three-fold more so. The +rocks being the great obstacle to our progress, the mountaineers managed +well enough, jumping from one to another with the agility of cats; but +to those unaccustomed to the kind of work, repeated falls were +inevitable. How I should have got down I really cannot say, had I not +intrusted myself<span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>Pg 232</span> to providence and the strong arm of one of those sons +of nature.</p> + +<p>The strong exercise which I had taken rendering me anything but disposed +for a repetition of the sport on the ensuing day, M.G. left me on his +return journey to Mostar, while I proceeded on my solitary way. This, +however, was not so cheerless as I had anticipated, as the two sons of +the house expressed a wish to accompany me as far as Livno on the +Bosnian frontier, where their uncle, a village priest, held a cure. For +several hours we remained on the left bank of the Drechnitza, which we +forded close to its source. On the heights upon our right, fame tells of +the existence of a city, now no more; and it is certain that a golden +idol weighing 23 lbs. was found in the locality. Buoyed up by hopes of +similar success, fresh gold-diggers had been recently at work, but with +what result I am unable to say.</p> + +<p>Bearing away now to the W. we entered the valley of the Druga, a little +rocky stream. Two roads were reported practicable, the longer taking a +winding course past Rachitna, the other, which I selected, being more +direct, but far more rocky and difficult; the ascent at one point was +more severe than anything I ever recollect having seen.</p> + +<p>Leaving Druga we descended into the plain of Swynyatcha, a small open +space, which is again con<span class="pagenum"><a id="page233" name="page233"></a>Pg 233</span>nected with Duvno by a pass. The hills on the +left of this pass are called Liep, those on the right Cesarussa. Here, +too, report speaks of the existence of a city in former days, and the +discovery of a large hag of gold coins, like Venetian sequins, has +induced some speculative spirit to commence excavations on a large +scale. But these, I regret to say, have not as yet been attended with +any success. A very fair road has been recently made through this pass, +and the traffic which has resulted from it ought to convince the people +of the utility of its construction. We met many ponies carrying +merchandise from Livno to Mostar, while long strings of carts drawn by +eight bullocks were employed in carrying wood to the villages in the +plain of Duvno. These carts are roughly built enough, but answer the +purpose for which they are intended, viz. slow traffic in the plains. +The axle-trees and linch-pins are made of wood, and indeed no iron at +all is used in their construction. The plain of Duvno is one of the +largest in the province: its extreme length is about fifteen miles, and +villages are placed at the foot of the hills, round its entire +circumference. The most important of these is the seat of a Mudir, to +whom I proceeded at once on my arrival. Although afflicted with a +hump-back, he was a person of most refined manners. His brother-in-law, +Mahmoud Effendi, who is a member of the Medjlis, was with him, and added +his endeavours to those of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>Pg 234</span> Mudir to render my stay at Duvno +agreeable. Having complimented the great man upon the appearance of his +Mudirlik, he laughingly replied, 'Oh, yes, they must work because it is +so cold'—a statement which I felt anything but disposed to question. +The wind was blowing down the plain at the time in bitterly cold blasts, +and I understand that such is always the case. The vegetation appeared +good, in spite of a seeming scarcity of water.</p> + +<p>The people of the district are nearly all Catholics, which may be +attributed to its proximity to Dalmatia and the convents of Bosnia. They +are orderly and well-behaved, according to the Mudir's account; but I +also gathered from some Catholics to whom I spoke that this good +behaviour results from fear more than love, as the few Turks have it all +their own way. In the centre of the plain are some old tombs, some of a +sarcophagus shape, others merely rough flat stones, whilst here and +there interspersed may be seen some modern crosses—a strange admixture +of the present and the past. After a somewhat uncomfortable night in the +one khan which the town possesses, I presented myself with early dawn at +the house of the Mudir. Although not yet 8 o'clock, I found him with the +whole Medjlis in conclave around him. Thence the entire party +accompanied me to inspect the fort, or such part of it as had escaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>Pg 235</span> +the ravages of time. It was rather amusing to see the abortive attempts +at climbing of some of these fur-coated, smoke-dried old Mussulmans, who +certainly did not all equal the Mudir in activity. The fort is a +quadrilateral with bastions, and gates in each of the curtains; in two +of the bastions are eight old guns, dismounted: these are all of Turkish +manufacture, some having iron hoops round the muzzles.</p> + +<p>In the SW. corner is a round tower, evidently copied from the Roman, if +not of genuine Roman origin. For what purpose the fort was built, or by +whom, I was unable to learn. It is said, however, to have been +constructed about two centuries ago<a name="FNanchor_U_21" id="FNanchor_U_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_U_21" class="fnanchor">[U]</a>, and there is a Turkish +inscription on it to that effect; but, as I have said before, no +reliance can be placed upon these. There are many buildings within the +walls, and one mosque is reputed to have existed a hundred years before +the rest of the fort.</p> + +<p>Shortly after leaving the village we arrived at the frontier line of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is, however, unmarked. Already the country +presented a greener and more habitable appearance, which increased as we +continued our journey. Towards evening we stopped at a little village +named Vidosa, where the uncle<span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>Pg 236</span> of my hunting companions held the post of +parish priest. Having sent one of his nephews in advance to warn him of +my arrival, he was waiting to receive me, and invited me to stay at his +house with great cordiality. Notwithstanding that the greater portion of +it had been destroyed by fire a few months previously, I was very +comfortably housed, and fully appreciated a clean bed after the rough +'shakes down' to which I was accustomed. That the kitchen was +luxuriously stocked, I am not prepared to say; but the priest was +profuse in his apologies for the absence of meat, proffering as an +excuse that Roman Catholics do not eat it on Friday, a reason which +would scarcely hold good, as I arrived on a Saturday. Of eggs and +vegetables, however, there was no lack. Vegetable diet and dog Latin are +strong provocatives of thirst, and the number of times that I was +compelled to say '<i>ad salutem</i>' in the course of the evening was +astonishing. The old priest appeared more accustomed to these copious +libations than his younger assistant, who before he left the table +showed unmistakable signs of being 'well on.' Both vicar and curate wore +moustachios, and the flat-topped red fez, which distinguishes their +profession. The curate had received a certain amount of education at one +of the Bosnian convents, whence he had been sent to Rome, where he had, +at any rate, attained a tolerable proficiency in Italian, and a few +words of French. Another<span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>Pg 237</span> occupant of the house, who must not be allowed +to go unmentioned, was the priest's mother, a charming old lady in her +ninety-seventh year. Age had in no way impaired her faculties, and she +was more active and bustling than many would be with half her weight of +years.</p> + +<p>In the evening the nephews made their appearance, having dined with the +domestics. The remaining hours were devoted to singing, if such can be +termed the monotonous drawl which constitutes the music of the country. +In this one of the brothers was considered very proficient: the subjects +of the songs are generally legendary feats of Christians against the +conquering Turks, which, however little they may have conduced to bar +the progress of the invaders, sound remarkably well in verse. Sometimes, +as in the present case, the voice is accompanied by the guesla, a kind +of violin with one or three strings.</p> + +<p>The priest, although a man of small education and strong prejudices, +appeared to be possessed of much good sense. He deplored the state of +things in Herzegovina, and said that much misery would ensue from it, +not only there, but in all the neighbouring provinces. As an instance of +the severity of the government demands, he mentioned that 1,400 +baggage-horses had been recently taken from the district of Livno alone, +as well as more than 400 horse-loads<span class="pagenum"><a id="page238" name="page238"></a>Pg 238</span> of corn, for all of which promises +of payment only had been made. For the accuracy of his statements I am +not prepared to vouch, but I give them as they were given to me. He did +not, however, complain so much of the quantity, as of the injudicious +mode of proceeding, in making such large demands at one time.</p> + +<p>A few hours took me to the town of Livno, on the outskirts of which is +the Catholic convent. Mass was being performed at the time; but I found +the Guardiano, 'Padre Lorenzo,' and one of the Fratri disengaged. After +keeping me waiting for some time in a very cold vaulted room, these two +came to me, though their reception of me contrasted very unfavourably +with that of the simple village priest. The convent is for monks of the +Franciscan order, of whom there were five besides the Superior. It is a +large, rambling, and incomplete building of white stone, and in no way +interesting, having only been completed about six years. After mass came +dinner, which was provided more with regard to quantity than quality, +and at which the holy men acquitted themselves <i>à merveille</i>. Excepting +a young priest of delicate appearance and good education, the brethren +appeared a surly and ill-conditioned set. So ill-disguised was the +discontent conveyed in the ungracious 'sicuro' vouchsafed in reply to my +petition for a bed, that I ordered my traps to be conveyed<span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>Pg 239</span> forthwith to +the best khan in the town, and, having failed to find favour with the +Christians, sought the aid of the Mussulman Kaimakan, from whom at any +rate my English blood and Omer Pacha's Buruhltee insured me advice and +assistance.</p> + +<p>The Austrian Consul also received me with much civility, and most +obligingly placed his house at my disposal, although compelled to start +for Spolatro on business. For some reason best known to himself, he +begged of me to return to Mostar, insisting on the impracticability of +travelling in Bosnia in the present state of political feeling. This, +coupled with the specimen of priestly civility which I had experienced +in the convent of Goritza, inclined me to alter the route which I had +proposed to myself by Foinitza to Bosna Serai. In lieu of this route, I +resolved upon visiting Travnik, the former capital of Bosnia, before +proceeding to Bosna Serai (or Serayevo, as it is called in the +vernacular), the present capital of the province. In fulfillment of this +plan, I started on the morning of the 21st, though suffering from fever +and headache, which I attributed to a cold caught in the damp vaults of +the Franciscan convent. With each successive day my illness became more +serious, and it was with difficulty that I could sit my horse during the +last day's journey before reaching Travnik. At one of the khans en +route, I put myself into the hands of the Khanjee, who with his female<span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>Pg 240</span> +helpmate prescribed the following remedies:—He directed me to place my +feet in a basin of almost boiling tea, made out of some medicinal herbs +peculiar to the country, the aroma from which was most objectionable. He +then covered me with a waterproof sheet which I carried with me, and, +when sufficiently cooked, lifted me into bed. Though slightly relieved +by this treatment, the cure was anything but final; and on my arrival at +Travnik I was far more dead than alive. There an Hungarian doctor, to +whom I had letters of introduction, came to visit me, and prescribed a +few simple remedies. One day I hazarded the remark that stimulants were +what I most required; upon which the learned doctor observed, with +proper gravity, that brandy would probably be the most efficacious +remedy, as he had often heard that English soldiers lived entirely on +exciting drinks. Ill as I was, I could scarcely refrain from laughing at +the drollery of the idea.</p> + +<p>After a few days' stay at Travnik my medical adviser began, I fancy, to +despair of my case; and on the same principle as doctors elsewhere +recommend Madeira to hopeless cases of consumption, he advised me to +continue my journey to Bosna Serai. The difficulty was to reach that +place. Here, however, the Kaimakan came to my help, and volunteered to +let out on hire an hospital-cart belonging to the artillery. I accepted +his offer, and after a few days' stay at Travnik set forward<span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>Pg 241</span> on my +journey to Bosna Serai. The carriage was a species of Indian dâk ghari, +with side doors, but without a box-seat; it was drawn by artillery +horses, ridden by two drivers, while a sergeant and gunner did escort +duty. Fortunately the vehicle had springs, which must have suffered +considerably from the jolting which it underwent, although we only +proceeded at a foot's pace.</p> + +<p>After three days' journey we reached Bosna Serai, where I was most +kindly received by Mr. Z., the acting British Consul, and by M.M., the +French Consul, with whom I stayed during the three weeks that I was +confined to my room by illness.</p> + +<p>Bosna Serai, or Serayevo, is probably the most European of all the large +towns of Turkey in Europe. It is not in the extent of the commerce which +prevails, nor in the civilisation of its inhabitants, that this +pre-eminence shows itself; but in the cleanly and regular appearance of +its houses and streets, the condition of which last would do credit to +many a Frankish town. This happy state of things is mainly attributable +to the energy and liberality of the present governor of Bosnia, Osman +Pacha, who, notwithstanding his advanced years, has evinced the greatest +desire to promote the welfare of the people under his charge. In the +nine months of his rule which had preceded my visit, he had constructed +no less than ninety miles of road, repaired the five bridges which span +the river within the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>Pg 242</span> limits of the town, and introduced other reforms +which do him honour, and have procured for him the gratitude and +goodwill of all classes of his people. The system which he has +introduced for the construction of roads is at once effective and +simple. By himself making a small portion of road near the capital, he +succeeded in demonstrating to the country people the advantages which +would result from the increased facility of traffic. By degrees this +feeling spread itself over the province, and the villagers apply +themselves, as soon as the crops are sown, to making new portions of +road, which they are further bound to keep in repair. This is obviously +the first and most indispensable step in the developement of the +resources of the country. It would be well for the Sultan were he +possessed of a few more employés as energetic, able, and honest as Osman +Pacha.</p> + +<p>I regretted that the rapidity of his movements prevented my taking leave +of him and his intelligent secretary. But, a few nights before my +departure, an express arrived bringing intelligence of a rising in +Turkish Croatia, near Banialuka. The news arrived at 9 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span>, +and the energetic Pacha was on the road to the scene of the disturbance +by 6 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> the following morning. The émeute proved trifling; +not being, as was at first reported, a Christian insurrection, but a +mere ebullition of feeling on the part of the Mussulmans of that +district, who are the most poverty-stricken of all the inhabitants of +the province.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>Pg 243</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> + +<h4>Svornik—Banialuka—New Road—Sport—Hot Springs—Ekshesoo—Mineral +Waters—Celebrated Springs—Goitre—The +Bosna—Trout-fishing—Tzenitza—Zaptiehs—Maglai—Khans—Frozen +Roads—Brod—The Save—Austrian Sentry—Steamer on the +Save—Gradiska—Cenovatz—La lingua di tré Regni—Culpa +River—Sissek—Croatian Hotel—Carlstadt Silk—Railway to +Trieste—Moravian Iron—Concentration of Austrian Troops—Probable +Policy—Water-Mills—Semlin—Belgrade.</h4> + + +<p>The shortening days, and the snow, which might now be seen in patches on +the mountain sides, warned us of approaching winter, and the necessity +for making a start in order to ensure my reaching Constantinople before +the Danube navigation should be closed. My illness and other +circumstances had combined to detain me later than I had at first +intended, and I was consequently compelled to abandon the idea of +visiting either Svornik or Banialuka, two of the largest and most +important towns in the province. The former of these places is +interesting as being considered the key of Bosnia, in a military point +of view; the latter, from the numerous remains, which speak eloquently +of its former importance. The navigation of the Save, too, having +become<span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>Pg 244</span> practicable since the heavy rains had set in, I resolved upon +the simplest route of reaching Belgrade, viz., that by Brod. In coming +to this decision, I was influenced also by my desire to see the valley +of the Bosna, in and above which the road lies for almost the whole +distance. No site could have been more judiciously chosen, than that in +which Serayevo is built. Surrounded by beautiful hills and meadows, +which even in November bore traces of the luxuriant greenness which +characterises the province, and watered by the limpid stream of the +Migliaska, its appearance is most pleasing. As we rattled down the main +street at a smart trot on the morning of the 16th November, in the +carriage of Mr. H., the British Consul, it was difficult to believe +oneself in a Turkish city. The houses, even though in most cases built +of wood, are in good repair; and the trellis-work marking the feminine +apartments, and behind which a pair of bright eyes may occasionally be +seen, materially heightens the charms of imagination. The road for the +first six miles was hard and good. It is a specimen of Osman Pacha's +handiwork, and is raised considerably above the surrounding fields, the +sides of the road being rivetted, as it were, with wattles. At the end +of that distance, and very near the confluence of the Migliaska and the +Bosna, I separated from my friends, who were bent on a day's shooting.<span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>Pg 245</span> +From the number of shots which reached my ear as I pursued my solitary +journey, I should imagine that they must have had a successful day. The +love of sport is strongly developed in the people of these provinces, +and nature has provided them with ample means of gratifying their +inclination. Besides bears, wolves, boars, foxes, roebucks, chamois, +hares, and ermines, all of which are plentiful in parts of the country, +birds of all kinds abound; grey and red-legged partridges, blackcock, +ducks of various kinds, quail, and snipe, are the most common; while +flights of geese and cranes pass in the spring and autumn, but only +descend in spring. Swans and pelicans are also birds of passage, and +occasionally visit these unknown lands. The natives are clever in +trapping these animals. This they do either by means of pitfalls or by +large traps, made after the fashion of ordinary rat-traps.</p> + +<p>Before continuing my journey, I visited the hot springs, which rise from +the earth at a stone's throw from the main road. Baths were built over +them by Omer Pacha, on the occasion of his last visit to Bosnia, for the +benefit of the sick soldiers, and such others as chose to use them. +Besides two or three larger baths, there are several intended for one +person, each being provided with a kind of cell, as a dressing room. The +waters are considered most efficacious in all cases of cutaneous +diseases, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>Pg 246</span> were at one time in great request for every kind of +disorder, real and imaginary. From what I could gather from the +'Custos,' I should say that they are now but little frequented. Leaving +the Migliaska, which is here spanned by a solid bridge of ten arches, we +crossed the Bosna in about half an hour. Scattered along the river bank, +or in some sheltered nook, protected by large trees alike from the heat +and the eyes of curious observers, might be seen the harems of various +pachas, and other grandees connected with the province. After four hours +farther march, we arrived at Ekshesoo, where 1 located myself in the +khan for the night. My first step was to send for a jug of the mineral +water, for which the village is famous, and at one period of the year +very fashionable. The water has a strong taste of iron, and when fresh +drawn, effervesces on being mixed with sugar, wine, or other acids. It +is in great repute with all classes, but the Jews are the most addicted +to its use. No Hebrew in Serayevo would venture to allow a year to +elapse without a visit to the springs; they generally remain there for +two or three days, and during that time drink at stated hours gallon +after gallon of the medicated fluid. The following night I arrived at +Boosovatz, where I left the Travnik road, which I had been retracing up +to that point. The water of the Bosna is here<span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>Pg 247</span> beautifully transparent; +and at about an hour's distance is a spring, the water of which is +considered the best in Bosnia. The Pacha has it brought in all the way +to Serayevo, yet, notwithstanding this, I saw many persons in the +village suffering from goitre, a by no means uncommon complaint in +Bosnia. The cause for the prevalence of this affliction is difficult to +understand, unless we attribute it to the use of the river water, which +is at times much swollen by the melting snow.</p> + +<p>10th November: rain fell in torrents, much to my disgust, as the scenery +was very beautiful. The road, which is a portion of the old road +constructed by Omer Pacha, skirts the banks of the river, which winds +sometimes amongst steep wooded hills, at others in the smooth green +plains. At one point we were obliged to ford it; the stream was rather +deep and rapid, and I certainly experienced a sensation of relief when I +saw my baggage pony fairly landed on the opposite bank, without further +injury to his load than a slight immersion. The fishing of the Bosna is +not so good as that of the Narento and some other rivers of Bosnia and +Herzegovina. Let me not be accused of a partiality for travellers' +tales, when I say that trout of 60 lbs. have been killed in the latter +province. In external colour these are veritable trout, the flesh, +however, having a yellowish appearance, something between the colour of +trout and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>Pg 248</span> salmon; the smaller fish are of excellent quality and are +very abundant. Three hours after leaving Boosovatz we reached Tzenitza, +a small town where a little trade is carried on. While sitting in the +public room of the khan, the post from Brod arrived en route to Bosna +Serai. The man who carried it came in wet and mud-bespattered, and +declared the road to be quite impassable; a bit of self-glorification +which I took for what it was worth. Had I not been pressed for time I +should have myself been inclined to give way to the importunities of all +concerned, to postpone my journey to Vranduk until the following day; +but seeing no prospect of any improvement in the weather, I deemed it +prudent to push on.</p> + +<p>Another difficulty, however, here presented itself. The Tchouch of +Zaptiehs positively declined to give me a guide; and it was only by +sending for the Mudir, and threatening to write a complaint to the +Serdar Ekrem, that I succeeded in obtaining one. This escort duty is the +principal work of the mounted Zaptiehs. Ten piastres a day, or twenty +pence, is what is usually paid them by those who make use of their +services. They, of course, pay for the keep of their own horses out of +their regular official salary. The rain now gave place to snow, which +fell in considerable quantities for two or three days. The cold was +intense, and it was only by halting at every khan, generally about three +hours<span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>Pg 249</span> apart, that it was possible to keep the blood in circulation. On +the morning of the 20th the sun shone out bright and comparatively warm, +although everything bore a most wintry aspect. Beautiful as the scenery +must be when spring has clothed the trees with green, or when the early +autumnal tints have succeeded the fierce heat of summer, the appearance +of the country clad in its snowy garments might well compare with either +of these. The hills, rugged in parts, and opening out at intervals into +large open plains, trees and shrubs groaning with their milk-white +burden, or sparkling like frosted silver in the moonlight, and above all +the river, now yellow and swollen, rushing rapidly along, produced an +effect characteristic and grand.</p> + +<p>About ninety miles from Serayevo the river becomes much broader, and +swollen as it was by the recent rain and snow, presented a very fine +appearance.</p> + +<p>On its right bank stands the town of Maglai, which is prettily situated +in the side of a basin formed by the hills, a craggy eminence apparently +dividing the town into two parts. Behind these, however, the houses +meet, sloping down close to the river's edge. On the very summit of the +central mound is an old fort mounting five guns, which command the +river, but would otherwise be of little use. The only means of +communication between either bank, is a ferry-boat of rude construction. +After leaving this town there still<span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>Pg 250</span> remained four hours of my journey +to be accomplished, before arriving at Schevaleekhan, where I intended +passing the night. Unaccustomed as I was to anything like luxury, I was +positively staggered at the total absence of even the commonest +necessaries of life. At Maglai I had endeavoured without success to buy +potatoes, fruit, and even meat; but here neither bread, eggs, nor +chickens, which are nearly always procurable, were to be found. Having +received the inevitable 'Nehmur' to every one of my demands, I could not +help asking what the inhabitants themselves eat; and being told that +they lived upon vegetables, asked for the same. Judge, then, of my +astonishment when told that there were none. Fortunately my kind friends +at Bosna Serai had not sent me away empty-handed, or assuredly I should +have felt the pangs of hunger that day.</p> + +<p>At all times a khan is a painful mockery of the word hotel, as it is +often translated. Picture to yourself a room about eight feet square, +with windows not made to open, a stove which fills one-third of the +entire space, and a wooden divan occupying the other two-thirds; the +whole peopled by innumerable specimens of the insect creation, and you +have a very fair idea of an ordinary khan. If there be a moment when one +is justified in the indulgence of a few epicurean ideas, it is when +inhabiting one of these abodes of bliss.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>Pg 251</span></p> + +<p>About an hour from Schevaleekhan we crossed an arm of the Bosna by means +of a ferry-boat; a little farther on the left bank stands a town of 300 +houses, built very much after the same principle as Maglai. Like that +place it has an eminence, around which the houses cluster. This is also +surmounted by a fort with three guns, two small and one large. The Mudir +told me with no little satisfaction that it was the last place taken by +the Turks, when they conquered Bosnia. Profiting by my experience of the +previous day, I took the precaution of buying a chicken, some bread, and +a few more edibles, on my way through the town. Provisions were, +however, both scarce and execrable in quality. Meat is indeed rarely to +be obtained anywhere, as sheep are never killed, and bullocks only when +superannuated and deemed unfit for further physical labour. Chickens are +consequently almost the only animal food known. The method of killing +them is peculiar. The children of the house are generally selected for +this office. One secures a very scraggy fowl, while another arms himself +with a hatchet of such formidable dimensions as to recall in the +beholder all sorts of unpleasant reminiscences about Lady Jane Grey, +Mauger, and other historic characters. The struggling bird is then +beheaded, and stripped of his plumage almost before his pulses have +ceased to beat. The first occasion on which I saw one of these<span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>Pg 252</span> +executions, I could not help thinking of a certain cicerone at Rome, +who, albeit that he spoke very good French and Italian, always broke out +in English when he saw a picture of a martyrdom of any kind soever; +'That one very good man, cut his head off.' The man had but one idea of +death, and the same may be said of these primitive people, who look upon +decapitation as the easiest termination to a half-starved life.</p> + +<p>Leaving Kotauski, where I passed the night of the 21st, at 7 +<span class="smcap">a.m.</span>, I reached Brod at 8.30 in the evening. The distance is +considerable, but might have been accomplished in a far shorter time, +had not the country been one sheet of ice, which rendered progression +both difficult and dangerous. Each person of whom I enquired the +distance told me more than the one before, until I thought that a +Bosnian 'saht' (hour) was a more inexplicable measure than a German +'stunde' or a Scottish 'mile and a bittoch.' At length, however, the +lights of Brod proclaimed our approach to the Turkish town of that name. +On the left bank of the Save stands Austrian Brod, which, like all the +Slavonic towns near the river, is thoroughly Turkish in character. Late +as it was, I hoped to cross the river the same night, and proceeded +straight to the Mudir, who raised no objections, and procured men to +ferry me across. But we had scarcely left the shore when we were +challenged by the Austrian sentry on the other<span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>Pg 253</span> side. As the garrisons +of all the towns on the frontier are composed of Grenzer regiments, or +confinarii, whose native dialect is Illyric, a most animated discussion +took place between the sentry on the one hand, and the whole of my +suite, which had increased considerably since my arrival in the town. My +servant Eugene, who had been educated for a priest, and could talk +pretty well, tried every species of argument, but without success; the +soldier evidently had the best of it, and clenched the question with the +most unanswerable argument—that we were quite at liberty to cross if we +liked; but that he should fire into us as soon as we came into good +view. There was therefore no help for it, and unwillingly enough, I +returned to a khan, and crossed over early the following morning. At his +offices, close to the river, I found M.M., le Directeur de la +Quarantine, and general manager of all the other departments. He +accompanied me to the hotel, which, though not exactly first-rate, +appeared luxurious after my three months of khans and tents. I was +somewhat taken aback at finding that the steamer to Belgrade was not due +for two days, and moreover that the fogs had been so dense that it had +not yet passed up on its voyage to Sissek; whence it would return to +Belgrade, calling at Brod, and other places en route.</p> + +<p>It therefore appeared the better plan to go up in it<span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>Pg 254</span> to Sissek, than to +await its return to Brod. By this means I was enabled to see many of the +towns and villages on the Bosnian, Slavonian, and Croatian frontiers. +Leaving my servant and horses at Brod, I went on board the steamer as +soon as it arrived. The scene I there found was curious. In a small +saloon, of which the windows were all shut, and the immense stove +lighted, were about thirty persons, three or four of whom were females, +the remainder merchants and Austrian officers. The atmosphere was so +oppressive that I applied for a private cabin, a luxury which is paid +for, in all German companies, over and above the regular fare. I was +told that I might have one for eleven florins a night. To this I +demurred, but was told that any reduction was impossible; it was the +tariff. At length the inspector came on board; to him I appealed, and +received the same answer. After a little conversation, he agreed to +break through a rule. I might have it for seven florins. No! well, he +would take the five which I had originally offered; and so I got my +cabin. That it was the nicest little room possible, I must admit, with +its two large windows, a maple table, a large mirror, and carpeted +floor; and a very much pleasanter resting-place than the hot saloon. The +night was rainy and dark, and we lay-to throughout the greater part of +it, as is the invariable rule on the Save, and even on the Danube<span class="pagenum"><a id="page255" name="page255"></a>Pg 255</span> +during the autumn months. At eight on the following morning we touched +at Gradiska. There are two towns of the name, the old one standing close +to the river, and embellished with a dilapidated castle; the new town +being about an hour's distance inland.</p> + +<p>About noon we reached Cenovatz, which, like the other towns and villages +on the frontier, might be mistaken rather for a Turkish than a German +town.</p> + +<p>The Castle of Cenovatz is an irregular quadrilateral, with three round +and one square tower at the angles. It is now occupied by priests. It is +interesting from its connection with the military history of the +country. There, on a tongue of land which projects into the river, waved +the flag of France during the occupation of the Illyrian provinces by +the old Napoleon, while on the main land on either side the sentinels of +Austria and Turkey were posted in close juxtaposition. Hence it has +received the name of "la lingua di tré regni."</p> + +<p>At six o'clock the same evening we entered the River Cūlpa, at the mouth +of which is the town of Sissek.</p> + +<p>It has a thrifty and cleanly appearance, and possesses two very fair +inns. The saloon of one of these appeared to be the rendezvous of the +opulent townspeople. Music, chess, billiards, and tobacco-smoke, +appeared to be the amusements most in vogue; the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page256" name="page256"></a>Pg 256</span> indulgence in the +latter being of course universal. Here I took leave of my companions of +the steamer, whose loss I much regretted, especially M. Burgstaller, a +gentleman of much intelligence, who requested me to examine his silk, +manufactured at Carlstadt, for the International Exhibition. On the +ensuing morning, I crossed the Cūlpa, and inspected the works connected +with the new railway to Trieste. It is intended to be in a state of +completion by the end of the coming autumn. Several Englishmen are +employed on the line, but I did not happen to come across any of them; +every information was, however, given me by a Croatian gentleman, who +has the superintendence of one-half of the line. Moravian iron is used +in preference to English, although its value on delivery is said to be +the greater of the two.</p> + +<p>Sissek was in ancient days a place of no small importance. There, Attila +put in to winter his fleet during one of his onslaughts on the decaying +Roman empire. Traces of the ancient city are often dug up, and many +curiosities have been found, which would delight the heart of the modern +antiquarian. The return voyage to Brod was not remarkable for any +strange incident, the passengers being almost entirely Austrian +officers. The number of troops massed by that power on her Slavonian and +Croatian frontier would infer that she entertains no friendly feelings<span class="pagenum"><a id="page257" name="page257"></a>Pg 257</span> +to her Turkish neighbours. These amount to no less than 40,000 men, +dispersed among the villages in the vicinity of Brod, and within a +circumference of fourteen miles. At Brod itself no fewer than 4,000 +baggage-horses were held in readiness to take the field at any moment. +It requires no preternatural foresight to guess the destination of these +troops. They are not intended, as some suppose, to hold in check the +free-thinking Slavonic subjects of Austria. Nor is that province used as +a penal settlement for the disaffected, as others would infer. The whole +history of Austria points to the real object with which they have been +accumulated, viz. to be in readiness to obtain a footing in Bosnia, in +the event of any insurrection in that province of sufficient importance +to justify such a measure. The utility of such a step would be +questionable, as climate and exposure have more than once compelled the +Austrians to relinquish the idea, even after they had obtained a +substantial footing in the province. The motives which would induce them +to make another attempt are palpable enough; for, besides the advantages +derivable from the possession of so beautiful and rich a country, +Austria sees with alarm the increase of revolutionary principles in a +province in such close proximity to her own. And yet she has small +reason for fear, since no single<span class="pagenum"><a id="page258" name="page258"></a>Pg 258</span> bond of union exists between the +Slaves on either bank of the Save.</p> + +<p>But even if this were not the case, surely her soundest policy would be +to support and strengthen in every way the Turkish Government, since +their interests are identical, viz. the preservation of order among the +Slavish nations of the world.</p> + +<p>After leaving Brod, the banks of the river become flat and +uninteresting; that on the Bosnian side is to a certain extent covered +with low brushwood. After passing the Drina, which forms the boundary +between Bosnia and Servia, it becomes still less interesting; the only +objects of attraction being the numerous mills with which the river is +studded. On the morning of the 29th we moored off the wharf at Semlin, +but just too late to enable me to cross over to Belgrade by the +morning's steamer. During the day, which I was compelled to pass in the +town, I received much attention from General Phillipovich, who commanded +the garrison, to whom I tender my sincere thanks. In the evening I +crossed over to Belgrade (the white city), the capital of the +principality of Servia.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page261" name="page261"></a>Pg 261</span></p> +<h2>SERVIA:</h2> + +<h3>ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL CONDITION.</h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + + +<p>The erroneous notions prevalent throughout Europe relative to the +internal condition of Servia, are mainly traceable to two causes. The +first of these is the wilful misrepresentation of facts by governments +to their subjects, while the other, and a far more universal one, is the +indifference inherent in flourishing countries for such as are less +successful, or which have not been brought into prominence by +contemporaneous events. We English are operated upon by the last of +these influences. We are contented to accept the meagre accounts which +have as yet reached us, and which give a very one-sided impression, as +is but natural, the whole of the materials having been collected at +Belgrade. I am not aware that anyone has during the past few years +written upon the subject; and having been at<span class="pagenum"><a id="page262" name="page262"></a>Pg 262</span> some pains to obtain the +means of forming a just estimate of the character and condition of the +Servian people, I must fain confess to very different ideas concerning +them to those which I had previously entertained, based upon the perusal +of Ranke and Von Engel, or the lighter pages of Cyprien Robert and +Paton.</p> + +<p>The retrograde movement, but too apparent, gives cause for serious +regret, not only to those who are politically interested in the +well-being of the country, but to all who desire to see an advanced +state of civilisation and a high moral standard amongst a people who +pride themselves on the universality of Christianity within their +limits.</p> + +<p>The present population is about one million, and is said to be +increasing at the rate of ten per cent., but so crudely compiled are the +statistics, that doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of this +statement. Of this million of souls, 200,000 at the lowest estimate are +foreigners; the greater portion being Austrian subjects, and the +children of those Servians who on three separate occasions migrated to +the northern banks of the Danube. What has induced them to return to +their ancestral shores, whether it be Austrian oppression, or an +unlooked-for patriotism, it is hard to say; but whatever the motives, +they have not proved of sufficient strength to awaken the dormant apathy +inherited with their Slavish blood. Save those who have settled at<span class="pagenum"><a id="page263" name="page263"></a>Pg 263</span> +Belgrade, and who drive a most lucrative and usurious trade, they have +sunk back contentedly to a level with the rest of their compatriots.</p> + +<p>The scanty population is only one of the many signs of the decadence of +a country for whose future such high hopes were entertained, and whose +name is even now blazoned forth as a watchword to the Christians of +Turkey. In reality, a comparison with most Turkish provinces, and more +especially with those in which the Mussulman element predominates, will +tell very favourably for the latter. Roumelia, for example, with a +smaller area, contains a larger population, produces more than double +the revenue, while land is four times as valuable, the surest test of +the prosperity of a country. This last is easily accounted for by the +lamentable indolence of the masses, who are contented to live in the +most abject poverty, neglecting even to take advantage of a naturally +fertile soil. Yet must it not be supposed that indifference to its +possession prompts this contempt for the cultivation of land. There is +probably no province so much enclosed, and where the mania for +litigation in connection therewith is so rife as Servia. An +insurmountable obstacle is thus thrown in the way of foreign enterprise, +by the narrow-mindedness of the people.</p> + +<p>The same want of energy has had the most baneful effect upon commerce, +the very existence of which<span class="pagenum"><a id="page264" name="page264"></a>Pg 264</span> is merely nominal. Even at Belgrade the +common necessaries of life are daily imported from the Austrian banks of +the Danube. No one is more alive to the deplorable state of affairs than +the reigning Prince, whose long residence in the capitals of Europe has +familiarised him with their bustling scenes of thriving activity. Well +will it be for Servia and himself, if he shall turn the experience which +he has acquired to some practical account. Any doubts which he may +previously have entertained regarding the misery of the country, and the +moral degradation of his subjects, were removed effectually by all that +he witnessed in a recent expedition into the interior—miserable hovels, +uncultivated fields, magnificent forests wantonly destroyed, were the +sights which met him at every turn. At length some restrictions have +been placed on the wilful abuse of the greatest source of wealth which +the country possesses. Nor are they premature, for the reckless +destruction of the forests, combined with a failure of the acorns during +the past year, produced serious distress. Already has the export trade +of pigs diminished by one-third of the average of former years. This is +immediately owing to the necessity of feeding them on Indian corn, a +process which proves too expensive for their poverty-stricken owners, +and which in this respect places the pig and its proprietor upon an +equality. The latter live almost entirely upon maize<span class="pagenum"><a id="page265" name="page265"></a>Pg 265</span> and sliegovich, a +kind of rakee made out of plums, and extremely fiery.</p> + +<p>The mode of treatment of their women, an infallible sign of civilisation +or the reverse, was brought prominently to the Prince's notice by the +following circumstance:—Having, in company with the Princess, visited +the cottage of a thriving pig-owner, he observed the presence of three +daughters of the house. These young ladies showed unmistakeable signs of +approaching old-maidism, and the parental philosophy settled the +question of their future pretty conclusively. 'Why,' said he, in reply +to a question put by the Prince touching the solitary condition of the +damsels, 'should I allow them to marry, when each of them is worth more +than three fat pigs to me.' Manners must have changed very much for the +worse since the days of Ami Boué, or it is difficult to conceive upon +what he founds his assertion that labour is not imposed upon Servian +women. Indeed it would be surprising were it not so, when they are +subjected by the laws of the land to the indignity of the bastinado, +from which even men, save soldiers, are exempted in Mahometan Turkey.</p> + +<p>The absence of that blind subjection to a bigoted priesthood which +distinguishes the other Christian populations, would seem to indicate a +certain independence of spirit, but unhappily the accompanying symptoms +are not so encouraging. With contempt for its<span class="pagenum"><a id="page266" name="page266"></a>Pg 266</span> ministers, has come +disregard for the ordinances of the Church, the services of which are +but scantily attended. Yet notwithstanding the irreligion which is +spreading fast throughout the land, little tolerance is shown for +adherents to other than the Greek Church. For example, Catholics are +compelled to close their shops on the Greek feasts, of which there are +not a few, under penalty of a fine. In the same liberal spirit the mob +are permitted to break the windows of such houses as are not illuminated +on these occasions.</p> + +<p>An ignorant and narrow-minded man is generally also vain. The same law +is equally applicable to nations. A fancied superiority over the +Christians of the other Turkish provinces cannot escape the notice of +the most casual observer. That Servia has acquired some fame for +military exploits is true, and far be it from me to detract from the +praise due to her efforts to achieve and maintain her independence. The +successes of their fathers, however, over the small irregular Turkish +levies to which they were opposed, do not warrant the present population +in indulging in the vapid boastings too often heard, of their ability to +drive the Turks to Constantinople, were they permitted so to do. In a +word, they forget that they owe their present position, not to their own +prowess, but to foreign intervention; without which the province would +probably have shared the fate of Bosnia,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page267" name="page267"></a>Pg 267</span> Albania, Epirus, and the +Pashaliks of Rutschuk and Widdin, all which were as independent as +themselves, but were reconquered by the Turks, no European power having +extended to them the safeguard of a guarantee.</p> + +<p>Whether the protection accorded to Servia has worked beneficially is for +my readers to judge. The abstract question of the advantages thus +conferred admits of debate, and for my own part I believe the present +miserable state of the province to be mainly owing to the European +guarantee. She was not sufficiently enlightened to profit by the +advantages presented to her, and the honourable self-reliance which was +the result of a successful resistance to the Turkish arms has given +place to a feeling of indolent security. Nor is this the worst. A +principal feature in a country under guarantee is the total want of +responsibility in those vested with administrative power. Upon this the +Servian rulers presume to a preeminent degree, and indulge in many acts +of presumption which would be impossible were they not fully alive to +the fact that the conflicting interests of the guaranteeing powers, +added to their own insignificance (which perhaps they overlook), exempt +them from any fear of chastisement.</p> + +<p>The principle of supporting the independence of a province forming a +component geographical part of an empire, must have but one result, that +of<span class="pagenum"><a id="page268" name="page268"></a>Pg 268</span> weakening the mother state, without, as experience has shown, +ameliorating the condition of the province. Independently, therefore, of +the drain upon the Turkish finances, for the maintenance of troops from +time to time on the Servian frontier, to counteract revolutionary +propaganda, her influence throughout her Slavish provinces is much +weakened. Although in a position as anomalous as it must be unpalatable, +the Ottoman Government deserves credit for abstaining so entirely from +any species of interference in the internal affairs of the country; for +be it remembered that the province is still tributary to the Porte. The +hattischeriff of 1834, by which, on the evacuation of the country, the +Sultan retained the right of garrisoning the fortresses, has never been +strictly adhered to, and may at some future period lead to +complications. Belgrade is secure from any efforts which may be made +against it, but the other forts are hardly worthy of the name, and were +only used as a place of refuge in case of attack. The Servians now +complain of the infringement of the hattischeriff, and M. Garaschanin +has but lately returned from Constantinople, whither he was sent on a +special mission in connection with this subject. He endeavoured to +procure an order for the withdrawal of all Mussulmans from the villages +which they now occupy in the vicinity of the forts. This demand would +appear just in the letter of the law,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page269" name="page269"></a>Pg 269</span> but for the neglect on the part +of the Servian Government of one of the conditions, which was, that +before resigning their property, the Mussulmans should receive an +equivalent in money. The payment of this has been evaded, and the Porte +consequently declines to interfere in the matter; should the Sultan +hereafter accede to the demand, it would be no great sacrifice, as he +would still retain Belgrade. Situated as that fortress is, at the +confluence of the Danube and the Save, surrounded with strong and +well-ordered fortifications, and commanding every quarter of the town, +its occupation in the event of hostilities would at once determine the +fate of the province.</p> + +<p>The city may be fairly said to represent the sum of civilisation in the +country. In addition to 2,000 Austrian subjects, the population is of a +very polyglot character, who, however much they may have added to the +importance, have deprived the town of its national appearance.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page270" name="page270"></a>Pg 270</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + + +<p>Before alluding to the financial or military resources, it will be well +to pass in brief review the events of the past few years, of which no +chronicle exists. These, if devoid of any special interest, tend +considerably to our enlightenment regarding the much vexed question of a +south Slavonic kingdom, and at the same time of Russia's prospects of +aggrandisement south of the Danube. The neutral attitude preserved by +Servia during the war in 1854-55, must have been a grievous +disappointment to the Emperor Nicholas. Had she risen consentaneously +with the irruption of the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus, the +revolt might have become general, and would have been fraught with +consequences most perplexing to the Sultan's allies. This neutrality may +be attributed to the position assumed by Austria throughout that +struggle, combined with the independence of Russian influence manifested +by the then reigning family of Servia. No sooner was peace declared, +than Russia applied herself to the task of producing a state of feeling +more favourable to herself in the Slavonic provinces. While adhering to +her traditional policy of fomenting discord, and exciting petty +dis<span class="pagenum"><a id="page271" name="page271"></a>Pg 271</span>turbances with the view of disorganising and impeding the +consolidation of Turkey, she redoubled her efforts to promote her own +influence by alienating the Greek Christians from their spiritual +allegiance to the Archimandrite, and transferring it to the Czar. Nor to +attain this end did she scruple to resort to presents, bribes, and even +more unworthy means. That her efforts have not met with more signal +success than has as yet attended them, is due to the indifference +displayed by the people on these subjects.</p> + +<p>One measure which was deemed most important was the substitution in +Servia of the Obrenovitch family for that of Kara George. This occurred +in 1858; and during the lifetime of Milneh, Russian influence was ever +in the ascendant. The familiar roughness of tone and manner assumed by +that Prince towards his uncultivated people procured for him great +weight; while his astute cunning, his hatred of Turkey, and his Russian +bias, would have given a most valuable ally to that power, had she +procured his restoration before her armies crossed the Pruth. +Fortunately no opportunity presented itself for him to promote actively +the cause of his imperial master; and the two years which he survived +his return to power are marked only by occasional ill-judged and +bloodthirsty emeutes, as prejudicial to his people as they were +ineffectual in overthrowing Turkish supremacy.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page272" name="page272"></a>Pg 272</span></p> + +<p>The eastern policy of France, during the Italian war, was subjected to +many powerful conflicting influences. The chances of creating a +diversion in the rear of Austria, owing to the unsettled state of the +Turkish provinces, was probably thought of. Why the idea was abandoned +is not for us here to enquire; but it may be in part attributed to the +display of force which Turkey for once put forth at the right moment. Be +this as it may, no disturbance took place until the winter of 1859, +when, upon the withdrawal of the Turkish troops, fresh rumours of an +insurrectionary nature were heard. These are well known to have been +encouraged and circulated by the Servian Government, which calculated +upon foreign support, at any rate that of Russia. But Russia has no wish +to precipitate a crisis. The disastrous results of Prince Gortschakoff's +mission have, at any rate, taught her the impolicy of plucking at the +fruit before it is ripe. Her own internal reorganisation, moreover, +occupies her sufficiently, and renders any active interference for the +moment impracticable. Even were it otherwise, were Russia able and +willing to renew the struggle in behalf of her co-religionists, the +report of Prince Dolgorouki as to the amount of assistance likely to be +derived from them, would hardly tend to encourage her in her +disinterested undertaking. This envoy arrived at Belgrade in the latter +part of 1859, while Prince Gortschakoff's charges were<span class="pagenum"><a id="page273" name="page273"></a>Pg 273</span> issued shortly +after his return, and were doubtless based upon his reports. (Yet it is +more than probable that the primary object of his mission was to enquire +into and to regulate the revolutionary movements, which at that moment +had acquired a certain degree of importance.) The Bulgarian emissaries +told him frankly that no rising could be looked for in those provinces, +unless Russia took the initiative. They reminded him that in 1842, when +Baron Lieven visited Belgrade, the Bulgarians were induced by the +promises of Prince Michael Obrenovitch to rise en masse. These promises +were never fulfilled, and the insurrection was put down with great +barbarities by the neighbouring Albanian levies. This single fact is +tolerably conclusive as to the unreality of a south Slavonic +insurrection, of which so much has been said, and to promote which so +much trouble has been taken. Even were the discontent tenfold as +deep-rooted as it now is, the Turkish Government might rely on the +Mussulman population and the Arnauts to suppress any rising of the +Christians. The chief danger to Turkey lies in the truculent nature of +those whom she would be compelled to let loose upon the insurgents, and +who would commit excesses which might be made an excuse for foreign +intervention. The attainment of this ignoble end has been and still is +the policy pursued by more than one power. Prince Milosch played +admirably into their hands, not foreseeing<span class="pagenum"><a id="page274" name="page274"></a>Pg 274</span> that in the general +bouleversement which would be the result, the independence of Servia +might be disregarded. The invasion of the Bosnian frontier by bands of +Servian ruffians was a measure well calculated to arouse the fury of the +Mussulmans; and if such has not been the case, it may be attributed to +the rapid dispersion of the miscreants. Little credit, indeed, accrued +to Servia in these hostile demonstrations, for while the bands were +composed of the lowest characters, and could only be brought together by +payment, they quickly retreated across the frontier at the first show of +resistance. It is significant that these bands were in nearly all cases +led by Montenegrins, a fact which indicates the decline of that spirit +of military adventure to which the Haiduks of old (robbers) could at +least lay some claim. Discreditable as these proceedings were, worse +ensued.</p> + +<p>On the 5th of August a murderous attack was made upon a party of +Mussulmans in the close vicinity of Belgrade, upon which occasion eight +were killed and seventeen wounded. No fire-arms were used, probably to +avoid alarming the garrison. The absence on that night from the capital +of both Prince Milosch and his son, furnishes just grounds for +suspecting them of complicity in the affair, while the presence of +Sleftcha (notoriously a creature of Russia), and Tenko, among the +murderers, clearly shows where and<span class="pagenum"><a id="page275" name="page275"></a>Pg 275</span> with what views the crime was +devised. On the same night, five Mussulmans who were sleeping in a +vineyard at Kladova, on the Bulgarian frontier, were murdered by +Servians, while an attack was made upon a third party. The prospects of +a country whose princes connive at, and whose ministers commit murder, +cannot be very brilliant. Whether other atrocities might have met with +the sanction of Milosch it is impossible to say, for death cut him off +in the latter part of September, 1860, full of years and crimes. Not the +least of these was the death of Kara George, who was treacherously +murdered at his instigation. But let us pass from so unattractive a +retrospect to a consideration of the character and policy of the living +prince who now holds the reins of government.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page276" name="page276"></a>Pg 276</span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + + +<p>The appointment of Prince Michael to the vacant throne of Servia was the +first step towards the substitution of hereditary for elective +succession. One of the first measures of the new prince was to induce +the Skuptschina, or National Assembly, to legalise for the future that +which had been an infraction of the law. The sixteen years which +intervened between 1842, when Michael was ejected, and 1858, when Prince +Milosch was reinstated, were passed by the former in the various +capitals of Europe. The high Vienna notions which he imbibed during that +period have deprived him of the sympathy and affection of his +semi-civilised subjects, as much as the uncultivated mind of his father +deprived him of their respect. Nor does the lack of sympathy appear to +be one-sided. And, in truth, that mind must be possessed of no ordinary +amount of philanthropy which can apply itself to the improvement of a +people at once so ignorant and vain, and who evince withal so little +desire for enlightenment.</p> + +<p>At the time of his accession the Russian element, as has been shown, was +strong in the Ministry. Sleftcha and the Metropolitan were her +principal<span class="pagenum"><a id="page277" name="page277"></a>Pg 277</span> agents. It was to be expected, therefore, that he would +adhere to the family principles, and sell himself body and soul to his +great benefactor. But it frequently happens that persons who have risen +to unexpected eminence turn upon those by whom they have been raised. +This would appear to be somewhat the case with Prince Michael, who +certainly does not show the same devotion to Russia as did his father. +It may be that he has not noted in the foreign policy of that power the +disinterestedness which she so loudly professes. If such be his views, +who can controvert them? To the character of the man, combined with his +peculiarly irresponsible condition (owing to the guarantee), may be +ascribed his present line of conduct. Ambitious, obstinate, and devoted +to intrigue, his character is no more that of a mere puppet than it is +of one likely to attain to any great eminence. At first, it must be +acknowledged that he played into the hands of Russia most unreservedly. +No endeavours were spared to stir up discontent and rebellion in the +surrounding provinces. Little credit is due to the sagacity of those by +whom these machinations were contrived. For example, petitions were sent +to all the foreign consulates purporting to come from the Christian +subjects of Turkey on the frontiers of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and setting +forth the miserable condition to which they had been reduced by +Mussulman oppression. The sympathy which<span class="pagenum"><a id="page278" name="page278"></a>Pg 278</span> might have been felt for the +sufferers was somewhat shaken by attendant circumstances, which threw +doubts on the authenticity of the letters. It appears that these arrived +from the two frontiers by the same post, while, on comparison, they were +found to be almost identical in form and wording.</p> + +<p>Great results were also anticipated from the Emigration movement, to +which the early part of 1861 was devoted. Russia, while endeavouring to +promote the emigration of Bulgarians to the Crimea, did not discourage +the efforts of Servia to induce them to cross her frontier with the view +of settling. Several thousands did so, and these came principally from +the Pachaliks of Widdin and Nish. Amongst these were many criminals and +outlaws, who were admitted by the Servians, in violation of their +charter. Considerable excitement prevailed, and subscriptions were set +on foot for their benefit, but the movement appears to have died a +natural death, as nothing is now heard of it. The émigrés cannot have +been too well satisfied with the position in which they found +themselves, since the greater number soon returned whence they came, in +spite of Mussulman oppression.</p> + +<p>Since the failure of this scheme, the Prince has applied all his +energies to the acquisition of independent power. He first endeavoured +to effect it by means of a deputation to the Sublime Porte. Failing<span class="pagenum"><a id="page279" name="page279"></a>Pg 279</span> in +this, he resorted to the internal means at his disposal, and has gained +his point. The principal objects which he had in view, and which he has +succeeded in carrying out, were the declaration of hereditary +succession, and the abrogation of the Ustag or Constitution, by which +his power was limited. The Senate, as the deliberative body may be +termed, originally consisted of 17 members. They were in the first +instance nominated by the then reigning prince, but could not be removed +by him, while vacancies were filled up by election among themselves. The +whole of these rules he has now set aside, and, albeit he has given a +colouring of justice to his proceedings by restoring the original number +of members, and some other customs which had fallen into abeyance, he +has virtually stripped them of all power. With great astuteness he +induced the Skuptschina to deprive the Senate of legislative functions, +and immediately afterwards to relinquish them itself, thus placing +absolute power in his hands. This grossly illegal action has met with +some faint resistance, but the Prince will without doubt carry out his +wishes. He has only to fear internal discontent, as he is entirely +independent by virtue of the guarantee, not only of the European powers, +but even of Turkey. It is true that this very policy cost him his throne +in 1838, but with years he has gained prudence, and he is now pursuing +it with far greater caution. The Servians,<span class="pagenum"><a id="page280" name="page280"></a>Pg 280</span> too, having sunk +immeasurably in the social scale, are less likely to stand upon their +rights, or to give him the same trouble as heretofore.</p> + +<p>Up to the present time all these schemes have weighed but little in the +scale against the one absorbing ambition of his life. In a word, Michael +is a hot Panslavist. Of this he makes no secret, and he has probably +shared hitherto, in common with all Servians, very exaggerated notions +of the importance which Servia would assume were the dismemberment of +Turkey to take place. Their self-conceived superiority over the other +Christians of European Turkey, induces the Servians to regard the +northern provinces in the same light as do the Greeks the southern. The +ambition of Michael, however, is not satisfied with the prospect of +dominion over the undeveloped countries south of the Danube. His +conversation, character, and previous history all point to one +conclusion—that he aspires to sway the destinies of the Slavish +provinces of Austria, and maybe of Hungary itself. His marriage with an +Hungarian lady of the name, and it is to be presumed of the stock of the +great Hunyadi family, would appear to give some consistency to these +dreams. The chief drawbacks to its fulfilment are the unreality of the +agitation among the Slavish populations, the power of Turkey to crush +any insurrection unaided from without, and the honour and interest of +Great Britain, which are staked on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page281" name="page281"></a>Pg 281</span> preservation of the Ottoman +empire from foreign aggressions. Although he may indulge in such day +dreams, it is impossible but that a man of Prince Michael's calibre must +be alive to all the opposing elements which will defer the +accomplishment of them to a remote period. Notwithstanding natural +prejudices, which in his case, however, are not very strong, it is +probable that he now sees the inutility, and understands how visionary +are the ambitious projects which he once entertained touching Servia. +Such, at least, is the opinion of those who have the best opportunities +of forming a correct judgement in the matter. Whatever may be his own +intellect, whatever his ability to conceive and execute, Servia is too +degraded to carry him through. To be the nucleus of a large kingdom, +certain elements are necessary, in which she is strikingly deficient. +Among these may be placed tried and flourishing institutions, unity of +sentiment and purpose amidst all classes, and a due appreciation of the +advantages of education and commerce; while last, but perhaps the most +important of all, is civil and religious liberty of the highest order. +In all of these, I repeat, Servia is eminently wanting.</p> + +<p>A very slight glimpse also at her financial and military resources will +show how far she is fitted to take even a leading part in any emeute +which circumstances may hereafter bring about. The total revenue of the +country<span class="pagenum"><a id="page282" name="page282"></a>Pg 282</span> has up to this time amounted to 200,000<i>l.</i> sterling. This has +been raised by a tax of $5 levied on about 40,000 males. Nearly the +whole sum is expended in paying and equipping the army, and in the +salary of officials. Dissatisfied with the small amount of revenue, the +Prince undertook, during the past year, to reorganise the taxation. An +impost upon property was projected in lieu of the capitation tax, but +having, unfortunately, started without any very well-defined basis, the +system broke down, actually producing a smaller revenue than was yielded +by the original method. Equally abortive, as might have been +anticipated, was the scheme for raising a militia of 50,000 men. +Presupposing, for the sake of argument, a strong military spirit to be +rife among the people, the financial condition of the country would +render the idea untenable, since it is with difficulty that the 1,800 +soldiers who constitute the regular army can be maintained. Granting +even the willingness to serve, and the ability of the government to pay +them, the population of the country would not, according to ordinary +statistics, furnish so large a force. The greatest number that could be +calculated on in the event of war would be about 40,000 men, and these +only in a war in which the national sympathy might be deeply enlisted. +How many of this number would remain in arms, would probably depend on +the amount of plunder<span class="pagenum"><a id="page283" name="page283"></a>Pg 283</span> to be obtained, and the nature of the resistance +which they might encounter.</p> + +<p>The matérial of the existing force is about on an equality with that of +most continental armies. A portion of the troops are armed with rifles, +and the remainder with unbrowned muskets. One battery of artillery forms +the aggregate of that arm of the service. There are 70 guns at the +arsenal at Kragiewatz, but they are all old and unfit for field service. +A French Colonel has lately been imported to fill the combined offices +of War-Minister and Commander-in-Chief. This, and, indeed, the whole of +the recent internal policy, leaves very little doubt of the source +whence emanate these high-flown ideas. It cannot be better expressed +than as a <i>politique d'ostentation</i>, which is, if we may compare small +things with great, eminently French. The oscillation of French and +Russian influence, and the amicable manner in which their delegates +relinquish the field to each other alternately, implies the existence of +a mutual understanding between them. Whether this accord extends to a +wider sphere and more momentous questions, time alone will show. +Meanwhile, the Prince continues to indulge in dreams of a Panslavish +kingdom, and of the crumbs which may fall to his own share, while he +neglects the true interests of his country, with which his own are so +intimately blended. Let him apply himself to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="page284" name="page284"></a>Pg 284</span> developement of her +internal resources, to the promotion of education and civilisation among +the people, and, above all, let him root out that spirit of indolence +which has taken such firm hold upon all classes. It is his policy to do +all this, that Servia may be in a position to assume that leading place +among the Slavonic races which she arrogates to herself, should +unforeseen circumstances call upon her to do so. With her he must stand +or fall; therefore, setting aside more patriotic motives, self-interest +renders it imperative on him to apply himself zealously to her +regeneration.</p> + +<p>With regard to his foreign policy, he cannot do better than act up to +the conviction which he has himself more than once expressed, that 'the +interests of Servia are identical with those of Turkey.' For, should the +disruption of the Ottoman empire take place—the probability of which is +at any rate no greater than in the time of our grandfathers—it will not +be effected by internal revolution, but by foreign intervention; and +credulous must he be who can believe in the disinterestedness of those +who would lend themselves to such a measure. Thus, in the partition +which would ensue, Servia might find even her former independence +overlooked.</p> + +<p>Let me add, that if I have alluded in strong terms to the condition of +the people, I have done it in all sincerity, regretting that Servia +should thus<span class="pagenum"><a id="page285" name="page285"></a>Pg 285</span> cast away the sympathy which, were she bent on +self-advancement, would pour in upon her from every side. If, again, I +may appear presumptuous in dictating the duties which devolve upon her +Prince, I am prompted to it by the supineness which he has as yet +evinced in promoting the desire for civilisation. Let him delay no +longer, for, should events so dispose themselves that Servia should be +weighed in the balance, she will, unless an amendment takes place, be +indeed found miserably wanting.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page286" name="page286"></a>Pg 286</span></p> +<h2>CONCLUSION.</h2> + + +<p>In conclusion, I would venture to call attention to the fact that the +preceding pages were written before events had assumed the aspect which +they now wear. Actual hostilities had not then commenced against +Montenegro; the Turkish Government had not then contracted the loan +which has opened up new prospects for the finances of the country.</p> + +<p>That Omer Pacha has not already brought the war to a close is to be +regretted, but let those who criticise the slowness of his movements +weigh well all the disadvantages against which he has to contend.</p> + +<p>It would be useless to enumerate these again, as they are alluded to +more than once in the course of this volume. Suffice it to say, then, +that if Cettigné be taken and Montenegro occupied before the end of the +present year, Omer Pacha will have placed another feather in his cap, +and will have materially increased the debt of gratitude to which he is +already entitled.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page287" name="page287"></a>Pg 287</span></p> +<h2>APPENDIX.</h2> + + +<p>The following is an extract of a letter from the young Prince of +Montenegro, addressed to the Consuls of the Great Powers. The sentiments +which it expresses are creditable enough, and, did his acts corroborate +his words, he would be well entitled to the sympathy which he demands.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Cettigné, le 30 juillet 1861.</p> + +<p>Monsieur le Consul,</p> + +<p>A l'occasion de la récente et grave mésure prise par la Turquie +envers le Montenégro, je crois devoir rompre le silence et faire +connaître succinctement à MM. les Consuls des Grandes Puissances +qu'elle a été tenue depuis un an par le Montenegro vis-à-vis de +l'empire ottoman.</p> + +<p>Depuis mon avènement j'ai employé tout mon pouvoir à maintenir la +tranquillité. Sur les frontières je n'ai rien négligé pour éloigner +tout motif de collision, pour calmer les animosités séculaires qui +séparent les deux peuples, en un mot, pour donner à la Turquie les +preuves les plus irréfragables de meilleur voisinage.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page288" name="page288"></a>Pg 288</span></p> + +<p>Dans une occasion toute récente je me suis rendu avec empressement +au désir exprimé par les Grandes Puissances de me voir contribuer +autant qu'il était dans mon pouvoir au soulagement des malheureux +enfermés dans la forteresse de Niksich. J'ai été heureux de pouvoir +en pareilles circonstances donner une preuve de déference aux +Grandes Puissances, et de pouvoir répondre, comme il convenait à un +souverain et un peuple chrétien, à l'appel fait à ses sentiments +d'humanité. Je ne me suis point arrêté devant la considération d'un +intérêt personnel.</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h5> +LONDON<br /> +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.<br /> +NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> +</h5> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="image05" name="image05"></a><a href="images/05large.jpg"> + <img src="images/05.jpg" + alt="THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY." + title="THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY." /></a> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Gibbon, chap. xiii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Adams' 'Ruins of Spalatro,' p. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Or the territory governed by a Herzog or Duke.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> This includes Austrian subjects, who are not included in +the statistics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Krasinski.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> See Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Dalmatia,' Napier's 'Florentine +History,' and Sismondi's 'Literature du Midi de l'Europe.'</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> Sismondi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> Gibbon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> Many of the villages on the Montenegrin frontier no longer +exist, having been fired by the insurgents.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> These are principally on the western banks of the Narenta, +outside Mostar.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_K_11" id="Footnote_K_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_K_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> Mostar, from 'Most Star' Old Bridge.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_L_12" id="Footnote_L_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_L_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> Sir G. Wilkinson.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_M_13" id="Footnote_M_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_M_13"><span class="label">[M]</span></a> Krasinski.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_N_14" id="Footnote_N_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_N_14"><span class="label">[N]</span></a> People occupying Bosnia, Servia, Herzegovina, and +Montenegro.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_O_15" id="Footnote_O_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_O_15"><span class="label">[O]</span></a> I.e. of the Greek Church.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_P_16" id="Footnote_P_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_P_16"><span class="label">[P]</span></a> The French Consul at Scutari and member of the European +Commission, a man as remarkable for talent as for cunning and love of +intrigue.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_Q_17" id="Footnote_Q_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_Q_17"><span class="label">[Q]</span></a> The British member of the European Commission for defining +the frontier of Montenegro.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_R_18" id="Footnote_R_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_R_18"><span class="label">[R]</span></a> The 1st Corps d'Armée of the empire.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_S_19" id="Footnote_S_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_S_19"><span class="label">[S]</span></a> Luccari.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_T_20" id="Footnote_T_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_T_20"><span class="label">[T]</span></a> Gardner Wilkinson, vol. ii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_U_21" id="Footnote_U_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_U_21"><span class="label">[U]</span></a> This can scarcely be correct, as everything implies far +greater antiquity.</p></div> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + +***** This file should be named 17288-h.htm or 17288-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/8/17288/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Herzegovina + Or, Omer Pacha and the Christian Rebels + +Author: George Arbuthnot + +Release Date: December 12, 2005 [EBook #17288] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. (This file was made using scans of +public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital +Libraries.) + + + + + + + +[Illustration: A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC.] + + + + +HERZEGOVINA; + +OR + +OMER PACHA AND THE CHRISTIAN REBELS. + + +WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF SERVIA, ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL +CONDITION. + + +BY LIEUT. G. ARBUTHNOT, R.H.A., F.R.G.S. + + +[Illustration: Official Seal of Omer Pacha] + + +LONDON: +LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN. +1862. + +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. +NEW-STREET SQUARE + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The wanderings of an unknown in an unknown land may not be a subject of +universal interest, and as such require a few words of apology, or +possibly of defence. + +To convey an accurate idea of a country the inhabitants of which differ +from ourselves in creed, origin, and in all their habits of life, it +would be necessary to have passed a lifetime amongst them. It may +therefore be deemed presumptuous in me to attempt so comprehensive a +task, upon the meagre experience of a few short months. And such it +would be, did I entertain such aspirations. The impossibility, however, +of identifying myself with a people, with whose very language I have but +a slight acquaintance, would banish such a thought. My object is rather +to describe briefly and simply everything that presented itself to my +own notice; upon the evidence of which, coupled with the observations of +the few who have devoted any attention to the condition of these +countries, I have founded my views and opinions. Far be it from me to +assume that they have more claim to be regarded as correct, than the +opinions of others who may differ from me. Above all, if any of my +remarks on the subject of the Greek and Latin religions should appear +somewhat severe, I would have it clearly understood, that nowhere is +allusion intentionally made to these churches, save in the relation +which they bear to the Illyric Provinces of European Turkey. + +[Illustration: Signature of Author in Turkish Characters] + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + +Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian +Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian +Boatmen--French Policy and Austrian Prospects-- +Spalatro--Palace of Diocletian--Lissa--Naval +Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian Hotel--Change of Plans Pages 1--15 + + +CHAPTER II. + +Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of +Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the +Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for +Trade granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian +Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel-- +Dalmatian Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at +Mostar--Omer Pacha--Object of Campaign 16--32 + + +CHAPTER III. + +Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical Features-- +Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali +Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber Company--Saw-Mill-- +Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek Catholics-- +Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan +College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour 33--49 + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic +Element--First Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their +Origin--Tenets--Elect a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, +or Combatants in Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian +Apostasy--Religious Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under +Kiamil Pacha--Servian Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted +Brotherhood--Mahommedan Women--Elopements--Early Marriages 50--64 + + +CHAPTER V. + +Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of +Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural +Capabilities of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian +_Scutors_--Other Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations +with Bosnia--Able Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria +takes alarm--Trade Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier +Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms 65--75 + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis-- +Its Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial +Tribunals--Revenue and Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh-- +Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total Revenue--Police 76--83 + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Omer Pacha--Survey of Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars-- +Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of Prisoners--Roman +Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish Officers--Pacha's +Palace--European Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's +Day--Warlike Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders +to March 84--93 + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. and Ostoya +Christich--Cruel Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His +Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of Santo Saba becomes a Roman +Province--Despotism of Bosnian Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall +of Sultan Selim and Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin +Pacha--Expedition against Montenegro--Death of +Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces reconquered-- +Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of Janissaries-- +Regular Troops organised--Hadji Mustapha--Abdurahim-- +Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh rising--Serayevo +taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of Adrianople--Hussein +Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of Grand Vizier--Ali +Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War with +Montenegro--Amnesty granted 94--117 + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian +Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress +convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer +Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by +Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and +Capture of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass +Bashee--Anecdote of Lame Christian--Omer Pacha invades +Montenegro--Successes--Austria interferes--Mission of +General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change of +Frontier--Faults of new Boundary 118--127 + + +CHAPTER X. + +Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages +burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch +Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by +Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek +Chapels sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to +Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties +to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and +Prince of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha +returns to Mostar--Preparations for Campaign 128--140 + + +CHAPTER XI. + +Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz-- +Castle and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the +Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My +Dalmatian Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of +the Turks--Health of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of +Prisoners--Christian Cruelty 141--164 + + +CHAPTER XII. + +Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks +abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian +Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European +Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of +Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani-- +Bashi Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in +Turkey--Line of March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National +Dance--'La Donna _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki +Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big Head--Old Tower-- +Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem Devotions--Character +of Turkish Troops--System of Drill--Peculation--Turkish +Army--Letters--Scarcity of Provisions--Return of Villagers 155--173 + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer +Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack +Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of +Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish +Women--Defects of Government by Mudir and Medjlis 174--189 + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy +repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish +Soldiers murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched +Camp assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive +Character of Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation-- +Military Uniforms--Return to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum-- +Express Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified Barrack-- +Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European +Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian +Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of +Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The +Meredits--Instincts of Race 190--214 + + +CHAPTER XV. + +Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza-- +Subterraneous Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman +Tombs--Coins and Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry +Trees--Blagai--Source of Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain +of Mostar--Legends--Silver Ore--Mineral Products of +Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley of the Drechnitza 215--226 + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopaedia--Feats of +Skill--Legend of Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of +Druga--Excavations--Country Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud +Effendi--Old Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian +Frontier--Vidosa--Parish Priest--National Music--Livno-- +Franciscan Convent--Priestly Incivility--Illness--Quack +Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military Ambulance--Bosna +Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and Bridges--Mussulman +Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman Pacha 227--242 + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo-- +Mineral Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The Bosna--Trout +Fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen +Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the +Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tre Regni--Culpa +River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to +Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian +Troops--Probable Policy--Watermills--Semlin--Belgrade 243--258 + + +SERVIA: + +Its Social, Political, and Financial Condition 261--285 + + +CONCLUSION 286 + + +APPENDIX 287--288 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC _Frontispiece._ + +OFFICIAL SEAL OF OMER PACHA _On Title-page._ + +SIGNATURE OF AUTHOR IN TURKISH CHARACTERS _page_ vi + +MAP OF MONTENEGRO _To face page_ 1 + +MAP OF SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY " 288 + + +[Illustration: Map of Montenegro.] + + + + +HERZEGOVINA. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian + Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian Boatmen--French + Policy and Austrian Prospects--Spalatro--Palace of + Diocletian--Lissa--Naval Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian + Hotel--Change of Plans. + + +_'Omer Pacha will proceed with the army of Roumelia to quell the +disturbance in Herzegovina.'_ Such, I believe, was the announcement +which confirmed me in the idea of visiting the Slavonic provinces of +European Turkey. Had any doubts existed in my mind of the importance +attached by the Ottoman government to the pacification of these remote +districts, the recall to favour of Omer Pacha, and the despatch of so +large a force under his command, would have sufficed to remove them. As +it was, the mere desire to keep myself _au courant_ of the events of the +day, together with the interest which all must feel in the condition of +a country for whom England has sacrificed so much blood and treasure, +had made me aware that some extraordinary manifestation of feeling must +have occurred to arouse that apathetic power to so energetic a measure. +Of the nature of this manifestation, little or no reliable information +could be obtained; and so vague a knowledge prevails touching the +condition of these provinces, that I at once perceived that personal +observation alone could put me in possession of it. The opinions of such +as did profess to have devoted any attention to the subject, were most +conflicting. Whilst some pronounced the point at issue to be merely one +between the Turkish government and a few rebellious brigands, others +took a far more gloomy view of the matter, believing that the first shot +fired would prove the signal for a general rising of the Christian +subjects of the Porte, which, in its turn, was to lead to the +destruction of Turkish suzerainty in Europe, and to the consummation of +the great Panslavish scheme. To satisfy myself on these points, then, +was the main object of my travels,--to impart to others the information +which I thus obtained, is the intention of this volume. + +On August 31, 1861, I left Trieste in the Austrian Lloyd's steamer, +bound for Corfu, and touching _en route_ at the ports on the Dalmatian +coast. Having failed in all my endeavours to ascertain the exact +whereabouts of the Turkish head-quarters, I had secured my passage to +Ragusa, reckoning on obtaining the necessary information from the +Ottoman Consul at that town; and in this I was not disappointed. + +It is not my intention to enlarge upon this portion of my travels, which +would indeed be of little interest; still less to tread in the steps of +Sir Gardner Wilkinson, whose valuable work on Dalmatia has rendered such +a course unnecessary; but rather to enter, with log-like simplicity, the +dates of arrival and departure at the various ports, and such-like +interesting details of sea life. If, however, my landsman-like +propensities should evince themselves by a lurking inclination to 'hug +the shore,' I apologise beforehand. + +My fellow-passengers were in no way remarkable, but harmless enough, +even including an unfortunate mad woman, whose mania it was to recount +unceasingly the ill-treatment to which she had been exposed. At times, +her indignation against her imaginary tormentors knew no bounds; at +others, she would grow touchingly plaintive on the subject of her +wrongs. That she was a nuisance, I am fain to confess; but the treatment +she experienced at the hands of her Dalmatian countrymen was +inconsiderate in the extreme. One who professed himself an advocate for +sudden shocks, put his theory into practice by stealing quietly behind +his patient, and cutting short her lugubrious perorations with a deluge +of salt water. This was repeated several times, but no arguments would +induce her to allow her wet clothes to be removed, so it would not be +surprising if this gentleman had succeeded in 'stopping her tongue' +beyond his expectations. The only other lady was young and rather +pretty, but dismally sentimental. She doated on roses, was enamoured of +camelias, and loved the moon and the stars, and in fact everything in +this world or out of it. In vain I tried to persuade her that her cough +betrayed pulmonary symptoms, and that night air in the Adriatic was +injurious to the complexion. + +The man-kind on board included an Austrian officer of engineers, a +French Consul, and a Dalmatian professor. Besides the above, there was +an Italian patriot, whose devotion to the 'Kingmaker' displayed itself +in a somewhat eccentric fashion. With much mystery, he showed me a +portrait of Garibaldi, secreted in a watchkey seal, while his waistcoat +buttons and shirt studs contained heads of those generals who served in +the campaign of the Two Sicilies. It was rather a novel kind of +hero-worship, though, I fear, likely to be little appreciated by him who +inspired the thought. + +_September 1._--Landed at Zara at 6.30 A.M., and passed a few +hours in wandering over the town and ramparts. These last are by no +means formidable, and convey very little idea of the importance which +was attached to the city in the time of the Venetian Republic. The +garrison is small, and, as is the case throughout Dalmatia, the soldiers +are of Italian origin. The Duomo is worthy of a visit; while the +antiquarian may find many objects of interest indicative of the several +phases of Zarantine history. Here, in a partially obliterated +inscription, he may trace mementos of Imperial Rome; there, the +Campanile of Santa Maria tells of the dominion of Croatian kings; while +the winged lion ever reminds him of the glory of the Great Republic, its +triumphs, its losses, and its fall. On leaving we were loudly cheered by +the inhabitants, who had collected in large numbers on the shore. A few +hours' run brought us abreast of Fort St. Nicholas, and ten minutes +later we dropped anchor in the harbour of Sebenico. Here the delight of +the people at our arrival was somewhat overwhelming. It vented itself in +an inordinate amount of hugging and kissing, to say nothing of the most +promiscuous hand-shaking, for a share of which I myself came in. My +first step was to negotiate with four natives to row me to the Falls of +Kerka, about three hours distant. This I had succeeded in doing, when, +having unfortunately let them know that I was English, they demanded +seven florins in place of four, as had been originally agreed. Resolving +not to give way to so gross an imposition, I was returning in quest of +another boat, when I met a troop of some six or seven girls, young, +more than averagely good-looking, and charmingly dressed in their +national costume. I presume that my T.G. appearance must have amused +them; for they fairly laughed,--not a simpering titter, but a good +honest laugh. To them I stated my case, and received a proper amount of +sympathy. One offered to row me herself, while another said something +about 'twenty florins and a life,'--which, whatever it may have meant, +brought a blush to the cheek of the pretty little volunteer. At this +juncture the boatmen arrived, and on my assurance that I was perfectly +satisfied with the company to which they had driven me, which my looks, +I suppose, did not belie, they came to terms. Leaving the bay at its NW. +extremity, where the Kerka flows into it, we proceeded about four miles +up that river. At this point it opens out into the Lake of Scardona, +which is of considerable size, and affords a good anchorage. There is an +outlet for the river to the N., close to which is situated the little +town of Scardona. The banks of the river here begin to lose their rocky +and precipitous appearance, assuming a more marshy character, which +renders it unhealthy in the summer. The Falls are approached by a long +straight reach, at the end of which they form a kind of semicircle, the +entire breadth being about 250 feet. In winter, or after heavy rains, +the effect must be very grand; but at the time of my visit they were, in +consequence of the great drought, unusually small. Below the falls is a +mill worked by a Levantine, who appears to drive a flourishing trade, +grinding corn for Sebenico, Zara, and many other places on the coast. + +The Dalmatian boatmen are a very primitive set in everything save money +matters. One asked, Are the English Christians? while another asserted +most positively, that he had taken an Englishman to see the Falls in the +year _1870_. Their style of rowing resembles that in vogue among the +Maltese and Italians, excepting that they make their passenger sit in +the hows of the boat. This, at any rate, has the advantage of keeping +him to windward of themselves, which is often very desirable. Another +point of difference is, that they wear shoes or slippers,--the latter +being, in some instances, really tasteful and pretty. + +The moon was high ere we reached the ship, where I found all the +passengers assembled upon deck. One after another they disappeared +below, until I was left alone. I know no spot so conducive to reflection +as the deserted deck of a ship at anchor on a lovely night, and in a +genial latitude. In this instance, however, my thoughts assumed more of +a speculative than retrospective character, large as was the field for +the indulgence of the latter. The shades of emperors and doges faded +away, giving place to the more terrestrial forms of living sovereigns; +and the wild shouts of the Moslem conquerors resolved themselves into +the 'Vive l'Empereur' of an army doing battle for an idea. Let Austria +look to herself, that, when the hour of struggle shall arrive, as arrive +it will, she be not found sleeping. Should Napoleon once more espouse +the Italian cause, should he hurl his armies upon the Quadrilateral, who +can doubt but that a diversion of a more or less important character +will be attempted in the rear of the empire? But even though he should +let slip the notable occasion presented to him by a rising among the +Italian subjects of Austria, the evil day will only be postponed. I +believe that, not content with the humiliation of that power at +Villafranca, he will take advantage of any opportunity which disorder in +the neighbouring Turkish provinces may offer him to aim a blow at her on +her Dalmatian frontier, as a means to the gigantic end of crippling her, +and with her ultimately the entire German Confederation. It is a great +scheme, and doubtless one of many in that fertile brain. If Austria +should resolve to defend her Venetian territory, as it may be presumed +she will, she should spare no labour to strengthen her fortresses in the +Adriatic. On the Dalmatian coast, Zara, Lissa, Pola, and Cattaro are all +capable of making a very respectable defence in the event of their being +attacked; while, to quote the words of Rear-Admiral Count Bernhard von +Wuellersdorf and Urban, 'An Austrian squadron at Cattaro would be very +dangerous to any hostile squadron on the Italian coast, as its cruisers +would cut off all transports of coal, provisions, &c. &c.,--in a word, +render the communication of the hostile squadron with the Mediterranean +very difficult.... Lissa is the keystone of the Adriatic. This island, +the importance of which in former times was never denied, commands the +straits which lead from the southern to the northern half of the +Adriatic.... The naval force at Lissa ought to be a local one, +consisting of light fast gun-boats to cruise in the narrow waters, to +which might be added some plated ships to keep open communications, on +the one hand, between Lissa and the mainland, and on the other hand +acting with the gun-boats to bar the passage to hostile vessels.' The +publication of the article from which the above is extracted in the +'Oesterreichische Militar Zeitschrift,' proves sufficiently that the +Austrian government is aware of the necessity which exists for taking +precautionary measures; and the lesson which they learnt in 1859 ought +to have induced them to adopt a more energetic policy in their military +and naval affairs. + +The defences of Sebenico consist of three small forts: St. Nicholas, +containing seventeen mounted guns, is at the entrance of the bay, while +San Giovanni and Santa Anna, situated on rising ground, command the +town, harbour, and land approaches. The precise number of guns which +they contain, I was unable to learn. The very meagre character of the +information which I am in a position to impart on these subjects +requires, I am aware, some apology. The difficulty of obtaining it +during the short stay of a steamer must be my excuse. May it be +accepted! + +_September 2._--Steamed into the port of Spalatro at 10.30 A.M. +There is both an outer and inner harbour, the latter affording a good +anchorage to vessels of any burden; yet, notwithstanding this, we were +compelled, for the first time since leaving Trieste, to lie off at some +distance from the quay. The origin of Spalatro dates from the building +of the palace of Diocletian in 303, A.D. This glorious pile, +however much it may offend against the rules of architecture, is well +entitled to rank among the noblest monuments of imperial Rome. Its +mammoth proportions, the novelty of conception evinced in many parts, +together with its extraordinary state of preservation, render it alike +unique, while the circumstances connected with its building impart to it +an unusual interest. Wearied with the affairs of state, Diocletian +retired to Salona, where he passed the remaining nine years of his life +in profound seclusion. Of the use to which he applied his wealth during +that period, a record still exists in the golden gate and the Corinthian +columns which decorate that regal abode; while we learn what were his +pursuits from his own memorable reply to Maximian, when urged by him to +reassume the purple. 'Utinam Salonis olera nostris manibus insita +invisere posses, de resumando imperio non judicares;' or, as it has been +somewhat freely translated by Gibbon--'If I could show you the cabbages +I have planted with my own hands at Salona, you would no longer urge me +to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power.'[A] + +Nor has nature been less bountiful than man to this most favoured spot. +The description given by Adams conveys a very accurate impression of the +character of the surrounding country. 'The soil is dry and fertile, the +air pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summer +months, the country seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to which +the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views from +the palace are no less beautiful than the soil and climate are inviting. +Towards the W. lies the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, +in which a number of small islands are scattered in such a manner as to +give this part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the N. side +lies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona, and the country +beyond it appearing in sight forms a proper contrast to that more +extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents both to the S. +and the E. Towards the N. the view is terminated by high and irregular +mountains situated at a proper distance, and in many places covered with +villages, woods, and vineyards.'[B] Like most other relics of antiquity, +the time-honoured walls of Spalatro have been witnesses of those varied +emotions to which the human heart is subject. Thither Glycerius the +prelate retired, when driven by Julius Nepos from the imperial throne. +There, too, in a spirit of true Christian charity, he heaped coals of +fire on the head of his enemy, by affording him a sanctuary when +dethroned in his turn by Orestes, the father of Augustulus. Again, a +little while, and within the same walls, where he had deemed himself +secure, Julius Nepos fell a victim to the assassin's knife, and +subsequently we find the houseless Salonites sheltering themselves +within its subterraneous passages, when driven from their homes by the +fury of the invading Avars. The memory of all these is passed away, but +the stones still remain an undying testimony of a happy king. + +Having passed some hours in the town and palace, I adjourned to one of +the few small _cafes_ in the principal street. While sipping my +chocolate, I was accosted by an elderly priest, who most civilly +enquired whether he could help me in any way during my stay at +Spalatro. He proved to be a person of much intelligence, and, +notwithstanding that his knowledge of English extended only to a few +conversational words, he had read Sir Gardner Wilkinson's work on +Dalmatia, and, as his remarks showed, not without profiting thereby. At +4.30 the same afternoon we arrived at Lissa, the military port of +Austria in this part of the Adriatic. It is interesting to English +travellers, its waters having been the scene of a naval action in which +an English squadron, commanded by Captain Hoste, defeated a French +squadron carrying nearly double as many guns. During the great war the +island belonged to England, and indeed a portion of it is called to this +day the Citta Inglese. It at one time acquired a certain importance in a +mercantile point of view, sardines being the staple article of commerce. + +The same night we touched at Curzola, and at 4 A.M. on +September 3 anchored at Gravosa, the port of debarcation for Ragusa. +Taking leave of my friends on board, I landed at about 5 A.M., +and, having committed my luggage, a small bullock trunk, saddle-bags, +and a saddle, to the shoulders of a sturdy facchino, and myself to a +very rickety and diminutive cart, I proceeded on my way to Ragusa. The +drive, about a mile and a half in distance, abounds with pretty views, +while the town of Ragusa itself is as picturesque in its interior +detail as it is interesting from its early history. The grass-grown +streets, the half-ruined palaces, and the _far niente_ manners of the +people, give little indication of the high position which the Republic +once achieved. Yet, despite all these emblems of decay, there are no +signs of abject poverty, but rather a spirit of frugal contentment is +everywhere apparent. + +Arriving at an hour when, in the more fastidious capitals of Europe, +housemaids and milkmen hold undisputed sway, I found groups of the +wealthier citizens collected under the trees which surround the cafe, +making their morning meal, and discussing the local news the while. +Later in the day ices and beer were in great demand, and in the evening +the beauty and fashion of Ragusa congregated to hear the beautiful band +of the regiment 'Marmola.' The hotel, if it deserve the name, is scarce +fifty yards distant; it possesses a _cuisine_ which contrasts favourably +with the accommodation which the house affords. + +The _table d'hote_ dinner is served in a kind of vaulted kitchen, the +walls of which are hung round with scenes illustrative of the Italian +campaign. The series, which comprises desperate cavalry charges, death +wounds of general officers, and infantry advancing amidst perfect +bouquets of shot and shell, closes appropriately with the pacific +meeting of the two Emperors at Villafranca. + +Here, then, I proposed to take up my quarters, making it the +starting-point for expeditions to the Val d'Ombla, the beautiful Bocche +di Cattaro, and Cettigne, the capital of Montenegro; but it was destined +otherwise, and night found me on board a country fishing-boat, the +bearer of despatches to Omer Pacha at Mostar, or wherever he might +happen to be. + +[Footnote A: Gibbon, chap. xiii.] + +[Footnote B: Adams' 'Ruins of Spalatro,' p. 6.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of + Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the + Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for Trade + granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian + Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel--Dalmatian + Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at Mostar--Omer + Pacha--Object of Campaign. + + +The change in my plans, and my precipitate departure from Ragusa, were +the results of information which I there received. From M. Persich, the +Ottoman Consul, whom I take this opportunity of thanking for his +courtesy and kindness, I learned that the Turkish Generalissimo might be +expected to leave Mostar for the frontier at any moment, and that the +disturbed state of the country would render it perilous, if not +impossible, to follow him thither. This determined me to push on at +once, postponing my visit to Montenegro to a more fitting season. To +make some necessary purchases, and to engage a servant, was the work of +a few hours, and, being supplied by the Captano of the Circolo with the +necessary vises and letters of recommendation to the subordinate +officials through whose districts I should have to pass, it only +remained to decide upon the mode of travelling which I should adopt, +and to secure the requisite conveyance. My first point was Metcovich, a +small town on the right bank of the Narenta, and close to the frontier +lines of Dalmatia and Herzegovina. Three modes of performing the journey +were reported practicable,--viz. on horseback, by water, or by carriage. +The first of these I at once discarded, as both slow and tedious; the +choice consequently lay between the remaining two methods: with regard +to economy of time I decided upon the latter. But here a difficulty +arose. The man who possessed a monopoly of carriages, for some reason +best known to himself, demurred at my proceeding, declaring the road to +be impassable. He farther brought a Turkish courier to back his +statement, who at any rate deserved credit, on the +tell-a-good-one-and-stick-to-it principle, for his hard swearing. I +subsequently ascertained that it was untrue; and had I known a little +more of the country, I should not have been so easily deterred, seeing +that the road in question is by far the best which exists in that part +of Europe. It was constructed by the French during their occupation of +Dalmatia in the time of Napoleon, and has been since kept in good order +by the Austrian government. Being thus thwarted in my plans, I made a +virtue of necessity, engaged a country boat, and got under weigh on the +evening of the day on which I had landed at Gravosa. The night was +clear and starry; and as my boat glided along before a light breeze +under the romantic cliffs of the Dalmatian coast, I ceased to regret the +jolting which I should have experienced had I carried out my first +intention. Running along the shore for some ten hours in a +north-westerly direction, we reached Stagno, a town of small importance, +situated at the neck of a tongue of land in the district of Slano, and +which connects the promontory of Sabioncello with the mainland; ten +minutes' walk across the isthmus brought us again to the sea. The +luggage deposited in a boat of somewhat smaller dimensions, and better +adapted for river navigation, we once more proceeded on our journey. + +A little to the north of Stagno is the entrance to the port of Klek, a +striking instance of right constituted by might. The port, which, from +its entrance, belongs indisputably to Turkey, together with the land on +the southern side, is closed by Austria, in violation of every principle +of national law and justice. + +Previous to 1852, many small vessels used to enter it for trading +purposes, and it was not until Omer Pacha in that year attempted to +establish it as an open port that Austria interfered, and stationed a +war-steamer at its mouth. + +In 1860 the restriction was so far removed that Turkish vessels have +since been allowed to enter with provisions for the troops. + +To the isolated condition of these provinces, coupled with the ignorance +which prevails at Constantinople relative to the affairs of the +interior, must be attributed the indifference which the Porte has as yet +manifested regarding the preservation of its just rights. The importance +to be attached to the possession by Turkey of an open port upon the +coast cannot be overrated, since through it she would receive her +imports direct from the producing countries, while her own products +could be exported without being subjected to the rules and caprices of a +foreign state. Nor are the Turkish officials in these quarters at all +blind to the injury that accrues to Turkey, from the line of policy +which Austria is now pursuing; but while they see and deplore the +mildness with which their government permits its rights to be thus +violated, they neglect to take any steps which might induce it to appeal +to the arbitration of Europe. Were this done, there could be little +doubt of the result; for, since the land on one side of the harbour, +without question, belongs to Turkey, it would appear only just that she +should have control over the half of the channel. But even were this to +be accorded (which is most improbable, since it would prove dangerous to +the trade of Trieste), the point at issue would still be far from +settled. Any concessions will be unavailing so long as the present line +of demarcation between the two countries shall exist; for while Turkey +draws the line of limit from a point near the entrance of the harbour to +the village of Dobrogna, Austria maintains the boundary to run from that +village to a point farther within the port, by which arrangement she +includes a small bluff or headland, which commands the entire harbour. +She asserts her right to this frontier, upon the grounds of its having +been the line drawn by the French during their occupation of Dalmatia. +The Turks deny the truth of this, and state that the lines occupied by +the French can still be traced from the remains of huts built for the +protection of their sentries. Moreover, since the Austrians have also +stated that the French, when in Dalmatia, did not respect the rights of +the Sultan, but occupied Suttorina and Klek, the argument that they +assume the frontier left them by the French is hardly entitled to much +consideration. That Austria is very unlikely to open Klek of her own +free will, I have already said; nor can she be blamed for the +determination, since she must be well aware that, in the event of her +doing so, English goods at a moderate price would find a far readier +market than her own high-priced and indifferent manufactures. In a word, +she would lose the monopoly of trade which she at present possesses in +these provinces. But, on the other hand, were Turkey animated by a +spirit of reprisal, she might throw such obstacles in the path of her +more powerful neighbour as would almost compel her to abandon the system +of ultra-protection. + +The military road from Cattaro to Ragusa and Spalatro encroaches upon +Turkish territory, and the telegraphic wire which connects Cattaro with +Trieste passes over both Suttorina and Klek. The Austrian government +would find it very inconvenient were the Porte to dispute the right of +passage at these points. Should Turkey ever be in a position to force +the adoption of the frontier, as defined by herself, the value of Klek +in a military point of view will be immeasurably increased; for, while +the port itself would be protected by her guns, the approach to it is +perfectly secure, although flanked on either side by Austrian territory. +The waters of the harbour open out into the bay of Sabioncello from +seven to eight miles in width, so that a vessel in mid-channel might run +the gauntlet with impunity. + +Towards evening we entered the Narenta, the principal river of Dalmatia +and Herzegovina, by one of the numerous mouths which combine to form its +delta. Its ancient name was the 'Naro,' and it is also called by +Constantine Porphyrogenitus 'Orontium.' Later it acquired an unenviable +notoriety, as being the haunt of the 'Narentine Pirates,' who issued +thence to make forays upon the coast, and plundered or levied tribute on +the trading vessels of the Adriatic. At one time they became so powerful +as to be able to carry on a regular system of warfare, and even gain +victories over the Venetian Republic, and it was not till 997 +A.D. that they were reduced to submission by the Doge Pietro +Orseolo II., and compelled to desist from piracy. + +The valley of the Narenta is but thinly populated, a circumstance easily +accounted for by the noxious vapours which exhale from the alluvial and +reed-covered banks of the stream. + +The lowlands, moreover, which lie around the river's bed are subject to +frequent and rapid inundations. Excepting one party of villagers, who +appeared to be making merry around a large fire close to the bank, I saw +no signs of human habitation. + +The croaking of many frogs, and the whirr of the wild fowl, as they rose +from their marshy bed at our approach, were the only signs of life to be +perceived, though higher up we met a few rowing boats, and one of the +small coasting vessels used for the transport of merchandise. These +boats are generally from twenty to thirty tons burden, and are employed +for the conveyance of ordinary goods from Trieste, whence the imports of +Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Herzegovina are for the most part derived. +Their rates of freight are light, averaging from 10_d._ to 1_s._ per +cwt., chargeable on the bulk. The more valuable or fragile articles are +brought to Macarsca, a port on the Dalmatian coast, near the mouth of +the Narenta, in steamers belonging to the Austrian Lloyd's Company, +whence they are despatched by boat to Metcovich. The expense attendant +on this route prevents its being universally adopted. Insurance can be +effected as far as Metcovich at 1_s._ 4_d._ to 3_s._ 4_d._ per cwt. on +the value declared, according to the season of the year. + +Metcovich may be regarded as the _Ultima Thule_ of civilisation in this +direction. Once across the frontier, and one may take leave of all one's +preconceived ideas regarding prosperity or comfort. Everything appears +at a standstill, whether it be river navigation or traffic on the land. +The apathy of the Turkish government presents a striking contrast to the +policy of Austria, who clearly sees the value to be attached to the +trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who, while throwing every obstacle +in the way of competition, evinces unwonted energy to secure the +monopoly which she now possesses. During the past few years she has +granted many facilities for the growth of commercial relations between +Herzegovina and her own provinces. Thus, for instance, the transit dues +on the majority of imports and exports have been removed, a few articles +only paying a nominal duty on passing into Turkey. Wool, skins, hides, +wax, honey, fruits, and vegetables, are allowed into Dalmatia free of +duty. A grant of 1,200,000 florins has, moreover, been recently made +for the regulation of the channel of the Narenta, with the view of +rendering it navigable by small steamers, which will doubtless prove a +most profitable outlay. It is to be hoped that the Turkish government +will take steps to continue the line to Mostar, which is quite +practicable, and could be effected at a small expense. + +The Narenta takes its rise at the foot of the small hill called Bolai, a +spur of the Velesh range of mountains. Its route is very circuitous, the +entire distance from the source to its mouth being about one hundred and +thirty miles, while its average width is computed at about one hundred +and forty yards. It is subject to rapid rises between the months of +September and May, caused by rains in the mountains and the melting +snow, and a rise of twelve feet in three or four hours is by no means +uncommon. As a source of communication it might be invaluable to the +province, but in its present state it is perfectly useless, since the +hardness of its waters renders it unfit for irrigation. It has many +tributary streams, amongst the most important of which are the Boona, +Bregava, Rama, Radopolie, Trebitza, and Cruppa. + +On its right bank, and some miles above the mouth, is a small town, +which rejoices in the imposing name of Fort Opus, albeit it possesses +neither walls, fortifications, nor other means of defence. As the night +was already far advanced when we arrived, I resolved to stay there a +few hours before continuing the row to Metcovich, which I should +otherwise have reached before daylight, and have been compelled to lie +off the town during the damp hours of morning. Neither sentry nor health +officer appeared to interdict our landing; and having found a miserable +outhouse, which served as a cabaret, I was preparing to snatch a few +hours' sleep as best I might, when an Hungarian corporal, employed in +the finance department, came to the rescue, and undertook to find me a +bed. Of its quality I will abstain from speaking; but such as it was, it +was freely given, and it took much persuasion to induce the honest +fellow to accept any remuneration. His post can hardly be a pleasant +one, for malaria and fever cause such mortality, that the station is +regarded much in the same light as is the gold coast of Africa by our +own government servants. As a set-off against these disadvantages, my +friend was in receipt of 2_d._ per day additional pay. May he pass +unscathed through the ordeal! + +By 2 A.M. I had again started, and reached Metcovich at 5 +A.M. on September 5. Here M. Grabrich, the principal merchant +of the place, put me in the way of procuring horses to take me to +Mostar, about nine hours distant. My destination becoming known, I was +beset with applications for my good offices with Omer Pacha. Some of +these were petitions for contracts for supplying the army, though the +greater number were demands for arrears of payment due for the supply of +meal, and the transport of horned cattle and other provisions to the +frontier. One of the complainants, a Greek, had a grievance of a +different and much more hopeless nature. He had cashed a bill for a +small amount offered him by an Irish adventurer. This, as well as +several others, proved to be forgeries, and the money was irretrievably +lost. Although travelling under an assumed name, and with a false +passport, I subsequently discovered the identity of the delinquent with +an individual, whom doubtless many who were with Garibaldi during the +campaign of the Two Sicilies will call to mind. He was then only +remarkable for his Calabrian costume and excessive amount of swagger. +When at Niksich I learned that he had escaped through that town into +Montenegro, and he has not, I believe, since been traced. + +No punishment can be too severe for a scoundrel who thus brings English +credit into disrepute, and disgraces a name which, although little known +in these regions, is deservedly respected. + +From Metcovich the traveller may proceed to Mostar by either bank of the +river. I was recommended to take the road on the northern side, which I +did, and ten minutes' ride brought us to the frontier, where a +custom-house official insisted upon unloading the baggage so recently +arranged. In vain I remonstrated, and brandished my despatches with +their enormous red seals in his face. His curiosity was not to be so +easily overcome. When he had at length satisfied himself, he permitted +us to depart with a blessing, which I acknowledge was far from +reciprocated. The first place of any importance which we passed is +Gabella. It stands on an eminence overhanging a bend of the river, by +whose waters three of its sides are washed. In former days it was +defended by two forts, whose guns swept the river in either direction, +and commanded the approach upon the opposite bank. In A.D. 1694 +it was taken by Cornaro, and remained in the hands of the Venetians +until A.D. 1716, when they evacuated it, blowing up the greater +part of its defences. + +Immediately above the town, the Narenta traverses the plain of Gabella, +which is one of the largest and most productive in the country. + +The plains of Herzegovina are in reality nothing more than valleys or +basins, some of which are so hemmed in by hills, that the streams +flowing through them can only escape by percolation, or through +subterranean channels. This last phenomenon frequently occurs, and no +better example can be given of it than the Trebinitza, which loses +itself in the ground two or three times. After the last of these +disappearances nothing is known for certain of its course, although a +large river which springs from the rocks in the Val d'Ombla, and empties +itself into the Adriatic near Ragusa, is conjectured to be the same. + +Gabella, as well as Popovo, Blato, and other plains, is inundated in the +winter, and remains in that state during three or four months. + +They are traversed by means of punts, and excellent wild-duck shooting +may be had by those who do not fear the exposure inseparable from that +sport. + +From this point the river entirely changes its aspect, losing the +sluggish character which distinguishes it during its passage through the +Austrian territory. Indeed, throughout its whole course, from its rise +until it opens out into the plain of Gabella, its bed is rocky, and the +current rapid and even dangerous, from the number of boulders which rise +above the surface, or lie hid a little below the water line. It here +receives the waters of the Trebisat or Trebitza, and the Bregava, the +former flowing from the NW., the latter from the district of Stolatz in +the SE. A few miles higher up is a narrow valley formed by two ranges of +hills, whose rocky declivities slope down to, or in some places +overhang, the river's bed. From one spot where the hills project, there +is a pretty view of the town of Pogitel on the left bank. A large +mosque, with a dome and minaret and a clock-tower, are the principal +objects which catch the eye; but, being pressed for time, I was unable +to cross the river, and cannot therefore from my own observation enter +into any accurate details. The position is, however, exactly described +by Sir Gardner Wilkinson as follows: 'It stands in a semicircular +recess, like an immense shell, in the side of the hill, and at the two +projecting extremities the walls run down from the summit to the river, +the upper part being enclosed by a semicircular wall, terminated at each +end by a tower.' + +Half way between Metcovich and Mostar is a little village, which boasts +an humble species of Khan. + +Here I found the engineer in charge of the telegraph, a Dalmatian by +birth. His head-quarters are at Bosna Serai, but he was then making a +tour for the purposes of inspection and repair. + +The telegraphic communication throughout the Ottoman Empire is now more +general than its internal condition would warrant us in supposing. +Indeed, in travelling through the country, one cannot fail to be struck +by the strange reversal of the general order of things. Thus, for +instance, both telegraph and railways have preceded the construction of +ordinary roads. + +And therein lies one of the principal causes of the hopelessness of +Turkish civilisation; that it has been prematurely forced upon her, and +that, in order to keep a position among the European nations, she is +driven to adopt the highest triumphs of European intelligence without +passing through the intermediate stages by which they have been +acquired. The rapidly remunerative nature of a telegraphic service is +obviously sufficient reason for its being thus early established; but +its duties devolve entirely, not upon Turks, but upon the foreign +employes of the government. It is, moreover, little used by the +Mussulman population, and consequently tends but little to the +enlightenment of the masses. On the subject of roads, I shall have +occasion to speak hereafter, and must therefore beg the indulgent reader +to accompany me along the bridle-path which takes us to the capital of +Herzegovina. + +Descending from the hills our progress became more rapid; yet, despite +this, it was some hours after sunset before we entered the suburbs. As +usual in a Turkish town, dogs and gravestones were to be found in +abundance, the latter with their turbanned heads looking spectral and +grim in the cold moonlight. Saving an occasional group of Mussulmans +sitting silent and pompous in the dusty road, the city appeared +perfectly deserted; and, as my now jaded ponies scrambled over the +ill-paved streets, I began to speculate on the probability of passing +the night _al fresco_. As may be conceived, then, it was with +considerable satisfaction that I found myself, chibouque in hand, +awaiting the arrival of the Pacha, who, notwithstanding the lateness of +the hour, had expressed his intention of seeing me immediately. No one +can have a greater horror than myself of that mania which possesses +some travellers for detailing conversations with Eastern dignitaries, +which, for the most part, consist of ordinary civilities, imperfectly +translated by an half-educated dragoman. + +In the present instance, however, I deem no apology necessary for +dwelling upon this first or subsequent conversations; since anything +from the lips of such a man at so critical a moment must, to say the +least, be of interest, even though it should be without any actual +political importance. Having discussed the relative attitudes of the +European powers with regard to Turkey, and spoken most unreservedly on +the subject of French and Russian intrigues, he expressed great interest +in the opinions formed by the public of the different countries on the +Herzegovinian and Montenegrin question. The principal topic of +conversation, however, was the campaign then about to be opened against +the Herzegovinian rebels, and the preparations which he had made for +carrying it out. + +While fully alive to the difficulties attending his task, resulting from +political complications, and the physical features of the country, he +ever spoke with confidence of the ultimate success of the Turkish armies +and the general pacification of the country. If any man be competent to +bring about this desirable consummation it is himself; for he possesses, +to an eminent degree, that caution which is indispensable to the +successful conduct of an offensive war in a mountainous country, and +which is so much at variance with the haphazard arrangements usually +found among Turkish generals. + +In using the words _offensive war_, I mean to imply operations carried +on from a regular base, and in accordance with the generally accepted +rules of warfare, in contra-distinction to the guerilla fighting as +practised by the insurgent mountaineers. In its more literal sense, Omer +Pacha's mission can hardly be deemed offensive; his object is, not to +overrun territory, nor even to seek a combat with the enemy, but rather +to place the country in such a state of defence as will render it secure +from the incursions of those brigands who, having thrown off the Turkish +rule, have sought a refuge in the fastnesses of Montenegro, whence, in +conjunction with the lawless bands of that province, they make forays +across the frontier, carrying fire and sword in their wake, respecting +neither age nor sex,--rebels to their sovereign, and a disgrace to +Christianity. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical + Features--Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali + Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber + Company--Saw-Mill--Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek + Catholics--Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan + College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour. + + +Herzegovina[C] or Bosnia Inferior, formerly the duchy of Santo Saba, is +bounded on the N. by Bosnia, on the E. by Servia, on the W. by Dalmatia, +and on the S. by Montenegro and the Adriatic. + +Its greatest length, from Duvno in the NW., to Priepolie in the S., is +about a hundred and twenty miles, and its greatest breadth from Konitza, +on the Bosnian frontier, to the port of Klek, is about seventy-two +miles.[D] It contains an approximate area of 8,400 square miles, with a +population, of about thirty-five souls to the square mile.[D] A glance +at any map, imperfect in detail as those yet published have been, will +convey a tolerable idea of the nature of the country. + +The ranges of mountains which intersect the greater part of the province +are a portion of the Dinaric Alps. Along the Dalmatian and Montenegrin +frontiers these are barren and intensely wild, and in many places, from +the deep fissures and honeycomb formation of the rocks, impassable to +aught save the chamois, the goat, or the indigenous mountaineer. + +Proceeding inland, the country assumes a more habitable aspect: plains +and pasture-lands capable of high cultivation are found at intervals, +while even the mountains assume a more fertile appearance, and have a +better depth of soil, which is well adapted for the cultivation of the +olive and the vine. Dense forests, too, of average growth cover the +mountain sides as we approach the Bosnian frontier, which, although +inferior to those of Bosnia itself, would prove most remunerative to the +government were they properly worked. But, unfortunately, the principle +of isolation which the Porte has adopted with regard to these remote +provinces, together with the want of enterprise among its inhabitants, +the result of four hundred years of indolence on the one hand and +oppression on the other, renders it problematical whether their ample +resources will ever be developed. Should Turkey, however, arise from her +lethargy, should genuine civilisation spread its branches over the land, +we may then confidently anticipate a glorious future for her +south-Slavonic provinces, doubting not that they will some day become +'the noblest jewel in their monarch's diadem.' + +To convey an accurate idea of a province so little known as the +Herzegovina, it will be best to enumerate the various physical features +by which it is distinguished. Thus the highest and most important +mountains are Dormitor in the district of Drobniak, on the Montenegrin +frontier, and Velesh, which forms a rugged background to the plain of +Mostar, the highest point being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. +Besides these, there are many others of nearly equal altitude, viz. +Flam, Hergud, Prievolie, Vrau, Hako, Fartar, Belen, Stermoshnik, +Bielevoda, Chabolie, Vrabcha, and Zavola. The perfect sea of rock which +the southern part of the province presents to the eye is of grey +limestone, varied however by a slatey stratum. Of the mineral products +of the mountains little accurate knowledge prevails; gold, silver, and +lead are said to exist, but I could not hear of their having ever been +found to any extent. A firman was granted some years ago to one Hadji +Ali Pacha, ceding to him for fifteen years the privilege of exploring +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and working any mines which he might there +discover. His application for this firman does not, however, in any way +prove the existence of these minerals throughout the country generally, +since it has proved to have been a mere cloak for diverting suspicion +from many previous dishonest actions of which he had been guilty. His +story is worthy of narration, as being no bad instance of the career of +a Turkish _parvenu_, whose only qualifications were a little education +and a large amount of effrontery. + +Hadji Ali Pacha commenced his career as a clerk in the pay of the great +Mehemet Ali Pacha, Viceroy of Egypt, but, having deserted to the Turks, +he was employed by them in the capacity of Uzbashee or Captain. Fearful +of falling into the hands of the Egyptians, he fled from his post, and, +having made his way to Constantinople, contrived, by scheming and +bribery, not only to efface the memory of the past, but to secure the +appointment of Kaimakan or Lieut.-Colonel, with which grade he was sent +to Travnik in command of a regiment. Tahir Pacha, the Governor of +Bosnia, had about this time been informed of the existence of some gold +mines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji Ali to obtain samples for +transmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all the +valuable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, on +their arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner was +this decision arrived at, than Hadji Ali imported the necessary +machinery and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores, +and in this way amassed immense wealth. Rumours having got abroad of +what was going on, and the suspicions of Tahir being aroused, the +unfortunate Austrian was put secretly out of the way, and, as a blind, +the unprincipled ruffian procured the firman to which allusion has been +made. It need hardly be said that he never availed himself of the +privileges which it conferred upon him. Some time after these +transactions, he applied for leave to visit Austria, on the plea of +ill-health, but doubtless with the view of changing the gold. This was +refused, and he was obliged to employ a Jew, who carried it to Vienna, +and disposed of it there. In 1850, when Omer Pacha came to restore order +in Bosnia, which had then revolted, Hadji Ali was sent with two +battalions to the relief of another detachment; upon this occasion he +communicated with the enemy, who cut off his rear-guard, and otherwise +roughly handled the Turkish troops. Upon this, Omer Pacha put him in +chains, and would have shot him, as he richly deserved, had he not known +that his enemies at Constantinople would not fail to distort the true +features of the case. He therefore sent him to Constantinople, where he +was shortly afterwards released, and employed his gold to such good +purpose, that he was actually sent down as Civil Governor to Travnik, +which he had so recently left a prisoner convicted of robbery and +treason. He was, however, soon dismissed for misconduct, and entered +once more into private speculations. In 1857 he purchased the tithes of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, and employed such ruffians to collect them as to +make perfect martyrs of the people, some of whom were even killed by his +agents. Exasperated beyond endurance, the people of Possavina rose en +masse, and although the movement was put down without difficulty, it +doubtless paved the way for the discord and rebellion which has been +attended with such calamitous results. This is precisely one of those +cases which has brought such odium on the Turkish government, and which +may so easily be avoided for the future, always providing that the Porte +be sincere in its oft-repeated protestations of a desire for genuine +reform. Ali Pacha was at Mostar in the beginning of 1858, when the +movement began, but was afraid to venture into the revolted districts to +collect his tithes. The Governor, therefore, made him Commandant of the +Herzegovinian irregulars, in which post he vindicated the character +which he had obtained for cruelty and despotism. Subsequently he was +appointed Kaimakan of Trebigne, but the European Consuls interfered, and +he has now decamped, owing a large sum to government, the remnant of his +contract for the tithes. + +The sides of some of the mountains are covered, as I have before said, +with dense forests of great value. There the oak, ash, elm, beech, +walnut, red and white pine, and the red and yellow maple, grow in rich +profusion, awaiting only the hand of man to shape them into 'the tall +mast' and the 'stately ship.' But man, in these benighted lands, is +blind to the sources of wealth with which his country teems, and to +nature it is left in the lapse of years to 'consume the offspring she +has herself produced.' The difficulty of transporting the timber to a +market has been always alleged by the natives as their reason for +neglecting to turn the forests to account; but this is a paltry excuse, +for with abundance of rivers to float it to the coast, and a neighbour +so anxious to monopolise the trade of the country as Austria has shown +herself, little doubt can be entertained of the possibility of its +advantageous disposal. As far back as 1849 an Austrian Company, +foreseeing the benefits which would accrue from the employment of +capital in these parts, obtained a concession of the pine forests for +twenty years. Saw-mills were built near Mostar, and roads and shoots +were constructed. About 5,000 logs had been cut and exported, when the +works were stopped by Omer Pacha on his arrival to suppress rebellion in +the country in 1850. This arbitrary measure on his part has been much +reprehended, and does without doubt require explanation. + +It should, however, be remembered that the contract, which was likely to +prove most remunerative to the Company, and of but little advantage to +the Turkish government, had been granted by Ali Pacha of Stolatz, the +last Civil Governor, to whom a tithe of the products was being paid. He +had in the meanwhile thrown off his allegiance, and consequently the +only blame which can attach to Omer Pacha is a want of judgement, caused +by over-zeal for the interests of his government. The case was +afterwards litigated, and the Porte was mulcted 200,000 florins as an +indemnity for their breach of the contract. This was liquidated from Ali +Pacha's property, and the firman has been renewed for fourteen years +since 1859. The Austrian government has, however, forbidden the Company +to avail themselves of it, as its members are engaged in legal +proceedings. The only saw-mill which I met with in the country was one +at Boona, worked by an Hungarian, who is apparently doing a lucrative +business. + +The rivers in the country are of no great size or importance, but might +in most cases be turned to account for the transport of timber or for +irrigation. The waters of some of the large rivers, it is true, are +injurious to vegetation from their hardness, but this does not apply to +all. After the Narenta, the following are the most important:--the +Trebenitza, Pria, Taro and Moratcha, Yanitza, Boona, Boonitza, Bregava, +Kruppa, Trebisat or Trebitza, Drechnitza, Grabovitza, Biela, +Kaladjin-Polok, and the Drina. It might be expected from its vicinity to +Bulgaria, where such fine lakes are found, that the same would be the +case in Herzegovina; but it is not so: Blato, which is marked as a lake +in all maps, is only such in winter, as with early spring the waters +disappear. + +The only towns in the province worthy of mention, besides Mostar, are +Fochia and Taschlijeh. They each contain about 10,000 inhabitants. The +other towns are nothing more than large villages, with a bazaar. They +are the seats of the district governments, such as Stolatz, Trebigne, +Konitza, Niksich, Duvno, Chainitza, and others. The houses in these are +not conspicuous for cleanliness, while those in the smaller villages are +still less desirable as residences. They generally consist of some +scores of huts, built of rough stones, without windows or chimneys, and +roofed with boards, which are again covered with straw. They seldom +contain more than one room, which the family occupies, in conjunction +with the poultry and domestic animals. The furniture of these luxurious +abodes consists of a hand-loom, two or three iron pots, a few earthen +vessels, and some wooden spoons. The bedding is a coarse woollen +blanket, which serves as a cloak in rainy or wet weather, and as a +mattress and coverlet for the whole family, without distinction of sex. + +The population of the Herzegovina amounts to about 182,000, divided as +follows:-- + +Catholics 52,000 +Greek Church 70,000 +Mussulmans 60,000 + +Originally these were all of the same stock; and their present +divisions, while constituting an element of safety for Turkey, are most +prejudicial to the well-being of the country. The Greek faith +predominates in the southern and eastern parts of the province. Its +adherents are distinguished for their activity and cunning,--qualities +which have rendered them far wealthier than their brethren of the +Catholic communion. The possession of comparative wealth, and the +consciousness of the moral support granted them by Russia, has made them +presumptuous and over-bearing, hating alike all sects and creeds which +differ from their own. Their ignorance is only equalled by the +fanaticism which often results therefrom; and so bitter is their +detestation of the Roman Catholics, that more than one instance has been +known of its leading to foul acts of murder. Unoffending peasants have +been taken in the revolted districts, and ordered to kneel and make the +sign of the cross, to prove the truth of their assertions that they were +not Mussulmans. The wretched creatures confidently did so in accordance +with the Roman Catholic form, and their lives were unceremoniously +forfeited to the bigotry and ferocity of their unrelenting judges. Nor +are either tolerance or humanity in any way advocated by the priests, +who are generally as illiterate and narrow-minded as their flocks, and +whose influence, which is very great, is generally employed for evil. +The priesthood are divided into Archimandrite, Igumens (chiefs of +monasteries), Monks, and Priests, all of whom are natives of the +province, where their whole lives have been passed. Of late years, +however, many have been sent to receive their education in Russia. Some +of these have now returned, but have not given signs of any desire to +ameliorate the spiritual condition of the people. The Church has always +been governed by a Vladika or Metropolitan, named from Constantinople. +Like most other appointments from that capital, this was generally paid +for, and its possessor consequently did not hesitate to employ every +means in his power to reimburse himself. This, and the fact that he was +never a native of the country, rendered him most unpopular; so that +while the priests (little as they may deserve it) are regarded with +reverence by the people, the Vladika was respected by neither the one +nor the other. At present the office is vacant, none having been +appointed since the demise of the last who occupied the episcopal chair. +That event occurred in the commencement of 1861, and his attempts at +extortion were so frequent and undisguised, that his death must have +been felt as a great relief by the people. Petitions were sent at that +time to Constantinople, praying for the appointment of a Slavish +Metropolitan; but, independently of the difficulty of finding anyone of +sufficient education among the Bosnian clergy, political considerations +have induced the Porte to prevent the Patriarch complying with the +demand; for, however bad in other respects they may have been, the +Metropolitans have always remembered that their allegiance was due to +the Patriarch of Constantinople, and not to the schismatic branch of the +Greek Church, over which the Czar exercises both temporal and spiritual +sway. Were a Slavish Metropolitan appointed, Russian influence would be +dangerously augmented, and the task of transferring the allegiance of +the people from their proper ecclesiastical head to the Russian Emperor, +as has been attempted in Bulgaria, would here become easy of +accomplishment. + +In the N. and W. the Romish faith finds the greatest number of +supporters, who look to Austria as their guiding star in all matters +connected with religion. In their ranks are comprised the +agriculturalists and artisans of the province, few being engaged in +commerce. As regards education or enlightenment they are no farther +advanced than their Greek compatriots: few can read or write their own +language, and the knowledge of any other tongue is most exceptional. +Learning, in its broader sense, is indeed confined exclusively to the +convents, and, until very recently, no attempt of any kind was made by +the priests to promote a desire for education or advancement among the +people, their whole thoughts being bent on self-aggrandisement, and the +acquisition of personal wealth. Careful enquiry has established the fact +that no less than 60,000_l._ is annually paid in fees, penances, and +gifts to the Church by the Roman Catholic section of the population; and +we may fairly infer that the Greek priests extort an equally large sum. +Of late schools have been established in different parts of the +province, but the subjects of education are too confined to work any +salutary change in the rising generation. Nor is it probably intended +that such should be the case. + +The Roman Catholics cordially return the hatred of the Greeks, marriages +with whom are forbidden by the Catholic clergy. They are also inimical +to the Mussulman population, by whom they are regarded as serfs. But +this hostility is nurtured in secret, rarely displaying itself in overt +acts of aggression. Four hundred years of oppression have completely +broken their spirit, and they only ask to be allowed to enjoy in peace a +fair portion of the fruits of their labour. + +The Church is governed by two bishops. One, resident at Mostar, bears +the title of Bishop of Azotto, and Vicar-Apostolic of the Herzegovina. +The other, called the Bishop of Trebigne, lives at Ragusa, which is also +included in his see. He has, however, a Vicar resident in the district +of Stolatz. As in Bosnia, the monks are all of the Franciscan order. +Considerable attention is paid to their education, and they are in every +way immeasurably superior to the parochial clergy. In connection with +that brotherhood a college has been for some years established, about +twelve miles distant from Mostar. The subjects of education there are +Latin, Italian, Slavish, Church History, and Theology. From this college +the students proceed to Rome, where they are admitted into the +Franciscan order. + +In the above remarks, I have endeavoured to show that the Christianity +which exists in these provinces is merely nominal, since it is devoid of +all those gentle and humanising principles which should distinguish it +from Islamism, whose tenets have been ever propagated by conquest and +the sword. The vices which more especially accompany and mar the beauty +of true Christian civilisation here hold unrestrained dominion, and both +Greeks and Catholics present a painful combination of western cunning +and intrigue and oriental apathy, while they are devoid of that spirit +of devotion and dignified resignation to the will of Providence which +preeminently characterise the religion of Mahomet. Living on the +confines of the two hemispheres, they have inherited the sins of each, +without the virtues of either the one or the other. Nearly all adults +are addicted to drunkenness, while the use of foul and indelicate +language is almost universal,--men, women, and children employing it in +common conversation. So long as such a state of things shall prevail, it +is clearly impossible that any material improvement can be brought +about; and until the people show some inclination to improve their own +condition, the sympathy or consideration of others is uncalled-for and +misplaced. The perpetual Russian whine about eight millions of +Christians being held in galling subjection by four millions of Turks is +a miserable deception, which, although it may serve as a pretext for +their own repeated acts of interference, cannot mislead those who have +seen anything of these countries, or who have been brought into contact +with their Christian inhabitants. The most effective course, probably, +which either the bitterest enemy or the warmest friend of the Ottoman +government could pursue, would be to disseminate the seeds of true +Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the land. And I say +this advisedly; for on the future conduct of the Porte would depend +whether such a course might lead to the establishment of Turkish +supremacy, or to its irretrievable overthrow. That an enlightened +nation, 'at unity in itself,' could cast off the yoke of an oppressive +and tottering despotism can easily be imagined, while, on the other +hand, a throne based upon principles of justice and progression would +acquire fresh stability with each step made by its subjects in the path +of civilisation. It is, indeed, strange that so fine a field for British +missionary labour has been so long uncared-for and untried. Nowhere is +there more ample scope for exertion of this nature than in the European +provinces of Turkey; for while the Christian population could not but +contrast the simple purity of the missionary life with the vicious +habits and grasping avarice of their own clergy, the Mussulmans would +see Christianity in a very different light from that in which they have +been accustomed to regard it. Nor would any obstacles be thrown in the +way by the Turkish government; nay, instances have even occurred of +Protestant missionaries receiving encouragement and support: for, +whatever may be said to the contrary, no nation is more tolerant of the +exercise of other religions than these same much-abused Moslems. +Whatever is to be done, however, should be done at once, for never was +it more urgently needed. The American struggle seems to have paralysed +the missionary labours of that nation, which had heretofore displayed +much energy in proclaiming the glad tidings of great joy in these +benighted lands. For England, then, it would appear, is reserved the +noble task of rescuing these unfortunates from a state of moral +darkness, as profound as that which envelopes the savage tribes of +central Africa, or the remotest islands of the Pacific. That we have +remained so long indifferent to the urgent appeals of the talented and +earnest, though somewhat prejudiced, advocate of Slavonic institutions, +Count Valerian Krasinski, is a matter of surprise and deep regret; for +surely no country can be more replete with interest to Protestant +England than that which may be regarded as the cradle of Protestantism, +and whose fastnesses afforded a refuge during four centuries of +persecution to the 'early reformers of the Church, the men who supplied +that link in the chain which connected the simplicity of primitive +doctrines with the present time.' + +The affinity which exists between the Church of England in the early +days of the Reformation and the Pragmatic section which glory in Huss +and Jerome, is too close to be easily overlooked. Nor need Bosnia (taken +collectively) succumb in interest to any Slavonic province, whether it +be regarded as the stronghold of freedom of religious opinion, or as the +scene of one of the greatest and most important triumphs of Islamism. + +[Footnote C: Or the territory governed by a Herzog or Duke.] + +[Footnote D: This includes Austrian subjects, who are not included in +the statistics.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic Element--First + Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their Origin--Tenets--Elect + a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in + Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian Apostasy--Religious + Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under Kiamil Pacha--Servian + Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted Brotherhood--Mahommedan + Women--Elopements--Early Marriages. + + +Authorities differ as to the time when Christianity was first introduced +into Bosnia. Some say that it was preached by the apostle St. James, +while others affirm that it was unknown until the year 853 +A.D., when St. Cyril and Methodius translated the Scriptures +into the Slavonic tongue; others again say that it dates back as far as +the seventh century, when the Emperor Heraclius called the Slavonic +nations of the Chorvats or Croats, and the Serbs or Servians, from their +settlement on the N. of the Carpathian Mountains, to the fertile regions +S. of the Danube. The warlike summons was gladly obeyed by those valiant +men, who had unflinchingly maintained their independence, whilst their +Slavish brethren, inhabiting the country between the Volga and the Don, +had submitted to the iron yoke of the all-conquering Avars. These last +were in their time expelled by the Croats and Serbs, and thus was +Slavism established from the Danube to the Mediterranean. But these +important results were not achieved without great sacrifice; and, +wearied of war and bloodshed, the successful Slavonians devoted +themselves to agriculture and industry, neglecting those pursuits which +had procured for them a permanent footing in the Greek empire. Taking +advantage of this defenceless state, resulting from their pacific +disposition, Constans II. made war upon the country of Slavonia, in +order to open a communication between the capital on the one side, and +Philippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian II. (685-95 and +708-10) also made a successful expedition against the Slavonians, and +transplanted a great number of prisoners, whom he took into Asia Minor. +The Greek empire having become reinvigorated for some time under the +Slavonian dynasty, Constantine Copronymus (741-75) advanced in his +conquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the S. of Thessalonica, which +is evident from an inspection of the frontiers of the empire, made by +order of the Empress Irene in 783. The Emperor Michael III. (842-67) +sent an army against the Slavonians of the Peloponnesus, which conquered +them all with the exception of the Melugi and Eseritoe, who inhabited +Lacedaemonia and Elis, and they were all finally subjugated by the +Emperor Basilicus I., or the Macedonian (867-86), after which the +Christian religion and Greek civilisation completely Hellenised them, as +their brethren on the Baltic were Germanised.[E] That the Latin faith +subsequently obtained a permanent footing in these provinces, is due to +the influence of the Kings of Hungary, who took the Bosnian Bans under +their special protection; and thus it happened that the Bosnian nobles +almost universally adopted the religion of their benefactors,--not so +much from conviction, it is surmised, as from an appreciation of the +many feudal privileges which it conferred, since they afterwards +renounced Christianity entirely, rather than relinquish the rights which +they had begun to regard as hereditary. The remote position of these +countries, however, and the antagonism of the Eastern and Western +Churches, combined to retard the development of the Papal doctrines, +while a still more important counterpoise presented itself, in the +appearance of the sect of Patarenes, towards the close of the twelfth +century. The sect was founded by an Armenian doctor, named Basil, who +was burnt for his opinions by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, and whose +followers, being banished, retired into Bulgaria, where they made many +converts, and took the name of Bogomili--'chosen of God,' or 'implorers +of God's mercy.' They thence spread their tenets into France by means +of pilgrims and traders, who were on their return to that country, and +by degrees laid the seeds of doctrines subsequently taken up by Peter +Bruysius, and afterwards by Henry and by Peter Valdo, the founder of the +Waldenses, and by others in other places. Availing themselves of the +various Caliphs' tolerance of all Christian sects, they carried their +opinions with their commerce into Africa, Spain, and finally into +Languedoc, a neighbouring province, to Moorish Iberia, where Raymond, +Count of Toulouse, gave them shelter and protection.[F] + +The same opinions were held by the Paulicians of Spain, who, having +received much encouragement from the Kings of Arragon and Castile, also +disseminated their doctrines throughout France, in the southern +provinces of which they met with great success. There they received the +name of Albigenses, from the town of Albiga or Alby. They afterwards +spread into Italy, where they received the name of 'Patarenes,' as some +suppose from the 'sufferings' which they endured, though other fanciful +reasons are assigned for the bestowal of the name. The tenets of these +early reformers 'have been transmitted through various sects under the +different denominations of Vallenses, Paulicians, Patarenes, Cathari +(Puritans), Bogomili, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, Bohemian Brethren +or Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Protestants to the present +day.' No very lucid account of their articles of faith has been handed +down to our times, and some suppose that they entertained the Manichaean +doctrines of the existence of the two principles, and of the creation of +the spiritual world by the good, and of matter by the evil One. +Krasinski appears to favour this supposition; but it is far more +probable that, with the name indiscriminately bestowed as a term of +opprobrium upon all who differed from the canons of the Romish Church, +they have received the credit of supporting the doctrines of the +Manichaeans. This much, however, is certain,--that they denied the +sovereignty of the Pope, the power of the priests, the efficacy of +prayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory;[G] while they +rejected all images, relics, and the worship of the saints. Whether the +advent of the sect into Bosnia was from the Bulgarian or Italian side is +unknown; but, be this as it may, it is beyond a doubt that they were +most favourably received (in 1197) by Kulin, who was at that time Ban of +the province. His wisdom was so great, and his reign so prosperous, that +long after his death it was a proverbial saying in Bosnia, upon the +occurrence of a fruitful year, 'the times of Kulin are come back.' Both +he himself, his wife, and Daniel, Bishop of Bosnia, embraced the new +doctrines, which consequently gained ground rapidly in the country. + +In obedience to a summons from Pope Innocent III., Kulin repaired to +Rome to give an account of his conduct and faith. Having succeeded in +diverting suspicions about his orthodoxy, he returned to Bosnia, where +he gave out that the Pope was well satisfied with his profession of +faith,--a slight equivocation, which will hardly bear an enquiry,--and +thus induced many more to join the Patarenes. Hearing of this, the Pope +requested the King of Hungary to compel Kulin to eject them from the +country, at the same time ordering Bernard, Archbishop of Spalatro, +publicly to excommunicate Daniel, the refractory Bishop. + + 'Never was heard such a terrible curse. + But what gave rise + To no little surprise + Was, that nobody seemed one penny the worse;' + +though possibly the believer in the validity of Papal bulls, bans, and +so forth, may plead in excuse that the curse was never actually +pronounced. The King also contented himself with a friendly caution to +the Ban, who thenceforward demeaned himself with more circumspection. On +the death of Kulin, Andrew, King of Hungary, gave the Banate of Bosnia +to Zibislau, under whom the doctrines of the Patarenes continued to +flourish. The fears of Pope Honorius II. being aroused, he sent +Acconcio, his Legate, into Bosnia to suppress them. So far from +effecting this, he saw their numbers daily and hourly increase, until in +1222 they elected a Primate of their own, who resided on the confines of +Bulgaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed by his Vicars the filial +congregation of Italy and France.[H] They destroyed the cathedral of +Crescevo, and Bosnia became entirely subject to their influence. From +that time, until the latter part of the fourteenth century, they +contrived to keep a footing in the country, although subjected to much +persecution by successive Popes and the Kings of Hungary, and oftentimes +reduced to the greatest straits. Occasional glimpses of sunshine buoyed +up their hopes, and the following anecdote, quoted by Sir Gardner +Wilkinson, is illustrative of the sanguine view which they were +accustomed to take of the ways of Providence. 'Many of the Patarenes had +taken refuge, during the various persecutions, in the mountains of +Bosnia; and on the eve of St. Catherine (November 24) in 1367, a fire +was seen raging over the whole of the country they occupied, destroying +everything there, and leaving the mountains entirely denuded of wood. +The Roman Catholics considered this event to be a manifest judgement of +heaven against the wicked heretics; but the Patarenes looked on it as a +proof of divine favour, the land being thereby cleared for them and +adapted for cultivation.' In 1392 the sect flourished under Tuartko +(then King of Bosnia), and, further, made great progress during the +first half of the following century. Their cause was openly espoused by +Cosaccia, Duke of Santo Saba, or Herzegovina, and by John Paulovich +Voivode of Montenegro. So far all went well; but Stephen, King of +Bosnia, having in 1459 ordered all Patarenes to leave his kingdom or +abjure their doctrines, their cause received a severe shock, and 40,000 +were obliged to take refuge in the Herzegovina, where they were welcomed +by Stephen Cosaccia. From that time no farther direct trace remains of +this important and widely-spreading sect; though Krasinski speaks of the +existence of a sect in Russia called 'Dookhoboitzi,' or combatants in +spirit, whose doctrines have great affinity to those professed by the +Patarenes, and whom he believes to have been transplanted from Bosnia to +Russia, their present country. + +But this triumph of Papal oppression was not destined to be of long +duration. Already was the tide of Mussulman conquest threatening to +overrun Germany; and Bosnia, after suffering severely from the wars +between Hungary and the Turks, was conquered, and annexed by the latter +in 1465. The religious constancy of the Bosnian nobles was now sorely +tried, for they found themselves compelled to choose between their +religion and poverty, or recantation and wealth. Their decision was soon +made, and the greater portion renounced Christianity and embraced +Islamism, rather than relinquish those feudal privileges, for the +attainment of which they had originally deserted their national creed. +Their example was ere long followed by many of the inhabitants of the +towns, and thus an impassable gulf was placed between them and the great +body of the people, who remained faithful to Christianity, and regarded +the renegades with mistrust and abhorrence. These for the moment were +benefited greatly by their apostasy, receiving permission to retain not +only their own estates, but also to hold in fief those belonging to such +as had refused to deny Christ. With the bitterness characteristic of +renegades, they now became the most inveterate enemies of those whose +faith they had abjured, oppressing them by every means within their +power. The savage tyranny which they exercised would doubtless have +driven very many to emigration, had a place of refuge presented itself; +but in the existing condition of the surrounding countries such a course +would have in no way profited them, but would rather have aggravated +their misery. A few, indeed, succeeded in escaping into Hungary, but +the mass submitted to their fate, and were reduced to poverty and +insignificance. + +The rancorous ill-treatment which they experienced at the hands of their +fanatical oppressors, was without doubt increased by the fact that these +found themselves a small and isolated band, all-powerful upon the +immediate spot they occupied, but surrounded by states which were +implacable enemies to their religion; while the remote position of these +provinces, and the difficulty of communication, have combined to render +the people, even now, less tolerant than the more legitimate devotees of +Mahometanism. That idea of superiority over other peoples and religions, +which the Mussulman faith inculcates, was eagerly embraced by them at +the time of their first perversion, and conspired to make them zealots +in their newly-adopted creed. The feeling was inherited, and even +augmented, with each succeeding generation, until it has become the +prominent feature of the race. To such an extent has this been indulged, +that the Bosniac Mussulmans of the present day not only despise all +other religions, but look upon the Mahommedans of other parts of the +empire as very little superior to the Christians. The apathy and +indifference to progress which has inevitably ensued upon the adoption +of Islamism, has made its effects strikingly apparent in these +provinces; and although entirely deprived of all those Seignorial +rights which their ancestors possessed, the Mussulman population appear +perfectly satisfied with the lazy independence procured for them by the +produce and rents of the land, of which they are the sole proprietors. +The Christians, on the other hand, are invariably the tenants, as it is +beneath the dignity of a Mussulman to turn his hand to any kind of +manual labour, i.e. so long as he can find a Christian to do it. + +The Euchlemeh, or arrangement for the tenure of land, has long existed +in this part of the empire, and has worked well whenever it has not been +abused. The original terms of the contract provided that the proprietor +should give the land and the seed for sowing it, receiving in return +one-third of the produce in kind. The commission of which Kiamil Pacha +was President in 1853, endeavoured, whilst regulating the taxation of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, to ameliorate the condition of the tenant as +regards the rental of land. They decreed that he should be supplied with +animals, implements, seeds, and also a house in which to live, while +yielding to the proprietor in return from 25 to 50 per cent. of the +products, according to the more or less prolific nature of land in the +different parts of the provinces. These terms were cheerfully accepted +by the agriculturalists, by whom they were considered just. The internal +state of the Ottoman empire, unfortunately, renders it impossible that +these conditions should in all cases be adhered to, and without doubt +the tenants are often compelled to pay from 10 to 20 per cent. more than +the legal rent. These instances, however, are less frequent than they +were a few years ago, and very much less frequent than the depreciators +of Turkey would have us to believe. The most scrupulous observance of +the terms of the Euchlemeh will be enforced by the Ottoman government if +it be alive to its own interests, and the more so that the infraction of +it has been, and will always be, turned to account by those who would +fain see rebellion and discord prevailing in the Turkish provinces, +rather than unity and peace. + +In 1860 no fewer than nine Servian emissaries were caught in the +Herzegovina, who were endeavouring to fan the discontent and ill-feeling +already existing amongst the agricultural classes. That province has +indeed been for a long time employed by the advocates of Panslavism, or +by the enemies of Turkey in general, as a focus of agitation, where +plans are hatched and schemes devised, the object of which is to +disorganise and impede the consolidation of the empire. The conduct of +Servia, as well as of greater and more important nations, has been most +reprehensible, and with it the forbearance of Turkey, notwithstanding +the corruptness of her government and the fanaticism of the Mussulman +population, has contrasted most favourably. Little wonder, then, that +ill-blood should have existed between these rival factions, and that the +party possessing power should have been prompted to use it for the +oppression of those whom they have had too much reason to regard as +their implacable foes. Yet, in spite of these opposing elements, many +points of striking resemblance still remain inspired by, and indicative +of, their former consanguinity of origin and identity of creed. The most +important of these, perhaps, is their retention of the Slavonic tongue, +which is employed to the exclusion of Turkish, almost as universally by +the Mussulmans as by the Christians. Some of their customs, too, prove +that a little spark of nationality yet exists, which their adoption of +Islamism has failed to eradicate. Thus, for example, the principle of +adopted brotherhood is eminently Slavonic in its origin. The tie is +contracted in the following manner:--Two persons prick their fingers, +the blood from each wound being sucked by the other. This engagement is +considered very binding, and, curiously enough, it is sometimes entered +into by Christians and Mussulmans mutually. Again, a man cuts the hair +of a child, and thus constitutes himself the 'Coom,' or, to a certain +degree, assumes the position of a godfather. It not unfrequently happens +that a Mussulman adopts a Christian child, and vice versa. + +In their domestic arrangements they vie in discomfort and want of +cleanliness, notwithstanding the post-prandial ablutions common to all +Easterns. + +The Mussulman females, up to the time of their marriage, show themselves +unreservedly, and generally appear in public unveiled; while in one +respect, at any rate, they have the advantage of many more civilised +Christians than those of Turkey,--that they are permitted, in the matter +of a husband, to choose for themselves, and are wooed in all due form. +Parents there, as elsewhere, are apt to consider themselves the best +judges of the position and income requisite to insure the happiness of +their daughters, and where such decision is at variance with the young +lady's views, elopement is resorted to. Of the amount of resistance +encountered by the bridegrooms on these occasions, I regret that I am +not in a position to hazard an opinion. Polygamy is almost unknown, a +second wife being seldom taken during the lifetime of the first. Since +it is to the expense attendant upon this luxury that such abstinence is +probably to be attributed, it really reflects great credit upon the +Bosnian Benedicts that the meal-sack has been so seldom brought into +play,--that ancient and most expeditious Court of Probate and Divorce in +matrimonial cases. After marriage, the women conceal themselves more +strictly than in most other parts of Turkey. Perhaps in this the +husbands act upon the homoeopathic principle, that prevention is better +than cure; for divorces are unheard of, and are considered most +disgraceful. Marriages are contracted at a much earlier age by the +Christian than by the Mahommedan women, and it is no uncommon thing to +find wives of from twelve to fourteen years of age. This abominable +custom is encouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy, whose revenues are +thereby increased. + +[Footnote E: Krasinski.] + +[Footnote F: See Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Dalmatia,' Napier's 'Florentine +History,' and Sismondi's 'Literature du Midi de l'Europe.'] + +[Footnote G: Sismondi.] + +[Footnote H: Gibbon.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of + Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural Capabilities + of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian _Scutors_--Other + Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations with Bosnia--Able + Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria takes Alarm--Trade + Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier + Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms. + + +The agricultural products of the Herzegovina are wheat, barley, rice, +linseed, millet, tobacco, and grapes. Of the cereals, Indian corn is +most cultivated, and forms the staple article of consumption, as is also +the case in Servia and the Danubian principalities. The little wheat +that is grown is found in the northern and eastern parts of the +province, where the soil is better adapted for it; but nowhere is it +either abundant or of good quality. The best which is sold in the towns +is imported from Bosnia. Barley is more extensively grown, and horses +are fed upon it here and throughout Turkey generally. Linseed is only +grown in small quantities in the northern parts, while the district of +Gliubinski is almost entirely devoted to the culture of rice. As the +quantities produced barely suffice for home consumption, no exportation +of cereals can be expected to take place. This circumstance, together +with its rugged appearance, naturally procures for the province the +character of being sterile and unproductive, and such it doubtless is +when compared with Bulgaria, Roumelia, or the fruitful plains of +Wallachia; but it has certain resources peculiar to itself, which, if +properly developed, would materially change the aspect of the country, +and obtain for it a more desirable reputation. It is eminently adapted +for the cultivation of those articles of Eastern necessity and Western +luxury, tobacco and the vine. Numerous patches of land, now either +fallow or sown with grain, for which they are neither suited by their +size or the nature of their soil, might be turned to good account for +the growth of tobacco; and such would doubtless be the case were there +an outlet for its exportation, which at present, unfortunately, does not +exist. Only a sufficiency, therefore, is grown to meet the local +demands, and to supply the contiguous Turkish provinces. Three qualities +are produced, the prices of which have been for some time fluctuating. +Previous to the Christian outbreak the best of these, grown in the +district of Trebigne, sold for about 11_d._ per pound, while the +cheapest was to be procured at 3_d._ per pound. + +In alluding to the capabilities of the province for the production of +the vine, I might also have mentioned the olive and the mulberry, both +of which would thrive. Of these the vine alone, however, has as yet +occupied the attention of the agriculturalists; and though it is largely +cultivated in the southern and western parts, not one-tenth part of the +land adapted to it is thus employed. + +The same obstacle which impedes the more extensive cultivation of +tobacco, is also in a measure applicable to the manufacture of wine, at +least as far as regards its quality. At present quantity is far more +considered, and the result is that, in place of manufacturing really +valuable wines, they poison both themselves and all who have the +misfortune to partake of it. It is only fair to add that one +description, which I tasted at Mostar, appeared to be sound, and gave +promise of becoming drinkable after some months' keeping. The vine +disease, which showed itself some years back, has now disappeared; and +the crops, which during six or seven seasons deteriorated to an +astonishing degree, have now reassumed their former healthy appearance. + +The numerous hills which intersect the province might also be covered +with olive groves, and it would be of great advantage to the country +could the people be induced to follow the example of their Dalmatian +neighbours, who have covered almost inaccessible points of their country +with that useful tree. + +The climate is well adapted to the nurture of the silkworm, and the +mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly throughout the province: were these +turned to account there can be little doubt that in a few years large +quantities of silk might be exported. A few of the natives have reared +worms successfully for several years, and the silk thus obtained has +been employed for domestic purposes. The disease, which for so many +years inflicted such serious loss on the silk producers of Europe, is +unknown in the Herzegovina. Whether this immunity is to be attributed to +the climate, or the nature of the leaf upon which the silkworm feeds, it +is impossible to say, but it is none the less a veritable fact. Cotton +might also be grown to a small extent, but the same drawbacks would +apply here as elsewhere in Turkey, viz. the difficulty of obtaining, and +the high price of labour. + +This has been rapidly increasing during the last twelve years. In 1850, +a mason or carpenter received five piastres or 10_d._ a day, while a +common labourer obtained 6_d._ Now the former finds no difficulty in +earning 2_s._ per diem, while the latter receives 1_s._ 4_d._ for short +days, and 1_s._ 6_d._ for long days. The shorthandedness consequent upon +the Christian rising, has of course contributed to this rise in wages; +but the province was at no time self-supporting in this respect. A large +number of _scutors_ or labourers from Dalmatia cross the frontier in the +spring, and hire themselves out during the summer months. The decrease +in the number of these was, I am told, very perceptible during the +Italian war, in consequence of the demand for recruits. + +The other products of the country are wool, hides, skins, honey, and +wax, which are exported to Austria. Large numbers of sheep and horned +cattle are, moreover, annually exported to the Dalmatian markets. + +The only manufactures of which I could find specimens were coarse +woollen blankets, twist, and carpets. The blankets and carpets are +mostly exported to Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Servia. Besides these, a kind +of cotton cloth is made in the houses by the women, from imported +cotton, and is applied solely to domestic uses, and is not regarded as +an article of commerce. + +In considering the question of the trade of the Herzegovina, the +attention should be directed, not so much to what it actually is, as to +what it might be under the fostering care of an enlightened government. +And yet, it is not to the producing and consuming capabilities of the +province itself that its possible importance in a commercial point of +view is attributable, but rather to its position on the confines of the +East and West, and to the fact of its containing within its limits the +natural outlets for the trade of that portion of the Ottoman empire. + +It is, in fact, in its relation to Bosnia, that it is entitled to most +attention; and if we deplore that such natural resources as it +possesses have not been more fully developed, we have still greater +reason to lament that the world is thus debarred communication with the +most romantic and beautiful province of European Turkey. It is also the +natural route for the commerce of a portion of Servia, whose exports and +imports would thus quickly pass to and from the sea. Its value, however, +appears never to have been properly appreciated by the Turkish +government, and Omer Pacha, in 1852, was the first employe of that power +who ever appreciated its importance in a commercial point of view. He +appears to have indicated the measures necessary for developing its +resources, and for attracting the trade of the neighbouring provinces +from their expensive and indirect channel into their legitimate route. +The prospects of the province were rapidly brightening under his +sagacious administration, when Austria took alarm, and effectually +impeded all farther progress by closing the only port adapted for the +transmission of its mercantile resources. She thus secures for herself a +monopoly of trade, forcing the inhabitants of all the Turkish provinces, +in that quarter, to purchase their imports at high prices from her, and +to sell their produce to Austrian merchants, who, fearing no +competition, themselves determine its price. The object of Austria in +thus retarding the development of Bosnia is sufficiently obvious, since +that which would be a gain to Turkey would be a loss to herself. And +were events so to dispose themselves as to render this probable, she +would doubtless find a pretext to justify a military occupation of the +country. This she has done on several occasions, and the large force now +massed upon the northern bank of the Save only awaits some national +demonstration to effect an armed intervention. This is, however, +trenching upon another subject, to which I may have hereafter to allude. + +Approximate calculations of the trade of the Herzegovina show that the +imports amount annually to about 150,000_l._, while the exports do not +produce more than 70,000_l._ This comparison proves that a very large +amount of specie must be extracted every year from the country, for +which no material counterpoise exists, since the merchandise imported is +to supply the wants of the people, and does not consequently tend to +enrich the province. It follows therefore, naturally, that it is +becoming daily more poverty-stricken, and in place of advancing with +advancing civilisation, it is stagnating or even declining in +prosperity. + +These imports are computed to amount to about 70,000 horse-loads in +quantity, while the transit trade to Bosnia is estimated at 50,000 more. +Of these about 10,000 horse-loads are of salt from Dalmatia. + +The main source whence these provinces are supplied is Trieste, where +large depots exist, established expressly for this purpose. Thither the +traders proceed once a year, to lay in a supply of goods for the ensuing +twelve months. They purchase at credits varying from six to twelve +months, paying high prices for a very indifferent class of goods. These +consist for the most part of cotton and woollen manufactures, cotton +twist, silks, iron in bars sheets and plates, tin, lead, brass, +hardware, glass, sugar, coffee, and other colonial products. Gold lace, +velvet, and silks are also imported from Bosna Serai, and silks and some +kinds of cotton prints from Constantinople by way of Salonica and +Serajevo. Like most semi-civilised nations, the people of Herzegovina +are much addicted to showy colours in their dress. Those most in favour +are scarlet, green, and blue; but the dyes soon fade, and the cloth is +anything but durable. It is invariably of French or German manufacture; +is of coarse quality, and is worn next the skin by the country people. +In the towns, grey long cloths, dyed dark blue, constitute the principal +article of clothing among the Christians, the general character of dress +being the same throughout the province. The exports consist of sheep's +wool, hides, sheep and goats' skins, furs, and wax, to Trieste; cattle, +sheep, goats, pigs, tallow, and eels, to Dalmatia; woollen blankets, red +and yellow leather prepared from sheep skins, carpets, tobacco, wine, +and fruits, to the neighbouring Turkish provinces. Pipe-sticks are also +sent from Bosna Serai, to Egypt, through the Herzegovina, while knives, +manufactured at Foulcha from country-made steel, are also sent in +considerable quantities to Egypt. All imports and exports pay a duty of +three per cent. on their value, and until recently produce exported to +the neighbouring Turkish provinces paid the unreasonable duty of ten per +cent. This grievous impediment to commerce has, thanks to the efforts of +the European Consuls, been abolished, and they now pay the same duty as +exports to other countries. + +It may be noted, as a symptom of the centralising policy which the Porte +is adopting, that the government now farms the customs of these +provinces, in place of selling the right of doing so to the highest +bidder, as was formerly the case. + +Having thus contrasted the actual with the possible condition of the +province, we cannot but enquire the causes which lead thereto; and it is +impossible to disguise from ourselves, that to mal-administration is +primarily attributable this deplorable state of things. Add to this the +total absence of all means of internal communication, and we have quite +sufficient to cripple the energies of a more industrious and energetic +people than those with whom we are dealing. The first object of the +government, then, should be to inspire the people with confidence in its +good faith, and to induce them to believe that the results of their +labour will not be seized by rapacious Pachas or exorbitant landowners; +and, above all things, it is necessary that Turkish subjects, even if +they are not accorded greater favours in their own country than those of +other powers, should at least be placed upon a footing of equality, +which is far from being the case at present. + +It would appear that the government is really sincere in its intention +of making roads through the country generally, and when this is done a +new era may be anticipated. In the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina, only +one road has until very recently existed. It was made by Omer Pacha in +1851, and connects Bosna Serai with Brod, a town situated upon the +southern bank of the Save. From Metcovich to Bosna Serai, which is the +high road for the trade of the country, the line of route is but a path +formed by the constant traffic, and, while always difficult to traverse, +is in winter frequently closed altogether. It is indispensable that a +central high road should be made, and no point could be more +advantageously adopted as a base than the port of Klek, near which +asphalte is found in large quantities. + +Were a good trunk-road established, connecting that point with Bosna +Serai, branch roads might soon be made throughout the province. The +nature of the country is not such as would render the difficulty of +doing this insuperable, and the rivers over which it would pass are +already spanned by good and serviceable bridges, the relics of better +days. That the expense attending it would soon be defrayed by the +increased traffic is acknowledged by all, and we may therefore hope ere +long to see the deficiency remedied. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis--Its + Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial + Tribunals--Revenue and + Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh--Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total + Revenue--Police. + + +The Herzegovina is divided into fourteen districts or mudirliks, named +as follows, viz.:-- + + Districts Chief Towns No. of Villages in + each District + Mostar Mostar 45 + Duvno Duvno 25 + Gliubinski 31 + Stolatz Stolatz 22 + Trebigne Trebigne 51 + Niksich Niksich 28 + Tashlijeh Tashlijeh 16 + Priepolie 22 + Chainitza Chainitza 14 + Kolashin 56 + Fochia Fochia + Gasko Gasko 20 + Nevresign Nevresign 14 + Pogitel Pogitel 13 +[I]Konitza 19 + +These districts, with the exception of Mostar (which is the seat of the +Central Provincial Government), are under the supervision of a Mudir, +who is assisted by a Council, a Cadi or Judge, and a Tax-collector. The +province is governed by a Mutisarif named from Constantinople, who is +subject in certain things to the Pacha of Bosnia. The Mudirs are +appointed by the Mutisarif, subject to the approval of the government at +Constantinople. + +The Cadi of Mostar is a very important personage, and has all the +district Cadis under his orders. He is an unsalaried officer, his +remuneration consisting of the fees of office, and whatever else he can +lay hands on. + +The Medjlis, or Council for the province, was selected by Kiamil +Effendi, the Turkish Commissioner in 1853, and vacancies have since been +filled up by the votes of the majority of their number, subject to +confirmation at Constantinople. + +The Medjlis consists of about ten native Mussulmans, one Roman Catholic, +and one Greek, so that the Christian interests are but indifferently +represented. + +Appeal can be made against its decision to the Medjlis Kebir at Bosna +Serai. + +All legal matters are arbitrated by the Medjlis since the abolition of +the various tribunals, which were founded in 1857. One of these was for +the trial of criminal causes. It consisted of a President, and six +members, and another was a commercial tribunal for the settlement of +petty commercial disputes. These have both fallen into abeyance; and, +seeing that Christian evidence is not accepted in the civil causes, it +is difficult to understand how the Christian population could ever have +benefited, at any rate by the latter. + + * * * * * + +_Revenues and taxes._--The revenue of the province is derived from the +following sources, viz.-- + +_Virgu_ (income tax). + +_Monayene-askereh_, or the tax paid by the Christians in lieu of +military service. It is, however, one of the grievances alleged by the +Christians, who declare their willingness to serve; but as many +Mussulmans would willingly pay the tax to be exempted from the chance of +enlistment, the hardship applies to all parties. + +_Customs, tithes, excise._ + +The Virgu is a species of income tax, inasmuch as it is a rate levied +ostensibly on the wealth of individuals; but, instead of being a per +centage on the income, it has resolved itself into a mere capitation +tax, and is ill-adapted, as such a tax must always be, to the relative +wealth of individuals. A certain sum was arbitrarily fixed upon to be +paid by the province. The government appears to have omitted to enquire +whether the wealth of the country would enable it to pay so large a sum +as that demanded. In 1853, the tax was divided into three portions, +according to the numbers of each persuasion, and has been thus collected +ever since. + +In the same sweeping manner these sums have been equally apportioned to +each household, poor and rich paying alike. Thus the Mussulmans, who +possess nearly all the land in the province, and who are generally in +affluent circumstances, but who form the smallest portion of the +population, pay least. The Virgu has been unscrupulously levied, and has +given rise to much discontent, more especially among the Latins, who are +the poorest classes. + +These complain bitterly, and harrowing stories are told of women, about +to become mothers, being compelled to pay the tax on the chance of the +infant being a male. Such things may have occurred some years ago, but +the spirit of cruelty appears to have died out, or is at all events kept +in the background by the Moslems of the present day. + +The Monayene-askereh was first imposed when the people were relieved +from the Haradj. It is levied on males from fourteen to seventy, and was +found so grievous, that the Porte has seen fit to direct that only about +one-half of the original amount shall be raised. This alleviation has +existed during the last three years. + +_Customs._--These consist of a duty of three per cent. ad valorem on all +imports and exports to and from foreign countries, as well as the same +amount demanded under the form of transit dues for goods passing from +one Turkish province to another. This has lately been reduced from 12 +per cent. to its present rate. + +The next source of revenue is the amount realised by the tithes. Since +1858 these have been farmed by the government, but previous to that year +they were sold by auction, as in other provinces, to the highest bidder. +The arrangement was complicated enough, for they underwent no less than +four sales: 1st. In each district for the amount of the district. 2nd. +At Mostar, where each district was again put up, and given to the person +offering 10 per cent. above the price realised at the first sale. 3rd. +At Bosna Serai for the entire province. And lastly at Constantinople,--the +highest bidder in this fourfold sale becoming the farmer. This system +exposed the tithe payers to much oppression, for it not uncommonly +happened that the farmer found he had paid more for his purchase than +he could legally claim from the people, so that, instead of 10 per +cent., 15 or 20 per cent. could alone remunerate him; and this he found +no difficulty in getting, as the government unfortunately bound itself +to help him. None but the farmers of the tithes really knew what the +produce was, so that any demand of theirs was considered by the +government to be a bona fide claim, and was upheld. + +The government was frequently cheated, and, further, defrauded of large +sums of money, as in the case of Hadji Ali Pacha; but it is a question +whether so much will be realised by the present system, since greater +facilities exist for roguery on the part of the agriculturalists, to say +nothing of the corruptness of its own officials. + +The excise consists of a per centage on the sale of wine, spirits, shot, +lead, earthenware, snuff, tobacco, and salt; of tolls on produce brought +into the towns for sale; of fees for permission to distil, to roast and +grind coffee, and to be a public weigher; also of a tax on taking +animals to the grazing grounds,[J] and of licenses to fish for eels and +leeches: these are caught plentifully in the plain of Gabella when +flooded, and are of good quality. + + * * * * * + +_Revenue._--The taxes of the province produce annually about 9,135,000 +piastres, taking the piastre at 2_d._ English. + +This sum may be divided as follows: viz.-- + + Piastres +Virgu 1,700,000 +Tithes 5,000,000 +Monayene-askereh 1,285,000 +Customs 600,000 +Excise 550,000 + --------- + Total 9,135,000 + +The above shows that the province yields to the imperial treasury a +yearly sum of about 79,000_l._ sterling, from a taxation of about 8_s._ +per head on the population. The amount may appear small; but when it is +considered that the taxes are not equitably levied, that the heaviest +share falls upon the poorest inhabitants, and that a great part of the +amount is in direct taxation, it cannot be considered light. The burden, +too, weighs with undue severity upon the faithful subjects of the Porte, +since they are compelled to pay the share which would fall upon those +who have rebelled against the Turkish authority. + +There is one branch of the public administration which eminently +requires readjustment. This is the police force. Ill-paid and badly +organised, it follows as a matter of course that it is inefficient to +perform the duties required of it. It is divided into horse and foot, +and is paid as follows per month:-- + + Horse Piastres +Binbashee (or Chief Officer) 1,000 per month +Uzbashee (or Captain) 600 " +Tchonch (Corporal or Sergeant) 250 " +Nefer (Private) 150 " + + Foot Piastres +Tchonch 100 per month +Nefer 75 " + +The Zaptiehs have frequently duties to perform which should only be +intrusted to men of honesty and sagacity, and it is consequently of +great importance to render the service attractive to trustworthy men. To +effect this the pay, more especially in the lower grades, should be +increased, and circumspection used in the selection of recruits. At +present this is far from being the case, many men of notoriously bad +character being employed, and these are driven to peculation and theft +for the means of supporting life. The mounted portion find their own +horses and forage, is very dear in many parts of the province. + +[Footnote I: Many of the villages on the Montenegrin frontier no longer +exist, having been fired by the insurgents.] + +[Footnote J: These are principally on the western banks of the Narenta, +outside Mostar.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Omer Pacha--Survey of + Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars--Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of + Prisoners--Roman Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish + Officers--Pacha's Palace--European + Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's Day--Warlike + Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders to March. + + +During the week which intervened between my arrival and the removal of +head-quarters to the seat of war, I had several interviews with Omer +Pacha. On these occasions he showed much kindness of disposition, and +took great trouble to explain to me the arrangements which he made for +the prosecution of the war against Montenegro in 1852, and to describe +the nature of campaigning in that province. + +He expressed himself much pleased with a map of Montenegro which I had +presented to him, drawn by Major Cox, R.E., British Commissioner for +determining the new boundary line, but detected the absence of one or +two traversable paths, the existence of which I found to be correct when +I subsequently accompanied the army to those districts. The map, +however, I may observe, is very superior, both in accuracy and +minuteness of detail, to any other survey which has as yet appeared. + +While awaiting the departure of the Generalissimo for the seat of war, +to which he had kindly invited me to accompany him, I employed myself in +wandering about those crooked byways, and studying the many phases of +Turco-European humanity. That my impressions of the town were very +favourable, I am not prepared to state; but I believe that in point of +cleanliness it is superior to many. It is situated on both banks of the +Narenta, in a gorge which opens out into two small plains, at its N. and +S. extremities. The eastern and larger part is built on an acclivity, +and contains the bazaar, government offices, and the houses of the +traders and the richer inhabitants. The western part is occupied by the +poorer classes, who are for the most part Catholics, and are employed in +agricultural pursuits. The gardens, which supply the town with +vegetables, are upon this side, and the soil is more fruitful, though +marshy and feverish. On the eastern side it is healthy, sandy, and dry. +The dwelling-houses are generally small and comfortless, indifferently +built, and roofed with stone. As in India, they are always surrounded +with a compound--for it cannot be called garden--which gives the town a +rambling and extended appearance. + +The shops are small and ill-supplied, and the streets narrow and +tortuous, except the two main ones, which are tolerably broad, and run +parallel to each other in a nearly straight course N. and S. They have +raised footpaths, roughly constructed, and swarming with animal life, as +is to be expected in the luxurious East. There are no fewer than thirty +mosques in the town, whose minarets give it a beautiful and picturesque +appearance, albeit that the buildings themselves are imperfect, and +ungainly in architectural detail. The Mussulmans have a school in the +town, where Turkish and Slavish are taught. Girls are, however, debarred +this advantage, and indeed no institution of any kind exists throughout +the province for their training or instruction. The result is that the +female population is, if possible, in a lower state of degradation than +the male. The religious and secular education of the Christians is as +little considered as that of the Mussulmans. Thus the only place of +worship which the Greeks possess is a small chapel on the outskirts, to +which is attached a school for boys, which is attended by about two +hundred children. Since Omer Pacha's arrival during the past year, a +peal of bells has been placed in this chapel. The superstition which +prevails amongst Turks, 'that bells drive away good spirits from the +abodes of men,' renders this concession the more grateful, and it is +only another proof that the Mussulmans of the present day are not so +intolerant as they are represented. No restrictions, indeed, are placed +upon religious ceremonies or public processions of any kind. With +regard to church bells, I may add that their use has always been +considered tantamount to a recognition of Christianity as the +established religion of the place. In some towns, where Christians +predominated, the concession had been made long before their +introduction at Mostar. + +The Roman Catholics have no church in Mostar. Service is performed at +the Austrian Consulate, and also at a convent, about two miles distant, +where the Bishop of Mostar resides. This circumstance has led to the +concentration of the Catholic community in that neighbourhood. The +Catholic school for boys adjoins the convent; it is, however, thinly +attended, and but indifferently conducted. + +The British Consulate being closed in consequence of the absence of the +Vice-Consul, M. Zohrab, who was acting as temporary Consul at Bosna +Serai, I took up my abode at a khan overlooking the river. The situation +was pretty, and the house newly restored; but this did not deprive it of +some relics of animal life, which somewhat disturb the equanimity of the +new comer, but which he soon learns to regard with indifference. +Descending the stairs, and passing through the stable, which is, as is +usually the case, immediately beneath the lodging rooms, we must turn +sharply to the right; and, after clambering up some rough and broken +steps, we arrive at the main street, which runs for about a mile +through the centre of the town, varied only by arched gateways placed at +intervals along its course. Against the first of these a Turkish sentry +indolently leans, if he be not seated on the kerbstone at the corner. +Passing through this we come to a second gate, where the peaceful +traveller, unconscious of offence, is angrily accosted. The meaning of +all this is that he is requested to throw away and stamp upon his +cigarette, the old tower on the left being used as a magazine. Round it +a weak attempt at a _place d'armes_ is apparent, Omer Pacha having +ordered some of the neighbouring houses to be pulled down. Nor was this +done before it was necessary, a fire having broken out a short time +before in its vicinity. On that occasion the inhabitants destroyed a few +houses, and imagined the fire to be extinguished. The wind rose, and it +broke out again, taking the direction of the magazine. Upon this, the +whole population took to the country, and the prisoners, who were +located close by, escaped in the general confusion. Had it not been +providentially extinguished, the _place of Mostar would have known it no +more_. The prison is a plain white house, which does not look at all as +if it had ever been the sort of place to have long defied the ingenuity +of a Jack Sheppard, or even an accomplished London house-breaker of our +own day. + +The tower to which allusion has been made is built on the eastern side, +and immediately above the beautiful bridge which spans the Narenta, and +for which Mostar[K] has ever been famous. The Turks attribute its +erection to Suleyman the Magnificent, but it was probably built by the +Emperor Trajan or Adrian, since the very name of the town would imply +the existence of a bridge in very early days. The Turkish inscriptions, +which may be traced upon the abutments at the E. end of the bridge, +probably refer to some subsequent repairs. At any rate too much reliance +must not be placed in them, as the Turks have been frequently convicted +of removing Roman inscriptions and substituting Turkish ones in their +place. The beauty of the bridge itself is heightened by the glimpse to +be obtained of the mosques and minarets of Mostar, washed by the turbid +waters of the Narenta, and backed by the rugged hills which hem it in. +'It is of a single arch, 95 ft. 3 in. in span, and when the Narenta is +low, about 70 feet from the water, or, to the top of the parapet, 76 +feet.'[L] + +There is a second tower at the extremity of the bridge on the left bank, +which is said to be of more modern construction. + +Mostar is not a fortified city, nor is it important in a strategical +point of view. The only traces of defensive works which exist are +portions of a crenellated wall of insignificant construction. This +accounts for the ease with which the Venetians were enabled to take +possession of and burn its suburbs by a sudden raid in 1717. 'The town +was built,' says Luccari, 'in 1440, by Radigost, Major-Domo of Stefano +Cosaccia;' but in asserting this, he overlooks the existence of the +Roman road to Trebigne, which is very superior to anything built by +either Slaves or Turks, and places its Roman origin beyond a doubt. Some +suppose it to be the ancient Sarsenterum. That it was selected by the +Turks as the capital of the province immediately after the conquest, and +considerably enlarged, appears very probable, and the towers which flank +the bridge were probably built at that period or a little earlier, +though the eastern one is said to be raised upon a Roman basement. + +Continuing our ramble we pass through another gate, and come to an +uncomfortable looking hill. We have not to mount far, however, before we +approach an archway, with two sentries, rather more alert than the +others whom we have seen. Officers are passing backwards and forwards, +looking fussy and important, as Turks always do when they get rid of +their habitual apathy. In their small waisted coats _a la Francaise_, +surmounted by the _inevitable fez_, they present a strange combination +of the Eastern and Western soldier. + +The house in the interior of the court-yard is the palace, usually +occupied by the Mulisarif, but devoted, during his stay in these parts, +to Omer Pacha, the Serdar Ekrem and Rumili Valessi, or Governor-General +of European Turkey. In the vicinity of the palace may be seen the +flagstaffs of the Prussian and Austrian Consulates, while that of Great +Britain appears at no great distance, and in the rear of the +clock-tower, which distinguishes Mostar from most other Turkish towns. +Let us now return to the main street, which continues in unbroken +monotony for something less than half a mile. If gifted with sufficient +patience to continue our stroll out of the town, we come upon the +principal burial-ground. On the E. high hills hem us in, while the tiny +stream of the Narenta comes winding from the N. + +During my stay at Mostar the town was enlivened by the occurrence of the +Emperor Alexander's birthday, or the 'Emperor's day,' as it is called. +In celebration of this auspicious event, the Russian Consul kept open +house, everyone who could muster decent apparel being admitted. After +the ceremony of blessing the Muscovite flag had been performed by the +Greek Bishop, a select few sat down to a kind of breakfast, which did +credit to the hospitality of his Imperial Majesty's representative. +Thither I accompanied Omer Pacha, who was attended by a small suite. +This was the only occasion on which I ever observed anything like +display in the Turkish General. His gold-embroidered dress resembled +that of a Marshal of France; his breast was literally covered with +decorations, in the centre of which was the Grand Cross of the Bath, and +he carried a magnificently-jewelled sword, the gift of the late Sultan, +Abdul Medjid. He did not, however, remain long, and on emerging I could +not help contrasting the festivities within with the signs of warlike +preparation which jostled one at every turn, the first fruits, in great +measure, of Russian imperial policy. Strings of ponies laden with +forage, and provisions for the army on the frontier, passed +continuously, and the streets presented a more than usually gay and +variegated appearance. Omer Pacha was throughout indefatigable. +Detachments of irregulars arrived daily, some of which were immediately +pushed up to the scene of operations; others were retained at Mostar; +but whether they went, or stayed behind, he inspected them alike, and +was always received with marked enthusiasm. I must not omit to mention +that amongst these reinforcements was a body of 1,000 Christians, who, +however, were never sent to the frontier. Fine fellows they were, all +armed with rifles of native construction. These arms of precision are +mostly made in Bosnia, where there are two or three establishments for +that purpose. + +Thus the days wore on; and, having provided myself with horses, and such +few things as are deemed indispensable for campaigning, I was delighted +to receive a message from the Generalissimo, on the night of the 13th, +intimating his intention of leaving Mostar at 8 (_a la Franca_) on the +following morning. + +But before I enter upon my personal experiences in the camp of the +Osmanlis, I would fain give some account of the previous history of this +agitated province; passing in brief review those causes which combined +to foster a revolutionary spirit in the country, and dwelling more +especially on the events of the last four years, during which that +spirit has so culminated as to convince even the Porte of the necessity +which exists for the immediate employment of coercive measures. + +[Footnote K: Mostar, from 'Most Star' Old Bridge.] + +[Footnote L: Sir G. Wilkinson.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich--Cruel + Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of + Santo Saba becomes a Roman Province--Despotism of Bosnian + Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall of Sultan Selim and + Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin Pacha--Expedition against + Montenegro--Death of Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces + reconquered--Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of + Janissaries--Regular Troops organised--Hadji + Mustapha--Abdurahim--Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh + rising--Serayevo taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of + Adrianople--Hussein Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of + Grand Vizier--Ali Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War + with Montenegro--Amnesty granted. + + +The history of Bosnia under the Roman empire is possessed of too little +interest to call for any particular observation; but, considered as one +of the most fertile and beautiful of the European provinces, overrun by +the Moslem armies, it is well entitled to the mature consideration of +all who take an interest in the important question now at issue, to wit, +the fusion of the Eastern and Western worlds. + +The immediate cause of the invasion of Bosnia by the Turks, was the +dispute between Tuartko II. and Ostoya Christich for the throne of that +country. The former called the Turks to his assistance; Ostoya, the +Hungarians. A war between these two nations was the consequence, and +the Turks gained considerable footing in Bosnia about 1415. Ostoya and +Tuartko being both dead, Stephen Thomas Christich was elected King, and +was obliged to promise an annual tribute of 25,000 ducats to Sultan +Amurath II., thirteen years after which he was murdered by his +illegitimate son, Stephen Thomasovich, who was crowned by a Papal legate +in 1461, and submitted to the Turks. But having refused to pay the +tribute due to the Porte, he was seized and flayed alive, by order of +Sultan Mahomet, and at his death the kingdom of Bosnia was completely +over-thrown.[M] + +Previous to this, the Turks had frequently menaced the Bosnian kingdom, +but it was not until June 14, 1463, that they actually invaded the +country, to reduce Stephen to obedience. In vain did Mathias, King of +Hungary, endeavour to stem the advancing torrent. The Turks carried all +before them, until they besieged and took Yanitza, the then capital of +the province, and with it the King and the entire garrison. Nor was this +effected in fair fight, but through the treachery of Stephen's first +minister, who opened the gates of the fortress by night, and so admitted +the Turkish soldiers. + +With more generosity than was usually shown by these Eastern barbarians, +Mahomet agreed to leave the King in possession of his throne on +condition of his paying an annual tax to the Porte. The payment of this, +as I have said, was evaded by his successor, although the old national +manuscripts do not even allow this apology for the barbarous treatment +which he experienced at the hands of the Turks. These affirm that the +King and all his troops, as well as the townspeople, were invited by +Mahomet to hear the official ratification of the agreement. But, at a +given signal, the Turkish soldiers, who had been in concealment, fell +upon the helpless assemblage, and massacred them in cold blood, shutting +up the King Stephen in a cage, where he subsequently died of despair; +and thus ended the Bosnian kingdom. That his position was sufficiently +hopeless to bring about this calamitous result, can scarcely be doubted; +but unfortunately the tomb of Stephen still exists, which proves +tolerably conclusively that his death was of a more speedy, if not of a +more cruel, nature. An inscription is upon it to the effect, 'Here lies +Stephen, King of Bosnia, without his kingdom, throne, and sceptre, and +without his skin.' Of all the family of the unfortunate monarch, the +only one who escaped was his Queen, Cattarina, who fled to Rome, where +she lies buried in the Chapel of Santa Helena. + +After the death of Stephen Thomasovich the Turks destroyed Michiaz. The +nobles, driven from their estates, fled to Ragusa; and Stephen, +'Herzog' or Duke of Santo Saba, seeing that Turkish garrisons had +occupied Popovo, Rogatiza, Triburio, Tzeruitza, and Kerka, became so +alarmed, that he offered to pay increased tribute; when, his ministers +refusing to consent to this arrangement, he was obliged to send to +Ragusa for his eldest son Stephen, and give him up as a hostage to the +Porte: he having afterwards abjured Christianity, received the name of +Ahmet, married a daughter of Bajazet II., and was made a Vizier. The +Kingdom of Bosnia and the Duchy of Santo Saba from that time became +provinces of Turkey, the latter under the name of Herzegovina, which it +still retains, and which it had received from the title of 'Herzog' or +Duke, given by Tuartko to its first Governor. + +The apostasy of the Bosnian nobles which occurred shortly after the +Turkish conquest, may be regarded as the only event of importance which +has since marked the history of these provinces. The deteriorating +effects which have ever followed the adoption of Islamism are here +conspicuously apparent; for in proportion as the country has sunk into +insignificance, so the moral state of the people has fallen to a lower +standard. Nor is this so much to be attributed to any particular vices +inculcated by the Mahomedan creed, as to the necessary division of +religious and political interests, and the undue monopoly of power by a +small proportion of the inhabitants. That this power has been used +without mercy or consideration must be acknowledged; but be it +remembered that + + 'Their tyrants then + Were still at least their countrymen,' + +and that the iniquities perpetrated by the renegade Beys cannot be with +justice laid to the charge of their Osmanli conquerors. It would, +indeed, be strange had four hundred years of tyranny passed over this +miserable land, without leaving a blight upon its children which no time +will ever suffice to efface. + +As years wore on, other and more important conquests absorbed the +attention of the Mussulman rulers, and the rich pasture-lands of Bosnia, +and the sterile rocks of Herzegovina, were alike left the undisputed +property of the apostate natives of the soil. Thence arose a system of +feudal bondage, to a certain extent akin to that recently existing in +Russia, but unequalled in the annals of the world for the spirit of +intolerance with which it was carried out. Countless are the tales of +cruelty and savage wrong with which the old manuscripts of the country +abound, and these are the more revolting, as perpetrated upon those of +kindred origin, religion, and descent. The spirit of independence +engendered by this system of feudality and unresisted oppression could +only lead to one result--viz. the increase of local at the expense of +the central authority. The increasing debility of the paternal +government tended to strengthen the power of the provincial Magnates; +and the Beys, the Spahis, and the Timariots, stars of lesser magnitude +in their way, could not but be expected to adhere to the cause of the +all-powerful Kapetans rather than to the transient power of a Vizier +appointed by the Porte. + +This last-named official, whose appointment was then, as now, acquired +by successful intrigue or undisguised bribery, was never certain of long +tenure of office, and invariably endeavoured by all the means in his +power to remunerate himself while the opportunity should last. + +The disregard entertained for life in those times, and the indifference +manifested by the Ottoman government for this portion of the empire, +often rendered it the safer policy for the Vizier to make common cause +with the recusant Kapetans, who were too powerful to be subdued by +force, and too wily to be entrapped by treachery or fraud. + +But another and more self-subsistent power had taken deep root +throughout the Ottoman dominions, and nowhere more than in those +provinces which lie between the Save and the Adriatic. 'In Egypt,' says +Ranke, 'there was the power of the Mameluke Beys revived immediately +after the departure of the French; there was the protectorate of the +Dere Beys in Asia Minor; the hereditary authority of the Albanian +chieftains, the dignity of the Ayans in the principal towns, besides +many other immunities--all of which seemed to find a bond of union and a +centre in the powerful order of the Janissaries.' Of all the provinces +of the empire Bosnia was perhaps the most deeply imbued with the spirit +of this faction, the last memento of that ancient chivalry which had +carried fire and sword over a great part of civilised Europe. + +But to that same spirit of turbulent independence, the very germ of +existence of the Janissaries, and so predominant among the natives of +Bosnia, may in a great measure be attributed the successes of the +Turkish arms in Europe in the campaign of 1828, an era fraught with +danger to the whole Ottoman empire, dangers which the newly-organised +battalions of the imperial army would have been unable to overcome but +for the aid of the wild horsemen of the West. That the same spirit +exists as did in bygone times I do not say; but whatever does yet remain +of chivalrous endurance or reckless daring is to be found among the +Mussulman, and not amongst the Christian, population. + +Towards the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth +century, affairs assumed so critical an aspect that it became incumbent +upon the central government to adopt some coercive measure. Sultan Selim +was the first who endeavoured to suppress these turbulent spirits. He +was unequal to the task, and fell a victim to their revengeful +displeasure. 'Bairaktar, the hero of those times,' was equally +unsuccessful, and the imperial authority bid fair to perish from the +land; but in those days there arose one who, like our own Cromwell, +moulded circumstances to his will, resolute of purpose, fearing and +sparing none. But if Mahmoud was stern and inexorable to rebels, he is +entitled to more praise than is usually accorded him, for the +steadfastness of purpose with which he applied himself to the +restoration of system and order, in the place of the chaos which he had +himself brought about. And let us not omit to mention the dignified +courage with which he prepared to meet the calamities which now crowded +thick upon him. With the mere nucleus of a semi-organised army he held +out for two years, both in Europe and Asia, without one ally, against +the herculean efforts of Russia to overthrow his kingdom. + +There are not wanting those who, besides stigmatising him as deceitful +and cruel, cast in his teeth that he failed to carry out the schemes of +reform, which they consider to have been visionary and unmeaning. But +these, while commenting on what he left undone, forget how much he did, +and how little aid he received from without. Well would it be for Turkey +this day had either of his sons inherited the vigour, the perseverance, +or even the honesty of old Mahmoud. + +Since the accession of Mahmoud to the throne, Bosnia and Herzegovina +have been the seat of perpetual, though intermittent, warfare. Short +time did he allow to elapse before he gave unmistakable signs of his +determination to effect a radical change in the state of these +provinces. With this view he sent as Vizier Jelaludin Pacha thither, +with orders to punish with extreme severity all who should show any +signs of discontent. This man, who is said to have belonged to the sect +of Bektashi, an order of Mahomedan monks, did not live like other +Pachas. He neither kept a harem nor a court, and devoted himself +exclusively to fulfilling the duties of his mission. To do this more +effectually, he used to go about in disguise, visiting even the +Christian places of worship, and thus obtaining a real knowledge of the +feelings and wishes of the people. Now as he practised incorruptible, +inexorable justice, his rule was as popular among the Rayahs as it was +odious to the Bosnian nobles, against whose independence all his laws +and measures were directed. + +Having taken Mostar and Trebinitza by storm, he at length succeeded in +subduing the whole country. Although nominally recalled, in deference to +a petition preferred by the nobles of Bosnia, Jelaludin was in reality +advanced to a more exalted position of confidence. To him was intrusted +the conduct of an expedition against Montenegro, which failed; and +little more is heard about him until 1821, when he died, as some think, +by poison administered by his own hand. + +In conformity with a preconceived plan of operations, an expedition was +sent in 1820 against Ali Pacha, the most powerful of those who had +ventured to throw off the Ottoman rule. + +The operations were successful both by sea and land, and at first all +appeared to be progressing satisfactorily. But the extraordinary +fertility of resource which characterised the old man, saved him once +more; and while the Suliots in his pay overran Epirus in 1821, he +succeeded in rousing the whole Greek population to revolt. Although he +himself fell during the outbreak, the disastrous results which he had +succeeded in effecting lived long after him, not only in Greece, but in +Bulgaria, Bosnia, and other parts of the Turkish empire. + +The death of Jelaludin, and the revolutionary movement which had spread +throughout the empire, led to the restoration of the old state of things +in Bosnia. The powerful nobles once more resumed their sway, and the few +supporters of the Sultan were compelled to fly the country. + +The reconquest by the Porte of the revolted countries, and the mighty +change which the iron hand of Mahmoud effected in the internal condition +and administration of all parts of his empire, cannot be more forcibly +described than in the words of Ranke. He says: 'We must recollect that +the Sultan succeeded in extinguishing all these rebellions, one after +another, as soon as he had put down the most formidable. We will not +enquire by what means this was effected: enough to say, that he at last +re-established his authority on the Danube, as in Epirus. Even the Morea +seemed doomed to a renewal of the Moslem sway. Ibrahim Pacha landed +there with the troops from Egypt in 1825. He annihilated rather than +subjugated its population, and changed the country, as he himself said, +into a desert waste; but at least he took possession of it, step by +step, and everywhere set up the standard of the Sultan.' + +Having been so far successful, the Sultan adopted a more comprehensive +plan. + +Mahomed Ali's successful enterprises served as his model from the first. +Mahomed Ali led the way in Egypt by the annihilation of ancient +privileges, and it was not until he had succeeded that Mahmoud resolved +to pursue a similar course. + +'A fearful rivalry in despotism and destruction then began between the +two. They might be compared to the reapers in Homer, cutting down the +corn in all directions. But the vassal had been long engaged in a +process of innovation. In spite of the opposition of his Janissaries, he +had accomplished his purpose of establishing regular regiments, clothed +and disciplined after the European system.' The fact that it was these +troops which, after so many fruitless attempts, at last conquered +Greece, made a profound impression on the Sultan. He reverted to the +ideas of Selim and Bairaktar, and the establishment of regular troops +seemed to him the only salvation of his empire. Therefore, on May 28, +1826, in a solemn sitting of his Council of State, at which the +Commissioner who had lately been in Ibrahim's camp was present, was +pronounced the 'fetwah,' that, 'In order to defend God's word and +counteract the superiority of the unbelievers, the Moslems, too, would +submit to subordination, and learn military manoeuvres.' The subversion +of ancient privileges, then, was the fundamental basis upon which his +reforms rested, and to this the destruction of the Janissaries put the +finishing touch. + +If Mahmoud found difficulty in carrying out his plans at Stamboul, how +much more hard must they have been to accomplish in the provinces; and +of these, as I have before said, Bosnia was the most strongly imbued +with a spirit of independent feudalism. + +In Bosnia, therefore, as was anticipated, the greatest resistance to the +innovation was experienced. + +Upon the death of Jelaludin, Hadji Mustapha had been appointed Vizier, a +man of small capacity, and little suited to those stormy times. + +He, and the six commissioners who had been sent with him from +Constantinople, were driven out, and compelled to take refuge in +Servia, whence they returned to Constantinople. + +Again the dominion of the Sultan in these provinces appeared to hang +upon a slender thread; and indeed it was only saved by the sagacity of a +single man. + +Upon the ejection of Hadji Mustapha, Abdurahim, the Pacha of Belgrade, +was appointed Vizier of Bosnia. Gifted with great penetration and +ability for intrigue, he contrived to win over many of the native +chieftains, while he worked upon the jealousy entertained by the Prince +of Servia for the Bosnian nobles, and thus succeeded in raising a small +army, with which he took the initiative in hostilities. Ranke tells us: +'He was fortunate enough to secure the assistance of the Kapetan +Vidaitch of Svornik. Svornik is regarded as the key of Bosnia. It seems +that the Agas of Serayevo had already conceived some suspicion of +Vidaitch, for they were themselves about to take possession of the +place. But Abdurahim anticipated them, and Vidaitch admitted him into +the fortress.' + +A paramount advantage was gained by this. Abdurahim now felt strong +enough to speak in a decisive tone in the Bujurdi, in which he announced +his arrival. + +'I send you from afar,' he therein said, 'O Mahomedans of Bosnia, the +greeting of the faith, and of brotherly union. I will not call to mind +your folly: I come to open your eyes to the light. I bring you the most +sacred commands of our most mighty Sultan, and expect you will obey +them. In that case I have power to forgive you all your errors; choose +now for yourselves. It rests with you to save or to lose your lives. +Reflect maturely, that you may have no cause to repent.' + +This proclamation, which may be regarded as a model of terseness and +expressive earnestness, had a wonderful effect. Still Serayevo was not +gained without a struggle, confined however principally to the citizens +within its walls. + +Upon gaining possession of the town, the new Vizier carried out to the +letter the judgements which he had pronounced against the contumacious. +All who were taken in arms were put to death without mercy, and it was +not until he had taken a bloody vengeance on his enemies that he +consented to make a triumphal entry into Serayevo. + +During the feudal times, when the Sultan's authority was more nominal, +the Vizier was only permitted to remain a few hours in the capital, +whence he returned to his palace at Travnik; but Abdurahim deemed it +necessary to establish the seat of government in that very town, which +had ever been the focus of feudality and rebellion. + +'Thus there was once more a master in Bosnia. No one ventured now to +mention the Janissaries. The uniforms arrived; the Kapetans were +obedient, and put them on. The whole land submitted to the new +regulations.' + +Notwithstanding the high pressure system adopted by the Sultan, the +spirit of rebellion was still rife, and it manifested itself on the +first opportunity that occurred. + +The Machiavellian policy of endeavouring to hold both the Servians and +Bosnians in check, by pitting the one against the other, was of doubtful +expediency; and, as the event proved, tended materially to weaken the +imperial cause by depriving it of the aid of the Bosnian irregulars, who +had acquired a name for reckless daring second to none. The outbreak of +the Russian war was the signal for another attempt to obtain the +independence of which Abdurahim had robbed them. At this juncture, too, +they displayed the mixture of violence and cunning, so essentially the +character of barbarous nations. + +From every castle and town, the troops marched to the Eagle's Field, +Orlovopolie, close by Bielina, their appointed rendezvous. The Vizier +intended soon to repair thither with forces from Serayevo. Whilst +preparing to do so, it happened that the people of Visoko, an +unimportant place about six German miles from Serayevo, arrived before +that capital, instead of marching direct to Orlovopolie, as they should +have done. The Vizier sent out his Kiaia, and some of the principal +inhabitants of the city, to call them to account for the unauthorised +change in their line of march. A Kapidji Bashi, who had just arrived +from Constantinople, accompanied the mission, and gave it still more +importance; but it was unquestionably a concerted scheme amongst the +leading men of Visoko and Serayevo. Thousands of inhabitants had already +gone, many no doubt from mere curiosity--for it was Friday, a day on +which the Turks do not work--but others with a distinct purpose. When +the mission angrily demanded that the force should march off forthwith +to the appointed place, some poor inhabitants of Visoko stepped out of +the ranks and declared that, without money, they were not in a position +to proceed a step farther; that even only to equip themselves, and march +as far as they had already arrived, some of them had been obliged to +sell their children. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia thought that such +language was not to be borne. Without hesitation, therefore, in +accordance with the principles of Turkish justice, they ordered their +followers to seize the speakers, to take them away, and behead them. The +order, however, was not so easy of execution. 'Help, true believers in +the Prophet!' exclaimed the men; 'help, and rescue us.' All seized their +weapons, the comrades of the prisoners as well as the inhabitants of +Serayevo, who were privy to the scheme, and those who were hurried along +by their example. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia had not time to mount +their horses, but were obliged to run to the city on foot, with bullets +whistling after them. The furious armed multitude arrived there with +them. The Vizier's force, about two thousand strong, attempted for a +while to stem the torrent. They tried to stand their ground wherever +they found a position, such as a bridge, a mosque, or a house, but were +far too weak to maintain it. Only a small number had time to retire into +the fortress, where the Vizier was, and thence they fired with the few +cannon they had on the lower town. But the Bosnians, with their small +arms, did far more execution, singling out their enemies, and bringing +them down with sure aim. The fighting continued for three days. At last +Abdurahim found himself compelled to think of his own safety. The +Bosnians, who found themselves victorious, would gladly have refused him +leave to retire; but the older and more experienced among them, +satisfied with the success they had obtained, persuaded the young people +to let him go. On the fourth day, a Thursday in July 1828, Abdurahim +marched away. He took the road to Orlovopolie, being allowed to take +with him the cannons he had brought. There, however, he found that the +spirit of disaffection had gained such head, that nearly all the +soldiers, whom he had expected to find, had dispersed and gone to their +homes. He thereupon repaired to Travnik, and was shortly afterwards +replaced by another Vizier of milder temper. + +The state of the empire now appeared more settled, both in its domestic +and foreign relations, the peace of Adrianople having at any rate saved +the capital from fear of an attack. What success the Sultan might have +had in his endeavours to consolidate his rule in Bosnia, we are unable +to judge; since he found an antagonist to every species of reform in +Mustapha Pacha of Scutari, commonly known as Scodra Pacha, the most +mischievous, as well as the most powerful, of all the provincial +magnates since the fall of Ali Pacha. Young, warlike, and of good +descent, he constituted himself the champion of hereditary privileges, +and as such virtually threw down the gauntlet to his imperial master. +Open rebellion, however, was not the plan which he proposed to himself +by which to attain the object dearest to his heart--the re-embodiment of +the Janissaries, and the establishment of the old order of things. To +this end he consented, in 1823, to make a demonstration against the +Greek rebels, but took very good care not to render too much service to +the cause which he espoused. Thus, too, when he marched in the autumn of +1828 to the vicinity of the Danube, at the head of an army of 25,000 +irregulars, it was not with the intention of attacking the Russians, but +rather under the expectation that the necessities of the Sultan would +afford him an opportunity of procuring the re-establishment of those +'Praetorian guards of Turkey.' The arrogant pretensions of Scodra Pacha +were very strongly exemplified in the attitude which he assumed at the +close of the campaign of 1829. Having in the first instance shown much +dilatoriness in entering the field, he remained inactive near Widdin +during the latter part of 1828 and the commencement of 1829, when, by +operating in the rear of the Russians, he might have been most useful to +the Turkish Seraskier. The treaty of peace, however, had been signed, +and forwarded for ratification to Russia, when Scodra Pacha suddenly +electrified both parties by objecting to its terms, and announcing his +intention of continuing the war. He even marched to Philippopolis, +whence he sent a message that he would arrive at Adrianople within eight +days. This naturally caused Marshal Diebitsch some anxiety, since he was +unaware of the Pacha's real policy, and believed him to be sincere in +his protestations of vengeance against the invaders. A hasty summons was +therefore sent to General Geismar, who consequently crossed the Danube +at Rachova; and having turned, and subsequently forced, the Pass of +Anatcha in the Balkans, easily defeated the Pacha, who made but small +resistance. This and the approach of General Kisselef from Schumla put a +finishing stroke to hostilities, and Scodra returned home to brood over +the ill-success of his undertaking, and plan farther means of working +mischief to the hated Mahmoud. + +The opportunity soon presented itself. Having succeeded in ridding +himself of some of the Albanian leaders, the Sultan applied himself with +vigour to the subjection of those in Bosnia who were adverse to his +rule. In 1830 he sent uniforms to Travnik, which the Vizier immediately +donned. This kindled the spark, and in the beginning of 1831 several +thousand insurgents, under the command of Hussein Kapetan, the 'Sonai od +Bosna,' or Dragon of Bosnia, attacked him in his fortress, and made him +prisoner. So great was the abhorrence professed for the adoption of +Christian clothing, that the unfortunate Vizier was compelled to perform +solemn ablutions and to recite Moslem prayers, in order to purify +himself from contamination. The standard of rebellion was now fairly +unfurled, and within a few weeks a force of 25,000 men had collected. At +the same time Mustapha Pacha, with 40,000 Albanians and others, made his +appearance on the scene of action. Without delay an advance was made _en +potence_, and it was confidently anticipated that Stamboul would fall +before the insurgent arms. But the Sultan possessed both a cunning and +able lieutenant in the Grand Vizier Redschid. This functionary contrived +to dispense bribes so judiciously among the inferior Albanian +chieftains, that they deserted en masse to the Turks, and thus rendered +it imperative on Mustapha to take refuge in his fortress at Scutari. +This he did in the anticipation of speedy relief by Hussein Kapetan and +the Bosnians, who, despite the dissuasion of the Servian Prince Milosch, +had already marched to the rescue. Hussein's answer to Milosch, as given +by Ranke, is very characteristic of the man: 'Take heed to thyself,' he +said; 'thou hast but little food before thee: I have overturned thy +bowl. I will have nothing to do with a Sultan with whom thou canst +intercede for me; I am ready to meet thee, always and anywhere; my sword +had smitten before thine was forged.' More modest and unpresuming was +the burden of the song which they are reported to have chanted on the +march:-- + + We march, brethren, to the plains of Kossovo, + Where our forefathers lost their renown and their faith. + There it may chance that we also may lose our renown and our faith; + Or that we shall maintain them, and return as victors to Bosnia. + +Animated by principles which would have done credit to a Christian host, +these undisciplined Mussulmans easily overcame the Grand Vizier's army, +partly, it must be acknowledged, by the defection of the Albanians, who +had previously deserted the cause of Scodra Pacha. Had they now pushed +on, their independence would have been established; but, unfortunately, +what the Grand Vizier could not effect by force of arms he brought about +by guile. With great tact and cunning he sent emissaries to Hussein, +demanding to know the terms which they required. These were the +permission to remain in statu quo, with the appointment of Hussein as +Vizier. These conditions he was fain to grant, and so far worked upon +the Bosnians by private and official stratagem, that they commenced +their homeward march, leaving Scodra Pacha to his fate. Shortly +afterwards he was compelled to surrender. Individually his life was +spared, but his partisans did not meet with the same clemency. For the +truth of what I am about to relate I am unable to vouch, but can only +give it as it is recorded by the chroniclers of the events of those +times. Projectile machines are said to have been erected, and the +prisoners, being placed upon them, were flung against a wooden framework +studded with great iron hooks, and wherever the body of the unfortunate +victim was caught by them, there it hung until he perished by the +terrible, torturing, and protracted death. + +The destruction of Scodra's power was a great feather in the cap of the +Grand Vizier, who now lost no time in undermining the authority of +Hussein. In this he was assisted by the imprudence of the latter, who +committed the error of admitting Ali Aga of Stolatz into his confidence, +a man who had always adhered to the Sultan, and was distrusted +accordingly by his compatriots. Universal as was the partisan warfare +in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there was no chieftain who had supported the +brunt of so many onslaughts as Ali Aga. His castle at Stolatz, although +incapable of resisting the weapons employed in scientific warfare, was +impregnable in those times, and against such an enemy. + +In addition to the distrust engendered by Hussein's intimacy with All, +the absence of any ratification by the Porte of the recent treaty of +peace tended to produce discord in the province. Taking advantage of +this, the Grand Vizier nominated a new Pacha, Kara Mahmoud, a creature +devoted to government interest. He invaded the country with 30,000 men, +and finally succeeded, in spite of a gallant resistance, in taking +Serayevo, the capital. The perseverance which he employed in a sinking +cause did credit to Hussein, who was nobly supported by the faithful and +brave Al Pacha Vidaitch, who had no less than eight horses killed under +him in the battle which took place before the walls of Serayevo. + +Kara Mahmoud established himself there, and deposed in succession all +the Kapetans except Ali Aga of Stolatz, who had made his appearance at a +critical moment of the battle before Serayevo, and thus turned the +tables against his former friend, Hussein Pacha. + +Having thus far succeeded in his undertaking, Redschid Pacha turned his +attention to Montenegro, which had been the source of chronic +heartburnings since 1804. The nature of the country, and the want of +organisation in the Turkish forces, however, once more enabled the +mountaineers successfully to repel the invaders. A more important +expedition against them was in contemplation, when the Egyptian war +broke out, and the services of the Grand Vizier and his army were +required to combat their former ally, Ibrahim Pacha. Previous to +quitting the country, the Grand Vizier promulgated an amnesty to all +those refugees who had fled into Austria, except Hussein Kapetan, Ali +Vidaitch, and Kruppa Kapetan. A firman was subsequently given, +permitting even these to return to Turkey, although interdicting their +residence in Bosnia. On arriving at Constantinople they received their +pardon, and Ali Vidaitch returned to Bosnia; Hussein's fate is more +uncertain. From that time until 1849 order prevailed in Bosnia, +although, as subsequent events proved, a rebellious spirit still existed +amongst the more important chieftains, with whom personal aggrandisement +took precedence of the interests of the Sultan, their sovereign. + +[Footnote M: Krasinski.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian + Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress + convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer + Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by + Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and Capture + of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass Bashee--Anecdote of Lame + Christian--Omer Pacha invades Montenegro--Successes--Austria + interferes--Mission of General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change + of Frontier--Faults of new Boundary. + + +And so time wore on, and Bosnia enjoyed a kind of fitful repose. There +and in Herzegovina the feudal system had lost much of its primeval +vigour, although a barbarous independence still prevailed, more +especially in the latter province, where Ali Aga of Stolatz showed +symptoms of forsaking the _treacherous fidelity_ which had secured for +him his high position. Whatever feeling of disaffection might have been +cherished, either in Bulgaria or Bosnia, was effectually checked: in the +former by the judicious tyranny of Hussein, Vizier of Widdin, in the +latter by the iron yoke of Tahir Pacha, who fully entered into the +Sultan's projects for reform. + +The social condition of these two provinces rendered necessary a certain +variety in the policy of their rulers. Thus, while Hussein may be +regarded as the apostle of political Islamism in Europe, Tahir +endeavoured to introduce the European element. He consequently +identified himself, to a dangerous extent, with the Christian +population, abolishing forced labour, equalising the taxes, and +effecting other reforms calculated to upset the old, and establish the +_Nisame Jedid_, or new order of things. + +At this juncture the flames of revolutionary war broke forth in Poland +and Hungary. The proximity of these countries, and the affinity of their +Slavonic origin, could not fail to disseminate the same spirit on the +southern bank of the Save. A wild enthusiasm took possession of both +Serbs[N] and Bulgares, before which the aged and decrepid Viziers felt +themselves powerless. + +If it be difficult to realise the position of the Sultan, who thus found +himself at variance with his Christian subjects in Bulgaria, and his +Bosnian Spahis, the attitude assumed by these factions is equally +incomprehensible. Blinded by one insane desire to throw off their +allegiance to the Sultan, they espoused the Russo-Austrian cause, +demanding their annexation to some Slave country. Thus, by a clever +stroke of policy, Austria contrived to secure to herself the cooperation +of both the Hungarian and Serb Slaves. And here we may note a curious +coincidence, which still farther complicated matters. Whatever may have +been their prejudices against the Slavonic Christians, the Bosnian +Spahis found it expedient to demand the assistance, not only of the +Servians, but of the Montenegrins, the most implacable of foes to the +Turkish rule. These at first appeared likely to respond to the summons. + +So numerically strong, and so complete, were the preparations for war +made by the Bosnians, that, when they took the field under Ali Kieditch, +Tahir found it impossible to stem the torrent of rebellion. Never did +the prospects of the Porte wear so gloomy an aspect, for there were +ranged against it all classes of Slaves and Bulgares, irrespective of +religion or denomination. As a last resource government convened a +Congress, comprising representatives of all classes of subject Slaves. +As might have been supposed, little unanimity prevailed in their +counsels, and no tangible advantages were thereby attained. And now a +combination of unforeseen circumstances conspired to rescue the Porte +from the pressing danger which threatened it. The neutrality preserved +by Servia, or rather its Prince, Alexander Guirgievitch, infected not +only the Bulgarian Christians, but even the Montenegrins themselves, who +actually overran Herzegovina and a portion of the Bosnian frontier +during the absence of the Mussulman Spahis of those districts. Undaunted +however, by these mishaps, the members of the Congress returned to +their homes; and, although powerless to act in concert, succeeded so +well in stirring up a feeling of animosity against the government, that +the spring of 1850 found the malcontents in a better position than ever +for the renewal of the war. But rebellion had now reached its +culminating point, and the sudden appearance of Omer Pacha, who threw +himself with impetuous daring into the heart of Bosnia, gave a very +different colouring to events. To form a just estimate of the +difficulties which he had to overcome, ere order could be re-established +in this confused chaos, it is necessary briefly to recapitulate the +various conflicting elements, revolutionary and otherwise, which had +been brought into play, the aim and inevitable result of which must have +been the utter destruction of this unhappy empire. + +There are those who profess to believe that Russia has no malevolent +designs upon Turkey, and who bring forward many plausible reasons in +support of their opinion; but this number has very materially diminished +since the disclosures which preceded the late Russian war. The character +of the Turkish people, their religion, and their social and political +institutions, may all have tended to produce the calamitous state of +affairs. Yet when we probe the matter to the bottom, there we find the +root of all evil--Russian policy and imperial ambition. It is not to say +that this monarch or that was desirous of annexing by conquest, and +holding by force of arms, a gigantic empire. Such a thought were +madness. Far more subtle is the scheme which was, and is, inherent in +every Russian ruler. It has been, and still is, their own +aggrandisement, direct or indirect, based upon the ruins of Turkey. Ably +and laboriously have they worked to effect that which still seems as +distant as ever. No sooner were the bloody days of 1828-9 past, than +they applied themselves afresh to the work of disorganisation, and in +this appeared to succeed too well. They had launched the Slave against +the Turk, and then the Christian Slave against the Mussulman Slave, +whilst at the same time the Asiatic Turk--the Turk _pur sang_--was +struggling throughout Anatolia against the reformed and European Turk. +It now remained to find a pretext to justify her in effecting an armed +intervention, that cloak for so much that is arbitrary and aggressive. +This was soon found in an insignificant rising of the Bulgarians, +brought on by her roubles lavishly dispensed by old Milosch Obrenovitch, +the ejected Servian Prince, and the sympathy felt for Kossuth and +Dembinski, who had taken refuge at Widdin. This rising, however, which +was at first directed only against the Turkish Spahis or landowners, +soon acquired more important dimensions, and on January 8, 1850, the +three Nahias of Widdin, Belgradchitch, and Verkovats, were under arms. +Having failed in an attack upon the fortress of Belgradchitch, they +retired and entrenched themselves at different spots in the adjacent +country. Better armed and provisioned, and of greater physical courage, +the Spahis soon succeeded in overcoming these disorganised masses, and +bloody was the vengeance which they took. + +'Victors in every encounter,' says Cyprien Robert, 'the Mussulman Spahis +began to visit on horseback the villages, more than two hundred in +number, which had taken part in the insurrection. The devastation that +ensued was worthy of the most barbarous time. Neither age nor sex was +spared. All the young were carried off to the vulture-nests of the +Spahis of the Balkan. In vain did Redschid Pacha enjoin milder measures; +neither he nor the Sultan could check these bloodthirsty tigers. There +needed to that end the unexpected arrival of Omer Pacha at Nish. He fell +among them like a thunderbolt, and all was silence. The Bulgarians +ceased to flee, the Spahis to pursue, and, what was more, the Russian +army of Wallachia halted at the moment it was about to cross the Danube. +That terrible Omer, the queller of so many revolts, had at Bucharest an +opportunity of making his qualities felt by the Russian Generals, and +they were completely disconcerted by his sudden arrival at Nish, when +they thought he was hemmed in by the insurgent Serba in the gorges of +Bosnia, without the means of making his way through them. The Russian +troops paused, awaiting fresh orders from St. Petersburg: orders came, +and the whole scheme was quashed. Cleverly as the Russian plot had been +laid, it was completely baffled by the rapidity of Omer Pacha's +movement.' Once again order was re-established. Serayevo was again made +the seat of the provincial government, and numerous reforms were brought +into force, all of which tended to ameliorate the condition of the +Christian population. + +Such of the chieftains as refused to make their submission were pursued +without mercy, until the province became too hot to hold them. A few, +too proud or too obstinate to yield, took refuge in the Herzegovina, +where Ali Rizvan Begovitch, then an old man, opened his fortresses to +them. But all resistance was vain before the iron will and temperate +judgement of Omer. Mostar fell, and old Ali was made a prisoner and sent +in chains to Serayevo. That place he never reached, for he was shot, +accidentally it is alleged, by a Turkish soldier while on his way +thither. The circumstances of his death will hardly bear an enquiry, and +do not reflect much credit on the successful Omer, to whom the blame, as +well as the glory he acquired in all else, must attach. It is true that +the old tyrant fully deserved his fate, since even to this day the +enormities which he committed are well remembered. The old tower on the +Narenta at Mostar used to look grim with the distorted heads of the +prisoners whom he had captured on the Montenegrin frontier. The habit of +decapitating the dead was revolting enough, but this aged sinner was not +satisfied with that: he used to drive sharp wooden poles through their +living bodies, and then leave them to die a lingering and agonising +death. Some are said to have survived their impalement as much as +forty-eight hours. The example set by the Pacha was readily followed by +those about him. Numerous are the tales of murder done by his followers, +one of whom vied with his master in deeds of murder and ferocity. This +man, the Cavass Bashee, lived entirely by plunder and rapine. A spot was +pointed out to me in the valley of the Drechnitza where a Christian was +killed by him while stooping down to drink. I also heard an amusing +anecdote regarding him, when he was completely outwitted by a poor lame +Christian. The latter was riding through a river, where the stream was +somewhat rapid. On the river's bank he was overtaken by the Cavass +Bashee, who allowed him to reach the middle of the stream, when he +ordered him to dismount, threatening to shoot him if he did not comply. +In vain he pleaded his lameness; the ruffian was obdurate. Nothing +remained but to obey. This he did, and with difficulty reached the +opposite bank. The Mussulman followed, but scarcely had he reached the +deep water when the Christian, who carried a pistol concealed, drew it, +and, aiming at his persecutor, ordered him to dismount under pain of +death. So aghast was he at this audacious effrontery, that he not only +obeyed, but departed without farther comment, leaving the Christian +master of the field. Whether he took warning from Ali Pacha's fate is +unknown, but he certainly died in the odour of sanctity, after +performing a pilgrimage to Mecca. + +Having thus established the power of the Sultan in both provinces, as +well as in Bulgaria, Omer Pacha turned his attention to the +Montenegrins, whose incursions into the Herzegovina were becoming +frequent and audacious. Penetrating the country from two converging +points, he defeated the mountaineers on every occasion, who found that +they had a very different foe to contend with from those to whom they +had been accustomed. Already had he advanced close upon Cettigne, the +capital, when the Austrian government interfered. Operations were +suspended, and General Leiningen proceeded to Constantinople, where he +demanded the total withdrawal of the Turkish forces. This was acceded +to, and Turkey thus lost the hold which it had acquired upon the lawless +Montenegrins. The idea of Ottoman decay acquired daily fresh strength, +and a maudlin sentimentality was excited in behalf of these Christian +savages. Taking advantage of this, they made constant forays across the +border, stirring up by their example such of the borderers as were +disposed to rise, and using force to compel those who would have +preferred a quiet existence under the Turkish rule. + +Such was the position of affairs when the battle of Grahovo took place +on May 13, 1858. Although the affair has been grossly exaggerated, and +the blame wrongfully imputed to Hussein Pacha, the military Commander of +the Ottoman forces, it cannot be gain-said that the Turkish power was +much weakened by the event, and the arrogance of the Christians +proportionately increased, while the change of frontier to which it +conduced tended rather to aggravate than diminish the evil. The new +boundary line was defined by an European mixed commission, which decided +on increasing Montenegro by the annexation of territory on the western +frontier, including Grahovo, which they had held since Hussein Pacha's +disaster. Whether the new frontier is calculated to promote a pacific +settlement of the question admits of debate, as the province is +penetrated almost to the centre by Turkish territory on either side: +this, if it give the latter the advantage in a military point of view, +exposes the occupants of the country, flanked by the Montenegrin +mountains, to constant visits from their unwelcome neighbours, who dash +down, kill, burn, and carry off all that they can lay hands on, and +retreat to their fastnesses before the arrival of succour. + +[Footnote N: People occupying Bosnia, Servia, Herzegovina, and +Montenegro.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages + burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch + Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by + Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek Chapels + sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to + Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties + to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and Prince + of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha returns to + Mostar--Preparations for Campaign. + + +We now arrive at that period when rebellion actually broke out among the +Christians of the Herzegovina, and when things, in short, assumed the +aspect which they now wear. + +Before entering upon any account of the various risings which have +occurred, I would remark that much blame attaches itself to the Porte, +not only because of long years of misgovernment, but also on account of +the supineness shown by its officials, who, in the presence of the most +positive proofs to the contrary, treated the idea of a rising with +supercilious disregard. Frequently whole villages came in to declare +that they should be compelled to rise, unless they received protection +and support. This was of course promised liberally, but the promises +were never redeemed, and so they were driven to rebellion against their +will, as a means of safety from the fanatical fury of their lawless +co-religionists. + +After two years of indecisive skirmishing, in which the Turks, always +exposed in small parties, generally fared the worst, the Ottoman +government appeared to awake to the necessity for pursuing more +energetic measures. This resolution was hastened by the revolt of the +villagers of Yassenik, Lipneh, Garevo, Kazantzi, Doulatchi, Vralkovitch, +Golia, Krustach, Beronschitzi, Yenevitza, Danitzi, and others in the +neighbourhood of Gasko, who joined bands of Uskoks, with whom and the +Montenegrins they attacked the blockhouse of Krustach. As a punishment, +three of these were burnt by the Turkish troops. The version of the +affair given by the opposing parties varies considerably, as may be +supposed. The Christians affirm that, after repeated acts of aggression +on the part of the Bashi Bazouks, they took refuge in the mountains, but +returned thence on being promised protection. That they were one day +astonished by perceiving the heights covered with soldiers, who entered +and sacked the village of Beronschitzi. No blood was shed, but the six +sons of one Simon Gregorovitch were taken before Ali Pacha, who ordered +them to instant execution. The seventh son is reported to have been +taken to Metokhia, where, after being tortured, he was executed. The +people escaped from Yassenik and Yenevitza, but in the former two women +are said to have been killed and thrown into the flames of the burning +houses. + +The whole of these villagers affirm that their only crime consisted in +having united with other villagers in posting videttes, to give warning +of the approach of Bashi Bazouks and Uskoks. + +This somewhat improbable story is denied by Dervisch Pacha, who gives +the following account of the matter:--The occupants of twenty-one +different villages revolted in the spring of 1859, and interrupted the +communications between Gasko and Niksich and Grasko and Mostar. They +then attacked those villages occupied by Mussulmans in the plain of +Gasko, and made raids into the district of Stolatz, from which they +carried off 6,000 head of cattle, the property of the Roman Catholics of +that district. They further compelled many Christians to join in the +revolt, who would otherwise have remained quiet. Dervisch Pacha +therefore sent Ali Riza Pacha, a General of Brigade, to restore order. +He, after taking and garrisoning Krustach, advised the rebels to send +deputies, to show the nature of the grievances of which they complained. +These were sent accordingly, headed by one Pop Boydan, a priest, and a +leading mover of the insurrection; but in place of lodging any +complaints, the delegates appeared rather in the light of suppliants +demanding pardon and favour. Meanwhile the villagers returned, but not +to live peaceably--merely with the view of getting in their crops. + +While the deputation, however, was at Nevresign, the villages of Lipneh, +Samabor, Yassenik, Yenevitza, and Beronschitzi revolted again, and cut +off the communications between Gasko, Krustach, and Niksich. They also +posted guards along a line of frontier, which they said that no Turk +should pass. When called to account by Dervisch Pacha for this breach of +faith, the deputies replied that the Christians acted through fear, +which feeling was taken advantage of by a few evil-disposed persons for +their own ends. They, however, undertook to pacify them, and wrote a +letter professedly with that object, but without effect. The disorder +increased, and numerous outrages were committed. Seven soldiers were +murdered whilst cutting wood about four miles from Metokhia; Ali Pacha's +aide-de-camp and five soldiers were cut to pieces between + +Niksich and Krustach, and seven other Mussulmans were killed. Still the +Turks hesitated to act with severity. They appealed again to the +deputies, who wrote another letter, which, as the bearers of it +affirmed, only enraged the rebels, who tore it, and trod it under foot. +But this affords little proof of the intensity of their feelings, as it +has since transpired that an arrangement had been made by the deputies +that all letters written voluntarily and in sincerity should bear a +private mark; and the letter in question was not so distinguished. Upon +the discovery of their treachery the deputies were imprisoned, and +energetic measures at once resolved upon. To give these effect, Ali +Pacha advanced at the head of a small force, and summoned the rebels to +surrender. They replied by firing on the advanced guard. The three +villages were then taken, and five men and two women killed, while a few +prisoners were made. These last were released, but one died in prison. +Such is the story told of the affair by Dervisch Pacha. + +It does not appear that Ali Pacha acquired any great credit by his +method of conducting the operations. Quitting a strong position in the +afternoon, he arrived at the villages to be attacked after nightfall. +Having fired them, he was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, which +might have been most disastrous, had he been opposed to an enterprising +enemy. + +With reference to the discrepancy manifested in the two accounts, we may +feel assured that both are highly coloured. But the deception resorted +to by the rebels, and the simple explanation given by the Turkish +officials, would tend to impart to their story the greater appearance of +truth. Had the Turks, moreover, wished to avenge the deaths of their +soldiers, or to vent their hatred of the Christians, they would have +maltreated the people of the first villages at which they arrived, in +place of marching seven miles through a difficult country to the borders +of a district which had for two years defied their efforts at reduction. + +The implication of the villagers in the numerous murders which had +occurred was proved by the discovery of some of the Turkish bayonets at +Beronschitzi, while they actually made an offer to restore the property +of the murdered aide-de-camp, provided a reward was paid for them. They +even sent a list of the effects to Ali Pacha, with the sum which they +demanded for the restoration of each article. + +I venture to give these details even at the risk of incurring the charge +of too great prolixity, as hitherto a one-sided account only has been +given to the world. Every channel of information, whether it be the +telegraph from Ragusa or the Slavonic press, does its best to mislead +the general public, by exciting sympathy for the Christians, as unjust +as it is undeserved. Even in the affair in question much stir was made +by the Slavish newspapers about the death of seven Christians, while, as +Dervisch Pacha very fairly complained, no notice was taken of the murder +of thirty-seven Mussulmans during the same period. + +Another event, which afforded a handle for the ill-wishers of Turkey, +was the pillage of the four Greek chapels of Samabor, Dobrolie, +Kazantzi, and Grachantzi. This occurred in July 1859, and the case was +investigated by the Russian Consul at Mostar, who imputed the act to +Turkish soldiers, producing in evidence the fact of a sergeant having in +his possession a kind of church vestment. The sergeant, however, did not +attempt to conceal the vestment, and accounted for his possession of it +in a manner which was deemed satisfactory by the British and other +Consuls. + +It was more probably done by Uskoks, who gutted a chapel near Nevresign +a few years before, or by the rebels themselves, at the instigation of +others, for the purpose of bringing odium upon the Turks in the eyes of +Europe. + +By these and other no less unworthy means was the agitation fostered +throughout the province, until the whole frontier became denuded of +Mussulman inhabitants, who were compelled to take shelter in Klobuk, +Niksich, and other places capable of some sort of defence. + +By the spring of 1861 affairs had assumed so serious an aspect, that +even the Porte could not but awake to the danger which threatened that +portion of the empire, and to the necessity for immediate and strenuous +measures. This danger lay not so much in the aggressive power of the +rebels themselves, as in the ulterior results which it was calculated to +produce. + +It required little foresight to understand that the movement was +destined to be the germ of a general insurrection of the Slavonic +Christians of Turkey, which would lead to the partial or entire +dismemberment of her European provinces. + +In this dilemma the Sultan's government bethought them of appealing to +the only man in the empire who was capable of grappling with the +difficulty. Omer Pacha was taken once more into favour, and was +despatched to the scene of discord. A Slave by birth, but tied to the +interests of his imperial master by the devotion of a lifetime, no more +fitting choice could have been made. With alacrity he proceeded on his +mission--a mission which required both courage and address, energy and +endurance. + +He commenced his task by issuing the following proclamation, in which he +called upon all to return to their allegiance, in full assurance that it +was the intention of the Sultan to carry out the reforms which had been +guaranteed by the Hatti Humayoun of 1855. + + 'What this proclamation is I let you all know. + + 'His Majesty the Sultan has appointed me the chief of his armies in + the Roumelian provinces, and has sent me here to carry out in this + mission all the just privileges, which have not hitherto been + fulfilled. In obedience to the commands of the Sultan, I have come + here to show to you how kind and good are the intentions of our + sovereign to his subjects, and to announce without distinction to + Mussulmans, Greeks, and Catholics together, the following + decrees:-- + + '1st. Every village has the power to name one or two chiefs as + representatives, whom I will acknowledge. + + '2nd. Every district has the power to name one or two + representatives whomsoever the people of the district may choose. + + '3rd. The Christians shall have full religious liberties, and shall + be permitted to build churches and place bells therein, like all + the rest of the subjects in the empire. + + '4th. The Zaptiehs (police) shall not be permitted to locate + themselves in your houses, but an appointed place shall be set + apart for them in every village. + + '5th. The arrangement which has been made at Constantinople + touching landowners and the agriculturists, and to which both + parties have assented, shall immediately be put into execution. + + '6th. The taxes shall be collected by your own chiefs, and + consigned by them to the officers sent by our Sultan to receive + them. + + '7th. I will further recommend to the Greek Patriarch at + Constantinople that a Bishop of your own nation should be + nominated, who knows your language and customs. + + '8th. I will take such measures as shall secure you the right of + purchasing landed property. + + 'When this proclamation shall have been promulgated to you, and + you should still have some farther favour to ask at my hands, you + may do so in writing, or by word of mouth. All that is possible for + your welfare I will endeavour to fulfill. + + 'Furthermore, it is your bounden duty to submit yourselves to your + sovereign, and to show humility to him. + +'From the Divan Marshal &c. &c. &c. &c. +--at Mostar. + + + 'When you shall have heard what I have promised, see that everyone + know of it, and what is necessary to execute let me know, and it + shall be fulfilled.' + +This proclamation, was disseminated in all the Nahias (districts), +towns, and villages, and in many instances produced a favourable result. +But it could not be expected that these assurances, even though they +should have reached them, could have made much impression on a set of +lawless brigands, who loved plunder for plunder's sake, and who were +supported both morally and practically by the agents of civilised +European powers. + +Having allowed a sufficient time to elapse for all to make their +submission, it now remained to employ force where it was requisite. But +the difficulties which Omer Pacha had to encounter were prodigious. An +unprecedented drought rendered an unusually sterile country more +incapable than ever of sustaining life, while the period which +generally elapses between the autumn rains and the killing frosts of +winter, renders the time available for military operations short and +uncertain. Add to this, the total want of provisions, stores, and other +necessaries, which his predecessors had neglected to procure, and an +empty treasury, and we may not be surprised that his mission is as yet +uncompleted. But another and still greater difficulty presented itself +to him. This related to the attitude which he should assume towards +Montenegro. + +The shortest and most efficient line to pursue, in order to arrive at +the root of the evil, would have been to have invaded and subjugated +that province. But even had he felt confident of his power to effect it, +he remembered too well the lesson of former years, when his successful +advance was checked by political interference. There was little reason +to suppose that the same power, which then intervened, would allow him +greater latitude in the present instance. The idea, therefore, was +discarded, and endeavours were made to bring about a pacific +understanding, which should result in the re-establishment of order. A +meeting between Omar Pacha and the Prince of Montenegro was consequently +agreed upon at a point close to the Lake of Scutari. Omer Pacha, +accompanied by the European commission, travelled to the spot. All +appeared to be going well. Though nothing definite was ever +promulgated, there is good reason to believe that the Turkish +Plenipotentiary would have offered the most advantageous terms to the +Prince, including an accession of territory to the NW. and W., and the +possession of Spizza, a seaport, had the meeting taken place. But at the +last moment the Prince evaded his share of the arrangement, on the +shallow excuse that his people would not permit him to cross his own +frontier. He well knew that the Sultan's representative would not demean +himself by pandering to the caprices of one by rights a subject, and +that the only way in which Omer Pacha would ever pass into Montenegro +would be at the head of his soldiers. + +In vain did the European Commissioners try to change his decision. In +vain they asserted the sincerity of the Sultan, and the safety with +which he might fulfill his agreement. They could only elicit a surly, +'Faites comprendre ces gens-la.' The indignant 'C'est assez, Monsieur,' +of the French Commissioner brought the interview to an abrupt +conclusion. The rejection, for such it must be deemed, of the Turkish +overtures, together with the boast which escaped the Prince, that he +could pacify the frontier in fourteen days, are quite sufficient proofs +of his implication in the disturbances, and would fully justify the +Turks, were they to sweep this nest of hornets from the face of the +earth. + +Unfortunately, the principle of non-intervention between a sovereign and +his subjects is a chimera, refuted as it has so signally been by the +very author of the principle. + +The Commissioners now saw that nothing more could be done save by force +of arms, and were dissolved accordingly. + +Omer Pacha returned to Mostar to continue his preparations for carrying +on hostilities, not against the Montenegrins, but against the rebellious +Christians on the Turkish side of the frontier. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz--Castle + and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the + Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My Dalmatian + Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of the Turks--Health + of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of Prisoners--Christian Cruelty. + + +Day dawned on September 14, 1861, on about as cheerless a prospect as +can well be imagined. A chilly drizzle, swept hither and thither by +strong gusts of wind, did not tend to enhance the beauty of the +surrounding country, while it portended rather ominously for the success +of the operations, the first important step in the prosecution of which +may be considered to have been begun upon that day. By nine o'clock, the +hour fixed for our departure, the wind had fallen, and the rain began, +to descend in torrents, defying all precautions in the shape of cloaks +and waterproofs. So it continued until past noon, when the clouds +cleared away, and the sun shone out bright and warm. + +There is little to interest the traveller in this part of the +Herzegovina, unless it be the existence of clusters of old tombstones, +which occur very frequently throughout the province. About one hour +before reaching Stolatz, which was our destination, we came upon one of +those ancient cemeteries, which is well worthy of notice from the +mammoth proportions of the tombstones. These are, as is usually the +case, adorned with primitive sculptures of men clad in armour, horses, +and dogs, and decapitated heads; dates are seldom found, but the +character of the work and the frequent occurrence of the cross confirms +the supposition that they were erected previous to the Turkish conquest. +On our approach to Stolatz we were met by a deputation of the country +people, and by bands of children sent out to greet the arrival of him +who is regarded as the general pacificator. The anxiety displayed by +these to do homage by kissing his stirrup-iron when mounted, or the hem +of his trousers, was by no means appreciated by Omer Pacha, who +possesses very Europeanised views on these subjects. The enthusiasm with +which he was received, however, could not be mistaken, and forms an +important element in his prospects of a successful termination of the +affair. Outside the walls a battalion of regulars was drawn up, and +every here and there some detachments of irregular soldiers. + +Stolatz is charmingly situated on both banks of a small stream, which +are covered with fig and olive trees, and at the northern extremity of +the ravine in which it is built is the old castle for which it is +famous. This was put into repair by the rebellious Ali Pacha, and was +the last position held by him before he was taken prisoner by Omer +Pacha. It is simply a rectangular enclosure, with square towers at +intervals in place of bastions, and would afford little security against +an army provided with artillery. In addition to the weakness of its +defences, it is so situated as to be formidable only to the town which +lies beneath it, since it is commanded by several points on the +surrounding hills, where batteries might be safely erected at short +ranges. On the towers and their connecting curtains are many old guns, +some mounted, and others lying as they have probably lain for centuries. +Some of these are of the time of Maria Theresa, and nearly all were +ornamented with inscriptions and designs. The custom of naming guns or +giving them mottoes is very ancient and widely spread. I remember seeing +a number of Sardinians grouped round a gun in Capua upon the day of its +surrender to the Garibaldian and Piedmontese forces. They appeared much +amused, and on enquiring the cause of their merriment, I found it to be +the result of their appreciation of the motto upon the gun, which ran as +follows:--'Ultima ratio regum.' (the last argument of kings), an +argument which at any rate told with little effect in the case of +Francis II., for the simple reason that it was introduced at the wrong +moment. Doubtless some of these relics of Eastern warfare possessed as +pointed and applicable dicta as that of Capua, and had I had sufficient +time I should have scraped off the mould and rust of accumulated ages, +and have copied some of the inscriptions. That they could be fired was +placed beyond a doubt by the promiscuous medley of explosions which +greeted us, and which I purposely abstain from calling a salute, so +unlike was it to everything one has been wont to classify under that +name. + +Omer Pacha passed that night in the house of an opulent Mussulman, while +I was billeted upon the principal Christian inhabitant, a Greek[O] +shopkeeper. These men, one of whom is to be found in most of the +principal towns and large villages, may be regarded as the Parsees of +Turkey. Their shops are tolerably well supplied with European +commodities, and their owners are far in advance of their +fellow-townsmen in cleanliness and civilisation. Yet, in spite of this, +some of the modes in which they delight to honour even the passing +stranger are far from acceptable. Among the least objectionable of these +is the encouragement of their children to seize and slobber over his +hands, the only manner of avoiding which is to keep them thrust deeply +into his pockets--an odious custom elsewhere, but here indispensable. +Before bidding a last farewell to the house of my entertainer, I must +pay a grateful tribute to its comfort and cleanliness. In vain I +pressed him to accept some return for his hospitality, and it was at +length only in the form of a present to one of the aforesaid children +that I could induce this kind-hearted family to take any memento of +their grateful guest. + +On leaving Stolatz, our route lay in a SE. direction along the +bridle-path upon the right bank of the river. During the first two +hours, the rocks on our left were quite bare and devoid of all signs of +vegetation. Afterwards they assumed a far less barren appearance, being +covered with good strong brushwood, which grows down close to the +water's edge. The water is itself clear and shallow, and at one point +suddenly disappears--an instance of that phenomenon so common in these +countries, to which allusion has already been made. Above the point of +disappearance, the valley has all the aspect of the dry bed of a river, +with its sloping banks and pebbly bottom. + +Our force, which on leaving Mostar had consisted only of a small body of +cavalry for escort purposes, and some hundreds of irregulars, was +augmented at Stolatz by half a battalion of regular infantry. That the +picturesque effect produced by these Bashi Bazouks (conspicuous among +whom were the Albanian levies) was heightened by the addition of the +regulars, in their soiled garments and woollen great coats, I cannot +pretend to say; yet let no one endeavour to depreciate the Turkish +infantry who has not seen them plodding gallantly on beneath a broiling +sun, and in a country which, by its stony roughness, would tax the +energies of the stoutest Highlander. + +Those first marches, before we joined the main army, were for us, who +were mounted, pleasant enough. Taking advantage of any clump of trees +which we might encounter--and these were not very numerous--the halt +would sound, and in an incredibly short space of time coffee and pipes +would be served to the General, his Secretary, and myself, the staff +forming themselves into a group a few paces distant. + +During these halts children or curious adults would be seen peeping from +behind the trees, bent on catching a glimpse of the Serdar Ekrem. I +noticed that he never missed an opportunity of conversing with the +country people, who would tremblingly obey his summons to come and +receive 'Bakshish,' until reassured by his kind tone and gentle manner. + +In thus speaking of Omer Pacha's moral qualities let me not be mistaken: +I do not wish to infer that he possesses a very refined mind, still less +that he is gifted with those elements which go to form the +philanthropist; but that which he does possess is much good nature, a +long-headed shrewdness, which shows him the policy of toleration, and a +general disposition to support the weak against the strong. Thus, if he +has been accused of squeezing the faithful subjects of His Imperial +Majesty the Sultan, I venture to say that these attentions on his part +have been devoted entirely to those whom he knows to have amassed money +by grinding extortion, and thus he pays them off in their own coin. + +On the night of the 15th we halted in a small encampment about five +hours beyond Stolatz, where tents were already pitched for our +reception. Here one of those sights met our view so characteristic of +the country, and so unlike anything one is accustomed to see in regular +armies. A certain amount of hay and barley had been collected, and, +having been warned to do so by one of the staff, I ordered my servant to +push on ahead, that he might make sure of a portion of the spoil. On my +arrival I went down to watch operations, and vastly amusing it was to +see the scuffle which was going on--black servants, privates of +dragoons, and staff officers all helping themselves in a manner that +would have wrung the heart of the most generous forage contractor or +commissariat officer. Here I discovered the sort of stuff of which my +servant, a Dalmatian, was made. Some one, it appears, had told him, with +what truth I know not, that a party of Greek Christians had lately made +an incursion into this very camp, killing several Turks. This, and the +reports of a few muskets, so completely unmanned him, that he stoutly +declared his intention of remaining awake during the night; and it was +only by allowing him to lie in the tent by my side that I could induce +him to try and sleep. The abject cowardice of this youth on subsequent +occasions gave me but a poor impression of the modern Dalmatian--an idea +which was confirmed by the conduct of his successor, who was, if +possible, a more pitiable poltroon than Michaele. That the position of a +servant whose master was without bed or coverlet was not particularly +enviable, I am ready to admit, and many a time did he come to complain +of incipient starvation; but at the moment it was difficult to make +allowance for these little inconveniences, which were common to us all. + +We were now approaching Bieliki, where a considerable body of troops was +massed under Dervisch Pacha, a General of Division. The character of the +country through which we passed continued the same--stony and rough, +varied only by a little low wood. + +The last march was doubly as long as its precursors, and it was late in +the evening before we reached the camp. Excepting several detachments of +irregulars posted at intervals, the country presented a most deserted +appearance; and, from accounts which I have since heard, I cannot help +fancying that the cause and effect were very closely allied, or, in +other words, that the presence of the irregulars accounted for the +absence of the general population. The semi-feudal spirit, which was in +great measure extinguished elsewhere with the destruction of the +Janissaries, is still rife in this portion of the empire; and it seems +to me that more real danger is to be apprehended by the Porte from this +independent spirit in the Mussulman population than from the +bloodthirsty hatred of the Christians. + +About four hours from Bieliki we were met by Dervisch Pacha. Here, +again, we found more Bashi Bazouks, both horse and foot, as well as a +battalion of chasseurs of the army of Constantinople. On arriving in +camp, I was told off to share the tent of a Colonel-Doctor, by name Rali +Bey, who received me most hospitably. He is a young Greek, who has +served about eight years, having entered as a Major-Doctor. (Be not +horrified, O Surgeon-Major, at so unheard-of a proceeding! Doubtless +your privileges are far greater than his, save that you have the Major +as an appendage in place of a prefix.) The aforesaid Rali Bey was far +the best specimen of a Turkish military doctor whom I ever met. As a +rule, they are not an attractive set. Almost invariably +Constantinopolitans, they jabber execrable French fluently enough, and +affect European manners in a way which is truly disgusting: add to this +a natural disregard of cleanliness, and an obtrusive familiarity, and +nothing more is wanted to complete the picture. Of their professional +capacity I am unable to speak, never, I am thankful to say, having been +compelled to intrust my constitution to their hands; but, judging from +the fact that, on leaving college, they dispense with books, I felt +inclined to attribute the singularly small amount of sickness in camp +more to fortuitous circumstances than to the _ars medendi_, as practised +by these ingenuous young men. + +The sanitary state of the army at that time contrasted very favourably +with its condition some two months later in the year. At the first +period to which I allude there were only seventy men actually in +hospital, the whole force at Bieliki amounting to 8,047 regulars and +2,900 Bashi Bazouks. Of the twelve battalions of regular infantry which +composed the force five were armed with rifles, and were termed +chasseurs in consequence. At the same time, it is fair to add that +special attention has been paid to this arm, and the naturally keen eye +of the Turkish soldiers renders their education a matter of comparative +facility. + +The night which followed our arrival at Bieliki was, I think, the most +sleepless I have ever experienced. So thoroughly tired was I, that the +deafening crashes of thunder, the forked lightning, and the deluge of +rain, which poured in torrents through the tent, might have passed +unheeded, but for the mass of minute life, which defied sleep. With +early dawn I wandered off, too glad to escape from my tormentors, and +went through the hospitals, surgery, and other buildings connected with +the permanent encampment. The irregular lines of tents gave a +picturesque appearance to the camp, which was heightened by the +configuration of the surrounding hills. Far off to the SE. rise the +rugged mountains of Montenegro, at the foot of which lies the plain of +Grahovo, a spot fraught with disastrous reminiscences to the Turks. +Important as that affair was, since Grahovo was ceded to the +Montenegrins in consequence, its details have been grossly exaggerated. +It is currently accepted that 7,000 Turks were cut to pieces by 4,500 +mountaineers, the real truth being that the latter were probably nearly +as numerous as their opponents. The Turkish force consisted of two +entire battalions and a portion of a third, and, from the impracticable +nature of the country, it would have been strange had the result been +otherwise than it was. Hemmed in and mowed down from all sides by an +unseen foe, the Turkish soldiers lost all self-reliance, it is true, and +the panic which ensued must have tended considerably to increase the +magnitude of their loss. In justice to Hussein Pacha, the Turkish +General, it should be known that the operations which placed his army in +this false position were not of his planning, but were carried out in +deference to the wishes of the Civil Governor, and against his advice. +From the above remarks I would not have it supposed that I am desirous +of detracting from the well-merited praise to which the Montenegrins are +entitled for their long and successful resistance to the Turkish arms. +Their gloriously stalwart frames, and their independent spirit, both of +which they inherit with their mountain air, entitle them to admiration +and esteem; but an undue appreciation of these should not be allowed to +warp the judgement or prejudice the mind. Some there are who invest them +with almost supernaturally noble qualities, while they attribute every +conceivable enormity to their enemies the Turks. Each of these views is +incorrect. The Osmanlis, whether it be from a consciousness of their own +decrepitude, or some other cause, appear to have lost the spirit of +cruelty which characterised their more successful days; and it is a +matter of fact that the atrocities committed by their Christian +antagonists in the Greek War of Independence, during the incursion of +the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus in 1854, or in the present +_emeute_, equal, if they do not surpass, anything which they can lay to +the charge of the Turks. Travellers are apt to form their opinions upon +the evidence of their own senses; and when such is the case, their +verdict cannot fail to be favourable to the Moslems: for things seen +with one's own eyes will always make a deeper and more lasting +impression than the most harrowing details, the scene of which is laid +in times gone by. + +It may be urged that the want of power has caused this increased +humanity; and in part it may be so, for the nature of a people can never +undergo a sudden and entire change. But I can myself vouch for the +lenity which they displayed when they have had the power, and to wit +great provocation, to have acted otherwise. The incontrovertible facts, +too, remain that Mussulman Turkey has been the first to relinquish the +unchristian custom of decapitating prisoners, and other inhuman +practices, which the so-called Christians appear little inclined to +renounce. This will, of course, meet with an indignant denial on the +part of their supporters; but it must be a strong argument which can +overcome the disgust occasioned by the sight of women without ears, +children without noses, and bleeding corpses of soldiers literally hewn +to pieces with knives, all of which I have witnessed with my own eyes. + +In matters which do not immediately concern England, no opinion is +probably entitled to so much reliance as that of a Briton, even allowing +for a certain tendency, which he often has, to measure all people and +things by his own standard; and for this reason, that he is probably +free from all political and religious bias, while we know that he cannot +be actuated by prejudices resulting from community of origin, which +invalidates the testimony of the subjects of so many other European +states. However narrow-minded Englishmen may be in their own affairs, +they are generally capable of taking a broader and sounder view of those +of their neighbours than any other people. I think, therefore, that it +speaks strongly in favour of the opinions which I have advanced, that +they are shared by all those few Englishmen whose calling has brought +them into connection with these countries, or the still smaller number +who have gone thither for their own gratification. To the former class, +more especially, I can unhesitatingly appeal, to bear me out in the +heterodox assertion that the Christians are, as a mass, greater enemies +to progress than the Turks. + +[Footnote O: I.e. of the Greek Church.] + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks + abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian + Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European + Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of + Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani--Bashi + Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in Turkey--Line of + March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National Dance--'La Donna + _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big + Head--Old Tower--Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem + Devotions--Character of Turkish Troops--System of + Drill--Peculation--Turkish Army--Letters--Scarcity of + Provisions--Return of Villagers. + + +If the past history of Tzernagora or the Black Mountain is deserving of +our admiration and wonder, its future prospects afford a no less open +field for doubt and speculation. So far all has gone well with her: the +manly character of her people, and their apparent invincibility, have +enlisted the sympathies of the world in her behalf, while identity of +religion and race have procured for her the more tangible advantages of +Russian protection. + +That the last-named power is disinterested in pursuing this policy is +not for a moment to be supposed. The price she has ever demanded for her +protection has been one too willingly paid by these lawless +mountaineers, an unremitting hostility to Turks and Turkey. For +centuries this was open and undisguised on the part both of the people +and the Vladika, by whom, despite his religious calling, the destruction +of Turks was rewarded as a distinguished national service. Such, +however, is no longer the case; although their hatred is not one whit +diminished, or their depredations less frequent than of old, they mask +them under the garb of a feigned neutrality and an unreal friendship. +Thus they protest, in the face of the most damning proofs to the +contrary, their innocence of all connivance with the Herzegovinian +rebels. Corpses of those who have been recognised as accredited leaders +they declare to be Uskoks, proscribed brigands, whom it behoves every +lover of order to hunt down and destroy. But none are deceived by these +shallow excuses, which ill corroborate the assertion which, in an +unguarded moment, escaped from the young Prince, that he would +undertake, upon the fulfillment of certain conditions, to pacify the +frontier within fourteen days. + +This tacit admission of collusion with the rebels is quite sufficient to +justify the Porte in endeavouring to overrun the province, and thus +trample out rebellion in its principal stronghold. Presupposing its +ability to effect this, we then arrive at the real debatable point, +whether such a course would be allowed by the other powers. In the case +of England the answer can hardly be doubtful; for it would ill behove a +country, in whose Parliament all religions are tolerated, to interfere +in the matter, abandoning that policy of non-intervention which she has +so openly confessed and so successfully pursued, upon the narrow grounds +of the inexpediency of permitting a Mussulman power to overrun a +Christian province, and a province, be it remembered, which legally +composes an integral portion of the Turkish empire. + +The candid announcement made by the Porte of its intention to abandon +the policy of forbearance towards Montenegro, which it has as yet +pursued, betokens the existence of a small spark of its ancient spirit, +and augurs well for its success. Should the belligerents be left to +themselves, I believe that it will succeed; but the web of political +intrigue which has grown around the question, fostered by hereditary +policy, imperial ambition, and private machination, render it difficult +to foretell the issue. The chances which render success probable are the +deference which France has of late shown to the wishes of England, the +want of union prevalent throughout the Austrian empire, and the internal +movement in Russia, which incapacitates her from doing mischief in this +part of Europe. Yet, let us not disguise from ourselves the self-evident +fact, that the views of Russia remain unaltered, that the policy of +Peter is still maintained inviolate, and that, although the last war may +have convinced her that actual self-aggrandisement will not be +tolerated, she still holds one object ever in view--the destruction of +Turkish supremacy on both banks of the Danube and the substitution of +dependent Slavism. + +Throughout European Turkey, and nowhere more than in Montenegro, has her +influence waned since the Eastern war; yet so long as she shall possess, +and so freely use, the golden key, she must and will have very great +weight. + +Of the three causes which, as I have said, tend to complicate the +Herzegovinian-Montenegrin question, private machinations have recently +been the most successful, and consequently the most injurious to order +and the general weal. The energy of some of the foreign employes has +been truly astounding, while their glib tongues and manoeuvring minds +have worked metamorphoses worthy of Robin or the Wizard of the North. +This distortion of facts was somewhat naively described by a French +colleague of M. Hecquard.[P] + +'Montenegro,' said the former gentleman, 'c'est une invention de +Monsieur Hecquard.' Instances of such duplicity have been frequently +brought to light. These, while they reflect little credit on the +individual, speak badly for the good faith of the government +represented, as discovery is rarely followed by punishment--frequently +quite the reverse. + +The high-handed policy which the Porte is now pursuing is the most +likely to be attended with beneficial results; for, as experience has +shown us, the system of concession is entirely useless, each addition to +their territory only making the Montenegrins the more grasping and more +avaricious. That a solution of the difficulty must in some way be +arrived at is clear. Should Turkey fail in effecting this by the means +she is now adopting, Europe will be called on to interfere; for while +things exist as at present, the developement of those countries in +agriculture or commerce is as impossible as in civilisation and +Christianity. + +The disorganised condition of the Herzegovina, with its attendant +incubus of half a million of debt, renders it certain that one of two +results must inevitably ensue: either Turkey will be compelled to +surrender that province, and possibly Bosnia also, or she will sustain a +still severer blow to her already shattered finances. Of the two evils, +the latter is the least in the opinion of the Ottoman government, and it +was this consideration which induced it to determine on the prosecution +of hostilities in 1861. Several causes combined to retard the +commencement of military operations until late in the year. The +principal reasons were, the almost unprecedented drought which prevailed +during that year, and the deference shown by Omer Pacha to the wishes +of the European Commission, then sitting at Mostar, whose members did +all in their power to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion without having +recourse to arms. In the meantime troops were being massed, and stores, +provisions, and magazines provided at Gasko, Bieliki, and Trebigne. The +country infested by the insurgents extended from Bosnia round the +frontier as far as Suttorina, in the vicinity of which Luca Vukalovitch +had established his quarters. This man, who has acquired a certain +notoriety, was a blacksmith by trade, but, preferring a life of lawless +indolence to honest labour, betook himself to his present calling. He +appears to be quite devoid of that chivalrous courage which has +distinguished many of his class, and consequently deserves neither +sympathy when free nor mercy from his captors when taken. + +On September 3 the first move was made. Columns left Bieliki and +Trebigne, which, after scouring the district surrounding Grahovo, +returned without effecting any important results. A re-distribution of +the troops then took place. Trebigne was almost denuded of regular +soldiers, its defence being intrusted to Bashi Bazouks, while the entire +force was distributed at other points of the frontier, Bieliki and Gasko +constituting a permanent base of operations. At the former of these +Dervisch Pacha was in command, a man of considerable military talent, +though thoroughly unscrupulous, while another General of Division, Osman +Pacha, had his head-quarters at Gasko. + +Such was the position of affairs on September 18, 1861. Upon the morning +of that day, intelligence was received of such a nature as to render an +immediate move advisable. An order to this effect was issued at 2 +P.M., just as I had succeeded in rendering habitable a very +smart little tent, which had previously belonged to the Spanish General +Prim, and had been given by him to Omer Pacha after the campaign on the +Danube. At 3 P.M. six battalions paraded with eight guns, and +some sappers, the whole under the command of Ali Pacha of Scutari, a +General of Brigade. For some hours our course lay in a NE. direction +along a ridge, and separated only by the intervening gorge from the +mountains of the Baniani, which ran parallel on our right. These were +known to be infested with rebels, traces of whom were found by a force +of irregulars sent to attack them during the chilly hours of morning. +Here I, for the first time, saw Omer Pacha throw off the air of easy +carelessness habitual to him, and apply himself _con amore_ to the work +before him. He selected the positions to be occupied by the outposts and +picquets, indicating to his staff such points as he considered most +worthy of their attention, and endeavouring, by his own exertions, to +atone for the shortcomings of his subordinates. The force bivouacked +that night on the side of a hill overhanging a hollow, in which was +pitched one of the small camps with which these districts are now +interspersed. The choice of ground was certainly most injudicious, and +the General expressed his annoyance in no measured terms. + +From this time the privations endured by the troops were very great. +Long marches over an almost impracticable country by day, the most +intense cold by night, without tents or extra clothing, and with little +food, were endured with uncomplaining devotion. In some measure I could +sympathise with them, having passed all the nights since leaving Mostar +without bed or blanket. Thus many a cold morning hour did I eke out in +vain search for wood to kindle a little fire; and had I to undergo the +ordeal again, I should certainly prefer to pass the night _a la belle +etoile_, with my toes to the smouldering embers of a camp fire, and my +head well wrapped up after the manner of all Easterns. + +On the second day after leaving Bieliki, our course lay due N. through a +perfect wilderness of rocks, varied only by an occasional basin, formed +by surrounding hills, and covered with a species of dwarf vegetation. +The appearance of the force, as it straggled over this wavy expanse of +stone, was curious enough, and it certainly baffles all attempts at +description; so I must ask my readers to allow their imagination to +people the _mer de glace_ with some thousands of Oriental soldiers, +regular and irregular, pipe-bearers, and household servants formidably +armed, and they will not be far from a just conception of the case. +After marching for five hours over this inhospitable tract, we halted at +the mouth of a valley where the hills open out into a small plain. This +forms the entrance to the Pass of Koryta, whence we had just emerged. It +is a spot of ill repute even amongst the barbarous inhabitants of these +regions; and more Turks have received their death-wounds from behind the +boulders, which have served to screen the assassins, or from the knives +of the ever-ready Greeks in that fatal gorge, than in any other spot of +these disordered lands. The Pass is formed by the extremities of Banyani +and Pianina, and is of much strategical importance. It was one of the +first points subsequently occupied by Omer Pacha. Many a disaster has +been brought about by the incautious recklessness of those in command of +Turkish troops, and it was with some satisfaction that I saw the heights +both in front and rear crowned by Turkish battalions, before the +remainder were allowed to pile their arms, and betake themselves to +sleep or any other recreation. It was impossible not to revert in +imagination to the scenes of blood and strife of which Koryta has been +the site, as contrasted with its appearance at that moment. Groups of +Turkish soldiers were amusing themselves by dancing a national dance, +with as much gaiety as though they had not marched a yard, and with far +more activity than one would be disposed to give them credit for +possessing. The dance, a kind of jumping reel, was accompanied by +droning music not unlike the pipes. A little farther a regimental band +was murdering the two or three European airs with which it was +acquainted. One of these, to which they showed a good-natured antipathy +by frequently murdering, was 'La Donna e Mobile,' or 'La Donna +_Amabile_,' as Omer took pleasure in calling it. And thus the day wore +on, until, late in the evening, we arrived at Tchernitza, a little town +of about 600 inhabitants. Our camp was formed on a level plot, which +looked green and pleasant after the barren country through which we had +passed. Just above the spot where the men bivouacked was a lofty mound +surmounted by a turret, from which an armed sentry of a regiment of +redif (or militia) kept watch over the surrounding country. While taking +a bird's-eye view from this point, I heard myself accosted, to my no +small astonishment, in very fair English by a Turkish officer. My new +acquaintance proved to be one Hakki Bey, a Major of Engineers, employed +on the staff of Osman Pacha. He told me that, after having passed ten +years at the Turkish Military College, he had been sent to England for +five years to complete his education. What can the world say of Turkish +education after this stupendous example? He was an officer of much +intelligence, and soon worked himself into Omer Pacha's good graces. On +the following morning I met Osman Pacha at breakfast in the +Generalissimo's tent. He answers fully to the latter's description of +him, as being a man of much feeling, and very much the reverse of what +he is represented by Mr. Oliphant. That gentleman, in his narrative of +the Trans-Caucasian campaign, calls him 'a thorough Moslem, and a hater +of all Feringhees.' Now I am at a loss to conceive on what grounds he +can base that assertion; for, excepting that he speaks no language but +his own--a very common circumstance with English gentlemen of a certain +age--he is thoroughly European in his ideas and tendencies. Of his +kindness to myself under circumstances of difficulty and danger I shall +ever entertain the most lively recollection. + +While peering about in the single street of Tchernitza, I observed a +crowd collected in one corner. The centre of attraction proved to be a +man with a big head. The unfortunate creature seemed to experience very +much the same treatment as he would have met with had he been turned +loose in the streets of London. Everybody stared, most people laughed, +and some jeered at his terrible affliction. He may have numbered some +five-and-forty years, stood about five feet four inches high, with a +head of about twice the natural size. The idiotic appearance produced by +this deformity was increased by the dimensions of his tongue, which +protruded from his mouth, and hung down at the side in the most +woe-begone manner. The poor wretch accepted the banter of the spectators +with that good-humoured indifference which leads one to hope that the +victims of such freaks of nature are insensible to the full weight of +their calamity. To the SE. of the town or village stand the ruins of an +old castle, once the favourite resort of the Dukes of Herzegovina. +Nought save the remnant of the walls remains to mark its importance in +days gone by. + +The remainder of our march to Gasko was in the plain, and presented few +objects to attract attention, unless it was another victim of fell +disease. A poor girl, suffering from elephantiasis, was one of the only +women whom I had seen for many days. Her foot was swollen to an +incredible size, and I have been since informed that it is not an +uncommon complaint in those countries. As usual, we found the force +already encamped at Gasko drawn up to receive us, four mountain guns on +either flank. These were mounted, and drawn by two mules. In places +inaccessible to wheeled carriages, they are carried, as in our own +service, by two mules, viz. the gun on one, and the carriage on the +other. + +The infantry presented a more creditable appearance than any I had yet +seen, and the encampment generally looked clean and orderly. Camp life +is under no circumstances a very agreeable phase of existence, and least +of all in Eastern countries, when divested of the excitement resulting +from the probability of an attack. In other lands there is sure to be +something to attract the mind. Staff officers in gay uniforms pass and +repass in all the importance of official haste, cornets of cavalry bent +on performing the onerous duties of galloper, and the pompous swagger of +infantry drum-majors, all combine to vary the scene and amuse the eye. +But in Turkey this is not so. All are equally dirty and unkempt, while +the hideous attempts at music have very far from a soothing effect. An +attentive listener may hear a single voice four times in the day calling +to prayer, a custom which, under no circumstances, is ever omitted. Of +the internal response to this appeal I am of course unable to judge, but +from outward appearance I should imagine it to be small. The Pachas, it +is true, indulge in the somewhat unintellectual amusement of twiddling a +chain of beads, talking on indifferent subjects the while; but I never +observed even this small tribute of respect amongst the inferior +officers. And thus the day wears on in dull monotony, until at sunset a +crash of many voices may be heard from the centre of the camp, rising up +to heaven, and calling down a blessing on their Sultan's head. + +Immediately upon his arrival at Gasko, Omer Pacha had betaken himself to +the only habitable house in the adjacent village, coming down to camp +with early morning. I consequently became the guest of Osman Pacha, who +treated me with uniform kindness. It is a strange coincidence that +almost every Turkish Pacha, whatever may have been his origin, however +low his moral character, possesses a dignity of deportment and a charm +of manner which among Europeans is deemed an infallible test of a kind +heart and high breeding. This, however, does not apply in its full sense +to Osman, for a more amiable and moral old gentleman never breathed. +Indeed, I much fear that the good qualities of his heart somewhat +eclipsed those of his head, as subsequent events will show. Many of his +remarks, however, were shrewd and pointed enough; thus, while comparing +the English with the Turkish soldier, he very candidly admitted that the +former carried off the palm in the matter of fighting, with the +following reservations--that the Turk is content to serve with a very +considerable arrear of pay, and with very little in the way of clothing +or nourishment; that he is able to endure equal if not greater fatigue +and hardship; and lastly, that he does not indulge in strong drinks. All +this must be admitted by the most prejudiced arbitrator; nor is it the +highest eulogium to which the Moslem soldier is entitled. Habits of +order and obedience, which are only sustained in European armies by the +strictest discipline, form part of the national character, and therefore +render the minuter details of military economy unnecessary. That they +will ever become sufficiently familiarised with their European clothing +as to present a smart appearance, is improbable; yet their parade +movements are even now performed with considerable accuracy and rapidity +in the loose shuffling manner in vogue amongst the French, while of +their prowess in the field we have had ample proofs on divers +occasions--whether in the European campaign of 1828, when, despite the +confusion resulting from the recent destruction of the Janissaries, they +beat the Russians at all points; or in Asia during that and the +following years, where, if not so successful, they often displayed a +heroism unsurpassed in history. Or, coming down to the present time, we +have but to recall the noble stand made at Kars and Silistria, which, +almost without defences, they held for months against the most +determined efforts of Mouravieff and Paskievitch. Singularly enduring, +brave, and obedient, they require only good leading to form them into +one of the most effective armies of the world. But this is precisely the +one thing in which they are most strikingly deficient, and of which +there is little hope of any permanent amelioration. + +In no department of the public administration are the baneful effects of +that spirit of insincerity and rapacity, which is almost universal at +Constantinople, more apparent than in the army. Money drawn upon the +authority of false returns, and eventually appropriated by the highest +people of the land, affords an example of peculation and dishonesty +which is carried out through all ranks, and the result is that the +greater portion of the army has received no pay for more than +six-and-twenty months. There is reason to believe that this system of +sending in false numerical returns has been of late carried to an +incredible extent. The nominal strength of the Turkish army is as +follows:--6 corps d'armees, each consisting of 6 regiments of 4 +battalions, each battalion numbering 1,000 effective men, with a +proportion of cavalry and artillery to each corps d'armee. + +This gives us 144,000 regular infantry; and yet I have good authority +for saying that, should Turkey enter upon a war to-morrow, she would do +so with less than 80,000 regular infantry. Of these 29 of the strongest +battalions were in the Herzegovina during the past autumn, and that +force has received a slight increase during the winter months. To the +merits of these troops I have already borne testimony. Against those by +whom they are officered I would now raise a protest, since they appeared +to be so selected without regard to any one qualification which may +entitle them to the rank. Even were the finances of the empire restored +to a flourishing condition, and other reforms instituted, the army +cannot be thoroughly effective until it is re-officered, and the new +officers duly impressed with a conviction of the just distribution of +rewards and punishments. It is deplorable that so low a sentiment should +be the only one with which to inspire the officers, in order to secure +the zealous fulfillment of their duties. But so it is: their birth and +education, and the flagrant instances of bought rewards, which are +constantly before their eyes, combine to render it the best sentiment of +which they are capable. This applies principally to the regimental +officers in the lower ranks, upon whom the efficiency of an army so much +depends. Great good is anticipated from the extended scale introduced +into the Military College, and it is said to be the intention of the +government to appoint as soon as possible officers to commands who have +passed through it, to the extinction of the old system of conferring the +highest rank upon Pachas, whether fitted for the position or not. + +Excepting the chief of the staff, and some of the aides-de-camp, the +staff in the field was composed of engineer officers, most of whom had +passed some years in France or Belgium, while one had remained five +years in England. But these are men of a very different stamp from the +general run of regimental officers, who appear to think it the greatest +privilege of their position to get very drunk whenever the opportunity +offers itself, thus presenting a curious contrast with the remarkable +sobriety of their men. One evening I chanced to witness a scene as +amusing as it was characteristic of the people among whom I lived. A +post had arrived, and Osman Pacha's private Secretary was occupied in +dispensing the letters. The officers were admitted to his tent, and the +childish glee which they displayed was diverting in the extreme. Not +only did they mark their gratitude by kissing every portion of the +Secretary's garments on which they could lay hand, but danced about, +showing the epistles to all who approached. Fortunately, perhaps, few of +these could read, so the breach of confidence was not very great. I have +often noticed that an Oriental, when he does shake off the apathetic +reserve habitual to him, becomes more excited and enthusiastic than +warmer-blooded nations. At any rate they seem to possess a full measure +of that natural instinct of joy at receiving tidings of loved ones in +far distant lands. One of these letters was from the wife of an officer, +who had not heard from her for many months, and whose last reports had +informed him of the destruction of his house by fire. The apparent +indifference with which he had received the first announcement +completely gave way to a flood of happiness on hearing of the safety of +those he loved. Verily they are not so devoid of feeling as is generally +supposed--these fatalist Turks. + +The arrival of Dervisch Pacha with six battalions from Bieliki, which +was now occupied by two battalions of redif, converted Gasko into the +sole base of operations. The rain, which had for the past few days +fallen in torrents, would have enabled Omer Pacha to have commenced +hostilities on a greater scale, but for the dearth of provisions, which +should have reached the frontier long since. It now became apparent that +little could be done during the remaining months of the year, for nature +had effected for the rebels whatever the indolence of the Turkish +commanders had left undone. The magnificent harvest of the preceding +year, which the rebels had appropriated, and the extraordinary drought +which had prevailed during the spring and summer of 1861, combined to +diminish the Turkish prospects of success. Moreover, the object of the +Generalissimo was not so much to hunt down the rebels as to inspire them +with confidence in the leniency of the Sultan's rule, while he, at the +same time, occupied the country in such force as to convince them of the +necessity of eventual submission. Already were the good effects of this +measure manifested in the rapid return of the inhabitants to the +surrounding villages. Metokhia, Aphtoria, and Lubniak, all in the close +vicinity of the Turkish camp, had been deserted by their occupants, who, +like the majority in the plain of Gasko, are of the Mussulman religion. +These now returned to their desolated homes. + +[Footnote P: The French Consul at Scutari and member of the European +Commission, a man as remarkable for talent as for cunning and love of +intrigue.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer + Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack + Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of + Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish Women--Defects + of Government by Mudir and Medjlis. + + +The ennui produced by a long halt after a series of consecutive marches +had by this time taken such a hold on me, that with delight I heard Omer +Pacha's announcement of his intention to send a force with provisions +for the town and garrison of Niksich, whose proximity to Montenegro +placed them in the position of a beleaguered garrison, and rendered them +dependent upon the government for the ordinary necessaries of life. For +this duty Osman Pacha was detached, taking with him seven battalions and +four guns, which were subsequently reinforced by an eighth battalion +from Krustach. For the first three hours our route lay in the valley of +Gasko, which looked green and fertile, though showing few signs of +cultivation. The ruins of a church were the only antiquarian relics +which I noticed on the march. At the extremity of the valley the pathway +winds to the SE., having the rugged Piwa, looking bleak and bare, on the +left, and the more wooded heights of Baniani on the right. The +configuration of the hills, and the sharp outline of the country +generally, combined with the indescribably wild and rocky character of +some parts of the foreground, and the sloping grass banks in others, to +produce a picture at once grand and picturesque; but it was a picture of +which the eye soon wearied and the appreciation palled. There, as +throughout the whole march to Niksich, the country abounds with the most +magnificent defensible positions; natural parapets, whence a most +destructive fire might be poured upon an advancing foe, and incapable of +being turned by any flank movement; positions, in short, constructed for +the enactment of a second Thermopylae. No signs of humanity were to be +found in that barren region. Here and there the carcass of a stray +horse, which had died probably of pure inanition, and afforded a scanty +meal to the birds and beasts of prey, was the only sign of aught that +had ever beat with the pulse of life. Leaving the main body, I came up +with a small party of engineer officers, employed in taking the angles +on the line of march. The serious inconvenience resulting from the want +of a good map of these countries is now much felt. True, it was +partially removed by the existence of a map of Montenegro, including a +portion of the Herzegovinian frontier, drawn by Major Cox[Q], R.E., and +published by the Topographical Department, a copy of which I had +presented to Omer Pacha, and which was much appreciated by him. Very +properly, however, he proposes that the country shall be surveyed by +Turkish officers, and a map constructed upon their observations. Its +accuracy will be somewhat doubtful, if we may judge from the crude +manner in which they set to work. The only instruments employed were +prismatic compasses, with which they jotted down angles at all the +salient points, an orderly dragoon counting his horse's paces in the +intervening time, which was occasionally as much as twenty minutes. +Passing these I reach the advance guard, and still pressing on I soon +find myself alone. No, not quite alone; another turn of the rocks brings +me abreast of a strange companion, his long flowing dress of yellow +surge, and Dervish's hat, with its hair-fringe, proclaim him to be one +of that large class of religious devotees who live in indolence by +working upon the superstition of their co-religionists. My friend, +however, was a man of some affluence, and very superior in all respects +to the generality of his order. By birth an Affghan, he has spent many +years in the Herzegovina, and had followed the army for some weeks +before I chanced to meet him. Wherever there was a prospect of work or +danger there were his little bay stallion and tufted lance always to be +seen. There was something weird-like in his presence, as he now sat +like a statue on his horse, and anon darted forward with a flourish of +his lance, sending up wreaths of blue smoke from the inseparable +chibouque. We thus rode in company until we overtook the small force of +irregulars, who had been sent in advance of the main body. This constant +use of, and great reliance on, the Bashi Bazouks, is most prejudicial to +the efficiency of the service; for while it tends to deteriorate the +spirit of the regulars by depriving them of the first chance of meeting +the enemy, it exposes the others to the influence of bribery, which +constitutes so prominent a feature of Oriental warfare. Omer Pacha well +understands the disadvantages resulting therefrom, and will soon have +established a more healthy system. Already he has succeeded in inspiring +the troops with a degree of self-confidence, quite unprecedented, by +merely avoiding that error into which Turkish Generals so often fall, of +detaching small bodies of troops, who are cut up by the enemy without +object and without result. Individually, he is perhaps somewhat +destitute of the _elan_ which is generally associated with the character +of a Guerilla chief, and yet without detracting from his character as a +master in the art of modern war, there is no species of campaigning +which he understands so well as that which he has successfully waged in +Montenegro and the other hill countries of the Turkish empire. Energy +and caution are the two qualities indispensable to success in these +countries, and these he possesses to an eminent degree. It may be deemed +presumptuous in me to pass an opinion upon one whose fame is world-wide; +but that very fact must be my excuse, that those who are entitled to +universal admiration are likewise subject to universal criticism. I have +heard it urged that Fuad Pacha, the present Grand Vizier, who displayed +much ability in the conduct of the war against the rebels in Thessalyand +Epirus in 1854, would have succeeded better in the present hostilities. +But, on the other hand, if the Grand Vizier be gifted with a greater +amount of dash, Omer Pacha possesses a cooler judgement and a larger +experience than any man in the Turkish empire; and before leaving the +subject, I would call attention to the meritorious service which he has +rendered to the Sultan under all circumstances. Disgraced without cause, +he has faithfully adhered to the country of his adoption, displaying +through good report and evil report an integrity which does honour to +his principles. For, be it remembered, that he is bound by no ties of +blood or nationality, and that treachery to Turkey would probably serve +as a passport to the highest honours in Austria or Russia. + +Apologising for this digression, I would now return to Osman Pacha and +the column whom I have left so far to the rear. Late in the afternoon we +arrived at Krustach, a position somewhat similar to Koryta, and of +equal importance as regards the military occupation of the country. The +valley is at this point shut in on either hand by hills of just +sufficient height to give an advantageous command to a defending force; +these are connected by a cross range, that present an apparently +impassable barrier to an advancing foe. This position is surmounted by a +small fort with a court-yard, whose walls are pierced for musketry. Four +guns of indifferent quality are here mounted, commanding the approaches +on either side, while three guard-houses, each capable of holding two or +three companies, have been built on the most elevated positions, +flanking the approach from the NW. The garrison consisted of two +battalions commanded by a Wallack colonel, who might have passed but for +his fez for an officer in the Russian service, so much did he resemble +one of that nation in physiognomy. He appeared to be an active and +intelligent officer, and had, I heard, rendered good service during the +Eastern war. The appearance of the valley that night was strange and +picturesque. Hundreds of fires stretched far up the sides of the cradle +of hills in which our bivouac was formed, while a regular line of light +marked the chain of outposts which crowned the surrounding heights. +Head-quarters might be recognised by a large paper lantern suspended on +a high stick close to the camp-fire, around which lay Osman Pacha, one +of his staff, the Affghan Dervish, and myself, all sleeping quite as +comfortably as though we had never known a bed. Trumpets sounded at 5 +A.M. for a start; and, having ascended to the fort, we found +the sun struggling for the mastery with the clouds on the tops of the +adjacent hills. The army was now in full motion; the regular infantry +defiled in something like order down the narrow path, which had been +imperceptible to us on the preceding evening. The Bashi Bazouks, on the +other hand, might be seen streaming down the hill-side, jumping, +rolling, and tumbling in strange confusion. Having inspected the fort we +joined in with these, and rode down a descent, which would have been +impracticable for any save the sure-footed iron-plated horses of the +East. After traversing the valley for some miles, the rugged line of +Piwa closed in upon us on the left, and a black impenetrable mountain +seemed to bar our farther progress. After three quarters of an hour's +ascent we were glad to halt. Clambering to a grassy knoll, we made a +frugal meal of the hardest of biscuit soaked in muddy water, the only +food, by the way, which the troops tasted from the time of leaving Gasko +until their return. These biscuits are manufactured at Constantinople, +and are so hard as to be uneatable unless soaked; they, however, form a +good substitute for bread, which is seldom to be procured. But we must +not linger too long, for already the sun is high in the heavens. On, +on, once more, brave little horses and unflinching men; your labours +will soon be rewarded: and thus they toiled on, until, with sobbing +flanks and perspiring brows, the highest requisite point was reached. +Stretching away to our right front was a grassy glade, looking like +velvet after the stony wilderness we had just left: a pine wood on the +left gave it all the appearance of an English park, which was only +dispelled by the extraordinary sight which now met the eye. Behind a dip +in the ground were collected a considerable body of irregular horse and +foot, who were awaiting our approach in all the magnificence of banners, +kettledrums, sackbuts, psalteries, and all kinds of possible and +impossible instruments of music. No sooner did we approach than away +they went, horse and foot, shouting and blowing and waving their flags. +The idea seemed contagious, for it was instantaneously followed by Osman +Pacha and everyone who bestrode any kind of beast, prominent amongst +whom the Affghan might be seen, flourishing his lance well to the fore. +The glade opened out into a valley of inconsiderable size, which has +witnessed more than one encounter between the Christians and Turks. Only +the previous winter an engagement took place, in which the Turks, +notwithstanding that they remained masters of the position, had from +forty to fifty men put _hors de combat_. The timber here was of far +finer growth than any I had yet seen, and the numerous oaks and elms +lying with uptorn roots betokened the violence of the storms which rage. +Many of them were lying midway across our line of march, and it was +found necessary to remove them to admit of a free passage. This was soon +effected, though perhaps with a little more noise than is consistent +with English ideas of order. We had by this time entered the Pass of +Dugah, formed by the extremities of Piwa on the left, and Banian on the +right. The slopes on either hand are wooded, that of Banian to much the +greatest extent. It is some fifteen miles in length, and consists of a +series of open spaces, connected by narrow defiles, whose bottoms +resemble the bed of a dry stream. The scenery is generally pretty, and +abounds with interest from its being a constant bone of contention +between the rival factions. As a defensive position it is undoubtedly +strong; but there is nothing in the nature of the ground in reality to +impede the advance of a determined force. While halted in one of the +open spaces which I have mentioned, we discovered a hole or cavern in +the side of the hill, capable of holding at least two hundred men. +Doubtless this is a constant resort of the freebooters and other lawless +ruffians who infest this part of the country. It was here that the +European Consuls were nearly meeting their deaths, although accompanied +by the Secretary of the Montenegrin Prince, when employed in making +arrangements for the relief of Niksich, which was then invested. + +It was dark before we reached the extremity of the valley, and little +did we then think under what circumstances we should next see it. The +latter portion of our march lay through a wood of hazel and other small +trees, intersected here and there by pathways. Here we were met by more +irregulars, and, debouching from the high land, we found a portion of +the garrison of Niksich drawn up on the opposite bank of a little stream +which flowed beneath us. The contour of the surrounding country is very +remarkable: the gray heights of Piwa behind us, Drobniak to our left, +and Banian looking green by comparison on the right, while the rocky +mountains of Karatag form a dark and gloomy foreground to the picture. + +During the ensuing night the rain descended in torrents, rendering the +spongy ground on which we had bivouacked very much the reverse of a +desirable resting-place. In vain I waited for an improvement in the +weather, which only became worse and worse; and eventually I started in +pursuit of that portion of the troops which had left at early dawn in +charge of the provisions for Niksich. These consisted of 65,000 okes of +meal and biscuit, with a few head of horned cattle. The last commodity +appeared to me to be scarcely necessary, as we met some hundreds of +bullocks being driven out to graze in the valley, while the presence of +our force rendered such a measure safe. How these were generally +supplied with forage I am at a loss to conjecture, since the Mussulman +population were unable to venture more than one mile from the town, +except in bodies of 500 armed men. The distance to the town from the +commencement of the valley is about six miles, through a broad and +well-watered pasture land. In parts this has been ploughed and devoted +to the produce of grain, burnt stubble of which denoted the destructive +ferocity of the neighbouring Montenegrins. The new line of frontier +recently defined by the European Commission scarcely tends to promote a +pacific adjustment of existing difficulties. On the contrary, the line +of demarcation as it now is must inevitably lead to further +complications. Situated at the apex of a triangle, the town and plain of +Niksich offer a tempting bait to the lawless brigands, who infest the +mountains which form two of its sides, and who keep the unfortunate +Mussulman population in terror of their lives. At the south-eastern +extremity of the plain stands the town of Niksich, a small, dirty, and +irregular collection of buildings, all huddled together in the closest +possible vicinity to the ruined fort, as though seeking the protection +of its mouldering walls. Of the origin of the fort I could learn little, +save from an inscription over the arched entrance, from which it +appears to have been built by the son of an old and influential Albanian +chieftain about 200 years ago. Two square towers, containing five pieces +of ordnance, form the principal feature in the defensive works; but the +whole place is in so ricketty a condition that, were a cannonade to be +opened from its walls, they would inevitably come down about the ears of +their defenders. From the easternmost of these towers the town runs out +some few hundred yards towards the Montenegrin frontier; but all egress +upon that side is out of the question, as there is ever a bullet in +readiness for anyone who may be so rash as to cross a certain green +patch of grass, which appears to be accepted as the legitimate boundary +of the two provinces, although not precisely specified as such. At this +point the Turkish sentries are withdrawn, but farther to the south a +small white building serves as a guard-house, whence sentries are +supplied to form a cordon round that portion of the frontier. On +arriving at Niksich, we--that is, Osman Pacha's principal staff officer +and myself--paid a visit to the Mudir, whom we found sitting in +dignified conclave with his whole Medjlis. The Mudir, a magnificent +Albanian, standing about six feet four inches, and of proportionate +girth, welcomed us most cordially, and appeared a person of far greater +intelligence than most of his class. He bitterly lamented the increase +of suffering, resulting from the change in the line of frontier. +'Attacks by the Montenegrins and their friends,' said he, 'are now of +daily occurrence, and there seems to be no chance of any improvement in +our condition.' He expressed great confidence, however, in the +advantages to be derived from Omer Pacha's arrival, and took a clear and +sound view of things generally. He argued, correctly enough, that the +rebels would stand a good chance of being literally starved into +submission during the ensuing winter and spring, since the occupation of +the country by the Turkish troops had prevented them from getting in +their harvest, while the benighted frenzy which they had themselves +displayed in the wanton destruction of the crops had deterred the +neighbouring landowners from cultivating their fields. But the open +intelligent face of our friend, the Mudir, lit up, more especially when +telling us of some of the dours which he had made against the rebels; +and in good sooth he looked better fitted for such employment, judging +from his great length and breadth, than for sitting hour after hour on +his haunches, emitting clouds of tobacco-smoke, and reflecting upon the +individuality of God, and the plurality of wives, reserved in the next +world for all those who say their prayers regularly, and kill a +sufficient number of Feringhees in this. These stereotyped notions, +however, regarding the tenets of Mahometanism are fast losing credence, +just in proportion as the growth of European ideas is undermining its +very foundation. I do not say that Mussulmans are becoming more +religious or more elevated from their contact with Christian peoples. +Indeed, I rather incline to the opposite opinion; but the European +tendencies which prevail are marked clearly enough by the facile +adroitness with which the followers of the Prophet contrive to evade the +injunctions of the Koran, whether it be in the matter of wines and +strong drinks, or the more constitutional difficulty touching loans, +debts, and the like. For myself, I rather incline to the view of the old +Pacha, who, after listening with his habitual patience to the +long-winded arguments of a Protestant missionary, completely +dumb-foundered that excellent divine by remarking that he (the Pacha) +felt quite convinced of the similarity of their creeds, since the only +apparent difference was, that the Christian has three Gods and one wife, +while the Mussulman has three wives and one God. Even in this last +matter, the plurality of wives, a marvellous amendment is visible. It is +probably owing to the expense attendant thereon, and also to the little +fact, that it is not quite in accordance with the spirit of the age to +drown, or otherwise destroy, those women who indulge their very +pardonable and womanly frailty of wrangling and fighting one with +another. But, granting all this, it is impossible not to perceive that +the position of Turkish women is daily improving. All of a certain +class receive some education; and I never yet spoke to any intelligent +Turk on the subject without hearing him deplore the existence of those +laws in the Koran which would deprive the world of that which renders it +most enjoyable. That the time will come when the religious influences of +Mahometanism will cease to offer a bar to all progress and advancement, +is sufficiently evident, and it consequently behoves Europe to guard +against the re-establishment of moral heathenism on the ruin of +fanatical Islamism. + +Returning to the council-chamber of the Mudir of Niksich, I would call +attention to the similarity of expression and venerable appearance of +nearly every member of the Medjlis. This is one of the faults of the +system, that an undue preponderance is thereby given to the ideas of a +certain class. + +From the experience of those Europeans who have had good opportunities +of forming an opinion, it would seem that this double government of +Pacha and Medjlis works badly, owing to the ignorance and want of +capacity of those from whom the latter are selected. It would, +therefore, be far more salutary were they only permitted to advise in +place of having a vote; absolute authority being vested in the Pacha, +who should be held personally responsible that the rights of the people +be not infringed, and rigorously punished if convicted of malpractices. +Many will doubtless deny the advantages to be thus derived; but it is +self-evident that in half-civilised countries power should be in the +hands of as few as possible. + +It is not my intention to enter the lists as the champion of the Ottoman +Government, whose apathy and insincerity cannot be too strongly +condemned; but I contend that governments, like everything else, must be +judged by comparison, and that the only true measure of the merits of a +government is the moral and social condition of the people whom it +rules. The Turkish Government, whether regarded in its central or +provincial bearings, is decidedly in advance of its subjects. In its +diplomatic relations, in monetary and financial schemes, Turkey has at +any rate acquired a certain amount of credit, while an increase of the +revenue from four to nearly twelve millions within the past thirty +years, and the continued increase of the Christian population, is a +certain proof of the diminution of oppression, and proves conclusively +that a remnant of vitality still exists in her veins. + +[Footnote Q: The British member of the European Commission for defining +the frontier of Montenegro.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy + repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish Soldiers + murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched Camp + assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive Character of + Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation--Military Uniforms--Return + to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum--Express + Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified + Barrack--Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European + Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian + Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of + Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The + Meredits--Instincts of Race. + + +On our return from the town we found the leading battalions in the act +of crossing the stream which separates the valley from the overhanging +woodland. The 900 ponies, now deprived of their burden, carried in lieu +thereof sick soldiers from Niksich, or such as preferred riding to +walking. Little order prevailed, and it is only wonderful that the +consequences of entering a defile more than an hour after midday should +not have proved more disastrous than they actually did. In vain I added +my remonstrances to those of some of the staff, who were intelligent +enough to predict evil. The order had been issued. The advance guard had +already marched, and it was too late to countermand the departure. Thus +saying, Osman Pacha crossed the stream and ascended to the high ground, +now covered with a confused mass of bipeds and quadrupeds. At this +moment the rain, which had ceased during the past hour, began to descend +once more in torrents, accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning and +thunder, which, though still distant, reverberated through the woods +with grand effect. In the midst of this we retraced our steps until +about 4 P.M., when the centre of the column, with the baggage +and head-quarters, defiled from the woods into one of the open spaces, +of which mention has been made. The General informed me of his intention +to halt there until the morning; and he could not have found a spot +better calculated for the purpose, since, by massing the troops in the +centre, they would have been out of range of the surrounding heights, +and a double line of sentries would have been the only precaution +absolutely necessary. For some reason he, however, subsequently changed +his mind, and the delay which had taken place only made matters worse. +The advance guard of four battalions, under Yaya Pacha, had continued +the march in ignorance of the halt of the main body, and were ere this +out of hearing or chance of recall. Scarcely had we recommenced our +advance when a dropping shot in the rear gave us the first announcement +that the enemy had taken advantage of our false step, and was bent on +harassing what would now assume the appearance of a retreat. + +The shots, which were at first few and distant, soon increased, and by +the time that the Affghan and myself had reached the rear of the column +the action appeared to have become general. Ali Pacha, who commanded the +rear-guard, now committed the grave error of halting the three +battalions of his brigade, and wasted most valuable time in performing +desultory movements, and in firing volleys of grape and musketry, +without arriving at any practical results. At one point, however, the +rebels, who were advancing in force with loud cries of fanatical +vengeance, received a substantial check. Two companies of Turks had been +concealed on either side of the defile, which was narrow at this point. +Concealment was facilitated by approaching darkness, and it was only at +a given signal that they rose and poured a deadly volley into the ranks +of the advancing foe, who immediately fell back. This circumstance +appeared to damp their ardour, and they contented themselves with +running in small parties along the flank of our line of march; two or +three would dash down the sloping banks, and, having discharged their +pieces without aim or precision, would return to the safety afforded by +the rocks and trees. It was between 6 and 7 o'clock before the order to +resume the march was issued. And now began a scene which none who +witnessed are likely to forget to their dying day: deeply tragical it +might have been, but fortunately circumstances combined to render it +merely ridiculous, as reflected in the mirror of memory. The rain still +fell heavily, lying in places to the depth of nearly a foot, and +converting all the ground that was not rocky into a slippery quagmire. +So profound was the darkness, that it was literally impossible to see +any object six inches from one's eyes, and it was only by the occasional +flashes from the firelocks of the persevering enemy and the forked +lightning that we could realise the surrounding scene. By the light of +the last were revealed horses and men falling in all directions, and I +may safely say, that some of the 'crumplers' received that night would +have shaken the nerve of the hardest steeplechase rider. For my own part +I preferred walking, after my horse had fallen twice, and with this +object proceeded to dismount, but on bringing my leg to the ground, as I +imagined, I made a rapid descent of about eight feet. On clambering up I +was met with a sharp blow on the face from what I believe to have been +the butt of a Turkish musket, and my horse was not to be found. About +half an hour later, while feeling for the road, to my great +satisfaction, I placed my hand upon my English saddle, and thus +repossessed myself of my steed. No need to dilate farther on the events +of that disastrous evening. Suffice to say that, after some hours more +of scrambling and toiling, falling frequently over the stones and trees +which were strewn plentifully across the path, we reached the spot +where the advanced body had arrived some four hours previously, and had +succeeded, in spite of the rain, in kindling a few fires. It was close +upon midnight when Ali Pacha arrived at head-quarters to report that the +rear-guard had reached the bivouac, though nothing was known as to the +losses incurred in men, horses, or provisions. All that was certain was +that one gun had been abandoned, the mule which carried it having rolled +down a ravine. This was never found, as the rebels, who passed the night +within ten minutes' walk of our bivouac, had carried it off before the +arrival of the force sent back at daybreak to effect its recovery. Our +loss, however, proved to be insignificant--two killed and six wounded, +and a few ponies, &c., missing. As might be supposed, the Slavish +newspapers magnified the affair into a great and decisive victory for +the rebels. It is true that it reflected little credit on Osman Pacha; +and it might have been fully as disastrous to the Turks as their worst +enemies could have desired, had not the intense darkness of the night, +the heavy rain, and the want of pluck in the Christians (a fault of +which they cannot in general be accused), combined to get them out of +the scrape without any serious loss. The two whose deaths it was +impossible to disallow, as their mangled bodies gave evidence thereof, +were foully butchered by these long-suffering Christians. It came about +as follows:--An officer and three soldiers had remained a little in rear +of the column, being footsore with the march. As the rebels came swiftly +and quietly along, one of the soldiers, believing them to be a Turkish +regiment, made some observation. In a moment he and his comrade were +seized, and, while receiving many assurances of safety, were stripped to +the skin. The officer and the third soldier instantly concealed +themselves behind some of the projecting rocks, within ten yards of the +spot, and thus became auditors of the ensuing tragedy. No sooner had the +rebels stripped their unfortunate captives, than they fell upon them en +masse, literally making pin-cushions of their naked bodies. Throughout +that long and painful night did those two men lie hid in jeopardy of +their lives, and glad must they have been when they saw the rebels +retracing their blood-stained steps on the following morning, and more +grateful still when the arrival of the Turkish force enabled them to +feel assured of life and liberty. The following afternoon we returned to +Krustach, where we found a Montenegrin emissary, who was journeying +homeward, having had an interview with Omer Pacha. He was a finely built +and handsome man, dressed in his national costume, with a gold-braided +jacket, and decorated with a Russian medal and cross, for his services +against Turkey at a time when Russia was at peace with that power. He +had been Superintendent of the Montenegrin workmen at Constantinople, +and had consequently seen something of European manners, although +unacquainted with any language save Slave and some Turkish. He told me +that he had left 400 followers in Piwa; but this I found did not exactly +coincide with a statement he had made to Omer Pacha, and it subsequently +transpired that his body guard amounted to about double that number. +This worthy asked me to accompany him to Cettigne, but circumstances +conspired to prevent my accepting the invitation; and so we separated, +he to Cettigne, we to Gasko on the following day. + +During one of the halts on the line of march, I found the mouth of what +must have been a coal-pit of large dimensions. The entrance of this was +on the bank of a dry stream, and several masses of what appeared to be a +concrete of lignite and coal betokened the existence of the latter in a +purer form within the bowels of the surrounding country. This I showed +to Omer Pacha, who said that he would adopt my suggestion of having it +worked by military labour for the purpose of consumption during the +winter months. In several places, I subsequently came across the same +characteristics, which convince me of the existence of a spurious +description of coal in large quantities in the province. In Bosnia it +is plentiful, and of a very superior quality. + +Some miles before we reached the camp we were met by Omer Pacha and his +staff. + +As may be supposed, the most extravagant reports of the extent of our +disaster had preceded us. The most moderate of these involved the death +of Ali Pacha (no great loss by the way), and about 1,000 men put _hors +de combat_. Omer's face wore a grave expression when we met, and his 'Eh +bien, Monsieur, nous avons perdu un canon sans utilite' boded ill for +the peace of Osman Pacha. It was a pleasing duty to be able to refute +the assertion that this last had lost his head on the occasion in +question. Although guilty of grievous error of judgement, the other more +pitiful charge could hardly be laid to his account, since he never for a +moment lost his habitual sangfroid and self-possession. + +The subsequent operations during 1861 were scarcely of a more decisive +nature than those in the early part of the campaign. They consisted for +the most part of slight skirmishes, which, though unimportant in +themselves, tended to establish the Turks in their occupation of the +country, and produced a good moral effect. + +One event, however, deserves notice, as giving fair evidence of the +respective merits of the belligerent parties. In pursuance of the plan +which he had originally devised, Omer Pacha established a permanent +fortified camp in Piwa. Twelve battalions under Dervisch Pacha were +concentrated at this point; and at the time of the contest which I am +about to describe, Omer Pacha was himself present. Reduced to the +greatest straits by famine and the presence of the Turkish troops, and +inspired doubtless by the knowledge of the Generalissimo's presence in +the camp, the rebels resolved to make a desperate onslaught upon the +entrenchments. + +On the morning of October 26, a strong force was despatched from camp to +procure forage, wood, and other necessaries. While thus employed, the +enemy, favoured by the formation of the surrounding country, made a +sudden and well-sustained attack upon this force, in conjunction with a +consentaneous assault upon the entrenchments. With more judgement than +is generally found amongst Turkish commanders, the foraging party was +brought back to camp, though not before it had suffered a considerable +loss. In the meantime charge upon charge was being made by the +half-naked savages who formed the Christian army, against the enclosed +space which was dignified by the name of an entrenched camp. Three times +they forced an entrance, and three times were they driven out at the +point of the bayonet, while the guns mounted on the works made wide gaps +in their retreating columns. After several hours' hard fighting, in +which both sides displayed exemplary courage, the assailants were +compelled to withdraw, leaving many hundred dead upon the field. The +Turkish loss was something under a hundred, owing to the advantage they +derived from fighting under the cover of their guns and walls. + +Shortly after this event Omer Pacha returned to Mostar, contenting +himself with holding the various passes and other points on the +frontier, which enabled him to keep an unremitting watch over the +disturbed district. + +Early in the spring of 1862 he returned to the frontier, which he will +doubtless pacify before the extreme heat and drought shall have forced +him to suspend military operations. With this view eighteen battalions +of infantry and 3,000 irregulars have been concentrated at and about +Trebigne, which he has this year made his base of operations. The +judicious disposal of his troops, which he has effected, have driven +Luca Vukalovitch and his band of hornets to take refuge in Suttorina, +adjacent to the Austrian territory. This circumstance caused the +Austrians at the end of last year to enter that district for the purpose +of destroying certain batteries, which were considered to be too close +to the Austrian frontier. The legality of this measure is doubtful; yet +it may be believed that the step was not taken with any view to +promoting hostilities with Turkey. + +The final success of the Turkish arms can scarcely be long delayed, +since starvation must inevitably effect all in which the sword may fail. +The armed occupation of the country during the past year has at any rate +so far worked good, that it has effectually prevented the rebellious +Christians from getting in the crops which belonged to themselves or +their weaker neighbours, while it has enabled such of the Mussulmans as +chose to do so to reap their harvest in security. Should these +expectations, however, not be realised, the result would indeed be +serious to the Ottoman empire. In such case either her already rotten +exchequer must receive its death-blow, or she will be compelled to +evacuate the Herzegovina, a course which would be gladly welcomed by her +enemies, since it would probably be but the first step towards the +dismemberment of the whole empire. + +Before quitting the army, I would fain pay a passing tribute to the good +qualities of the Turkish soldiers. Having seen them under circumstances +of no ordinary difficulty and privations, I found them ever cheerful and +contented with their unenviable lot. Uninfluenced by feelings of +patriotism--for such a word exists not in their language--unaffected by +the love of glory, which they have not sufficient education to +comprehend, the only motives by which they are actuated are their +veneration for their Sultan and the distinctive character of their +religion. It would be well for their Sultan did he appreciate the +sterling military qualities of his people. With good management and +honest reform, an army might be created which, if inferior in _materiel_ +to those of certain European powers, would in the matter of _personnel_ +be sufficiently good to render the Turkish dominions perfectly secure +from hostile invasion, which is now very far from the case. At present, +unfortunately, his whole attention is devoted to the manning and +equipment of the navy, for the amelioration of which large sums of money +are paid and heavy debts incurred. The visionary character of his +ambitious projects on this head is apparent to all but himself, since +the Turkish navy can scarcely be expected ever to attain more than a +fifth or sixth-rate excellence. The recent changes in the dress of the +army betoken that some attention has been devoted of late to the +subject. Nothing can be more desirable than an assimilation of the +uniform to the natural style of costume; and the loose Zouave dresses of +the army of the Turkish imperial guard[R] are not only better adapted to +soldiers who do not indulge in the luxury of beds and the like, than the +tight-fitting garments heretofore in use, but present a far more +workmanlike appearance, for the simple reason that they understand +better how to put them on. + +After a month's sojourn in the tents of the Osmanlis, the rapid +shortening of the days warned me of the necessity for pushing on if I +wished to see the more peaceable portion of the country, before the +snows of winter should render travelling impossible. Already the day had +arrived when the first fall of snow had taken place in the previous +year. + +Despite the hardships indispensable from the kind of life we had been +living, it was with much regret that I bade farewell to my hospitable +entertainers, and started once more on my solitary rambles. For the +first day, at least, I was destined to have company, as the Pacha of +Bosnia's private Secretary was about to return to Bosna Serai, having +fulfilled a mission on which he had been sent to the camp of the +Commander-in-Chief. My object was to return to Mostar by way of +Nevresign, which, as well as being new ground to me, forms a portion of +the projected line of defence. After waiting no less than five hours and +a half for an escort of Bashi Bazouks, who, with true Turkish ideas of +the value of time, presented themselves at 12.30, having been warned to +be in attendance at 7 A.M., we at length got under weigh. These +irregulars were commanded by Dervisch Bey, one of the principal Beys in +that neighbourhood. Some twenty years ago his father, a devout +Mussulman, and a cordial hater of Christians, whom, it must be +acknowledged, he lost no opportunity of oppressing, built for himself a +large square house flanked with towers, and otherwise adapted for +defensive purposes. This is situated about six miles from Gasko, and +here he lived in considerable affluence. Taken one day at an unguarded +moment, he was murdered by the Christians, and his mantle descended upon +his son, who, if he has not the same power or inclination to oppress, +shows himself perfectly ready to do battle on all occasions against the +murderers of his father. This individual, then, mounted on a good +useful-looking horse, and loaded with silver-hilted daggers, pistols, +and other weapons of offence, was destined to be our guide. Our road lay +through a long narrow defile, which, like most parts of the Herzegovina, +abounds with positions capable of defence. After five hours' travelling +we arrived at Zaloum, a small military station situated at the highest +point of the pass. I did not see any attempt at fortifications; but, as +all the villages are built quite as much with a view to defence as +convenience, these are hardly necessary. Every house is surrounded by a +court-yard, in most cases loopholed. Taking up our quarters at the only +house capable of affording the most ordinary shelter, we passed the +evening, as far as I was concerned, pleasantly enough. The Secretary, a +middle-aged and very affable Slave, was also somewhat of a _bon vivant_, +and, with the help of sundry adjuncts which he carried with him, we made +a very good meal. The habit of drinking rakee, eating cheese, and other +provocatives of thirst before dining, is quite as rife in these parts of +the empire as at Stamboul, and it frequently happens that the +dinner-hour of a fashionable man is later than in London during the +height of the season. Breakfasting at twelve, they do not touch food +again till dinner-time, and even then their repeated nips of rakee taken +in the hour previous to the repast renders them little disposed for +eating. Shortly after we had commenced dinner at Zaloum, a great +chattering and confusion in the court-yard proclaimed a new arrival. +This proved to be Asiz Bey, an aide-de-camp of Omer Pacha, who was on +his road to Mostar. Snatching a hurried meal, he once more mounted, and +pushed on in the darkness, with the intention of not pulling rein again +until his arrival in Mostar. Later in the evening an excited +agriculturist made his appearance, and with much humility demanded the +return of his pack-saddle, which he affirmed that one of my servants had +stolen. It fell out in this wise: I had engaged a certain youth of the +Greek faith, named Giovanni, to look after my baggage-ponies, which he +invariably allowed to stray whenever most required. On the occasion of +our leaving Gasko one of these was, as usual, absent without leave, and +on his being discovered, the pack-saddle in which these long-suffering +animals pass their existence had been removed. Giovanni, whose +pilfering habits were only equalled by his disregard of truth, replaced +the missing article in the simplest way, by doing unto others as they +had done unto him, and appropriated the first saddle he came across. To +allow the saddle to return to Gasko was impossible, as I could not have +proceeded on my journey without it; so I induced the owner to part with +it at a considerable profit, mulcting Giovanni of the same. The +following morning we descended into the plain of Nevresign, one of the +seven or eight large plains in the province. + +The road approaching the town passes between two cemeteries--that of the +Mussulmans on the right being the most pleasantly situated, for thus it +was that, even in death, they were more regarded than their +less-favoured Christian brethren. On the outskirts I noticed a very +primitive movable house, strongly characteristic of the kind of life led +by the people: it consisted of two skates, with a hurdle laid across for +flooring and others for walls, the whole being thatched. In this the +shepherd sleeps when he pens his cattle: this he does in a very small +space, shifting his position every night, and thus practically manuring +the country. The town itself has little worthy of notice, save the new +fortified barrack which the Turks are constructing. No labourers were, +however, engaged upon it at the time of my visit: it consists of an +oblong work, with bastions at the angles, on each of which it is +intended to mount three guns. It was proposed to build accommodation +for 1,600 men, but the size of the work did not appear to me to warrant +the belief that it would hold so many. There will be no necessity for +the townspeople to take shelter within its walls in the event of an +attack, as it immediately overhangs the town, and is itself commanded by +the hills in its rear. The engineer officer who conducted me over it +informed me that an earthwork would be thrown up on the most commanding +position, and two block-houses built at other points. The arrangements +for obtaining a supply of water appeared simple; and as it is the only +attempt at modern fortification which I have seen in Turkey, I shall be +curious to hear of its completion. + +Leaving Nevresign one crosses two mountains, which, with the exception +of about an hour and a half distance, are traversed by a road. Save one +in course of construction from Mostar to Metcovich, it is the only +attempt at road-making in the province. It is bad enough, as all Turkish +roads are, their engineers having not the slightest idea of levelling. +They take the country as they find it, apparently thinking that a +zigzag, no matter at what slope the angles may be, is the highest +triumph of their art. Until our arrival at Blagai, six miles from +Mostar, an escort was deemed necessary, though it was really of not the +slightest use, since the rebels, if so inclined, might have disposed of +the whole party without once showing themselves. On nearing Mostar I +looked with curiosity for any signs of progress in the new powder +magazine or barracks, which are situated in the plain outside the town. +They both appeared in precisely the same condition as when I left, save +for the absence of some hundreds of ponies, which were at that moment +eating mouldy hay at Gasko and its vicinity. In the barrack square +several block-houses which Omer Pacha had ordered appeared to be in a +state of completion. These are made of wood and have two stories, each +house being capable of containing about two companies of infantry. The +walls are loopholed and of sufficient thickness to resist musket balls: +the use to which they were to be applied was the protection of working +parties and small detachments during the construction of more permanent +defences; and as the rebels are without carcases or liquid fire-balls or +other scientific implements of destruction, it is possible that they may +answer their purpose well enough. + +At the British Consulate I found Mr. H., the Consul at Bosna Serai, who +was on his road to Ragusa, where the European Commission for carrying +out reforms in Turkey was about to reassemble, with the view of watching +the progress of events. Little good could be expected to result from +their deliberations, for matters had not been in any way simplified +since their adjournment two months before. The sincerity of the +individual members of the Commission cannot be called in question; but +what avails that, when other agents of the governments so represented +apply themselves with assiduity to stultify the very measures which +their colleagues are endeavouring to effect. As might have been +anticipated, their sittings at Ragusa proved as ineffectual as those at +Mostar, and in three weeks' time they once more adjourned, and have not +since reassembled. Whatever difference of opinion may have existed +amongst the members on this point, at any rate they professedly agreed +that it is for the interest of these provinces that the Turkish rule +should remain inviolate, but that this rule must be very decidedly +ameliorated. Of its sincerity in wishing to bring this about the Porte +will find it difficult to convince the Christian malcontents, so deeply +rooted is their mistrust. Secret agents are not wanting to check any +spirit of wavering which may show itself in the insurgents. In the +meanwhile both Bosnia and Herzegovina are being rapidly exhausted. Even +in peaceable times, the people of the Herzegovina had to draw their +supplies of grain from Bosnia, while the import trade of both provinces +more than doubled the export in value. The demand for horses for +military purposes has of late still farther crippled commercial +enterprise, as the people are thereby deprived of the only means of +transport in the country. At Mostar, even, it was impossible to buy +coals, as the peasants were afraid of exposing their horses to the +probability of being pressed, with the certainty of remaining unpaid. + +The foregoing remarks may appear to corroborate ill my oft-repeated +assertion of the immunity of the Christians from persecution by the +constituted Mussulman authorities. A distinction should be made between +oppression and misgovernment, the existence of which last is fully +admitted on all hands. It applies in an almost equal degree to the +professors of all religions in Turkey; and when the Christians have been +induced by designing minds, as has sometimes been the case, to pour out +to the world a torrent of grievances, these have been proved in almost +all instances to have been as much imaginary as real; such at least was +the opinion of the Grand Vizier, after his visit of enquiry through +European Turkey in 1860; and his views, which might otherwise be deemed +prejudiced, were supported by Mr. L----, the Consul-General at Belgrade, +who was deputed by the British Ambassador to attend the Ottoman +functionary. That gentleman's opinion--concurred in, as it is, by almost +all British officials--is especially worthy of attention, since the +greater part of his life has been passed in the Turkish dominions, and a +large share of his attention devoted to this particular subject. At +Widdin, a petition was presented, signed by 300 persons, complaining of +the local authorities. These names were mostly forgeries, and even the +alleged grievances were of a trivial nature; outrages, and forced +conversion to Islamism, could nowhere be proved. The source whence the +petition emanated may be shrewdly guessed, since M. Sokoloff, the +Russian Consul at Widdin, was removed to Jerusalem only a few days +before the commencement of the enquiry. One subject of complaint was the +appointment of the bishops by the patriarch at Constantinople, which +strongly confirms the supposition of its Russian origin. The petition +was moreover presented by one Tuno, a Rayah, who had been turned out of +the Medjlis for corruption, and was at the time a hanger-on at the +Russian consulate. Those few who acknowledged to having signed the +document, stated that they believed it to have been a remonstrance +against the pig tax. + +The second ground of complaint was that the Cadi had interfered in the +affairs of the Christians; i.e. in matters of inheritance, and in the +administration of the property of minors. This also proved untenable, +although, in the course of the enquiry, it transpired that something of +the sort had occurred at Crete, which was ingeniously perverted to suit +their purpose on the occasion in question. + +Thirdly, it was alleged that the Christian members of the Medjlis were +allowed no voice in its deliberations. This the Bishop even denied. Had +they said that their opinions were of little weight, it would have been +nearer the truth. Nor can we wonder at this, since it is in vain that we +look for any spirit of independence among the Christian members; and +this not more in consequence of the domineering spirit of the Turks, +than from the natural disposition of the Christians, which is cringing +and corrupt. Time and education can alone effect a change for the +better. The government may, by the promulgation of useful edicts, and by +the establishment of schools common to all religions, materially hasten +this desirable end; but in the present condition of the Christian +population, it is questionable whether more harm than good would not +result from the proclamation of social equality. + +The veritable grounds of complaint, on which the petition in question +did not touch, it is within the power of the government to remove; and +this, we may confidently anticipate, will be done. + +Equality before the law is the principal and first thing to be +established, and such at present is not the case. Christian evidence, +for example, is received in criminal, but not in civil causes, i.e. in +questions concerning property. Moreover, even in criminal causes of any +importance, the decision of the inferior courts, where Christian +evidence is admissible, is referred for confirmation to superior courts, +where such testimony is not accepted. In defence of this it is urged, +that Turkish property would be endangered, if, in the present +demoralised state of society, Christian evidence were admitted. But, +while advancing this argument, it is forgotten that this state is +traceable to the lax and vicious system pursued in the Mussulman courts, +where, as the only way of securing justice for the Christians, Mussulman +witnesses are allowed to give false evidence. + +Another abuse, of which the most is made by the enemies of Turkey, is +the forcible abduction of Christian girls by Mussulmans. The practice +has, however, almost died out, except in northern Albania; and yet it is +this alone which formed the groundwork of the most important of Prince +Gortschakoff's charges, viz. the forced conversion of Christians to +Islamism. It would, doubtless, fall into disuse in that part of the +country, were the offence dealt with as an ordinary police affair; but +the clumsy machinery of Turkish law, however sincere may be its object, +has done little to diminish the evil. Many schemes have been devised for +its prevention. One was to make the girl appear before the court which +rejects Christian evidence, and declare herself a Christian or +Mussulman. If she confessed her faith, she was returned to her friends, +and the ravisher nominally punished; but, as they almost always declared +themselves to be Mahomedans, the Christians complained that fear or +other undue pressure had been put upon them. To obviate this, it was +decided that the girl should be sequestered in the house of the Bishop +for three days previous to her making her profession of faith. This has, +however, been discontinued, as it produced much scandal; and the +question remains undecided. + +Instincts of race are far stronger in Turkey than is generally supposed. +In Albania, where the Mussulmans are deemed more fanatical than +elsewhere, these are more powerful than even the instincts of religion. +Thus, while other Christians are looked down upon and treated with +severity, the Miridits, who are of Albanian blood, are allowed to wear +their arms, and admitted to equal privileges with their Mahomedan +fellow-countrymen. In Bosnia, more than anywhere throughout the empire, +the question has been one of feudal origin, that is to say, of a +privileged and unprivileged class, analogous to that which now occupies +the Russians; although in Bosnia the former class has been gradually +losing importance, and sinking into a lower position. + +To the demoralised condition of the Christians themselves, then, +combined with Turkish misgovernment, resulting from their +semi-civilisation, may the existing unsatisfactory state of affairs be +attributed, and not to any systematic oppression. It is the want of +this, which renders it difficult for the Porte, now that the central +power has been strengthened at the expense of the local, to take any +decided steps for improving the position of the Christians; all that it +can do is to place all upon a footing of legal equality, to encourage +education, and to promote everything which shall have for its object the +developement of the natural resources of the country. + +[Footnote R: The 1st Corps d'Armee of the empire.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza--Subterraneous + Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman Tombs--Coins and + Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry Trees--Blagai--Source of + Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain of Mostar--Legends--Silver + Ore--Mineral Products of Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley + of the Drechnitza. + + +The week following upon my return to Mostar was devoted to excursions to +different spots in the vicinity of the town. In one instance the +pleasure was enhanced by the anticipation of some duck-shooting; for, as +the event will show, the expectation was never realised. Our destination +was Blato, a plain about nine miles distant, which all maps represent as +a lake, but which does not deserve the name, as it is only flooded +during the winter months. The party consisted of M. Gyurcovich, the +Hungarian dragoman of the British consulate; the Russian Consul; his +domestic, a serf strongly addicted to the use of ardent drinks, of which +he had evidently partaken largely on the occasion in question; a French +doctor, who had many stories of the Spanish war, in which he had served; +two other individuals, and myself. + +About one hour from Mostar, we arrived at the source of the Radobolya, +which flows through Mostar and falls into the Narenta near the old +bridge. The road was sufficiently well defined, although needing repair +in places. The walls on either side, as well as its general +construction, proclaim its Roman origin. It was doubtless a part of the +great main road from the east to Dalmatia. It is only at occasional +points that it is so easily discernible, but sufficient evidence exists +to show that on quitting the Albanian mountains it passed Stolatz, +crossed the bridge at Mostar, and continued thence by a somewhat +circuitous route to Spalatro. On emerging from the defile through which +we had been marching, the plain of Blato lay extended before us, some +nine or ten miles in length and four in breadth. The land, which must be +extremely fertile, is cultivated in the spring, but only those cereals +which are of the most rapid growth are produced; such as millet, Indian +corn, and broom seed, from which a coarse description of bread is made. +The Lichnitza, which runs through it, is a mere stream. It takes its +rise near the Austro-Bosnian frontier, and loses itself in the hills +which surround Blato. The plain is porous and full of holes, from which, +in the late autumnal months, the waters bubble up. This continues until +the river itself overflows, covering the entire plain to a considerable +depth, in some parts as much as thirty-six feet. The original passage +under the hills, by which the water escaped, is said to have been +filled up at the time of the Turkish conquest. If such be true, it might +be reopened with little cost and trouble, and the plain would thus be +rendered most valuable to the province. + +Arrived at the scene of operations, we lost little time in getting to +work. A still evening, and a moon obscured by light clouds, promised +well for sport; and we should doubtless have made a large bag had +ordinary precautions been taken. These, however, were not deemed +necessary by the majority of the party, who walked down in the open to +the river's edge, smoking and chattering as though they expected the +'dilly-dills to come and be killed' merely for the asking. The result, I +need not say, was our return almost empty-handed. Late in the evening we +assembled round a large fire, to eat the dinner which our servants had +already prepared; after which we courted sleep beneath the soothing +influences of tales of love and war as related by our AEsculapian friend, +who undeniably proved himself to have been a very Don Quixote. Early the +following morning we were again afoot, and a few partridges, hares, and +quail rewarded our exertions. Amongst the hills, where most of the game +was shot, I noticed several old Roman tombs. Many of these were merely +large shapeless blocks of stone, while others were of the proper +sarcophagus form, ornamented with sculptures of considerable merit. On +some were depicted men in armour, with shields and long straight swords, +while others had two men with lances aimed at a deer between them. The +absence of anything like moulding on the sides proves their great +antiquity. In its place we find a rather graceful pattern, vines with +leaves and grapes predominating; or, as in other cases, choruses of +women holding hands and dancing. In no instance did I detect anything +denoting immorality or low ideas, so prevalent in the sculptures of +intermediate ages. Amongst these tombs, as also on the sites of the +ancient towns, curiosities and coins are found. Of the last, small +Hungarian silver pieces, and large Venetian gold pieces, are the most +numerous; although Roman copper coins are by no means rare. Stones +engraved with figures of Socrates and Minerva were shown to me, as +having been found in the province, and it is only two years since, that +two golden ear-rings of fifteen drachms weight, and about the size of +pigeons' eggs, were dug up in the neighbourhood of Blato. About the same +time a ring was found, of which the Pacha obtained possession. It was of +iron, set with a stone only three tenths of an inch in diameter, on +which were most beautifully engraved no fewer than nine figures of +classical deities. + +The ensuing day I devoted to a double expedition to Boona and Blagai. +The former of these is about six miles distant, on the plain from +Mostar. It consists of a few houses built by the rebellious Ali Pacha, +who was Vizier at the time of Sir Gardner Wilkinson's visit to +Herzegovina. That functionary's villa, which is now the country-house of +the British Consul, is a moderate-sized yellow house, with little to +recommend it save its situation at the confluence of the Boona and the +Narenta. The former is spanned by a large bridge of fourteen arches, +upon one of which is a Turkish inscription, from which it appears that +it was repaired by the Turks in the year of the Hegira 1164--that is to +say, 113 years ago. + +The bridge is in all probability of Roman construction, though the +Turkish habit of erasing all inscriptions, and substituting others in +Turkish in their place, renders it impossible to fix precise dates. Near +the villa stands a square house intended for the nurture of silk-worms, +while a garden of 30,000 mulberry trees shows that Ali Pacha had +pecuniary considerations in view as well as his domestic comfort. From +Boona to Blagai is about six miles, and here also is a bridge of five +arches across the Boona. Leaving the village, which stands on the banks +of the river, we proceeded to its source. Pears, pomegranates, olives, +and other fruit trees grow in great luxuriance, and two or three mills +are worked by the rush of water, which is here considerable. The cavern +from which the river pours in a dense volume, is about eight feet high, +and situated at the foot of a precipitous cliff, under which stands a +kiosk, the abode of our fighting friend the Affghan Dervish. Thence we +proceeded to the castle, which stands on the summit of a craggy height, +overlooking the village on the one side, and the road to Nevresign on +the other. Speaking of this, Luccari says, 'Blagai stands on a rock +above the river Bosna, fortified by the ancient Voivodas of the country +to protect their treasure, as its name implies, Blagia (or Blago) +signifying treasure.'[S] + +It was governed by a Count, and the Counts of Blagai performed a +distinguished part in the history of Herzegovina. Some of them, as the +Boscenovich and the Hranich, are known for their misfortunes, having +been compelled to seek refuge in Ragusa at the time of the Turkish +invasion; and the last who governed 'the treasure city of Blagai' was +Count George, who fled to the Ragusan territory in 1465.[T] The view to +the southward over the plain country is extremely picturesque, but this +portion of the battlements are completely ruined. On the north side they +are in good preservation, and there wells exist, the cement of which +looked as fresh as though it had been recently renovated. + +In one of the batteries a brass gun was lying, of about 9lbs. calibre, +with vent and muzzle uninjured. In the interior of the fort, shells of +dwelling-houses, distributed angularly, denote the part of the building +which was devoted to domestic purposes. In these the woodwork of the +windows may still be seen, as well as stones projecting from the walls, +on which the flooring of the upper stories must have rested. At the main +entrance an oak case is rivetted into the wall to receive the beam, +which barred the door. At the foot of the hill is a ruined church, in +which some large shells of about thirteen inches diameter were strewed +about. One of these was lying on the road side, as though it had been +rolled from the castle above. + +Having now seen all the lions of the neighbourhood, I bethought me of +leaving Mostar once more, but this time with the intention of working +northward. The ordinary route pursued by those whom business calls from +Mostar to Bosna Serai is by Konitza, a village situated on the frontier, +nearly due north of Mostar. To this course I at first inclined, but was +induced to change my plans by the prospect of some chamois-hunting, in +the valley of the Drechnitza. Having laid in a supply of bread and other +necessaries, we, i.e. M. Gyurcovich and myself, made an early start, in +hopes of reaching our destination on the same night. + +Following the right bank of the Narenta, our course lay for a short time +through the northernmost of the two plains at whose junction Mostar is +situated. These, from the smooth and round appearance of the stones, +with which their surface is strewed, lead to the supposition that this +at one time was the bed of an important lake: this idea is confirmed by +the legends of the country, which affirm the existence of rings in the +sides of the mountains, to which it is rumoured that boats were moored +of old. Whether this be true or not, the appearance of the place lends +probability to the statement. + +Shortly after leaving the town, there is a small square tower close to +and commanding the river, which is here fordable. As we proceeded +farther north it becomes rocky and narrow, and some small rapids occur +at intervals. The bad state of the roads, and the ill condition of our +baggage horses, rendered it necessary to halt several hours short of the +point which we had intended to reach that night. Having, therefore, +cleared out an outhouse devoted in general to looms, green tobacco, +hens, cats, and the like, we made our arrangements for passing the +night. While thus engaged a peasant brought me a tolerably large +specimen of silver ore, which he stated that he had found in the hills +on the Bosnian frontier, where he assured me that any amount was to be +obtained. His veracity I have no reason to doubt, although unable to +proceed thither to confirm his statement by my own testimony. It is +certain, however, that the mountains of Bosnia are unusually rich in +mineral products. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, iron, coal, black +amber, and gypsum, are to be found in large quantities; silver being the +most plentiful, whence the province has received the name of Bosnia +Argentina. The manifold resources of the country in this respect have +unfortunately been permitted to remain undeveloped under the Ottoman +rule, while the laws laid down relative to mining matters are of such a +nature as to cripple foreign enterprise. In this proceeding, the Turkish +government has committed the error of adhering to the principles and +counsels of France, which is essentially a non-mining country. In three +places only has any endeavour been made to profit by the secret riches +of the earth, viz. at Foinitza, Crescevo, and Stanmaidan, where iron +works have been established by private speculation. The iron is of good +quality, but the bad state of the roads, and the difficulty of procuring +transport, render it a far less remunerative undertaking than would +otherwise be the case. Good wrought iron sells at three-halfpence the +pound. Were a company formed under the auspices of the British +government, there is little doubt that they might be successfully +worked, since there is nothing in the nature of the country to render +the construction of a road to the coast either a difficult or expensive +operation. Continuing our course on the right bank of the Narenta, we +arrived at a lofty mound, evidently of artificial construction, situated +at a bend of the river. Traces of recent digging were apparent, as +though search had been made for money or curiosities. It was just one of +those positions where castles were built of yore, its proximity to the +river being no small consideration in those days of primitive defences. +A short distance from its base were two tombstones, sculptured with more +than ordinary care and ability. One of these represented a man with a +long sword and shield, faced by a dog or fox, which was the only portion +of the engraving at all effaced. + +At a spot where a spring issued from the rocks, we were met by a party +of Irregulars, shouting and firing their matchlocks in a very indecorous +manner. They were doubtless going their rounds, bent on plunder, as is +their wont; and living at free quarters. The place where we encountered +them was wild in the extreme, and well adapted for deeds of violence. It +was indeed only in the preceding spring, that a murder was committed on +that very spot. Nor was it the first murder that had been done there. +Some years previously two Dalmatian robbers concealed themselves behind +the adjacent rocks, with the intention of murdering two Turks, who were +carrying money to Bosna Serai. These Turks, however, detected the +movements of the assassins, and as one of the Christians fired, one of +the Turks returned the shot, each killing his man. Sequel: the second +Christian ran away; the surviving Turk carried off his companion's money +in addition to his own. + +At one part of our route a landslip of large dimensions had taken place, +covering the slope to the river with large stones and blocks of red +marble. This, as well as white, black, and gray marble, are found in +large quantities in the surrounding hills. The river at this point is +turgid and rocky, and there are two or three rapids almost worthy of the +name of falls. The narrow rocky ledge, which constitutes the only +traversable road, immediately overhangs the water, having a sheer +descent on the right of nearly 200 feet. The edge of this precipice is +overgrown with grass and shrubs to such a degree as to render it very +dangerous. Indeed it nearly proved fatal to my horse and myself: the +bank suddenly gave way, and but for the fortunate intervention of a +projecting ledge, which received the off fore and hind feet of the +former, we should inevitably have been picked up in very small pieces, +if anyone had taken the trouble to look for us. + +Having now journeyed about ten hours from Mostar, our road wound to the +left, leaving the Narenta at its confluence with the Drechnitza, which +waters the valley of the same name. Close to its mouth, which is +spanned by a neat two-arched bridge, a Ban is said to have lived in +former days; and a solitary rock projecting from the hills on the left +bank is pointed out as his favourite resort. The summit of this is +smoothed off, and traces of an inscription still exist, but too much +defaced to be deciphered. + +[Footnote S: Luccari.] + +[Footnote T: Gardner Wilkinson, vol. ii.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopaedia--Feats of Skill--Legend of + Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of Druga--Excavations--Country + Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud Effendi--Old + Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian Frontier--Vidosa--Parish + Priest--National Music--Livno--Franciscan Convent--Priestly + Incivility--Illness--Quack Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military + Ambulance--Bosna Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and + Bridges--Mussulman Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman + Pacha. + + +The family with whom we purposed spending the succeeding days were +reputed to be the wealthiest of the Christians in that part of the +country. It will perhaps convey a more correct impression of their +means, if we say that they were less poverty-stricken than others. A few +cows, some half-dozen acres of arable land, and a fair stock of poultry, +constituted their claim to being considered millionaires. The household +consisted, besides father and mother, of two rather pretty girls, two +sons, and their cousin, who cultivated the land and hunted chamois +regularly every Sunday. Besides these there were some little boys, whose +only occupation appeared to be to bring fire for the pipes of their +elders. Our arrival, and the prospect of a bye day after the chamois, +threw all the men of the party into a state of great excitement. Minute +was the inspection of our guns, rifles, and revolvers, the latter +receiving much encomium. An old Turk, who had been summoned to take part +in the morrow's excursion, eyed one of those for some time, and at +length delivered himself of the following sentiment: 'They say there is +a devil: how can this be so, when men are so much more devilish?' I am +afraid the salvation of Sir William Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, &c. &c., +would be uncertain were they to be judged on the same grounds. While +waiting for our dinner of fowls made into soup and baked potatoes, the +sons brought a book, which the priest, with more regard for preserving +his reputation for learning than veracity, had told them was a bad book. +It proved to be a German Encyclopaedia. On hearing this one remarked, +'Oh, then it will do for cigarettes.' While regaling ourselves on wine +and grapes, which one of the hospitable creatures had walked twelve +miles to procure, we received visits from the male population of the +village, who, like all the people of the valley, are much addicted to +chamois-hunting. Their conversation, indeed, had reference exclusively +to sport, varied by a few feats of skill, hardly coming under the former +name. One villager asserted positively that he had seen a man at Livno +shoot an egg off another's head. This was instantly capped by another, +who affirmed that he had witnessed a similar feat at the same place. His +story ran thus: 'At the convent of Livno, all the Roman Catholic girls +of the district are married. On one occasion a young bride was receiving +the congratulations of her friends, when a feather which had been +fastened across her head became loosened, and waved around it. A +bystander remarked that he would be a good shot who could carry away the +feather without injuring the head. The girl upon hearing this looked +round and said, "If you have the courage to fire, I will stand." Upon +which the bystander drew a pistol and shot away the truant feather.' + +The valley of Drechnitza is wild and rocky, but sufficiently wooded to +present a pleasing aspect. The timber is in many places of large girth, +and might easily be transported to the sea. It is invested also with +more than common interest by the primitive character of its people, and +the legends which associate it with the early history of the province. + +At present only four villages remain in the valley; that where our hosts +lived being the most ancient. They indeed spoke with pride of having +occupied their present position since before the conquest, paying only a +nominal tribute of one piastre and a half until within the last thirty +years, since which time their privileges have been rescinded. + +On the left bank of the Drechnitza, about half-way between its +confluence with the Narenta and the house of our hosts, is a small +valley named Petral; it derived its name from the following +circumstances:--For seven years after the rest of Bosnia and the +Herzegovina had been overrun by the Turks under Mehemet II., the people +of this valley maintained an unequal combat with the invaders. The +gallant little band were under the orders of one Peter, who lived in a +castle on the summit of a height overlooking the plain; this plain could +only be approached by two passes, one of which was believed to be +unknown to the Turks. In an evil hour an old woman betrayed the secret +of this pass, and Peter had the mortification one morning of looking +down from his castle upon the armed Turkish legion, who had effected an +entrance during the night. Like a true patriot, he sank down overcome by +the sight, and died in a fit of apoplexy; whence the valley has been +called Petral to this day. + +A few ruins mark the spot where the church stood of yore, and four +tombstones are in tolerably good preservation. Beneath these repose the +ashes of a bishop and three monks; the date on one of them is +A.D. 1400. + +Early the following morning we started for the bills, where the chamois +were reported to be numerous. After about three hours' climbing over a +mass of large stones and rocks, the ascent became much more precipitous, +trees and sand taking the place of the rocks. In course of time we +reached a plateau, with an almost perpendicular fall on the one side, +and a horizontal ridge of rock protruding from the mountain side +beneath. Four of the party, which numbered eight guns in all, having +taken up positions on this ridge, the remainder, with a posse of boys, +made a flank movement with the view of taking the chamois in reverse. +The shouting and firing which soon commenced showed us that they were +already driving them towards us from the opposite hills. The wood was +here so thick that occasional glimpses only could be obtained of the +chamois, as they came out into the open, throwing up their heads and +sniffing the air as though to detect the danger which instinct told them +was approaching. Two or three of the graceful little animals blundered +off, hard hit, the old Turk being the only one of the party who +succeeded in killing one outright. The bound which followed the +death-wound caused it to fall down a precipice, at the bottom of which +it was found with its neck dislocated, and both horns broken short off. +If the ascent was difficult, the descent was three-fold more so. The +rocks being the great obstacle to our progress, the mountaineers managed +well enough, jumping from one to another with the agility of cats; but +to those unaccustomed to the kind of work, repeated falls were +inevitable. How I should have got down I really cannot say, had I not +intrusted myself to providence and the strong arm of one of those sons +of nature. + +The strong exercise which I had taken rendering me anything but disposed +for a repetition of the sport on the ensuing day, M.G. left me on his +return journey to Mostar, while I proceeded on my solitary way. This, +however, was not so cheerless as I had anticipated, as the two sons of +the house expressed a wish to accompany me as far as Livno on the +Bosnian frontier, where their uncle, a village priest, held a cure. For +several hours we remained on the left bank of the Drechnitza, which we +forded close to its source. On the heights upon our right, fame tells of +the existence of a city, now no more; and it is certain that a golden +idol weighing 23 lbs. was found in the locality. Buoyed up by hopes of +similar success, fresh gold-diggers had been recently at work, but with +what result I am unable to say. + +Bearing away now to the W. we entered the valley of the Druga, a little +rocky stream. Two roads were reported practicable, the longer taking a +winding course past Rachitna, the other, which I selected, being more +direct, but far more rocky and difficult; the ascent at one point was +more severe than anything I ever recollect having seen. + +Leaving Druga we descended into the plain of Swynyatcha, a small open +space, which is again connected with Duvno by a pass. The hills on the +left of this pass are called Liep, those on the right Cesarussa. Here, +too, report speaks of the existence of a city in former days, and the +discovery of a large hag of gold coins, like Venetian sequins, has +induced some speculative spirit to commence excavations on a large +scale. But these, I regret to say, have not as yet been attended with +any success. A very fair road has been recently made through this pass, +and the traffic which has resulted from it ought to convince the people +of the utility of its construction. We met many ponies carrying +merchandise from Livno to Mostar, while long strings of carts drawn by +eight bullocks were employed in carrying wood to the villages in the +plain of Duvno. These carts are roughly built enough, but answer the +purpose for which they are intended, viz. slow traffic in the plains. +The axle-trees and linch-pins are made of wood, and indeed no iron at +all is used in their construction. The plain of Duvno is one of the +largest in the province: its extreme length is about fifteen miles, and +villages are placed at the foot of the hills, round its entire +circumference. The most important of these is the seat of a Mudir, to +whom I proceeded at once on my arrival. Although afflicted with a +hump-back, he was a person of most refined manners. His brother-in-law, +Mahmoud Effendi, who is a member of the Medjlis, was with him, and added +his endeavours to those of the Mudir to render my stay at Duvno +agreeable. Having complimented the great man upon the appearance of his +Mudirlik, he laughingly replied, 'Oh, yes, they must work because it is +so cold'--a statement which I felt anything but disposed to question. +The wind was blowing down the plain at the time in bitterly cold blasts, +and I understand that such is always the case. The vegetation appeared +good, in spite of a seeming scarcity of water. + +The people of the district are nearly all Catholics, which may be +attributed to its proximity to Dalmatia and the convents of Bosnia. They +are orderly and well-behaved, according to the Mudir's account; but I +also gathered from some Catholics to whom I spoke that this good +behaviour results from fear more than love, as the few Turks have it all +their own way. In the centre of the plain are some old tombs, some of a +sarcophagus shape, others merely rough flat stones, whilst here and +there interspersed may be seen some modern crosses--a strange admixture +of the present and the past. After a somewhat uncomfortable night in the +one khan which the town possesses, I presented myself with early dawn at +the house of the Mudir. Although not yet 8 o'clock, I found him with the +whole Medjlis in conclave around him. Thence the entire party +accompanied me to inspect the fort, or such part of it as had escaped +the ravages of time. It was rather amusing to see the abortive attempts +at climbing of some of these fur-coated, smoke-dried old Mussulmans, who +certainly did not all equal the Mudir in activity. The fort is a +quadrilateral with bastions, and gates in each of the curtains; in two +of the bastions are eight old guns, dismounted: these are all of Turkish +manufacture, some having iron hoops round the muzzles. + +In the SW. corner is a round tower, evidently copied from the Roman, if +not of genuine Roman origin. For what purpose the fort was built, or by +whom, I was unable to learn. It is said, however, to have been +constructed about two centuries ago[U], and there is a Turkish +inscription on it to that effect; but, as I have said before, no +reliance can be placed upon these. There are many buildings within the +walls, and one mosque is reputed to have existed a hundred years before +the rest of the fort. + +Shortly after leaving the village we arrived at the frontier line of +Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is, however, unmarked. Already the country +presented a greener and more habitable appearance, which increased as we +continued our journey. Towards evening we stopped at a little village +named Vidosa, where the uncle of my hunting companions held the post of +parish priest. Having sent one of his nephews in advance to warn him of +my arrival, he was waiting to receive me, and invited me to stay at his +house with great cordiality. Notwithstanding that the greater portion of +it had been destroyed by fire a few months previously, I was very +comfortably housed, and fully appreciated a clean bed after the rough +'shakes down' to which I was accustomed. That the kitchen was +luxuriously stocked, I am not prepared to say; but the priest was +profuse in his apologies for the absence of meat, proffering as an +excuse that Roman Catholics do not eat it on Friday, a reason which +would scarcely hold good, as I arrived on a Saturday. Of eggs and +vegetables, however, there was no lack. Vegetable diet and dog Latin are +strong provocatives of thirst, and the number of times that I was +compelled to say '_ad salutem_' in the course of the evening was +astonishing. The old priest appeared more accustomed to these copious +libations than his younger assistant, who before he left the table +showed unmistakable signs of being 'well on.' Both vicar and curate wore +moustachios, and the flat-topped red fez, which distinguishes their +profession. The curate had received a certain amount of education at one +of the Bosnian convents, whence he had been sent to Rome, where he had, +at any rate, attained a tolerable proficiency in Italian, and a few +words of French. Another occupant of the house, who must not be allowed +to go unmentioned, was the priest's mother, a charming old lady in her +ninety-seventh year. Age had in no way impaired her faculties, and she +was more active and bustling than many would be with half her weight of +years. + +In the evening the nephews made their appearance, having dined with the +domestics. The remaining hours were devoted to singing, if such can be +termed the monotonous drawl which constitutes the music of the country. +In this one of the brothers was considered very proficient: the subjects +of the songs are generally legendary feats of Christians against the +conquering Turks, which, however little they may have conduced to bar +the progress of the invaders, sound remarkably well in verse. Sometimes, +as in the present case, the voice is accompanied by the guesla, a kind +of violin with one or three strings. + +The priest, although a man of small education and strong prejudices, +appeared to be possessed of much good sense. He deplored the state of +things in Herzegovina, and said that much misery would ensue from it, +not only there, but in all the neighbouring provinces. As an instance of +the severity of the government demands, he mentioned that 1,400 +baggage-horses had been recently taken from the district of Livno alone, +as well as more than 400 horse-loads of corn, for all of which promises +of payment only had been made. For the accuracy of his statements I am +not prepared to vouch, but I give them as they were given to me. He did +not, however, complain so much of the quantity, as of the injudicious +mode of proceeding, in making such large demands at one time. + +A few hours took me to the town of Livno, on the outskirts of which is +the Catholic convent. Mass was being performed at the time; but I found +the Guardiano, 'Padre Lorenzo,' and one of the Fratri disengaged. After +keeping me waiting for some time in a very cold vaulted room, these two +came to me, though their reception of me contrasted very unfavourably +with that of the simple village priest. The convent is for monks of the +Franciscan order, of whom there were five besides the Superior. It is a +large, rambling, and incomplete building of white stone, and in no way +interesting, having only been completed about six years. After mass came +dinner, which was provided more with regard to quantity than quality, +and at which the holy men acquitted themselves _a merveille_. Excepting +a young priest of delicate appearance and good education, the brethren +appeared a surly and ill-conditioned set. So ill-disguised was the +discontent conveyed in the ungracious 'sicuro' vouchsafed in reply to my +petition for a bed, that I ordered my traps to be conveyed forthwith to +the best khan in the town, and, having failed to find favour with the +Christians, sought the aid of the Mussulman Kaimakan, from whom at any +rate my English blood and Omer Pacha's Buruhltee insured me advice and +assistance. + +The Austrian Consul also received me with much civility, and most +obligingly placed his house at my disposal, although compelled to start +for Spolatro on business. For some reason best known to himself, he +begged of me to return to Mostar, insisting on the impracticability of +travelling in Bosnia in the present state of political feeling. This, +coupled with the specimen of priestly civility which I had experienced +in the convent of Goritza, inclined me to alter the route which I had +proposed to myself by Foinitza to Bosna Serai. In lieu of this route, I +resolved upon visiting Travnik, the former capital of Bosnia, before +proceeding to Bosna Serai (or Serayevo, as it is called in the +vernacular), the present capital of the province. In fulfillment of this +plan, I started on the morning of the 21st, though suffering from fever +and headache, which I attributed to a cold caught in the damp vaults of +the Franciscan convent. With each successive day my illness became more +serious, and it was with difficulty that I could sit my horse during the +last day's journey before reaching Travnik. At one of the khans en +route, I put myself into the hands of the Khanjee, who with his female +helpmate prescribed the following remedies:--He directed me to place my +feet in a basin of almost boiling tea, made out of some medicinal herbs +peculiar to the country, the aroma from which was most objectionable. He +then covered me with a waterproof sheet which I carried with me, and, +when sufficiently cooked, lifted me into bed. Though slightly relieved +by this treatment, the cure was anything but final; and on my arrival at +Travnik I was far more dead than alive. There an Hungarian doctor, to +whom I had letters of introduction, came to visit me, and prescribed a +few simple remedies. One day I hazarded the remark that stimulants were +what I most required; upon which the learned doctor observed, with +proper gravity, that brandy would probably be the most efficacious +remedy, as he had often heard that English soldiers lived entirely on +exciting drinks. Ill as I was, I could scarcely refrain from laughing at +the drollery of the idea. + +After a few days' stay at Travnik my medical adviser began, I fancy, to +despair of my case; and on the same principle as doctors elsewhere +recommend Madeira to hopeless cases of consumption, he advised me to +continue my journey to Bosna Serai. The difficulty was to reach that +place. Here, however, the Kaimakan came to my help, and volunteered to +let out on hire an hospital-cart belonging to the artillery. I accepted +his offer, and after a few days' stay at Travnik set forward on my +journey to Bosna Serai. The carriage was a species of Indian dak ghari, +with side doors, but without a box-seat; it was drawn by artillery +horses, ridden by two drivers, while a sergeant and gunner did escort +duty. Fortunately the vehicle had springs, which must have suffered +considerably from the jolting which it underwent, although we only +proceeded at a foot's pace. + +After three days' journey we reached Bosna Serai, where I was most +kindly received by Mr. Z., the acting British Consul, and by M.M., the +French Consul, with whom I stayed during the three weeks that I was +confined to my room by illness. + +Bosna Serai, or Serayevo, is probably the most European of all the large +towns of Turkey in Europe. It is not in the extent of the commerce which +prevails, nor in the civilisation of its inhabitants, that this +pre-eminence shows itself; but in the cleanly and regular appearance of +its houses and streets, the condition of which last would do credit to +many a Frankish town. This happy state of things is mainly attributable +to the energy and liberality of the present governor of Bosnia, Osman +Pacha, who, notwithstanding his advanced years, has evinced the greatest +desire to promote the welfare of the people under his charge. In the +nine months of his rule which had preceded my visit, he had constructed +no less than ninety miles of road, repaired the five bridges which span +the river within the limits of the town, and introduced other reforms +which do him honour, and have procured for him the gratitude and +goodwill of all classes of his people. The system which he has +introduced for the construction of roads is at once effective and +simple. By himself making a small portion of road near the capital, he +succeeded in demonstrating to the country people the advantages which +would result from the increased facility of traffic. By degrees this +feeling spread itself over the province, and the villagers apply +themselves, as soon as the crops are sown, to making new portions of +road, which they are further bound to keep in repair. This is obviously +the first and most indispensable step in the developement of the +resources of the country. It would be well for the Sultan were he +possessed of a few more employes as energetic, able, and honest as Osman +Pacha. + +I regretted that the rapidity of his movements prevented my taking leave +of him and his intelligent secretary. But, a few nights before my +departure, an express arrived bringing intelligence of a rising in +Turkish Croatia, near Banialuka. The news arrived at 9 P.M., +and the energetic Pacha was on the road to the scene of the disturbance +by 6 A.M. the following morning. The emeute proved trifling; +not being, as was at first reported, a Christian insurrection, but a +mere ebullition of feeling on the part of the Mussulmans of that +district, who are the most poverty-stricken of all the inhabitants of +the province. + +[Footnote U: This can scarcely be correct, as everything implies far +greater antiquity.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo--Mineral + Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The + Bosna--Trout-fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen + Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the + Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tre Regni--Culpa + River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to + Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian Troops--Probable + Policy--Water-Mills--Semlin--Belgrade. + + +The shortening days, and the snow, which might now be seen in patches on +the mountain sides, warned us of approaching winter, and the necessity +for making a start in order to ensure my reaching Constantinople before +the Danube navigation should be closed. My illness and other +circumstances had combined to detain me later than I had at first +intended, and I was consequently compelled to abandon the idea of +visiting either Svornik or Banialuka, two of the largest and most +important towns in the province. The former of these places is +interesting as being considered the key of Bosnia, in a military point +of view; the latter, from the numerous remains, which speak eloquently +of its former importance. The navigation of the Save, too, having +become practicable since the heavy rains had set in, I resolved upon +the simplest route of reaching Belgrade, viz., that by Brod. In coming +to this decision, I was influenced also by my desire to see the valley +of the Bosna, in and above which the road lies for almost the whole +distance. No site could have been more judiciously chosen, than that in +which Serayevo is built. Surrounded by beautiful hills and meadows, +which even in November bore traces of the luxuriant greenness which +characterises the province, and watered by the limpid stream of the +Migliaska, its appearance is most pleasing. As we rattled down the main +street at a smart trot on the morning of the 16th November, in the +carriage of Mr. H., the British Consul, it was difficult to believe +oneself in a Turkish city. The houses, even though in most cases built +of wood, are in good repair; and the trellis-work marking the feminine +apartments, and behind which a pair of bright eyes may occasionally be +seen, materially heightens the charms of imagination. The road for the +first six miles was hard and good. It is a specimen of Osman Pacha's +handiwork, and is raised considerably above the surrounding fields, the +sides of the road being rivetted, as it were, with wattles. At the end +of that distance, and very near the confluence of the Migliaska and the +Bosna, I separated from my friends, who were bent on a day's shooting. +From the number of shots which reached my ear as I pursued my solitary +journey, I should imagine that they must have had a successful day. The +love of sport is strongly developed in the people of these provinces, +and nature has provided them with ample means of gratifying their +inclination. Besides bears, wolves, boars, foxes, roebucks, chamois, +hares, and ermines, all of which are plentiful in parts of the country, +birds of all kinds abound; grey and red-legged partridges, blackcock, +ducks of various kinds, quail, and snipe, are the most common; while +flights of geese and cranes pass in the spring and autumn, but only +descend in spring. Swans and pelicans are also birds of passage, and +occasionally visit these unknown lands. The natives are clever in +trapping these animals. This they do either by means of pitfalls or by +large traps, made after the fashion of ordinary rat-traps. + +Before continuing my journey, I visited the hot springs, which rise from +the earth at a stone's throw from the main road. Baths were built over +them by Omer Pacha, on the occasion of his last visit to Bosnia, for the +benefit of the sick soldiers, and such others as chose to use them. +Besides two or three larger baths, there are several intended for one +person, each being provided with a kind of cell, as a dressing room. The +waters are considered most efficacious in all cases of cutaneous +diseases, and were at one time in great request for every kind of +disorder, real and imaginary. From what I could gather from the +'Custos,' I should say that they are now but little frequented. Leaving +the Migliaska, which is here spanned by a solid bridge of ten arches, we +crossed the Bosna in about half an hour. Scattered along the river bank, +or in some sheltered nook, protected by large trees alike from the heat +and the eyes of curious observers, might be seen the harems of various +pachas, and other grandees connected with the province. After four hours +farther march, we arrived at Ekshesoo, where 1 located myself in the +khan for the night. My first step was to send for a jug of the mineral +water, for which the village is famous, and at one period of the year +very fashionable. The water has a strong taste of iron, and when fresh +drawn, effervesces on being mixed with sugar, wine, or other acids. It +is in great repute with all classes, but the Jews are the most addicted +to its use. No Hebrew in Serayevo would venture to allow a year to +elapse without a visit to the springs; they generally remain there for +two or three days, and during that time drink at stated hours gallon +after gallon of the medicated fluid. The following night I arrived at +Boosovatz, where I left the Travnik road, which I had been retracing up +to that point. The water of the Bosna is here beautifully transparent; +and at about an hour's distance is a spring, the water of which is +considered the best in Bosnia. The Pacha has it brought in all the way +to Serayevo, yet, notwithstanding this, I saw many persons in the +village suffering from goitre, a by no means uncommon complaint in +Bosnia. The cause for the prevalence of this affliction is difficult to +understand, unless we attribute it to the use of the river water, which +is at times much swollen by the melting snow. + +10th November: rain fell in torrents, much to my disgust, as the scenery +was very beautiful. The road, which is a portion of the old road +constructed by Omer Pacha, skirts the banks of the river, which winds +sometimes amongst steep wooded hills, at others in the smooth green +plains. At one point we were obliged to ford it; the stream was rather +deep and rapid, and I certainly experienced a sensation of relief when I +saw my baggage pony fairly landed on the opposite bank, without further +injury to his load than a slight immersion. The fishing of the Bosna is +not so good as that of the Narento and some other rivers of Bosnia and +Herzegovina. Let me not be accused of a partiality for travellers' +tales, when I say that trout of 60 lbs. have been killed in the latter +province. In external colour these are veritable trout, the flesh, +however, having a yellowish appearance, something between the colour of +trout and salmon; the smaller fish are of excellent quality and are +very abundant. Three hours after leaving Boosovatz we reached Tzenitza, +a small town where a little trade is carried on. While sitting in the +public room of the khan, the post from Brod arrived en route to Bosna +Serai. The man who carried it came in wet and mud-bespattered, and +declared the road to be quite impassable; a bit of self-glorification +which I took for what it was worth. Had I not been pressed for time I +should have myself been inclined to give way to the importunities of all +concerned, to postpone my journey to Vranduk until the following day; +but seeing no prospect of any improvement in the weather, I deemed it +prudent to push on. + +Another difficulty, however, here presented itself. The Tchouch of +Zaptiehs positively declined to give me a guide; and it was only by +sending for the Mudir, and threatening to write a complaint to the +Serdar Ekrem, that I succeeded in obtaining one. This escort duty is the +principal work of the mounted Zaptiehs. Ten piastres a day, or twenty +pence, is what is usually paid them by those who make use of their +services. They, of course, pay for the keep of their own horses out of +their regular official salary. The rain now gave place to snow, which +fell in considerable quantities for two or three days. The cold was +intense, and it was only by halting at every khan, generally about three +hours apart, that it was possible to keep the blood in circulation. On +the morning of the 20th the sun shone out bright and comparatively warm, +although everything bore a most wintry aspect. Beautiful as the scenery +must be when spring has clothed the trees with green, or when the early +autumnal tints have succeeded the fierce heat of summer, the appearance +of the country clad in its snowy garments might well compare with either +of these. The hills, rugged in parts, and opening out at intervals into +large open plains, trees and shrubs groaning with their milk-white +burden, or sparkling like frosted silver in the moonlight, and above all +the river, now yellow and swollen, rushing rapidly along, produced an +effect characteristic and grand. + +About ninety miles from Serayevo the river becomes much broader, and +swollen as it was by the recent rain and snow, presented a very fine +appearance. + +On its right bank stands the town of Maglai, which is prettily situated +in the side of a basin formed by the hills, a craggy eminence apparently +dividing the town into two parts. Behind these, however, the houses +meet, sloping down close to the river's edge. On the very summit of the +central mound is an old fort mounting five guns, which command the +river, but would otherwise be of little use. The only means of +communication between either bank, is a ferry-boat of rude construction. +After leaving this town there still remained four hours of my journey +to be accomplished, before arriving at Schevaleekhan, where I intended +passing the night. Unaccustomed as I was to anything like luxury, I was +positively staggered at the total absence of even the commonest +necessaries of life. At Maglai I had endeavoured without success to buy +potatoes, fruit, and even meat; but here neither bread, eggs, nor +chickens, which are nearly always procurable, were to be found. Having +received the inevitable 'Nehmur' to every one of my demands, I could not +help asking what the inhabitants themselves eat; and being told that +they lived upon vegetables, asked for the same. Judge, then, of my +astonishment when told that there were none. Fortunately my kind friends +at Bosna Serai had not sent me away empty-handed, or assuredly I should +have felt the pangs of hunger that day. + +At all times a khan is a painful mockery of the word hotel, as it is +often translated. Picture to yourself a room about eight feet square, +with windows not made to open, a stove which fills one-third of the +entire space, and a wooden divan occupying the other two-thirds; the +whole peopled by innumerable specimens of the insect creation, and you +have a very fair idea of an ordinary khan. If there be a moment when one +is justified in the indulgence of a few epicurean ideas, it is when +inhabiting one of these abodes of bliss. + +About an hour from Schevaleekhan we crossed an arm of the Bosna by means +of a ferry-boat; a little farther on the left bank stands a town of 300 +houses, built very much after the same principle as Maglai. Like that +place it has an eminence, around which the houses cluster. This is also +surmounted by a fort with three guns, two small and one large. The Mudir +told me with no little satisfaction that it was the last place taken by +the Turks, when they conquered Bosnia. Profiting by my experience of the +previous day, I took the precaution of buying a chicken, some bread, and +a few more edibles, on my way through the town. Provisions were, +however, both scarce and execrable in quality. Meat is indeed rarely to +be obtained anywhere, as sheep are never killed, and bullocks only when +superannuated and deemed unfit for further physical labour. Chickens are +consequently almost the only animal food known. The method of killing +them is peculiar. The children of the house are generally selected for +this office. One secures a very scraggy fowl, while another arms himself +with a hatchet of such formidable dimensions as to recall in the +beholder all sorts of unpleasant reminiscences about Lady Jane Grey, +Mauger, and other historic characters. The struggling bird is then +beheaded, and stripped of his plumage almost before his pulses have +ceased to beat. The first occasion on which I saw one of these +executions, I could not help thinking of a certain cicerone at Rome, +who, albeit that he spoke very good French and Italian, always broke out +in English when he saw a picture of a martyrdom of any kind soever; +'That one very good man, cut his head off.' The man had but one idea of +death, and the same may be said of these primitive people, who look upon +decapitation as the easiest termination to a half-starved life. + +Leaving Kotauski, where I passed the night of the 21st, at 7 +A.M., I reached Brod at 8.30 in the evening. The distance is +considerable, but might have been accomplished in a far shorter time, +had not the country been one sheet of ice, which rendered progression +both difficult and dangerous. Each person of whom I enquired the +distance told me more than the one before, until I thought that a +Bosnian 'saht' (hour) was a more inexplicable measure than a German +'stunde' or a Scottish 'mile and a bittoch.' At length, however, the +lights of Brod proclaimed our approach to the Turkish town of that name. +On the left bank of the Save stands Austrian Brod, which, like all the +Slavonic towns near the river, is thoroughly Turkish in character. Late +as it was, I hoped to cross the river the same night, and proceeded +straight to the Mudir, who raised no objections, and procured men to +ferry me across. But we had scarcely left the shore when we were +challenged by the Austrian sentry on the other side. As the garrisons +of all the towns on the frontier are composed of Grenzer regiments, or +confinarii, whose native dialect is Illyric, a most animated discussion +took place between the sentry on the one hand, and the whole of my +suite, which had increased considerably since my arrival in the town. My +servant Eugene, who had been educated for a priest, and could talk +pretty well, tried every species of argument, but without success; the +soldier evidently had the best of it, and clenched the question with the +most unanswerable argument--that we were quite at liberty to cross if we +liked; but that he should fire into us as soon as we came into good +view. There was therefore no help for it, and unwillingly enough, I +returned to a khan, and crossed over early the following morning. At his +offices, close to the river, I found M.M., le Directeur de la +Quarantine, and general manager of all the other departments. He +accompanied me to the hotel, which, though not exactly first-rate, +appeared luxurious after my three months of khans and tents. I was +somewhat taken aback at finding that the steamer to Belgrade was not due +for two days, and moreover that the fogs had been so dense that it had +not yet passed up on its voyage to Sissek; whence it would return to +Belgrade, calling at Brod, and other places en route. + +It therefore appeared the better plan to go up in it to Sissek, than to +await its return to Brod. By this means I was enabled to see many of the +towns and villages on the Bosnian, Slavonian, and Croatian frontiers. +Leaving my servant and horses at Brod, I went on board the steamer as +soon as it arrived. The scene I there found was curious. In a small +saloon, of which the windows were all shut, and the immense stove +lighted, were about thirty persons, three or four of whom were females, +the remainder merchants and Austrian officers. The atmosphere was so +oppressive that I applied for a private cabin, a luxury which is paid +for, in all German companies, over and above the regular fare. I was +told that I might have one for eleven florins a night. To this I +demurred, but was told that any reduction was impossible; it was the +tariff. At length the inspector came on board; to him I appealed, and +received the same answer. After a little conversation, he agreed to +break through a rule. I might have it for seven florins. No! well, he +would take the five which I had originally offered; and so I got my +cabin. That it was the nicest little room possible, I must admit, with +its two large windows, a maple table, a large mirror, and carpeted +floor; and a very much pleasanter resting-place than the hot saloon. The +night was rainy and dark, and we lay-to throughout the greater part of +it, as is the invariable rule on the Save, and even on the Danube +during the autumn months. At eight on the following morning we touched +at Gradiska. There are two towns of the name, the old one standing close +to the river, and embellished with a dilapidated castle; the new town +being about an hour's distance inland. + +About noon we reached Cenovatz, which, like the other towns and villages +on the frontier, might be mistaken rather for a Turkish than a German +town. + +The Castle of Cenovatz is an irregular quadrilateral, with three round +and one square tower at the angles. It is now occupied by priests. It is +interesting from its connection with the military history of the +country. There, on a tongue of land which projects into the river, waved +the flag of France during the occupation of the Illyrian provinces by +the old Napoleon, while on the main land on either side the sentinels of +Austria and Turkey were posted in close juxtaposition. Hence it has +received the name of "la lingua di tre regni." + +At six o'clock the same evening we entered the River Culpa, at the mouth +of which is the town of Sissek. + +It has a thrifty and cleanly appearance, and possesses two very fair +inns. The saloon of one of these appeared to be the rendezvous of the +opulent townspeople. Music, chess, billiards, and tobacco-smoke, +appeared to be the amusements most in vogue; the indulgence in the +latter being of course universal. Here I took leave of my companions of +the steamer, whose loss I much regretted, especially M. Burgstaller, a +gentleman of much intelligence, who requested me to examine his silk, +manufactured at Carlstadt, for the International Exhibition. On the +ensuing morning, I crossed the Culpa, and inspected the works connected +with the new railway to Trieste. It is intended to be in a state of +completion by the end of the coming autumn. Several Englishmen are +employed on the line, but I did not happen to come across any of them; +every information was, however, given me by a Croatian gentleman, who +has the superintendence of one-half of the line. Moravian iron is used +in preference to English, although its value on delivery is said to be +the greater of the two. + +Sissek was in ancient days a place of no small importance. There, Attila +put in to winter his fleet during one of his onslaughts on the decaying +Roman empire. Traces of the ancient city are often dug up, and many +curiosities have been found, which would delight the heart of the modern +antiquarian. The return voyage to Brod was not remarkable for any +strange incident, the passengers being almost entirely Austrian +officers. The number of troops massed by that power on her Slavonian and +Croatian frontier would infer that she entertains no friendly feelings +to her Turkish neighbours. These amount to no less than 40,000 men, +dispersed among the villages in the vicinity of Brod, and within a +circumference of fourteen miles. At Brod itself no fewer than 4,000 +baggage-horses were held in readiness to take the field at any moment. +It requires no preternatural foresight to guess the destination of these +troops. They are not intended, as some suppose, to hold in check the +free-thinking Slavonic subjects of Austria. Nor is that province used as +a penal settlement for the disaffected, as others would infer. The whole +history of Austria points to the real object with which they have been +accumulated, viz. to be in readiness to obtain a footing in Bosnia, in +the event of any insurrection in that province of sufficient importance +to justify such a measure. The utility of such a step would be +questionable, as climate and exposure have more than once compelled the +Austrians to relinquish the idea, even after they had obtained a +substantial footing in the province. The motives which would induce them +to make another attempt are palpable enough; for, besides the advantages +derivable from the possession of so beautiful and rich a country, +Austria sees with alarm the increase of revolutionary principles in a +province in such close proximity to her own. And yet she has small +reason for fear, since no single bond of union exists between the +Slaves on either bank of the Save. + +But even if this were not the case, surely her soundest policy would be +to support and strengthen in every way the Turkish Government, since +their interests are identical, viz. the preservation of order among the +Slavish nations of the world. + +After leaving Brod, the banks of the river become flat and +uninteresting; that on the Bosnian side is to a certain extent covered +with low brushwood. After passing the Drina, which forms the boundary +between Bosnia and Servia, it becomes still less interesting; the only +objects of attraction being the numerous mills with which the river is +studded. On the morning of the 29th we moored off the wharf at Semlin, +but just too late to enable me to cross over to Belgrade by the +morning's steamer. During the day, which I was compelled to pass in the +town, I received much attention from General Phillipovich, who commanded +the garrison, to whom I tender my sincere thanks. In the evening I +crossed over to Belgrade (the white city), the capital of the +principality of Servia. + + + + +SERVIA: + +ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL CONDITION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +The erroneous notions prevalent throughout Europe relative to the +internal condition of Servia, are mainly traceable to two causes. The +first of these is the wilful misrepresentation of facts by governments +to their subjects, while the other, and a far more universal one, is the +indifference inherent in flourishing countries for such as are less +successful, or which have not been brought into prominence by +contemporaneous events. We English are operated upon by the last of +these influences. We are contented to accept the meagre accounts which +have as yet reached us, and which give a very one-sided impression, as +is but natural, the whole of the materials having been collected at +Belgrade. I am not aware that anyone has during the past few years +written upon the subject; and having been at some pains to obtain the +means of forming a just estimate of the character and condition of the +Servian people, I must fain confess to very different ideas concerning +them to those which I had previously entertained, based upon the perusal +of Ranke and Von Engel, or the lighter pages of Cyprien Robert and +Paton. + +The retrograde movement, but too apparent, gives cause for serious +regret, not only to those who are politically interested in the +well-being of the country, but to all who desire to see an advanced +state of civilisation and a high moral standard amongst a people who +pride themselves on the universality of Christianity within their +limits. + +The present population is about one million, and is said to be +increasing at the rate of ten per cent., but so crudely compiled are the +statistics, that doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of this +statement. Of this million of souls, 200,000 at the lowest estimate are +foreigners; the greater portion being Austrian subjects, and the +children of those Servians who on three separate occasions migrated to +the northern banks of the Danube. What has induced them to return to +their ancestral shores, whether it be Austrian oppression, or an +unlooked-for patriotism, it is hard to say; but whatever the motives, +they have not proved of sufficient strength to awaken the dormant apathy +inherited with their Slavish blood. Save those who have settled at +Belgrade, and who drive a most lucrative and usurious trade, they have +sunk back contentedly to a level with the rest of their compatriots. + +The scanty population is only one of the many signs of the decadence of +a country for whose future such high hopes were entertained, and whose +name is even now blazoned forth as a watchword to the Christians of +Turkey. In reality, a comparison with most Turkish provinces, and more +especially with those in which the Mussulman element predominates, will +tell very favourably for the latter. Roumelia, for example, with a +smaller area, contains a larger population, produces more than double +the revenue, while land is four times as valuable, the surest test of +the prosperity of a country. This last is easily accounted for by the +lamentable indolence of the masses, who are contented to live in the +most abject poverty, neglecting even to take advantage of a naturally +fertile soil. Yet must it not be supposed that indifference to its +possession prompts this contempt for the cultivation of land. There is +probably no province so much enclosed, and where the mania for +litigation in connection therewith is so rife as Servia. An +insurmountable obstacle is thus thrown in the way of foreign enterprise, +by the narrow-mindedness of the people. + +The same want of energy has had the most baneful effect upon commerce, +the very existence of which is merely nominal. Even at Belgrade the +common necessaries of life are daily imported from the Austrian banks of +the Danube. No one is more alive to the deplorable state of affairs than +the reigning Prince, whose long residence in the capitals of Europe has +familiarised him with their bustling scenes of thriving activity. Well +will it be for Servia and himself, if he shall turn the experience which +he has acquired to some practical account. Any doubts which he may +previously have entertained regarding the misery of the country, and the +moral degradation of his subjects, were removed effectually by all that +he witnessed in a recent expedition into the interior--miserable hovels, +uncultivated fields, magnificent forests wantonly destroyed, were the +sights which met him at every turn. At length some restrictions have +been placed on the wilful abuse of the greatest source of wealth which +the country possesses. Nor are they premature, for the reckless +destruction of the forests, combined with a failure of the acorns during +the past year, produced serious distress. Already has the export trade +of pigs diminished by one-third of the average of former years. This is +immediately owing to the necessity of feeding them on Indian corn, a +process which proves too expensive for their poverty-stricken owners, +and which in this respect places the pig and its proprietor upon an +equality. The latter live almost entirely upon maize and sliegovich, a +kind of rakee made out of plums, and extremely fiery. + +The mode of treatment of their women, an infallible sign of civilisation +or the reverse, was brought prominently to the Prince's notice by the +following circumstance:--Having, in company with the Princess, visited +the cottage of a thriving pig-owner, he observed the presence of three +daughters of the house. These young ladies showed unmistakeable signs of +approaching old-maidism, and the parental philosophy settled the +question of their future pretty conclusively. 'Why,' said he, in reply +to a question put by the Prince touching the solitary condition of the +damsels, 'should I allow them to marry, when each of them is worth more +than three fat pigs to me.' Manners must have changed very much for the +worse since the days of Ami Boue, or it is difficult to conceive upon +what he founds his assertion that labour is not imposed upon Servian +women. Indeed it would be surprising were it not so, when they are +subjected by the laws of the land to the indignity of the bastinado, +from which even men, save soldiers, are exempted in Mahometan Turkey. + +The absence of that blind subjection to a bigoted priesthood which +distinguishes the other Christian populations, would seem to indicate a +certain independence of spirit, but unhappily the accompanying symptoms +are not so encouraging. With contempt for its ministers, has come +disregard for the ordinances of the Church, the services of which are +but scantily attended. Yet notwithstanding the irreligion which is +spreading fast throughout the land, little tolerance is shown for +adherents to other than the Greek Church. For example, Catholics are +compelled to close their shops on the Greek feasts, of which there are +not a few, under penalty of a fine. In the same liberal spirit the mob +are permitted to break the windows of such houses as are not illuminated +on these occasions. + +An ignorant and narrow-minded man is generally also vain. The same law +is equally applicable to nations. A fancied superiority over the +Christians of the other Turkish provinces cannot escape the notice of +the most casual observer. That Servia has acquired some fame for +military exploits is true, and far be it from me to detract from the +praise due to her efforts to achieve and maintain her independence. The +successes of their fathers, however, over the small irregular Turkish +levies to which they were opposed, do not warrant the present population +in indulging in the vapid boastings too often heard, of their ability to +drive the Turks to Constantinople, were they permitted so to do. In a +word, they forget that they owe their present position, not to their own +prowess, but to foreign intervention; without which the province would +probably have shared the fate of Bosnia, Albania, Epirus, and the +Pashaliks of Rutschuk and Widdin, all which were as independent as +themselves, but were reconquered by the Turks, no European power having +extended to them the safeguard of a guarantee. + +Whether the protection accorded to Servia has worked beneficially is for +my readers to judge. The abstract question of the advantages thus +conferred admits of debate, and for my own part I believe the present +miserable state of the province to be mainly owing to the European +guarantee. She was not sufficiently enlightened to profit by the +advantages presented to her, and the honourable self-reliance which was +the result of a successful resistance to the Turkish arms has given +place to a feeling of indolent security. Nor is this the worst. A +principal feature in a country under guarantee is the total want of +responsibility in those vested with administrative power. Upon this the +Servian rulers presume to a preeminent degree, and indulge in many acts +of presumption which would be impossible were they not fully alive to +the fact that the conflicting interests of the guaranteeing powers, +added to their own insignificance (which perhaps they overlook), exempt +them from any fear of chastisement. + +The principle of supporting the independence of a province forming a +component geographical part of an empire, must have but one result, that +of weakening the mother state, without, as experience has shown, +ameliorating the condition of the province. Independently, therefore, of +the drain upon the Turkish finances, for the maintenance of troops from +time to time on the Servian frontier, to counteract revolutionary +propaganda, her influence throughout her Slavish provinces is much +weakened. Although in a position as anomalous as it must be unpalatable, +the Ottoman Government deserves credit for abstaining so entirely from +any species of interference in the internal affairs of the country; for +be it remembered that the province is still tributary to the Porte. The +hattischeriff of 1834, by which, on the evacuation of the country, the +Sultan retained the right of garrisoning the fortresses, has never been +strictly adhered to, and may at some future period lead to +complications. Belgrade is secure from any efforts which may be made +against it, but the other forts are hardly worthy of the name, and were +only used as a place of refuge in case of attack. The Servians now +complain of the infringement of the hattischeriff, and M. Garaschanin +has but lately returned from Constantinople, whither he was sent on a +special mission in connection with this subject. He endeavoured to +procure an order for the withdrawal of all Mussulmans from the villages +which they now occupy in the vicinity of the forts. This demand would +appear just in the letter of the law, but for the neglect on the part +of the Servian Government of one of the conditions, which was, that +before resigning their property, the Mussulmans should receive an +equivalent in money. The payment of this has been evaded, and the Porte +consequently declines to interfere in the matter; should the Sultan +hereafter accede to the demand, it would be no great sacrifice, as he +would still retain Belgrade. Situated as that fortress is, at the +confluence of the Danube and the Save, surrounded with strong and +well-ordered fortifications, and commanding every quarter of the town, +its occupation in the event of hostilities would at once determine the +fate of the province. + +The city may be fairly said to represent the sum of civilisation in the +country. In addition to 2,000 Austrian subjects, the population is of a +very polyglot character, who, however much they may have added to the +importance, have deprived the town of its national appearance. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Before alluding to the financial or military resources, it will be well +to pass in brief review the events of the past few years, of which no +chronicle exists. These, if devoid of any special interest, tend +considerably to our enlightenment regarding the much vexed question of a +south Slavonic kingdom, and at the same time of Russia's prospects of +aggrandisement south of the Danube. The neutral attitude preserved by +Servia during the war in 1854-55, must have been a grievous +disappointment to the Emperor Nicholas. Had she risen consentaneously +with the irruption of the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus, the +revolt might have become general, and would have been fraught with +consequences most perplexing to the Sultan's allies. This neutrality may +be attributed to the position assumed by Austria throughout that +struggle, combined with the independence of Russian influence manifested +by the then reigning family of Servia. No sooner was peace declared, +than Russia applied herself to the task of producing a state of feeling +more favourable to herself in the Slavonic provinces. While adhering to +her traditional policy of fomenting discord, and exciting petty +disturbances with the view of disorganising and impeding the +consolidation of Turkey, she redoubled her efforts to promote her own +influence by alienating the Greek Christians from their spiritual +allegiance to the Archimandrite, and transferring it to the Czar. Nor to +attain this end did she scruple to resort to presents, bribes, and even +more unworthy means. That her efforts have not met with more signal +success than has as yet attended them, is due to the indifference +displayed by the people on these subjects. + +One measure which was deemed most important was the substitution in +Servia of the Obrenovitch family for that of Kara George. This occurred +in 1858; and during the lifetime of Milneh, Russian influence was ever +in the ascendant. The familiar roughness of tone and manner assumed by +that Prince towards his uncultivated people procured for him great +weight; while his astute cunning, his hatred of Turkey, and his Russian +bias, would have given a most valuable ally to that power, had she +procured his restoration before her armies crossed the Pruth. +Fortunately no opportunity presented itself for him to promote actively +the cause of his imperial master; and the two years which he survived +his return to power are marked only by occasional ill-judged and +bloodthirsty emeutes, as prejudicial to his people as they were +ineffectual in overthrowing Turkish supremacy. + +The eastern policy of France, during the Italian war, was subjected to +many powerful conflicting influences. The chances of creating a +diversion in the rear of Austria, owing to the unsettled state of the +Turkish provinces, was probably thought of. Why the idea was abandoned +is not for us here to enquire; but it may be in part attributed to the +display of force which Turkey for once put forth at the right moment. Be +this as it may, no disturbance took place until the winter of 1859, +when, upon the withdrawal of the Turkish troops, fresh rumours of an +insurrectionary nature were heard. These are well known to have been +encouraged and circulated by the Servian Government, which calculated +upon foreign support, at any rate that of Russia. But Russia has no wish +to precipitate a crisis. The disastrous results of Prince Gortschakoff's +mission have, at any rate, taught her the impolicy of plucking at the +fruit before it is ripe. Her own internal reorganisation, moreover, +occupies her sufficiently, and renders any active interference for the +moment impracticable. Even were it otherwise, were Russia able and +willing to renew the struggle in behalf of her co-religionists, the +report of Prince Dolgorouki as to the amount of assistance likely to be +derived from them, would hardly tend to encourage her in her +disinterested undertaking. This envoy arrived at Belgrade in the latter +part of 1859, while Prince Gortschakoff's charges were issued shortly +after his return, and were doubtless based upon his reports. (Yet it is +more than probable that the primary object of his mission was to enquire +into and to regulate the revolutionary movements, which at that moment +had acquired a certain degree of importance.) The Bulgarian emissaries +told him frankly that no rising could be looked for in those provinces, +unless Russia took the initiative. They reminded him that in 1842, when +Baron Lieven visited Belgrade, the Bulgarians were induced by the +promises of Prince Michael Obrenovitch to rise en masse. These promises +were never fulfilled, and the insurrection was put down with great +barbarities by the neighbouring Albanian levies. This single fact is +tolerably conclusive as to the unreality of a south Slavonic +insurrection, of which so much has been said, and to promote which so +much trouble has been taken. Even were the discontent tenfold as +deep-rooted as it now is, the Turkish Government might rely on the +Mussulman population and the Arnauts to suppress any rising of the +Christians. The chief danger to Turkey lies in the truculent nature of +those whom she would be compelled to let loose upon the insurgents, and +who would commit excesses which might be made an excuse for foreign +intervention. The attainment of this ignoble end has been and still is +the policy pursued by more than one power. Prince Milosch played +admirably into their hands, not foreseeing that in the general +bouleversement which would be the result, the independence of Servia +might be disregarded. The invasion of the Bosnian frontier by bands of +Servian ruffians was a measure well calculated to arouse the fury of the +Mussulmans; and if such has not been the case, it may be attributed to +the rapid dispersion of the miscreants. Little credit, indeed, accrued +to Servia in these hostile demonstrations, for while the bands were +composed of the lowest characters, and could only be brought together by +payment, they quickly retreated across the frontier at the first show of +resistance. It is significant that these bands were in nearly all cases +led by Montenegrins, a fact which indicates the decline of that spirit +of military adventure to which the Haiduks of old (robbers) could at +least lay some claim. Discreditable as these proceedings were, worse +ensued. + +On the 5th of August a murderous attack was made upon a party of +Mussulmans in the close vicinity of Belgrade, upon which occasion eight +were killed and seventeen wounded. No fire-arms were used, probably to +avoid alarming the garrison. The absence on that night from the capital +of both Prince Milosch and his son, furnishes just grounds for +suspecting them of complicity in the affair, while the presence of +Sleftcha (notoriously a creature of Russia), and Tenko, among the +murderers, clearly shows where and with what views the crime was +devised. On the same night, five Mussulmans who were sleeping in a +vineyard at Kladova, on the Bulgarian frontier, were murdered by +Servians, while an attack was made upon a third party. The prospects of +a country whose princes connive at, and whose ministers commit murder, +cannot be very brilliant. Whether other atrocities might have met with +the sanction of Milosch it is impossible to say, for death cut him off +in the latter part of September, 1860, full of years and crimes. Not the +least of these was the death of Kara George, who was treacherously +murdered at his instigation. But let us pass from so unattractive a +retrospect to a consideration of the character and policy of the living +prince who now holds the reins of government. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +The appointment of Prince Michael to the vacant throne of Servia was the +first step towards the substitution of hereditary for elective +succession. One of the first measures of the new prince was to induce +the Skuptschina, or National Assembly, to legalise for the future that +which had been an infraction of the law. The sixteen years which +intervened between 1842, when Michael was ejected, and 1858, when Prince +Milosch was reinstated, were passed by the former in the various +capitals of Europe. The high Vienna notions which he imbibed during that +period have deprived him of the sympathy and affection of his +semi-civilised subjects, as much as the uncultivated mind of his father +deprived him of their respect. Nor does the lack of sympathy appear to +be one-sided. And, in truth, that mind must be possessed of no ordinary +amount of philanthropy which can apply itself to the improvement of a +people at once so ignorant and vain, and who evince withal so little +desire for enlightenment. + +At the time of his accession the Russian element, as has been shown, was +strong in the Ministry. Sleftcha and the Metropolitan were her +principal agents. It was to be expected, therefore, that he would +adhere to the family principles, and sell himself body and soul to his +great benefactor. But it frequently happens that persons who have risen +to unexpected eminence turn upon those by whom they have been raised. +This would appear to be somewhat the case with Prince Michael, who +certainly does not show the same devotion to Russia as did his father. +It may be that he has not noted in the foreign policy of that power the +disinterestedness which she so loudly professes. If such be his views, +who can controvert them? To the character of the man, combined with his +peculiarly irresponsible condition (owing to the guarantee), may be +ascribed his present line of conduct. Ambitious, obstinate, and devoted +to intrigue, his character is no more that of a mere puppet than it is +of one likely to attain to any great eminence. At first, it must be +acknowledged that he played into the hands of Russia most unreservedly. +No endeavours were spared to stir up discontent and rebellion in the +surrounding provinces. Little credit is due to the sagacity of those by +whom these machinations were contrived. For example, petitions were sent +to all the foreign consulates purporting to come from the Christian +subjects of Turkey on the frontiers of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and setting +forth the miserable condition to which they had been reduced by +Mussulman oppression. The sympathy which might have been felt for the +sufferers was somewhat shaken by attendant circumstances, which threw +doubts on the authenticity of the letters. It appears that these arrived +from the two frontiers by the same post, while, on comparison, they were +found to be almost identical in form and wording. + +Great results were also anticipated from the Emigration movement, to +which the early part of 1861 was devoted. Russia, while endeavouring to +promote the emigration of Bulgarians to the Crimea, did not discourage +the efforts of Servia to induce them to cross her frontier with the view +of settling. Several thousands did so, and these came principally from +the Pachaliks of Widdin and Nish. Amongst these were many criminals and +outlaws, who were admitted by the Servians, in violation of their +charter. Considerable excitement prevailed, and subscriptions were set +on foot for their benefit, but the movement appears to have died a +natural death, as nothing is now heard of it. The emigres cannot have +been too well satisfied with the position in which they found +themselves, since the greater number soon returned whence they came, in +spite of Mussulman oppression. + +Since the failure of this scheme, the Prince has applied all his +energies to the acquisition of independent power. He first endeavoured +to effect it by means of a deputation to the Sublime Porte. Failing in +this, he resorted to the internal means at his disposal, and has gained +his point. The principal objects which he had in view, and which he has +succeeded in carrying out, were the declaration of hereditary +succession, and the abrogation of the Ustag or Constitution, by which +his power was limited. The Senate, as the deliberative body may be +termed, originally consisted of 17 members. They were in the first +instance nominated by the then reigning prince, but could not be removed +by him, while vacancies were filled up by election among themselves. The +whole of these rules he has now set aside, and, albeit he has given a +colouring of justice to his proceedings by restoring the original number +of members, and some other customs which had fallen into abeyance, he +has virtually stripped them of all power. With great astuteness he +induced the Skuptschina to deprive the Senate of legislative functions, +and immediately afterwards to relinquish them itself, thus placing +absolute power in his hands. This grossly illegal action has met with +some faint resistance, but the Prince will without doubt carry out his +wishes. He has only to fear internal discontent, as he is entirely +independent by virtue of the guarantee, not only of the European powers, +but even of Turkey. It is true that this very policy cost him his throne +in 1838, but with years he has gained prudence, and he is now pursuing +it with far greater caution. The Servians, too, having sunk +immeasurably in the social scale, are less likely to stand upon their +rights, or to give him the same trouble as heretofore. + +Up to the present time all these schemes have weighed but little in the +scale against the one absorbing ambition of his life. In a word, Michael +is a hot Panslavist. Of this he makes no secret, and he has probably +shared hitherto, in common with all Servians, very exaggerated notions +of the importance which Servia would assume were the dismemberment of +Turkey to take place. Their self-conceived superiority over the other +Christians of European Turkey, induces the Servians to regard the +northern provinces in the same light as do the Greeks the southern. The +ambition of Michael, however, is not satisfied with the prospect of +dominion over the undeveloped countries south of the Danube. His +conversation, character, and previous history all point to one +conclusion--that he aspires to sway the destinies of the Slavish +provinces of Austria, and maybe of Hungary itself. His marriage with an +Hungarian lady of the name, and it is to be presumed of the stock of the +great Hunyadi family, would appear to give some consistency to these +dreams. The chief drawbacks to its fulfilment are the unreality of the +agitation among the Slavish populations, the power of Turkey to crush +any insurrection unaided from without, and the honour and interest of +Great Britain, which are staked on the preservation of the Ottoman +empire from foreign aggressions. Although he may indulge in such day +dreams, it is impossible but that a man of Prince Michael's calibre must +be alive to all the opposing elements which will defer the +accomplishment of them to a remote period. Notwithstanding natural +prejudices, which in his case, however, are not very strong, it is +probable that he now sees the inutility, and understands how visionary +are the ambitious projects which he once entertained touching Servia. +Such, at least, is the opinion of those who have the best opportunities +of forming a correct judgement in the matter. Whatever may be his own +intellect, whatever his ability to conceive and execute, Servia is too +degraded to carry him through. To be the nucleus of a large kingdom, +certain elements are necessary, in which she is strikingly deficient. +Among these may be placed tried and flourishing institutions, unity of +sentiment and purpose amidst all classes, and a due appreciation of the +advantages of education and commerce; while last, but perhaps the most +important of all, is civil and religious liberty of the highest order. +In all of these, I repeat, Servia is eminently wanting. + +A very slight glimpse also at her financial and military resources will +show how far she is fitted to take even a leading part in any emeute +which circumstances may hereafter bring about. The total revenue of the +country has up to this time amounted to 200,000_l._ sterling. This has +been raised by a tax of $5 levied on about 40,000 males. Nearly the +whole sum is expended in paying and equipping the army, and in the +salary of officials. Dissatisfied with the small amount of revenue, the +Prince undertook, during the past year, to reorganise the taxation. An +impost upon property was projected in lieu of the capitation tax, but +having, unfortunately, started without any very well-defined basis, the +system broke down, actually producing a smaller revenue than was yielded +by the original method. Equally abortive, as might have been +anticipated, was the scheme for raising a militia of 50,000 men. +Presupposing, for the sake of argument, a strong military spirit to be +rife among the people, the financial condition of the country would +render the idea untenable, since it is with difficulty that the 1,800 +soldiers who constitute the regular army can be maintained. Granting +even the willingness to serve, and the ability of the government to pay +them, the population of the country would not, according to ordinary +statistics, furnish so large a force. The greatest number that could be +calculated on in the event of war would be about 40,000 men, and these +only in a war in which the national sympathy might be deeply enlisted. +How many of this number would remain in arms, would probably depend on +the amount of plunder to be obtained, and the nature of the resistance +which they might encounter. + +The material of the existing force is about on an equality with that of +most continental armies. A portion of the troops are armed with rifles, +and the remainder with unbrowned muskets. One battery of artillery forms +the aggregate of that arm of the service. There are 70 guns at the +arsenal at Kragiewatz, but they are all old and unfit for field service. +A French Colonel has lately been imported to fill the combined offices +of War-Minister and Commander-in-Chief. This, and, indeed, the whole of +the recent internal policy, leaves very little doubt of the source +whence emanate these high-flown ideas. It cannot be better expressed +than as a _politique d'ostentation_, which is, if we may compare small +things with great, eminently French. The oscillation of French and +Russian influence, and the amicable manner in which their delegates +relinquish the field to each other alternately, implies the existence of +a mutual understanding between them. Whether this accord extends to a +wider sphere and more momentous questions, time alone will show. +Meanwhile, the Prince continues to indulge in dreams of a Panslavish +kingdom, and of the crumbs which may fall to his own share, while he +neglects the true interests of his country, with which his own are so +intimately blended. Let him apply himself to the developement of her +internal resources, to the promotion of education and civilisation among +the people, and, above all, let him root out that spirit of indolence +which has taken such firm hold upon all classes. It is his policy to do +all this, that Servia may be in a position to assume that leading place +among the Slavonic races which she arrogates to herself, should +unforeseen circumstances call upon her to do so. With her he must stand +or fall; therefore, setting aside more patriotic motives, self-interest +renders it imperative on him to apply himself zealously to her +regeneration. + +With regard to his foreign policy, he cannot do better than act up to +the conviction which he has himself more than once expressed, that 'the +interests of Servia are identical with those of Turkey.' For, should the +disruption of the Ottoman empire take place--the probability of which is +at any rate no greater than in the time of our grandfathers--it will not +be effected by internal revolution, but by foreign intervention; and +credulous must he be who can believe in the disinterestedness of those +who would lend themselves to such a measure. Thus, in the partition +which would ensue, Servia might find even her former independence +overlooked. + +Let me add, that if I have alluded in strong terms to the condition of +the people, I have done it in all sincerity, regretting that Servia +should thus cast away the sympathy which, were she bent on +self-advancement, would pour in upon her from every side. If, again, I +may appear presumptuous in dictating the duties which devolve upon her +Prince, I am prompted to it by the supineness which he has as yet +evinced in promoting the desire for civilisation. Let him delay no +longer, for, should events so dispose themselves that Servia should be +weighed in the balance, she will, unless an amendment takes place, be +indeed found miserably wanting. + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +In conclusion, I would venture to call attention to the fact that the +preceding pages were written before events had assumed the aspect which +they now wear. Actual hostilities had not then commenced against +Montenegro; the Turkish Government had not then contracted the loan +which has opened up new prospects for the finances of the country. + +That Omer Pacha has not already brought the war to a close is to be +regretted, but let those who criticise the slowness of his movements +weigh well all the disadvantages against which he has to contend. + +It would be useless to enumerate these again, as they are alluded to +more than once in the course of this volume. Suffice it to say, then, +that if Cettigne be taken and Montenegro occupied before the end of the +present year, Omer Pacha will have placed another feather in his cap, +and will have materially increased the debt of gratitude to which he is +already entitled. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +The following is an extract of a letter from the young Prince of +Montenegro, addressed to the Consuls of the Great Powers. The sentiments +which it expresses are creditable enough, and, did his acts corroborate +his words, he would be well entitled to the sympathy which he demands. + + Cettigne, le 30 juillet 1861. + + Monsieur le Consul, + + A l'occasion de la recente et grave mesure prise par la Turquie + envers le Montenegro, je crois devoir rompre le silence et faire + connaitre succinctement a MM. les Consuls des Grandes Puissances + qu'elle a ete tenue depuis un an par le Montenegro vis-a-vis de + l'empire ottoman. + + Depuis mon avenement j'ai employe tout mon pouvoir a maintenir la + tranquillite. Sur les frontieres je n'ai rien neglige pour eloigner + tout motif de collision, pour calmer les animosites seculaires qui + separent les deux peuples, en un mot, pour donner a la Turquie les + preuves les plus irrefragables de meilleur voisinage. + + Dans une occasion toute recente je me suis rendu avec empressement + au desir exprime par les Grandes Puissances de me voir contribuer + autant qu'il etait dans mon pouvoir au soulagement des malheureux + enfermes dans la forteresse de Niksich. J'ai ete heureux de pouvoir + en pareilles circonstances donner une preuve de deference aux + Grandes Puissances, et de pouvoir repondre, comme il convenait a un + souverain et un peuple chretien, a l'appel fait a ses sentiments + d'humanite. Je ne me suis point arrete devant la consideration d'un + interet personnel. + + +LONDON +PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. +NEW-STREET SQUARE + +[Illustration: THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY.] + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Herzegovina, by George Arbuthnot + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERZEGOVINA *** + +***** This file should be named 17288.txt or 17288.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/8/17288/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. 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