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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/17307-h.zip b/17307-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..592a857 --- /dev/null +++ b/17307-h.zip diff --git a/17307-h/17307-h.htm b/17307-h/17307-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..99f0019 --- /dev/null +++ b/17307-h/17307-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7640 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Principles of Teaching, by Adam S. Bennion. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + p.section {font-variant: small-caps; + text-align: center; + margin-top: 1.5em;} + + p.table {margin-top: .5em; + margin-bottom: .25em; + text-align: left;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; + } + + hr { width: 45%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + hr.major { width: 60%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + hr.minor { width: 33%; margin-top: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + border-width: 0; + border-color: #000; + } + + td.narrow {width: 35%;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + ins.correction { + text-decoration:none; + border-bottom-style: dashed; + border-bottom-color: gray; + border-bottom-width: 1px; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: #999; + } + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .outline {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 95%;} + + .tnote {border: dashed 1px; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + padding-bottom: .5em; + padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; + padding-right: .5em;} + + dd, li {margin-top: 0.5em; + line-height: 1.2em;} + + ul, ol {list-style-type: none;} + + li.level2 {margin-left: 2em;} + + .bbox {border: solid 1px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .indent {margin-left: 60%;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Principles of Teaching, by Adam S. Bennion + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Principles of Teaching + +Author: Adam S. Bennion + +Release Date: December 14, 2005 [EBook #17307] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Amy Cunningham and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Character set for HTML: ISO-8859-1 + + +</pre> + + + +<h1>Principles of<br /> +Teaching</h1> + + +<h2>BY ADAM S. BENNION</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Superintendent of Church Schools</i><br /></p> + +<p class="center">Designed for Quorum Instructors and Auxiliary Class +Teachers of the Church of Jesus Christ of +Latter-day Saints.</p> + +<p class="center">Published by<br /> +<span class="smcap">The General Boards of the Auxiliary Organizations +of the Church</span></p> + +<p class="center">1921</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> +<p class="center">1952<br /> +Reprint of the original<br /> +FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING RELIGION</p> + +<p class="center">Copyright, 1921<br /> +By Adam S. Bennion<br /> +For the General Boards of the<br /> +Auxiliary Organizations<br /> +of the Church</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PREFACE<br /> +to the 1952 Edition</h2> + +<p>Two texts have been written for the teacher training +program of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day +Saints since Dr. Adam S. Bennion's Book <i>Principles of +Teaching</i> was published, yet in spite of the fact that this +book has been out of print several years so many requests +for it have poured in that the General Superintendency +has decided to satisfy the demand with this new edition.</p> + +<p>This book with its classic qualities in many ways fits +Shakespeare's description of a beautiful woman when he +said, "Age cannot wither her nor custom dim her infinite +variety." Anyone who knows Dr. Bennion or has +read his writings knows that neither custom nor age has +dimmed his infinite variety. Furthermore, a glance at +the table of contents of this book will reveal the fact that +the problems and principles treated herein are just as +real today as they were when the text was written.</p> + +<p>This little volume is republished in the hope that it +again will become one of the basic texts in the teacher +training program and fulfill its mission as an instrument +in the hands of sincere people who have the devout wish +of learning how to teach the principles of the gospel by +the power of the Holy Spirit.</p> + +<p class="indent"> +H.A. Dixon, Chairman<br /> +Teacher Training Committee<br /> +</p> + + +<hr class="major" /> +<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a><i>Contents</i></h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr><td align='right'>Chapter</td><td></td><td align='right'>Page</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><a href="#Preface">Preface</a></td><td align='right'>vii</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_I">Purposes Behind Teaching</a></td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_II">What Is Teaching?</a></td><td align='right'>7</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_III">The Joys of Teaching</a></td><td align='right'>14</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Personality</a></td><td align='right'>20</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_V">Personality</a></td><td align='right'>26</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Attainment</a></td><td align='right'>33</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Native Tendencies</a></td><td align='right'>40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">What to Do With Native Tendencies</a></td><td align='right'>46</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Individual Differences</a></td><td align='right'>53</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Individual Differences and Teaching</a></td><td align='right'>61</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Attention</a></td><td align='right'>68</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">What Makes for Interest</a></td><td align='right'>74</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">A Laboratory Lesson in Interest</a></td><td align='right'>80</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">The More Immediate Problems in Teaching</a></td><td align='right'>88</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Organizing the Lesson</a></td><td align='right'>96</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVI</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson</a></td><td align='right'>103</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">The Aim</a></td><td align='right'>111</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVIII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">Application</a></td><td align='right'>116</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIX</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">Methods of the Recitation</a></td><td align='right'>126</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XX</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">Review and Preview</a></td><td align='right'>134</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXI</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">The Question as a Factor in Education</a></td><td align='right'>142</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">The Problem of Discipline</a></td><td align='right'>149</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIII</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">Creating Class Spirit</a></td><td align='right'>157</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIV</td><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">Conversion—The Real Test of Teaching</a></td><td align='right'>164</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><a href="#Bibliography">Bibliography</a></td><td align='right'>171</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Preface" id="Preface"></a><i>Preface</i></h2> + + +<p>That ever-old question, "How to Teach," becomes ever +new when made to read, "How to Teach Better." This +volume aims to raise those problems which every teacher +sooner or later faces, and it attempts to suggest an approach +by way of solution which will insure at least some degree +of growth towards efficiency. These chapters originally +were prepared for the course offered to teacher-trainers in +the Summer School of the Brigham Young University, in +1920. The teachers in that course were an inspiration to +the author and are responsible for many of the thoughts +expressed in the pages of this book.</p> + +<p>The successful teacher ever views his calling as an opportunity—not +as an obligation. To associate with young +people is a rare privilege; to teach them is an inspiration; +to lead them into the glorious truths of the Gospel of Jesus +Christ is heavenly joy itself. This little volume hopes to +push open the door of opportunity a little wider, that more +of that joy may be realized.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Perchance, in heaven, one day to me<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Some blessed Saint will come and say,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">'All hail, beloved; but for thee<br /></span> +<span class="i2">My soul to death had fallen a prey';<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And oh! what rapture in the thought,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">One soul to glory to have brought."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="indent"> +<span class="smcap">Adam S. Bennion.</span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>PURPOSES BEHIND TEACHING</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter I</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The worth of souls.—The Father's joy in the soul that is saved.—The +teacher's responsibility.—Teaching, a sacred calling.—Our +Church a teaching Church.</p> + +<p>Our three-fold purpose in Teaching:</p> + +<ul><li>a—To guarantee salvation of the individual members of the Church.</li> + +<li>b—To pass on the wonderful heritage handed down by our pioneer forefathers.</li> + +<li>c—To make more easily possible the conversion of the world.</li></ul><br /></div> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Remember the worth of souls is great in the sight of God;</p> + +<p>"For, behold, the Lord your Redeemer suffered death in the flesh; +wherefore he suffered the pain of all men, that all men might repent +and come unto him.</p> + +<p>"And he hath risen again from the dead, that he might bring all +men unto him, on conditions of repentance;</p> + +<p>"And how great is his joy in the soul that repenteth.</p> + +<p>"Wherefore, you are called to cry repentance unto this people;</p> + +<p>"And if it so be that you should labor all your days in crying +repentance unto his people, and bring, save it be one soul unto +me, how great shall be your joy with him in the kingdom of my +Father?</p> + +<p>"And now, if your joy will be great with one soul that you have +brought unto me into the kingdom of my Father, how great will +be your joy if you should bring many souls unto me?" (Doc. & Cov., +Sec. 18:10-16.)</p> + +<p>"For behold, this is my work and my glory—to bring to pass the +immortality and eternal life of man." (Moses 1:39.)</p></div> + +<p>If this is the work and glory of the Lord, how great must +be the responsibility of the teachers of Zion, His copartners +in the business of saving humankind! Next to parenthood, +teaching involves us in the most sacred relationship known +to man. The teacher akin to the parent is the steward of +human souls—his purpose to bless and to elevate.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>The first great question that should concern the Latter-day +Saint teacher is, "Why do I teach?" To appreciate +fully the real purposes behind teaching is the first great +guarantee of success. For teaching is "no mere job"—it +is a sacred calling—a trust of the Lord Himself under the +divine injunction, "Feed my sheep" (John 21:15). For +the teacher who has caught a glimpse of his real responsibility +there is no indifference, no eleventh-hour preparation, +no feeling of unconcern about the welfare of his +pupils between lessons—for him there is constant inspiration +in the thought, "To me is given the privilege of being +the cupbearer between the Master and His children who +would drink at His fountain of truth."</p> + +<p>The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been +variously designated by those not of us: "The Great Industrial +Church," "The Church of Pioneers," "The Church of +Wonderful Organization." It might well be called "The +Teaching Church." There is scarcely a man or woman in +it that has not at some time been asked to respond to the +call of teacher. Our people have been a remarkable people +because they have been remarkably taught—taught of the +Lord and His prophets. Our future can be secure only as +it is guaranteed this same good teaching. Every teacher +must come to realize that "Mormonism" is at stake when +he teaches. "Why do I teach?" goes to the very heart of +teaching.</p> + +<p>The answer to this question is to be found, in part at +least, in the three-fold objectives of our Church. First, the +salvation and exaltation of the individual soul. As already +pointed out, this is the very "work and glory" of the +Father. Man is born into the world a child of divinity—born +for the purpose of development and perfection. Life +is the great laboratory in which he works out his experi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>ment +of eternity. In potentiality, a God—in actuality, a +creature of heredity, environment, and teaching. "Why do +I teach?" To help someone else realize his divinity—to +assist him to become all that he might become—to make +of him what he might not be but for my teaching.</p> + +<p>Someone has jocularly said: "The child is born into the +world half angel, half imp. The imp develops naturally, +the angel has to be cultivated." The teacher is the great +cultivator of souls. Whether we say the child is half angel +and half imp, we know that he is capable of doing both +good and evil and that he develops character as he practices +virtue and avoids vice. We know, too, that he mentally +develops. Born with the capacity to do, he behaves +to his own blessing or condemnation. There is no such +thing as static life. To the teacher is given the privilege +of pointing to the higher life. He is the gardener in the garden +of life. His task is to plant and to cultivate the flowers +of noble thoughts and deeds rather than to let the human +soul grow up to weeds. This purpose becomes all the more +significant when we realize that the effects of our teaching +are not only to modify a life here of three-score and ten—they +are impressions attendant throughout eternity. As +the poet Goethe has said, "Life is the childhood of our +immortality," and the teachings of childhood are what +determine the character of maturity. The thought is given +additional emphasis in the beautiful little poem, "Planting," +by W. Lomax Childress:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Who plants a tree may live<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To see its leaves unfold,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The greenness of its summer garb,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Its autumn tinge of gold.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Who plants a flower may live<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To see its beauty grow,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The lily whiten on its stalk,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The rambler rose to blow.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span><span class="i0">Who sows the seed may find<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The field of harvest fair,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The song of reapers ringing clear,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">When all the sheaves are there.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">But time will fell the tree,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The rose will fade and die,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The harvest time will pass away,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">As does the song and sigh.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">But whoso plants in love,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The word of hope and trust,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Shall find it still alive with God—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">It is not made of dust.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">It cannot fade nor change,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Though worlds may scattered be,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For love alone has high repose<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In immortality.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>If the teacher, as he stands before his class, could project +his vision into the future—could see his pupils developed +into manhood and womanhood, and could see all that +he might do or fail to do, he would read a meaning well-nigh +beyond comprehension into the question, "Why do +I teach?"</p> + +<p>A second answer to this query lies in our obligation to +pass on the wonderful heritage which we here received from +our pioneer forefathers. The story of their sacrifice, devotion, +and achievement is unique in the history of the world. +Only recently a pioneer of 1852 thrilled a parents' class +in one of our wards with the simple narrative of his early +experiences. His account of Indian raids, of the experience +with Johnston's army, of privations and suffering, of social +pastimes—all of these things rang with a spirit of romance. +None of his auditors will ever forget the story of his aunt +who gave up her seat in her wagon to a sick friend for +whom no provision had been made, and trudged across the +plains afoot that one more soul might rejoice in Zion. +Every pioneer can tell this sort of thrilling story. Could +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>our young people enjoy the companionship of these pioneers +there would be little need of alarm concerning their +faith. Unfortunately, each year sees fewer of these pioneers +left to tell their story. It is to the teacher, both of the fireside +and the classroom, that we must look for the perpetuation +of the spirit of '47. The ideals and achievements of +the pioneers are such an inspiration, such a challenge to +the youth of the Church today—that teachers ought to glory +in the opportunity to keep alive the memories of the past. +Our pioneer heritage ought never to be forfeited to indifference. +It is a heritage that could come only out of pioneer +life. Such courage to face sacrifice, such devotion to God, +such loyalty to government, such consecration to the task +of conquering an unpromising and forbidding desert, such +determination to secure the advantages of education, such +unselfish devotion to the welfare of their fellows—where +could we turn for such inspiration to one who would teach?</p> + +<p>Nor is it enough that we strive to perfect the individual +membership of the Church and preserve the social heritage +out of the past—we assume to become the teachers of the +world. It is our blessing to belong to a Church <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'builded'">built</ins> +upon revelation—a Church established and taught of the +Lord. But with that blessing comes the injunction to carry +this gospel of the kingdom to every nation and clime. +"Mormonism" was not revealed for a few Saints alone who +were to establish Zion—it was to be proclaimed to all the +world. Every Latter-day Saint is enjoined to teach the +truth. Whether called as a missionary, or pursuing his +regular calling at home, his privilege and his obligation is +to cry repentance and preach the plan of salvation. The +better we teach, the sooner we shall make possible the realization +of God's purposes in the world. The two thousand +young men and women who go out each year to represent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>us in the ministry should go out well trained, not only that +they may represent our Church as an institution which believes +that "the glory of God is intelligence," but also that +they may win intelligent men and women to the truth. +Only he who is well taught may become a good teacher—hence +the need of intelligent, devoted service. "Why do +I teach?" far from being an idle question, goes to the very +heart of the future of the Church.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter I</p> + +<p>1. How many of the members of your ward are actively engaged +in other than parental teaching?</p> + +<p>2. What significance is attached to calling our Church a teaching +Church?</p> + +<p>3. Discuss the significance of Jesus' being a teacher.</p> + +<p>4. Compare the responsibility of teaching with that of parenthood.</p> + +<p>5. Enumerate the chief purposes behind teaching.</p> + +<p>6. In your opinion, which is the greatest purpose? Why?</p> + +<p>7. To what extent does the following statement apply to the +welfare of our Church:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That nation that does not revere its past, plays little +part in the present, and soon finds that it has no future."</p></div> + +<p>8. Discuss our obligation under the injunction to teach the gospel +to the world.</p> + +<p>9. Discuss the need here at home of better teaching.</p> + +<p>10. In what sense are we trustees of the heritage left by the +pioneers?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Doctrine & Covenants: James, <i>Talks on Psychology and Life's +Ideals</i>; Brumbaugh, <i>The Making of a Teacher</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to +Sunday School Teachers</i>; Strayer, <i>A Brief Course in the Teaching +Process</i>; Betts, <i>How to Teach Religion</i>; Strayer and Norsworthy, +<i>How to Teach</i>; Sharp, <i>Education for Character</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>WHAT IS TEACHING?</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter II</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Teaching a complex art.—What teaching is not.—What teaching is.—What +it involves.—Presentation of facts.—Organization and evaluation +of knowledge.—Interpretation and elaboration of truth.—Inspiration +to high ideals.—Encouragement and direction given to +expression.—Discovery of pupils' better selves.—Inspiration of example +as well as precept.—Application of truths taught in lives of +pupils.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>The query, "What constitutes teaching?" cannot be +answered off-hand. It is so complex an art, so fine an art, +as Professor Driggs points out, that it has to be pondered +to be understood and appreciated. It is often considered +to be mere lesson-hearing and lesson-giving. The difference +between mere instructions and teaching is as great as +the distinction between eating and digestion.</p> + +<p>The following definition of <i>teaching</i>, contributed by a +former state superintendent of schools, is rich in suggestion:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Teaching is the process of training an individual through the +formation of habits, the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of +ideals, and the fixing of permanent interests so that he shall become +a clean, intelligent, self-supporting member of society, who has the +power to govern himself, can participate in noble enjoyments, and +has the desire and the courage to revere God and serve his fellows."</p></div> + +<p>Teaching does not merely consist of an inquisition of +questions with appropriate answers thrown in; it surely is +not mere reading; nor can it be mistaken for preaching or +lecturing. These are all means that may be employed in +the process of teaching. And they are important, too. We +have been cautioned much, of late years, not to lose ourselves +in the process of doling out facts—but that rather +we should occupy ourselves teaching boys and girls. That +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>all sounds well—the writer of these lessons has himself +proclaimed this doctrine—but we have discovered that you +cannot teach boys and girls <i>nothing</i>. They no more can +be happy <i>listening</i> to <i>nothing</i> than they can be content +<i>doing nothing</i>.</p> + +<p>And so we now urge the significance of having a rich +supply of subject matter—a substantial content of lesson +material. But the doctrine holds that the teacher ought not +to lose himself in mere facts—they are merely the medium +through which he arrives at, and drives home the truth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is the teacher's task to make changes for the better in the +abilities, habits and attitudes of boys and girls. Her efficiency can +be evaluated fairly only in terms of her success at this task. In +other words, if a teacher is rated at all, she should be rated not +only by the clothes she wears, or the method she chooses, but by +the results she secures."—<i>Journal of Educational Research</i>, May, +1920.</p></div> + +<p>We have said that teaching is a complex art. It consists +of at least these eight fundamentals, each one of which, +or any combination of which, may be featured in any one +particular lesson:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. Presentation of facts.</li> +<li>2. Organization and evaluation of knowledge.</li> +<li>3. Interpretation and elaboration of truth.</li> +<li>4. Inspiration to high ideals.</li> +<li>5. Encouragement and direction given to expression.</li> +<li>6. Discovery of pupils' better selves.</li> +<li>7. Inspiration of example as well as precept.</li> +<li>8. Application of truths taught in lives of the pupils.</li> +</ul> + + +<p class="section">I. Presentation of Facts</p> + +<p>Facts constitute the background upon which the mind +operates. There may be many or few—they may be presented +in a lecture of thirty minutes, in the reading of a +dozen pages, or they may be called forth out of the mind +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>by a single stimulating question. But we ought not to confuse +the issue. If we are to discuss any matter in the hope +of reaching a conclusion in truth, we must have material +upon which the mind can build that conclusion. We are +not concerned in this chapter with method of procedure in +getting the facts before a class—the important thought here +is that the facts in rich abundance should be supplied. A +certain young lady protested recently against going to +Sunday School. Her explanation of her attitude is best +expressed in her own words: "I get sick and tired of +going to a class where I never hear anything new or worth +while." Exaggerated, of course, but students are crying +for bread, and ought not to be turned away with a stone.</p> + + +<p class="section">II. Organization and Evaluation of Knowledge</p> + +<p>We have hinted that a lesson may not have facts enough +to justify the time it takes—there is, on the other hand, +danger that the whole time of the class may be consumed +in a mere rehearsal of facts as facts. Only recently a +significant complaint was voiced by a young man who +has gone through training in practically all of our organizations. +"I don't seem to know anything at all," he +said, "about the history of Israel, as a whole. I can recall +certain isolated facts about particular persons or places, +but I can't give any intelligent answer at all to such questions +as these:</p> + +<p>"Who were the Israelites? What were their big movements +relative to the Promised Land? What is the history +of Israel up to the time of the Savior? What is their history +subsequently? Are we of Israel and how?"</p> + +<p>The young man was not complaining—he merely regretted +his ignorance on points of vital interest. He was in +need of further organization of the knowledge he had. He +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>had not been given the big central ideas about which to +build the minor ones. Relative importance had not been +taught him through that organized review that is so valuable +in review. The teacher ought to come back time and +again to pause on the big essentials—the peaks of gospel +teaching.</p> + + +<p class="section">III. Interpretation and Elaboration of Truth</p> + +<p>It is really surprising how many various notions of an +idea will be carried away by the members of a class from +a single declaration on the part of a teacher. A phase of +a subject may be presented which links up with a particular +experience of one of the pupils. To him there is only one +interpretation. To another pupil the phase of the subject +presented might make no appeal at all, or linked up with +a different experience might lead to an entirely different +conclusion. Truths need to be elaborated and interpreted +from all possible angles—all possible phases should be +developed. An interesting discussion recently took place +with a young man who had "gone off" on a pet doctrinal +theory. His whole conception built itself up about a single +passage of scripture. Satisfied with a single notion, he had +shut his eyes to all else and "knew that he was right." +Properly to be taught, he needed to be trained to suspend +his judgment until <i>all the evidence</i> was in.</p> + + +<p class="section">IV. Inspiration to High Ideals</p> + +<p>Men and women like to be carried to the heights. They +like to be lifted out of their lower selves into what they +may become. It is the teacher's delight to let his class +stand tip-toe on the facts of subject matter to peep into +the glories of the gospel plan of life and salvation. In +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>1903 Sanford Bell, of the University of Colorado, reported +the results of a survey conducted with 543 men and 488 +women to ascertain whether they liked male or female +teachers better and just what it was that made them like +those teachers who had meant most in their lives. The +survey showed that the following influences stood out in +the order named:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Moral uplift.</li> +<li>Inspiration.</li> +<li>Stimulus to intellectual awakening.</li> +<li>Spur to scholarship.</li> +<li>Help in getting a firm grip on the vital issues of life.</li> +<li>Personal kindness.</li> +<li>Encouragement in crises.</li> +</ul> + +<p>What a testimonial to the force of inspiration to higher +ideals!</p> + + +<p class="section">V. Encouragement and Direction Given to Pupils' +Expression</p> + +<p>Most pupils in class are ordinarily inclined to sit silently +by and let someone else do the talking. And yet, everyone +enjoys participating in a lesson when once "the ice is +broken." It is the teacher's task first of all to create an +atmosphere of easy expression and then later to help make +that expression adequate and effective. The bishop of one +of our wards in southern Utah declared, not long ago, that +he traced the beginning of his testimony back to a Primary +lesson in which a skillful teacher led him to commit himself +very enthusiastically to the notion that the Lord does +answer prayers. He said he defended the proposition so +vigorously that he set about to make sure from experience +that he was right. The details of securing this expression +will be more fully worked out in the chapter on Methods +of the Recitation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">VI. Discovery of Pupils' Better Selves</p> + +<p>One of the most fascinating problems in teaching is to +come to know the real nature of our pupils—to get below +surface appearances to the very boy himself. Most of the +work of solving this problem necessarily must be done out +of class. Such intimate knowledge is the result of personal +contact when no barriers of class recitation interfere. It +involves time and effort, of course, but it is really the key +to genuine teaching. It makes possible what we have +named as factor number eight, which may be disposed of +here for present purposes. We read of bygone days largely +because in them we hope to find a solution to the problems +of Jimmie Livingston today. How can we effect the solution +if all that we know of Jimmie is that he is one of our +fifteen scouts? We must see him in action, must associate +with him as he encounters his problems, if we would help +him solve them. Our discovery of our pupils' better selves, +and intelligent application, go together hand in hand.</p> + + +<p class="section">VII. Inspiration of Example as Well as Precept</p> + +<p>When Emerson declared, "What you are thunders so +loudly in my ears that I can't hear what you say," he +sounded a mighty note to teachers. Hundreds of boys and +girls have been stimulated to better lives by the desire "to +be like teacher." "Come, follow me," is the great password +to the calling of teacher. The teacher conducts a class on +Sunday morning—he really teaches all during the week. +When Elbert Hubbard added his new commandment, "Remember +the week-days, to keep them holy," he must have +had teachers in mind. A student in one of our Church +schools was once heard to say, "My teacher teaches me +more religion by the way he plays basketball than by the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>way he teaches theology." It was what Jesus did that made +him Savior of the world. He was the greatest <i>teacher</i> because +he was the greatest man.</p> + +<p>Surely teaching is a complex art!</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter II</p> + +<p>1. What is teaching?</p> + +<p>2. Why is it essential that we get a clear conception of just what +teaching is?</p> + +<p>3. Discuss the importance of building the recitation upon a good +foundation of facts.</p> + +<p>4. Why are facts alone not a guarantee of a successful recitation?</p> + +<p>5. What is the teacher's obligation in the matter of organizing +knowledge?</p> + +<p>6. Discuss the significance of teaching as an interpretation of +truth.</p> + +<p>7. Discuss the teacher's obligation to discover pupils' better selves.</p> + +<p>8. What is the relative importance of expression and impression +in teaching?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Betts, <i>How to Teach Religion</i>; Gregory, <i>The Seven Laws of Teaching</i>; +Thorndike, <i>Principles of Teaching</i>; Brumbaugh, <i>The Making +of a Teacher</i>; Strayer and Norsworthy, <i>How to Teach</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE JOYS OF TEACHING</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter III</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The Joys that attend Teaching: Enrichment of the spirit.—Guarantee +of the teacher's own growth and development.—Restraining +and uplifting influence on the moral character of the teacher.—Satisfaction +that attends seeing pupils develop.—Inspirational companionship.—Contentment +that attaches to duty done.—Outpouring of the +blessings of the Lord.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Chapters one and two emphasized the thought that the +purposes behind teaching impose a sacred obligation on +the part of those who aspire to teach. But lest the obligation +appear burdensome, let us remind ourselves that compensation +is one of the great laws of life. "To him who +gives shall be given" applies to teaching as to few other +things. Verily he who loses his life finds it. The devotion +of the real teacher, though it involves labor, anxiety and +sacrifice, is repaid ten-fold. Only he who has fully given +himself in service to others can appreciate the joy that +attends teaching—particularly that teaching enjoined upon +us by the Master and which is its own recompense.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to enumerate all of the blessings that attend +the service of the teacher, but let us consider a few that +stand out pre-eminently.</p> + +<p>If there were none other than this first one it would +justify all that is done in the name of teaching; namely, +"the enrichment of spirit." "There is a spirit in man: and +the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understanding." +To feel the thrill of that inspiration is a compensation +beyond price. The Lord, having commanded us to +teach (see Sec. 88:77-81, Doc. & Cov.), has followed the +command with the promise of a blessing, one of the richest +in all scripture.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span><p>"For thus saith the Lord, I, the Lord, am merciful and gracious +unto those who fear me, and delight to honor those who serve me +in righteousness and in truth unto the end;</p> + +<p>"Great shall be their reward and eternal shall be their glory;</p> + +<p>"And to them will I reveal all mysteries, yea, all the hidden mysteries +of my kingdom from days of old, and for ages to come will +I make known unto them the good pleasure of my will concerning +all things pertaining to my kingdom;</p> + +<p>"Yea, even the wonders of eternity shall they know, and things +to come will I show them, even the things of many generations;</p> + +<p>"And their wisdom shall be great, and their understanding reach +to heaven: and before them the wisdom of the wise shall perish, and +the understanding of the prudent shall come to naught;</p> + +<p>"For by my Spirit will I enlighten them, and by my power will +I make known unto them the secrets of my will; yea, even those +things which eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor yet entered into +the heart of man." (Doc. & Cov. 76:5-10.)</p></div> + +<p>This constitutes a promissory note signed by our heavenly +Father Himself. A blessing beyond compare—a dividend +unfailing—and our only investment—devoted service! +Companionship with the Spirit of the Lord! That is what +it means, if we serve Him in faith and humility.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Be thou humble, and the Lord thy God shall lead thee by the +hand, and give thee answer to thy prayers." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. +112:10.)</p></div> + +<p>Like all other gifts and attainments, the Spirit of the +Lord has to be cultivated. Teaching insures a cultivation +as few other things in life can. An enriched spirit, then, +is the first great reward of the teacher.</p> + +<p>A second satisfaction is the guarantee of one's own growth +and development. Teachers invariably declare that they +have learned more, especially in the first year of teaching, +than in any year at college. A consciousness of the fact +that it is hard to teach that which is not well known incites +that type of study which makes for growth. A good class +is a great "pace-setter." Intellectually it has the pull of +achievement. The real teacher always is the greatest student +in the class. The "drive" of having a regular task to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>perform, especially when that task is checked up as it is +by students, leads many a person to a development unknown +to him who is free to slide. "Blessed is he who has +to do things." Responsibility is the great force that builds +character. Compare the relative development of the person +who spends Tuesday evening at home with the evening +paper, or at some other pastime, and of the person who, +having accepted fully the call to teach, leads a class of +truth-seekers through an hour's discussion of some vital +subject. Follow the development through the Tuesday +evenings of a lifetime.</p> + +<p>How easy to understand that there are varying degrees +of glory hereafter.</p> + +<p>A third value of teaching lies in the fact that the position +of teacher exercises a restraining influence for good on the +moral life of the teacher. He is sustained by a consciousness +that his conduct is his only evidence to his pupils +that his practice is consistent with his theory. His class +follows him in emulation or in criticism in all that he does. +"Come, follow me," lifts the real teacher over the pitfalls +of temptation. He cannot do forbidden work on the Sabbath, +he cannot indulge in the use of tobacco, he cannot +stoop to folly—his class stands between him and all these +things. A teacher recently gave expression to the value of +this restraining force when she said, "I urge my girls so +vigorously not to go to the movies on Sunday that I find +my conscience in rebellion if anyone asks me to go."</p> + +<p>Many a man in attempting to convert another to the +righteousness of a particular issue has found himself to be +his own best convert. He comes to appreciate the fact that +the trail he establishes is the path followed by those whom +he influences. He hears the voice of the child as recorded +in the little poem:</p> + +<div class="poem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span><p><span class="smcap">I Stepped in Your Steps All the Way</span></p> + +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A father and his tiny son<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Crossed a rough street one stormy day,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">'See papa!' cried the little one,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">'I stepped in your steps all the way!'<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ah, random, childish hands, that deal<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Quick thrusts no coat of proof could stay!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">It touched him with the touch of steel—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">'I stepped in your steps all the way!'<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"If this man shirks his manhood's due<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And heeds what lying voices say,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">It is not one who falls, but two,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">'I stepped in your steps all the way!'<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"But they who thrust off greed and fear,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Who love and watch, who toil and pray,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">How their hearts carol when they say,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">'I stepped in your steps all the way!'"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Still another joy that attends teaching is the satisfaction +of seeing pupils develop. The sculptor finds real happiness +in watching his clay take on the form and expression +of his model; the artist glories as his colors grow into life; +the parent finds supreme joy in seeing himself "re-grow" +in his child; so the teacher delights to see his pupils build +their lives on the truths he has taught. The joy is doubly +sweet if it is heightened by an expression of appreciation +on the part of the pupils. Few experiences can bring the +thrill of real happiness that comes to the teacher when a +former student, once perhaps a little inclined to mischief +or carelessness, takes him by the hand with a "God bless +you for helping me find my better self."</p> + +<p>An officer of the British army, in recounting those experiences +which had come to him in the recent world war, +and which he said he never could forget, referred to one +which more than compensated him for all the effort he had +ever put into his preparation for teaching. Because of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>position in the army it became his duty to discipline a +group of boys for what in the army is a serious offense. In +that group was a boy who had formerly been a pupil +under the officer in one of our ward organizations. Chagrin +was stamped on the face of the boy as he came forward +for reprimand. Regret and remorse were in the heart of the +officer. They soon gave way to pride, however, as the boy +assured him that worse than any punishment was the humiliation +of being brought before his own teacher, and +he further assured him that never again would he do a thing +that would mar the sacred relations of pupil and teacher.</p> + +<p>A further compensation attached to teaching is that of +inspirational companionship. It is a blessed privilege to +enjoy the sunshine of youth. Every pupil contributes an +association with one of God's choice spirits. To live and +work with children and adolescents is one of the finest of +safeguards against old age. The teacher not only partakes +of the joy of his group—they constitute him a link between +his generation and theirs. Their newness of life, +their optimism, their spontaneity, their joy, they gladly +pass on to their teacher.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the teacher enjoys the uplifting associations +of his fellow teachers. Among those consecrated to a noble +service, there is a spirit unknown to him who has not enjoyed +such communion. Whether he is conscious of it or +not, the teacher responds to the pull of such a group. +Scores of teachers have testified that the associations they +have enjoyed as members of a local board, stake board, or +general board, are among the happiest of their lives.</p> + +<p>And finally there is the contentment of mind that comes +as a result of a duty well done. The human soul is so constituted +that any task well performed brings a feeling of +satisfaction, and this is doubly heightened when the duty +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>performed is of the nature of a free will offering. Still +more so when it is shared in by others to their blessing. +Just as we hope for an eventual crowning under the blessing, +"Well done, thou good and faithful servant," so we +treasure those benedictions along the way that attend the +discharge of a sacred obligation.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter III</p> + +<p>1. Quote some of the promises of the Lord to those who do His +will.</p> + +<p>2. How is teaching one of the surest guarantees of the blessings +of eternal life?</p> + +<p>3. What are the immediate joys attached to teaching?</p> + +<p>4. Discuss the application to teaching of the truth—"He who +loses his life shall find it."</p> + +<p>5. What types of companionship are assured him who teaches?</p> + +<p>6. As you now recall them, what distinct pleasures stand out in +your teaching experience?</p> + +<p>7. Discuss Section 76 of the Doctrine & Covenants as one of the +most valuable promissory notes ever given to mankind.</p> + +<p>8. Discuss the force of a duty done as a guarantee of joy.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Doctrine and Covenants: Slattery, <i>Living Teachers</i>; Sharp, <i>Education +for Character</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>; +Betts, <i>How to Teach Religion</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>PERSONALITY</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter IV</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The worth of a great teacher.—Good teachers not necessarily born.—Some +boys' observations on teachers.—A high school survey.—Clapp's +<i>Essential Characteristics</i>.—Betts' <i>Three Classes of Teachers</i>.—His +list of qualities.</p><br /></div> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A great teacher is worth more to a state, though he teach by +the roadside, than a faculty of mediocrities housed in Gothic piles."—<i>Chicago +Tribune</i>, September, 1919.</p></div> + +<p>We may stress the sacred obligation of the teacher; we +may discuss in detail mechanical processes involved in +lesson preparation; we may analyze child nature in all of +its complexity; but after all we come back to the <i>Personality +of the Teacher</i> as the great outstanding factor in +pedagogical success. <i>That something in the man</i> that +grips people!</p> + +<p>Very generally this <i>Personal Equation</i> has been looked +upon as a certain indefinable possession enjoyed by the +favored few. In a certain sense this is true. Personality +is largely inherent in the individual and therefore differs +as fully as do individuals. But of recent years educators +have carried on extensive investigations in this field of personality +and have succeeded in reducing to comprehensible +terms those qualities which seem to be most responsible for +achievements of successful teachers. Observation leads us +all to similar deductions and constitutes one of the most +interesting experiments open to those concerned with the +teaching process.</p> + +<p>Why, with the same amount of preparation, does one +teacher succeed with a class over which another has no +control at all?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>Why is it that one class is crowded each week, while +another adjourns for lack of membership?</p> + +<p>The writer a short time ago, after addressing the members +of a ward M.I.A., asked a group of scouts to remain +after the meeting, to whom he put the question, "What is it +that you like or dislike in teachers?" The group was a +thoroughly typical group—real boys, full of life and equally +full of frankness. They contributed the following replies:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. We like a fellow that's full of pep.</li> +<li>2. We like a fellow that doesn't preach all the time.</li> +<li>3. We like a fellow that makes us be good.</li> +<li>4. We like a fellow that tells us new things.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Boylike, they were "strong" for pep—a little word with +a big significance. Vigor, enthusiasm, sense of humor, attack, +forcefulness—all of these qualities are summed up +in these three letters.</p> + +<p>And the interesting thing is that while the boys liked to +be told new things, they didn't want to be preached at. +They evidently had the boy's idea of preaching who characterized +it as, "talking a lot when you haven't anything +to say."</p> + +<p>Still more interesting is the fact that boys like to be +made to be good. In spite of their fun and their seeming +indifference they really are serious in a desire to subscribe +to the laws of order that make progress possible.</p> + +<p>A principal of the Granite High School carried on an +investigation through a period of four years to ascertain +just what it is that students like in teachers. During those +years students set down various attributes and qualities, +which are summarized below just as they were given:</p> + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span><i>Desirable Characteristics</i></p> + +<ul><li>Congeniality.</li> +<li>Broadmindedness.</li> +<li>Wide knowledge.</li> +<li>Personality that makes discipline easy.</li> +<li>Willingness to entertain questions.</li> +<li>Realization that students need help.</li> +<li>Sense of humor—ability to take a joke.</li> +<li>Optimism—cheerfulness.</li> +<li>Sympathy.</li> +<li>Originality.</li> +<li>Progressiveness.</li> +<li>Effective expression.</li> +<li>Pleasing appearance—"good looking."</li> +<li>Tact.</li> +<li>Patience.</li> +<li>Sincerity.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Among the characteristics which they did not like in +teachers they named the following:</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Undesirable Characteristics</i></p> + +<ul><li>Grouchiness.</li> +<li>Wandering in method.</li> +<li>Indifference to need for help.</li> +<li>Too close holding to the text.</li> +<li>Distant attitude—aloofness.</li> +<li>Partiality.</li> +<li>Excitability.</li> +<li>Irritability.</li> +<li>Pessimism—"in the dumps."</li> +<li>Indifferent assignments.</li> +<li>Hazy explanations.</li> +<li>Failure to cover assignments.</li> +<li>Distracting facial expressions.</li> +<li>Attitude of "lording it over."</li> +<li>Sarcasm.</li> +<li>Poor taste in dress.</li> +<li>Bluffing—"the tables turned."</li> +<li>Discipline for discipline's sake.</li> +<li>"Holier than thouness."</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center"><i>Desirable Capabilities</i></p> + +<p>They also reduced to rather memorable phrases a half +dozen desirable capabilities:</p> + +<ul><li>1. The ability to make students work and want to work.</li> +<li>2. The ability to make definite assignments.</li> +<li>3. The ability to make clear explanations.</li> +<li>4. The ability to be pleasant without being easy.</li> +<li>5. The ability to emphasize essentials.</li> +<li>6. The ability to capitalize on new ideas.</li> +<li>7. The ability to be human.</li> +</ul> + +<p>A number of years ago Clapp conducted a similar survey +among one hundred leading school men of America, asking +them to list the ten most essential characteristics of a good +teacher. From the lists sent in Clapp compiled the ten +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>qualities in the order named most frequently by the one +hundred men:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Sympathy.</li> +<li>2. Address.</li> +<li>3. Enthusiasm.</li> +<li>4. Sincerity.</li> +<li>5. Personal Appearance.</li> +<li>6. Optimism.</li> +<li>7. Scholarship.</li> +<li>8. Vitality.</li> +<li>9. Fairness.</li> +<li>10. Reserve or dignity.</li> +</ul> + +<p>George Herbert Betts, in his stimulating book, <i>How to +Teach Religion</i>, says there are three classes of teachers:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Two types of teachers are remembered: One to be forgiven after +years have softened the antagonisms and resentments; the other to +be thought of with honor and gratitude as long as memory lasts. +Between these two is a third and a larger group: those who are +forgotten, because they failed to stamp a lasting impression on their +pupils. This group represents the mediocrity of the profession, not +bad enough to be actively forgiven, not good enough to claim a place +in gratitude and remembrance."</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Betts then goes on with a very exhaustive list of +positive and negative qualities in teachers—a list so valuable +that we set it down here for reference.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Teacher Qualities Comparison"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='center'><i>Positive Qualities</i></td><td align='center'><i>Negative Qualities</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Open-minded, inquiring, broad.</td><td align='left'>Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry for truth.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Accurate, thorough, discerning.</td><td align='left'>Indefinite, superficial, lazy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Judicious, balanced, fair.</td><td align='left'>Prejudiced, led by likes and dislikes.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Original, independent, resourceful.</td><td align='left'>Dependent, imitative, subservient.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Decisive, possessing convictions.</td><td align='left'>Uncertain, wavering, undecided.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Cheerful, joyous, optimistic.</td><td align='left'>Gloomy, morose, pessimistic, bitter.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>Amiable, friendly, agreeable.</td><td align='left'>Repellent, unsociable, disagreeable.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>Democratic, broadly sympathetic.</td><td align='left'>Snobbish, self-centered, exclusive.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Tolerant, sense of humor, generous.</td><td align='left'>Opinionated, dogmatic, intolerant.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>10.</td><td align='left'>Kind, courteous, tactful.</td><td align='left'>Cruel, rude, untactful.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'>Tractable, co-operative, teachable.</td><td align='left'>Stubborn, not able to work with others.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'>Loyal, honorable, dependable.</td><td align='left'>Disloyal, uncertain dependability.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'>Executive, forceful, vigorous.</td><td align='left'>Uncertain, weak, not capable.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'>High ideals, worthy, exalted.</td><td align='left'>Low standards, base, contemptible.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'>Modest, self-effacing.</td><td align='left'>Egotistical, vain, autocratic.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'>Courageous, daring, firm.</td><td align='left'>Overcautious, weak, vacillating.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'>Honest, truthful, frank, sincere.</td><td align='left'>Low standards of honor and truth.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'>Patient, calm, equable.</td><td align='left'>Irritable, excitable, moody.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'>Generous, open-hearted, forgiving.</td><td align='left'>Stingy, selfish, resentful.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'>Responsive, congenial.</td><td align='left'>Cold, repulsive, uninviting.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'>Punctual, on schedule, capable.</td><td align='left'>Tardy, usually behindhand, incapable.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'>Methodical, consistent, logical.</td><td align='left'>Haphazard, desultory, inconsistent.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'>Altruistic, given to service.</td><td align='left'>Indifferent, not socially minded.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'>Refined, alive to beauty, artistic.</td><td align='left'>Coarse, lacking aesthetic quality.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'>Self-controlled, decision, purpose.</td><td align='left'>Suggestible, easily led, uncertain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'>Good physical carriage, dignity.</td><td align='left'>Lack of poise, ill posture, no grace.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'>Taste in attire, cleanliness, pride.</td><td align='left'>Careless in dress, frumpy, no pride.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'>Face smiling, voice pleasant.</td><td align='left'>Somber expression, voice unpleasant.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'>Physical endurance, vigor, strength.</td><td align='left'>Quickly tired, weak, sluggish.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'>Spiritual responsiveness, strong.</td><td align='left'>Spiritually weak, inconstant, uncertain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'>Prayer life warm, satisfying.</td><td align='left'>Prayer cold, formal, little comfort.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'>Religious certainty, peace, quiet.</td><td align='left'>Conflict, strain, uncertainty.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'>Religious experience expanding.</td><td align='left'>Spiritual life static or losing force.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'>God a near, inspiring reality.</td><td align='left'>God distant, unreal, hard of approach.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>35.</td><td align='left'>Power to win others to religion.</td><td align='left'>Influence little or negative.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'>Interest in Bible and religion.</td><td align='left'>Little concern for religion and Bible.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'>Religion makes life fuller and richer.</td><td align='left'>Religion felt as a limitation.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'>Deeply believe great fundamentals.</td><td align='left'>Lacking in foundations for faith.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'>Increasing triumph over sin.</td><td align='left'>Too frequent falling before temptation.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'>Religious future hopeful.</td><td align='left'>Religious growth uncertain.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter IV</p> + +<p>1. Think of the teachers who stand out most clearly in your +memory. Why do they so stand out?</p> + +<p>2. Name the qualities that made the Savior the <i>Great Teacher</i>.</p> + +<p>3. If you had to choose between a fairly capable but humble +teacher, and a very capable but conceited one, which one would be +your choice? Why?</p> + +<p>4. What is your argument against the idea, "Teachers are born, +not made"?</p> + +<p>5. Discuss the relative significance of the qualities quoted from +Betts.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>O'Shea, <i>Every-day Problems in Teaching</i>; Betts, <i>How to Teach +Religion</i>; Brumbaugh, <i>The Making of a Teacher</i>; Palmer, <i>The Ideal +Teacher</i>; Slattery, <i>Living Teachers</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School +Teachers</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>PERSONALITY</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter V</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The six major qualities:—a. Sympathy.—b. Sincerity.—c. Optimism.—d. +Scholarly attitude.—e. Vitality.—f. Spirituality.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>To set about to cultivate separate qualities would be +rather a discouraging undertaking. As a matter of fact, +many of the characteristics named really overlap, while +others are secondary in importance. For practical purposes +let us enlarge upon five or six qualities which everyone +will agree are fundamental to teaching success.</p> + +<p>The class in Teacher Training, at the Brigham Young +University, in the summer of 1920, named these six as the +most fundamental:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Sympathy.</li> +<li>2. Sincerity.</li> +<li>3. Optimism.</li> +<li>4. Scholarly attitude.</li> +<li>5. Vitality.</li> +<li>6. Spirituality.</li> +</ul> + +<p>No attempt was made to set them down in the order of +relative importance.</p> + + +<p class="section">1. Sympathy</p> + +<p>This is a very broad and far-reaching term. It rests +upon experience and imagination and involves the ability +to live, at least temporarily, someone else's life. Sympathy +is fundamentally vicarious. Properly to sympathize with +children a man must re-live in memory his own childhood +or he must have the power of imagination to see things +through their eyes. Many a teacher has condemned pupils +for doing what to them was perfectly normal. We too frequently +persist in viewing a situation from our own point +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>of view rather than in going around to the other side to +look at it as our pupils see it. It is no easy matter thus +"to get out of ourselves" and become a boy or girl again, +but it is worth the effort.</p> + +<p>Along with this ability at vicarious living, sympathy involves +an interest in others. Sympathy is a matter of concern +in the affairs of others. The rush and stir of modern +life fairly seem to force us to focus our attention upon +self, but if we would succeed as teachers, we must make +ourselves enter into the lives of our pupils out of an interest +to see how they conduct their lives, and the reasons for +such conduct.</p> + +<p>Coupled with this interest in others and the imagination +to see through their eyes, sympathy involves a desire to +help them. A man may have an interest in people born out +of mere curiosity or for selfish purposes, but if he has sympathy +for them, he must be moved with a desire to help +and to bless them.</p> + +<p>And, finally, sympathy involves the actual doing of +something by way of service. President Grant liked to refer +to a situation wherein a particular person was in distress. +Friends of all sorts came along expressing regret and professing +sympathy. Finally a fellow stepped forward and +said, "I feel to sympathize with this person to the extent of +fifty dollars." "That man," said President Grant, "has +sympathy in his heart as well as in his purse."</p> + + +<p class="section">2. Sincerity</p> + +<p>Surely this is a foundation principle in teaching:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Thou must to thyself be true,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">If thou the truth would teach;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thy soul must overflow,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">If thou another soul would reach."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>A teacher must really be converted to what he teaches +or there is a hollowness to all that he utters. "Children +and dogs," it is said, are the great judges of sincerity—they +instinctively know a friend. No teacher can continue +to stand on false ground before his pupils. The superintendent +of one of our Sunday Schools, having selected one +of the most talented persons in his ward to teach a Second +Intermediate Class was astonished some months later to +receive a request from the class for a change of teachers. +The class could assign no specific reasons for their objections, +except that they didn't get anything out of the class. +A year later the superintendent learned that the teacher +was living in violation of the regulations of the Church, +on a particular principle, and it was perfectly clear why +his message didn't ring home.</p> + +<p>The sincere teacher not only believes what he teaches—he +consecrates his best efforts to the task in hand. He +urges no excuse for absence or lack of preparation—"he +is there." He lets his class feel that for the time being +it is his greatest concern. He meets with boys and girls +because he loves to and reaches out to them with an enthusiasm +that cannot be questioned.</p> + + +<p class="section">3. Optimism</p> + +<p>is the sunshine of the classroom. It is as natural to expect +a plant to develop when covered with a blanket as it is to +expect a class to be full of activity and responsiveness +under an influence of unnatural solemnity. Lincoln is +quoted as having declared, "You can catch more flies with +a drop of honey than with a gallon of vinegar"—a homely +expression, but full of suggestion. A grouch is no magnet.</p> + +<p>A little girl when questioned why she liked her Sunday +School teacher said, "Oh, she always smiles at me and says, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>hello." There is contagion in the cheeriness of a smile that +cannot be resisted. Children live so naturally in an atmosphere +of happiness and fun that teachers of religious instruction +may well guard against making their work too +formally sober. Frequently teachers feel the seriousness +of their undertaking so keenly that they worry or discipline +themselves into a state of pedagogical unnaturalness. There +is very great force behind the comment of the student who +appreciated the teacher who could be human. The experience +is told of a teacher who continued to have difficulty +with one of her pupils. He so persisted in violating regulations +that he was kept in after school regularly, and yet +after school hours he was one of the most helpful lads in +the school; in fact, he and the teacher seemed almost +chummy. Struck by the difference in his attitude, the +teacher remarked to him one afternoon, as he went about +cleaning the blackboard, "Jimmie, I have just been wondering +about you. You're one of my best workers after +school—I can't understand how you can be so different +during school hours and after."</p> + +<p>"Gee, that's funny," put in Jimmie, "I was just thinking +the same thing about you."</p> + +<p>To be cheerful without being easy is a real art. Liberty +is so often converted into license, and a spirit of fun so +easily transformed into mischief and disorder. And yet +cheerfulness is the great key to the human heart.</p> + +<p>An attitude of looking for the good in pupils will lead +to a response of friendliness on their part which is the +basis of all teaching.</p> + + +<p class="section">4. Scholarly Attitude</p> + +<p>If a teacher would cultivate an appetite for learning +among his pupils he must himself hunger for knowledge. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>Most young people will "take intellectually if sufficiently +exposed." A scholarly attitude implies first of all a +growing mastery of subject matter. To quote an eminent +writer on religious education, "A common bane of Sunday +school teaching has been the haziness of the teacher's own +ideas concerning the truths of religion."</p> + +<p>Fancy the hostess who would invite her guests to a dinner, +and upon their arrival indicate to them that she had +made only vague plans to receive them. No special place +for their wraps, no entertainment for their amusement, and +then fancy her asking them to sit down to a warmed-up +conglomeration of left-overs.</p> + +<p>Of course, it is only in fancy that we can imagine such a +service. Yet reports frequently indicate that there are class +recitations, intellectual banquets, for which the preparation +has been about as meagre as that indicated. Surely +he who would feast others upon His word should prepare +unceasingly. Let us keep in mind the comment—"We like +the fellow who tells us something new."</p> + +<p>Along with this mastery of subject matter, a scholarly +attitude implies both broadmindedness and openmindedness. +Seekers after truth should welcome it from all available +sources, and ought not to be handicapped by bias or +prejudice. Tolerance and a willingness to entertain questions—a +constant effort to view a subject from every +possible angle—a poise that attends self-control even +under stress of annoyance—these things are all involved +in a truly scholarly attack upon any given problem.</p> + + +<p class="section">5. Vitality</p> + +<p>One of the qualities most favorably and frequently commented +on by students is what they call "pep." A certain +vigor of attack that seems to go directly to the point at +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>stake, putting at rest all other business and making discipline +unnecessary, is what twentieth century young people +seem to like. The element of hero worship prompts them +to demand that the leader shall "do things." They like the +"push" that takes a man over the top, the drive that wins +a ball game, the energy that stamps the business man with +success. Vitality is an inherent factor in leadership.</p> + + +<p class="section">6. Spirituality</p> + +<p>The crowning glory of the successful religious teacher is +that spiritual glow which links up heaven and earth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the power of faith, +and if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., +Sec. 42:14.)</p></div> + +<p>This divine injunction is given us because we have +undertaken to teach His Gospel. We would lead others to +Him. And this is possible only as we lead by the light of +His Holy Spirit. Above our knowledge of facts and our +understanding of child nature must be placed our communion +with that Spirit which touches the hearts of men.</p> + +<p>If a teacher would prepare a young man for a place in +a modern business house he must teach him the ways of +business,—buying, selling, collecting, managing, etc.,—matters +of fact, governed by the laws of barter and trade. +If that same teacher would teach the same young man the +way of eternal life, he must substitute for the laws of man +the word of the Lord, and for the spirit of exchange, the +Spirit of Heaven. A pupil can be prepared for the kingdom +of God only as he is led to respond to and appreciate +His Spirit, and to do His will. While it is true that the +best way to prepare for heaven is to live the best possible +life here on earth, yet we need the Spirit of the Lord to +interpret what constitutes that best possible life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>There is power in the intellect of man; there is glory in +that power when it is heightened by the Spirit of the +Almighty.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter V</p> + +<p>1. What is sympathy?</p> + +<p>2. Why is it so essential in teaching?</p> + +<p>3. Why is sincerity a foundation principle in all teaching?</p> + +<p>4. Discuss the obligation on the part of the teacher to leave his +troubles outside the classroom.</p> + +<p>5. Discuss the statement—"Cheerfulness is spiritual sunshine."</p> + +<p>6. Illustrate the value of cheerfulness.</p> + +<p>7. What is the significance of the term, scholarly attitude?</p> + +<p>8. Just what constitutes vitality?</p> + +<p>9. Show how it is essential to teaching.</p> + +<p>10. Why name spirituality as the crowning characteristic of the +good teacher?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter IV.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>ATTAINMENT</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter VI</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The possibility of growth in teaching.—How to develop spirituality: +a. By cultivating the spirit of prayer; b. By leading a clean +life; c. By obeying the principles of the Gospel; d. By performing +one's duty in the Church; e. By reading and pondering the word +of the Lord.—How to develop other qualities: a. By taking a personal +inventory; b. By coming in contact with the best in life through +reading and companionship; c. By forming the habit of systematic +study; d. By assuming responsibility.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>While we may agree as to what constitutes the desirable +characteristics in teachers it is far easier to name them +than to attain them. We have already pointed out that +teaching is a complex art proficiency in which is the result +of a long, painstaking process. But success in teaching as +in all other pursuits is possible of achievement. We have +heard so frequently that teachers must be born, not made, +that many prospective teachers, feeling that they have +been denied this pedagogical birthright, give up in despair. +Of course, it is naturally easy for some individuals to teach—they +do seem born possessed of a teaching personality, +but they are not given a monopoly on the profession.</p> + +<p>The Lord has too many children to be taught to leave +their instruction to a few favored ones. The qualities listed +in chapter five may be developed, in varying degrees, of +course, by any normal person anxious to serve his fellows. +The "will to do" is the great key to success.</p> + +<p>To him who would develop spiritually, these five suggestions +may be helpful:</p> + +<p>First, cultivate the spirit of prayer. The president of +one of our stakes made the remark once that he believed +only a few of the men and women of his stake really pray. +"They go through the form, all right," he said; "they re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>peat +the words—but they do not enter into the spirit of +the prayer. If the Lord doesn't draw nearer to them than +they do to Him I doubt that their prayers are really of +very great force."</p> + +<p>The ability to pray is the great test of a spiritual life. +"The faith to pray" is a gift to be cultivated through devoted +practice. The teacher who would have his pupils +draw nearer to him must himself draw near to the Lord. +The promise, "Ask, and ye shall receive, seek, and ye shall +find," was given only to those who ask in faith. This constant +prayer of faith, then is the first great guarantee of +the Spirit.</p> + +<p>The second is a clean life. Just as it is impossible for +water to make its way through a dirty, clogged pipe, so +it is for the Spirit to flow through a channel of unrighteous +desires. A visitor was interested a short time ago in +Canada in attempting to get a drink out of a pipe that had +been installed to carry water from a spring in the side of +a mountain to a pool at the side of the road. Due to neglect, +moss and filth had been allowed to collect about the +bottom of the pipe, until it was nearly choked up. Getting +a drink was out of the question. And yet there was plenty +of water in the spring above—just as fine water as had ever +flowed from that source. It was simply denied passage +down to those who would drink. And so with the Spirit. +The Lord is still able to bless—all too frequently, we so +live that "the passage is clogged." The Word of Wisdom +is not only a guarantee of health—it is the key to communication +with the Spirit. And what is true of the body +applies with even greater force to cleanliness of mind. The +teacher might well adopt this prayer:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit +within me."</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>The third great guarantee of the Spirit is an unswerving +obedience to all principles of the Gospel. To teach belief +a man must believe. Firmly grounded in all the cardinal +principles the teacher may well inspire a spirit of the Gospel, +but not otherwise. Doubt and uncertainty will keep +the teacher from the position of counsel and leadership.</p> + +<p>The fourth assurance in the matter of developing spirituality +is the consistent performance of one's religious obligations. +The complaint is often made that teachers in a +particular organization will meet their classes regularly, +but that done they seem to consider their religious duties +discharged. Teaching does not excuse a person from attending +the other services required of Latter-day Saints. +He is asked to attend Sacrament meetings, Priesthood meetings, +Union meetings, special preparation meetings—they +are all essential to the full development of the Spirit of +the Gospel, which is the spirit of teaching. The teacher +may rightly expect to be sustained only as he sustains those +who preside over him.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with +what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." (Matt. +7:2.)</p></div> + +<p>And finally, if we would enjoy the spirit of our work +we must familiarize ourselves with the Word of the Lord. +To read it is to associate in thought with Him. His Spirit +pervades all that He has said, whether in ancient or modern +times. One of our apostles frequently remarked that if he +would feel fully in touch with the spirit of his calling he +must read regularly from the Doctrine & Covenants. "That +book keeps me attuned as no other book can." It is not +given to us to associate here with the Master, but through +His recorded words we can live over all that He once lived. +Thereby we not only come really to know what He would +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>have us do, we partake of a spirit that surpasses understanding.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life."</p></div> + +<p>As for attainment in other matters involved in the teaching +process, the teachers who attended the course at the +Brigham Young University were agreed that regular practice +in the following processes will insure marked growth +and development:</p> + +<p>1. The taking of a personal inventory at regular intervals. +"Am I the kind of teacher I should like to go to?" +starts an investigation full of suggestiveness. The qualities +listed in chapter four constitute a reference chart for +analysis. A teacher can become his own best critic if he +sets up the proper ideals by way of a standard. A teacher +in one of our Church schools in Idaho carried out an interesting +investigation during the year 1919-1920. Anxious +that he should not monopolize the time in his recitations, +he asked one of his students to tabulate the time of the +class period as follows:</p> + +<ul><li>Number of questions asked by teacher.</li> +<li>Number of questions asked by pupils.</li> +<li>Amount of time consumed by teacher.</li> +<li>Amount of time consumed by pupils.</li> +</ul> + +<p>He was astonished to discover that of the forty-five minutes +given to recitation he was regularly using an average +of thirty-two <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'mintues'">minutes</ins>. Similar investigations can be carried +on by any interested teacher.</p> + +<p>2. Contact with the best in life. It is a fundamental law +in life that life is an adaptation to environment. The writer +has been interested in observing the force of this law as it +affects animal life. Lizards in Emery county are slate-gray +in color that they may be less conspicuous on a back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>ground +of clay and gray sandstone; the same animals in +St. George take on a reddish color—an adaptation to their +environment of red sandstone.</p> + +<p>Nor is the operation of this law merely a physical process. +On a trip into Canada recently the writer traveled some +distance with a group of bankers in attendance at a convention +at Great Falls. On his way home he took a train on +which there was a troupe of vaudeville players. The contrast +was too marked to escape notice. One group had responded +to an environment of sober business negotiations—the +other to the gayety of the footlights. And so the +teacher who would grow must put himself into an environment +that makes the kind of growth he desires natural—inevitable. +Through good books he can associate with the +choice spirits of all ages. No one denies his acquaintanceship. +Great men have given their best thoughts to many +of the problems that confront us. We can capitalize on +their wisdom by reading their books. We re-enforce ourselves +with their strength.</p> + +<p>Magazines, too, are full of stimulation. They constitute +a kind of intellectual clearing house for the best thought +of the world today. Business houses value them so highly +in promoting the advancement of their employees that they +subscribe <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'reguarly'">regularly</ins>. One manager remarked: "No one +factor makes for greater growth among my men than reading +the achievements of others—leaders in their lines—through +the magazines." There is scarcely a phase of life +which is not being fully written about in the current issues +of the leading magazines.</p> + +<p>Then, too, contact with men and women of achievement +is a remarkable stimulus to growth.</p> + +<p>There are leaders in every community—men and women +rich in experience—who will gladly discuss the vital issues +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>of life with those who approach them. There still remain, +too, pioneers with their wonderful stories of sacrifice and +devotion. To the teacher who will take the pains there is +an untold wealth of material in the lives of the men and +women about him.</p> + +<p>3. Regular habits of systematic study. Thorough intensive +effort finds its best reward in the intellectual growth +that it insures. In these days of the hurry of business and +the whirl of commercialized amusements there is little time +left for study except for him who makes himself subscribe +to a system of work. Thirty minutes of concentrated effort +a day works wonders in the matter of growth. President +Grant was a splendid evidence of the force of persistent +effort in his writing, his business success, and his rise to +the leadership of half a million Latter-day Saints.</p> + +<p>4. Assuming the obligations of responsibility. In every +organization there are constant calls upon teachers to perform +laborious tasks. It is so natural to seek to avoid them—so +easy to leave them for somebody else—that we have +to cultivate vigorously a habit of accepting the obligations +that present themselves. The difficulties of responsibility +are often burdensome, but they are an essential guarantee +of achievement. "Welcome the task that makes you go +beyond your ordinary self, if you would grow!"</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter VI</p> + +<p>1. Discuss our obligation to grow.</p> + +<p>2. Point out the difference between praying and merely saying +prayers.</p> + +<p>3. Discuss the various means which guarantee spiritual growth.</p> + +<p>4. Comment on the thought that a personal inventory is as essential +to teaching as it is to financial success.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>5. What is your daily scheme for systematic study?</p> + +<p>6. What plan do you follow in an attempt to know the scriptures?</p> + +<p>7. Why is it so important that we assume the responsibilities +placed upon us?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter IV.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>NATIVE TENDENCIES</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter VII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Importance of Child Study to teachers.—Teaching both a social +and an individual process.—A Child's <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'charactertistics'">characteristics</ins>—his birthright.—What +the nervous system is.—Types of original responses.—The +significance of instinctive action.—Colvin's list of native tendencies.—Sisson's +list.—A knowledge of native tendencies essential to proper +control of human behavior.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>We have now discussed the significance and meaning of +teaching, together with the consideration of the characteristics +that constitute the personal equation of the teacher. +It is now pertinent that we give some attention to the nature +of the child to be taught, that we may the more intelligently +discuss methods of teaching, or how teacher and pupil get +together in an exchange of knowledge.</p> + +<p>Teaching is a unique process. It is both social and individual. +The teacher meets a class—a collection of pupils +in a social unit. In one way he is concerned with them generally—he +directs group action. But in addition to this +social aspect, the problem involves his giving attention to +each individual in the group. He may put a general question, +but he gets an individual reply. In short, he must +be aware of the fact that his pupils, for purposes of recitation, +are all alike; and at the same time he must appreciate +the fact that they are peculiarly different. In a later chapter +we shall consider these differences; let us here consider the +points of similarity.</p> + +<p>The fact that a boy is a boy makes him heir to all of +the characteristics that man has developed. These characteristics +are his birthright. He responds in a particular way +to stimuli because the race before him has so responded. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>There is no need here of entering into a discussion as to +how great a controlling factor heredity may be in a man's +life, or how potent environment may be in modifying that +life—we are concerned rather with the result—that man is +as he is. It is essential that we know his characteristics, +particularly as they manifest themselves in youth, so that +we may know what to expect in his conduct and so that +we may proceed to modify and control that conduct. Just +as the first task of the physician is to diagnose his case—to +get at the cause of the difficulty before he proceeds to +suggest a remedy—so the first consideration of the teacher +is a query, "Whom do I teach?"</p> + +<p>Man may normally be expected to respond in a particular +way to a particular stimulus because men throughout the +history of the race have so responded. Certain connections +have been established in his nervous system and he acts +accordingly—he does what he does because he is <i>man</i>. +We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the physiological +processes involved in thinking and other forms of +behavior, but perhaps we may well set down a statement +or two relative to man's tendencies to act, and their explanations:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The nervous system is composed of neurones of three types: +Those that receive, the afferent; those that effect action, the efferent; +and those that connect, the associative. The meeting places of these +neurones are the synapses. All <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has 'nuerones'">neurones</ins> have the three characteristics +of sensitivity, conductivity, and modifiability. In order for conduct +or feeling or intellect to be present, at least two <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has 'nuerones'">neurones</ins> must +be active, and in all but a few of the human activities many more +are involved. The possibility of conduct or intelligence depends upon +the connections at the synapses,—upon the possibility of the current +affecting neurones in a certain definite way. The possession of an +'original nature,' then, means the possession, as a matter of inheritance, +of certain connections between neurones, the possession of +certain synapses which are in functional contact and across which +a current may pass merely as a matter of structure. Just why certain +synapses should be thus connected is the whole question of +heredity. Two factors seem to affect the functional contact of a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>synapses,—first, proximity of the neurone ends, and second, some sort +of permeability which makes a current travel on one rather than +another of two neurones equally near together in space. This proximity +and permeability are both provided for by the structure and +constitution of the nervous system. It should be noted that the +connection of neurones is not a one-to-one affair, but the multiplicity +of fibrils provided by original nature makes it possible for one afferent +to discharge into many neurones, and for one efferent neurone +to receive the current from many neurones. Thus the individual when +born is equipped with potentialities of character, intellect and conduct, +because of the pre-formed connections or tendencies to connections +present in his nervous system.</p> + +<p>"<i>Types of Original Responses.</i>—These unlearned tendencies which +make up the original nature of the human race are usually classified +into automatic or physiological actions, reflexes, instincts, and capacities. +Automatic actions are such as those controlling the heart-beats, +digestive and intestinal movements; the contraction of the pupil +of the eye from light, sneezing, swallowing, etc., are reflexes; imitation, +fighting, and fear, are instincts, which capacities refer to those +more subtle traits by means of which an individual becomes a good +linguist, or is tactful, or gains skill in handling tools. However, +there is no sharp line of division between these various unlearned +tendencies; what one psychologist calls a reflex or a series of reflexes, +another will call an instinct. It seems better to consider them +as of the same general character but differing from each other in +simplicity, definiteness, uniformity of response, variableness among +individuals, and modifiability. They range from movements such as +the action of the blood vessels to those concerned in hunting and +collecting; from the simple, definite, uniform knee-jerk, which is +very similar in all people and open to very little modification, to +the capacity for scholarship, which is extremely complex, vague as +to definition, variable both as to manifestation in one individual and +amounts amongst people in general, and is open to almost endless +modification. This fund of unlearned tendencies is the capital with +which each child starts, the capital which makes education and progress +possible, as well as the capital which limits the extent to which +progress and development in any line may proceed." <i>The Psychology +of Childhood</i>, pp. 21, 22, 23.</p></div> + +<p>Weigle, in his <i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>, begins +his second chapter in a rather unique and helpful manner +relative to this same question:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The little human animal, like every other, is born going. He is +already wound up. His lungs expand and contract; his heart is +pumping away; his stomach is ready to handle food. These organic, +vital <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'acitivities'">activities</ins> he does not initiate. They begin themselves. The +organism possesses them by nature. They are the very conditions +of life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>"There are many other activities, not so obviously vital as these, +for which nature winds him up quite as thoroughly—yes, and sets +him to go off at the proper time for each. He will suck when +brought to the breast as unfailingly as his lungs will begin to work +upon contact with the air. He will cry from hunger or discomfort, +clasp anything that touches his fingers or toes, carry to his mouth +whatever he can grasp, in time smile when smiled at, later grow +afraid when left alone or in the dark, manifest anger and affection, +walk, run, play, question, imitate, collect things, pull things apart, +put them together again, take pleasure in being with friends, act +shy before strangers, find a chum, belong to a 'gang' or 'bunch,' +quarrel, fight, become reconciled, and some day fall in love with +one of the opposite sex. These, and many more, are just his natural +human ways. He does not of purpose initiate them any more +than he initiates breathing or heart-beat. He does these things because +he is so born and built. They are his instincts."</p></div> + +<p>As Norsworthy and Whitley point out, we are not especially +concerned with the boundary lines between automatic +actions, reflexes, and instincts—we are rather concerned +with the fact that human beings possess native +tendencies to act in particular ways. Some psychologists +stress them as instincts; others as capacities, but they have +all pretty generally agreed that under certain stimuli there +are natural tendencies to react.</p> + +<p>These tendencies begin to manifest themselves at birth—they +are all potentialities with the birth of the child—and +continue to develop in turn, certain ones being more pronounced +in the various stages of the child's life. Colvin +in his <i>The Learning Process</i>, runs through the complete +list of possibilities. According to him man, in a lifetime, +is characterized by the following tendencies: Fear, anger, +sympathy, affection, play, imitation, curiosity, acquisitiveness, +constructiveness, self-assertion (leadership), self-abasement, +rivalry, envy, jealousy, pugnacity, clannishness, +the hunting and predatory instincts, the migratory instinct, +love of adventure and the unknown, superstition, the sex +instincts, which express themselves in sex-love, vanity, coquetry, +modesty; and, closely allied with these, the love of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>nature and of solitude, and the aesthetic, the religious, and +the moral emotions.</p> + +<p>Sisson, in a little book that every teacher ought to know, +<i>The Essentials of Character</i>, emphasizes the importance for +teaching of ten tendencies: bodily activity, sense-hunger +and curiosity, suggestibility, tastes and aesthetic appreciation, +self-assertion, love, joy, fear, the growing-up impulse, +the love of approbation.</p> + +<p>As already indicated, the teacher should give attention +to these tendencies that he may the better know how to +proceed. If he knows that the one great outstanding impulse +of a boy of seven is to do something, he perhaps will +be less likely to plan an hour's recitation on the theory +that for that hour the boy is to do nothing. If he knows +that one of the greatest tendencies of boys from ten to +fourteen is to organize "gangs" for social and "political" +purposes, he will very likely capitalize on this idea in +building up a good strong class spirit.</p> + +<p>Knowing that children naturally respond to certain +stimuli in very definite ways, the teacher can better set +about to furnish the right stimuli—he can be in a better +position to <i>direct and control behavior</i>.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter VII</p> + +<p>1. What significance attaches to the statement, "Children are +born 'going'"?</p> + +<p>2. Why is it of vital importance that teachers give attention to +the native tendencies in children?</p> + +<p>3. What constitutes instinctive action? Illustrate.</p> + +<p>4. Name the instincts that are essentially individualistic. Those +that are essentially social.</p> + +<p>5. What native tendencies are of most concern to teachers?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>6. Discuss the relative significance of heredity, environment, and +training in the development of children.</p> + +<p>7. To what extent is a child limited in its development by its +nervous system?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Norsworthy and Whitley, <i>The Psychology of Childhood</i>; Weigle, +<i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>; Colvin, <i>The Learning Process</i>; +Sisson, <i>The Essentials of Character</i>; Stiles, <i>The Nervous System and +its Conservation</i>; Thorndike, <i>Principles of Teaching</i>; Harrison, <i>A +Study of Child Nature</i>; Kirkpatrick, <i>Fundamentals of Child Study</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>"WHAT TO DO WITH NATIVE TENDENCIES"</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter VIII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Characteristic tendencies of the various stages of child life.—The +teacher's attitude toward them.—Follow the grain.</p> + +<p>Four methods of procedure: 1. The method of disuse; 2. The +method of rewards and <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has colon instead of semicolon">punishment;</ins> 3. The method of substitution; +4. The method of stimulation and sublimation.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Having listed the native tendencies generally, we might +well now consider them as they manifest themselves at the +various stages of an individual's development. As already +indicated, they constitute his birthright as a human being, +though most of them are present in the early years of his +life only in potentiality. Psychologists of recent years have +made extensive observations as to what instincts are most +prominent at given periods. Teachers are referred particularly +to the volumes of Kirkpatrick, Harrison, and Norsworthy +and Whitley. In this latter book, pages 286, 287, +and 298-302, will be found an interesting <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'tabluation'">tabulation</ins> of +characteristics at the age of five and at eleven. For the +years of adolescence Professor Beeley, in his course at the +Brigham Young Summer School, in the Psychology of +Adolescence, worked out very fully the characteristics +unique in this period, though many of them, of course, are +present at other stages:</p> + + +<p class="section">Characteristics Unique in the Adolescent Period</p> + +<ul><li>1. Maturing of the sex instincts.</li> +<li>2. Rapid limb growth.</li> +<li>3. Over-awkwardness.</li> +<li>4. Visceral organs develop rapidly (heart, liver, lungs, genital organs.)</li> +<li>5. Change in physical proportions; features take on definite characteristics.</li> +<li>6. Brain structure has matured.</li> +<li>7. Self-awareness.</li> +<li>8. Personal pride and desire for social approval.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></li> +<li>9. Egotism.</li> +<li>10. Unstable, "hair-trigger," conflicting emotions.</li> +<li>11. Altruism, sincere interest in the well-being of others.</li> +<li>12. Religious and moral awakening.</li> +<li>13. New attitude.</li> +<li>14. Aesthetic awakening.</li> +<li>15. Puzzle to everybody.</li> +<li>16. Desire to abandon conventionalities, struggle for self-assertion.</li> +<li>17. Career motive.</li> +<li>18. Period of "palling" and mating; clique and "gang" spirit.</li> +<li>19. Positiveness,—affirmation, denial.</li> +<li>20. Inordinate desire for excessive amusement.</li> +<li>21. Evidence of hereditary influences.</li> +<li>22. "Hero worship," castle building.</li> +<li>23. "Wanderlust."</li> +<li>24. Hyper-suggestibility.</li> +<li>25. Ideals; ambitions.</li> +<li>27. Yearning for adult responsibility.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Having listed these tendencies we still face the question, +"What shall we do with them? What is their significance +in teaching?"</p> + +<p>It is perfectly clear, in the first place, that we ought not +to ignore them. None of them is wholly useless, and few +of them can safely be <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'devoloped'">developed</ins> just as they first manifest +themselves. They call for training and direction.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Some instincts are to be cherished almost as they are; some +rooted out by withholding stimuli, or by making their exercise result +in pain or discomfort, or by substituting desirable habits in their +place; most of the instincts should be modified and redirected."—(<i>Thorndike.</i>)</p></div> + +<p>Our concern as teachers ought to be that in our work +with boys and girls, men and women, we are aware of these +natural tendencies that we may work with them rather +than contrary to them—that we may "follow the grain" +of human nature.</p> + +<p>Since these tendencies are the result of responses to +stimuli they may be modified by attention either to the +stimuli or to the reaction that attends the stimulation. +Four methods call for our consideration:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> + +<ul><li>1. The method of disuse.</li> +<li>2. The method of rewards and punishments.</li> +<li>3. The method of substitution.</li> +<li>4. The method of stimulation and sublimation.</li> +</ul> + +<p>No one of these methods can be said always to be best. +The nature of the person in question, his previous experience +and training, together with the circumstances attending +a given situation, all are factors which determine how +we should proceed. The vital point is, that both as parents +and teachers we should guard against falling into the +rut of applying the same treatment to all cases regardless +of their nature.</p> + + +<p class="section">1. The Method of Disuse</p> + +<p>This method is largely negative. It aims to safeguard +an individual against ills by withholding stimuli. The +mother aims to keep scissors out of reach and sight of the +baby that it may not be lured into danger. Some parents, +upon discerning that the pugnacious instinct is manifesting +itself vigorously in their boy, isolate him from other boys—keep +him by himself through a period of a year or more +that the tendency may not be accentuated. Other parents, +observing their daughter's inclination to be frivolous, or +seeing the instinct of sex begin to manifest itself in her +interest in young men, send her away to a girl's school—a +sort of intellectual nunnery.</p> + +<p>Frequently teachers follow this method in the conduct +of their classes. The tendency to self-assertion and verbal +combat, natural to youth, is smothered by an unwillingness +on the part of the teacher to indulge questions and +debate or by a marked inclination to do all the talking.</p> + +<p>It is clear that this method of disuse has its place in the +training of children, though grave dangers attend its too +frequent indulgence. Children and others of immature +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>judgment need the protection of withheld stimuli. But +clearly this is not a method to be recommended for general +application. The boy who is never allowed to quarrel +or fight may very possibly grow up to be a man afraid to +meet the battles of life; the girl, if her natural emotions +are checked, may lose those very qualities that make for +the highest type of womanhood and motherhood. Fortunately, +in these days, it is pretty nearly impossible to bring +boys and girls up in "glass houses." Doubly fortunate, for +they are made happy in their bringing up and are fitted +for a world not particularly devoted to the fondling of +humankind.</p> + + +<p class="section">2. The Method of Rewards and Punishments</p> + +<p>This method is clearly illustrated in the training of +"trick" animals. These creatures through innumerable +repetitions are made to do phenomenal "stunts." In the +training for every successful "try" they are rewarded with +a cube of sugar, a piece of candy, or some other pleasure-producing +article; for every miss they are punished—made +to suffer pain or discomfort. This same sort of procedure +carries over into human affairs. Witness the hickory stick +and the ruler, or count the nickels and caresses. Ridicule +before the class, and praise for commendable behavior or +performance, are typical of this same method. If it is +followed, and it clearly has a place in the training of children, +care should be exercised to see that in the child's +mind in any case there is clear connection between what +he has done and the treatment that he receives. With some +parents it fairly seems as if their one remedy for all offences +is a tingling in the epidermis—it is equally clear +that with some teachers their one weapon is sarcasm. All +too frequently these measures grow out of unsettled nerves +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>or stirred up passions, on the part of the parent or teacher, +and have really but little connection—remote at best—with +the offense in question. There may be an abuse in +the matter of rewards, too, of course, but as a rule few +classes suffer from too much appreciation. The real art +of discipline lies in making the reward or the punishment +naturally grow out of the conduct indulged in.</p> + +<p class="section">3. The Method of Substitution</p> + +<p>Because of the fact that some stimuli inevitably lead to +discomfort and disaster—that some conduct is bad—there +is need of a method of substitution. The child's mind needs +to be led from the contemplation of an undesirable course +of action to something quite different. Frequently a child +cannot be satisfied with a mere denial, and circumstances +may not be favorable to punishment—yet the correction +must be made. Substitution is the avenue of escape. A +striking illustration in point occurred recently in a cafe in +Montana. A trio of foreigners, father, mother, and two-year-old +son, came in and sat down at one of the tables. +Soon after the parents began to eat, the child caught sight +of a little silver pitcher for which he began to beg. Whining +and crying, mixed in with the begging, created a good +bit of disturbance. The only attempted solution on the +part of the parents was a series of: "Don't do that!" "No! +no!" "Keep quiet, Marti!" a continued focusing of the +child's attention on what he ought not to do, and an added +note to the disturbance. Then an American across the +aisle having surveyed the situation took out of his pocket a +folder full of brightly colored views. The charm worked +beautifully—the meal went on free from disturbance—and +the child was happy.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>This method involves a good bit of resourcefulness, calling +at times for what seems an impossible amount of ingenuity. +As someone has said, "It is beating the other +fellow to it." It merits the consideration of those who +have to handle boys and girls who are regularly up to +"stunts."</p> + + +<p class="section">4. The Method of Stimulation and Sublimation</p> + +<p>This method is rather closely akin to that of substitution, +with the exception that it capitalizes on tendencies already +in operation and raises them to a higher level. Stimulation, +of course, merely means the bringing of children into +contact with desirable stimuli on every possible occasion; +in fact, it involves the making of favorable occasions.</p> + +<p>Sublimation involves building upon native tendencies to +an elevated realization. Educationally this method is most +full of promise. It is seen in kindergarten methods when +a child is led from mere meaningless playing with toys to +constructive manipulation of blocks, tools, etc. It is seen +admirably in football where the pugnacious tendency of +boys is capitalized on to build manliness in struggle and +to develop a spirit of fair play. It is seen in the fostering +of a girl's fondness for dolls, so that it may crystallize into +the devotion of motherhood. It is seen when a boys' man +leads a "gang" of boys into an association for social betterment. +It is seen when a teacher works upon the instinct +to collect and hoard, elevating it into a desire for the acquisition +of knowledge and the finer things of life.</p> + +<p>Whatever our method, let us give due consideration to +the natural inclinations and aptitudes of boys and girls—let +us help them to achieve fully their own potentialities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter VIII</p> + +<p>1. Point out the essential differences between boys and girls at +the age of six and seven and those of sixteen and seventeen.</p> + +<p>2. Discuss the significance of the following phrase: "The grain +in human nature."</p> + +<p>3. How can the hunting instinct be appealed to in religious +stimulation?</p> + +<p>4. Of what significance is the "gang spirit" to teachers of +adolescents?</p> + +<p>5. How can rivalry be made an asset in teaching?</p> + +<p>6. How can the fighting instinct in children best be directed?</p> + +<p>7. Why is biography so valuable in material for teaching?</p> + +<p>8. Why is it so essential that we put responsibility upon boys +and girls? How should this fact affect teaching?</p> + +<p>9. What are the dangers that attend an attempt to keep children +quiet for any length of time?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter VII.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter IX</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Fundamental significance of individual differences.—Typical illustration.—The +truth illustrated physically; in range of voice, in speed, +in mental capabilities.—The same truth applied spiritually.—Some +cases in point.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Everybody is like everybody else in this—that everybody +is different from everybody else. Having discussed how +all men enjoy a common heritage by way of native endowments, +let us now turn to a consideration of how men differ.</p> + +<p>Two of the terms most frequently met in recent educational +publications are statistical methods and individual +differences. There is nothing particularly new in this latter +term—it merely represents a new emphasis being given to +the old idea that no two of us are alike. Every parent is +aware of the very marked differences in his children. Even +twins differ in disposition and mental capabilities. In fact, +one of the difficulties that attaches to parenthood is just +this problem of making provision in one household for +such various personalities.</p> + +<p>A member of the stake presidency in one of the stakes +in southern Utah, in discussing this matter a short time ago, +remarked that in his family of four boys one very definitely +had decided to become a farmer and was already +busy at getting acquainted with the details of the work; +a second boy was devoted to music and voiced a very vigorous +protest against farming; the third son was so bashful +and reticent that he hadn't given expression to any notion +of preference; the fourth, a happy-go-lucky sort of +chap, free and noisy in his cutting up about the place, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>wasn't <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'worying'">worrying</ins> about what he was to do in life—he just +didn't want anything to do with strenuous effort.</p> + +<p>"How can I drive a four-horse team such as that?" was +the interesting query of this father.</p> + +<p>Practically every family presents this variety of attitude +and practically every parent is trying to work out a solution +to the problem, so there is nothing startling about the +term individual differences. Educators have just given the +matter more careful and scholarly attention of recent years.</p> + +<p>If the matter of differences in children constitutes a problem +of concern in a family of from two to ten children, +how much greater must that problem be in a class from +thirty to fifty with approximately as many families represented. +The problem has led to some very interesting investigations—investigations +so simple that they can be carried +on by anyone interested. For instance, if we could line +up all the men in Salt Lake City according to size we should +find at one end of the line a few exceptionally tall men, +likely from six feet to six feet six inches in height. At the +other end of the line would be a few exceptionally small +men—undersized men from three feet eight or ten inches +to four feet six inches. In between these two types would +come in graduated order all sorts of men with a decidedly +large number standing about five feet six or eight inches. +This latter height we call the average.</p> + +<p>Practically we see the significance of these differences. +No manufacturer thinks of making one size of overall in +the hope that it will fit each of these men. He adapts his +garment to their size, and he knows approximately how +many of each size will be called for in the course of ordinary +business.</p> + +<p>If these same men could be taken one by one into a music +studio and have their voices tested for range, the same +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>interesting variations would be found. There would be a +few very high tenors, a few exceptionally low bassos, and +a crowd with medium range with fillers-in all along the line.</p> + +<p>If we were interested in carrying the experiment still further +we might apply the speed test. In a 100-yard dash a +few men would be found to be particularly fast, a few others +would trail away behind at a snail's pace, while the big +crowd of men would make the distance in "average time."</p> + +<p>Of course, it would be foolish to attempt to make tenors +of all these men—equally foolish to try to make speeders +of them all. In these practical matters we appreciate the +wisdom of letting each man fit into that niche for which +he is qualified.</p> + +<p>Nor are these differences confined to the field of physical +characteristics and achievements. Tests by the hundred +have demonstrated beyond all question that they hold +equally well of mental capabilities. In the past children +have gone to school at the age of six. They have remained +there because they were six. At seven they were in grade +two, and so on up through the grades of our public schools. +Tests and measurements now, however, are showing that +such a procedure works both a hardship and an injustice +on the pupils. Some boys at six are found as capable of +doing work in grade two as other boys at eight. Some boys +and girls at six are found wholly incapable of doing what +is required in grade one. One of the most promising prospects +ahead educationally is that we shall be able to find +out just the capacity of a child regardless of his age, and +fit him into what he can do well, making provisions for +his passing on as he shows capability for higher work. Not +only has this matter of individual differences been found +to apply generally in the various grades of our schools—<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>it +has been found to have significant bearing upon achievements +in particular subjects. For all too long a time we +have held a boy in grade four until he mastered what we +have called his grade four arithmetic, spelling, geography, +grammar, history, etc. As a matter of fact, many a boy +who is a fourth-grader in grammar may be only a second-grader +in arithmetic—a girl, for whom fourth grade arithmetic +is an impossibility, because of her special liking for +reading, may be seventh grade in her capacity in that subject. +In the specific subjects, individual differences have +been found to be most marked. Surely it is unfair to ask +a boy "born short" in history to keep up to the pace of a +comrade "born long" in that subject; so, too, it is unfair +to ask a girl "born long" in geography to hold back to the +pace of one "born short" in that subject. The results of +these observations are leading to developments that are full +of promise for the educational interests of the future.</p> + +<p>In order that we may more fully appreciate the reality +of these observations let us set down the concrete results +of a few experiments.</p> + +<p>The first three tests are quoted from Thorndike:</p> + +<p>In a test in addition, all pupils being allowed the same +time,</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Test results"> +<tr><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>pupil</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>pupil</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>9</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>11</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>13</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>14</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>15</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>1</td><td align='left'>pupil</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>17</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>pupil</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>19</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>pupils</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='left'>examples correctly</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The rapidity of movement of ten-year-old girls, as measured +by the number of crosses made in a fixed time:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Test results"> +<tr><td align='right'>6</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>girl</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>9</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>0</td><td align='left'>girl</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>11</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>13</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>15</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>21</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>17</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>29</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>19</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>33</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>20</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>21</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>13</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>22</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>23</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>15</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>24</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>11</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>26</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>27</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>28</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>29</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>30</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>31</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>32</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>33</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>34</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>35</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>36</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>37</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>0</td><td align='left'>girl</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>38</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>49</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='left'>girls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>40</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='right'>41</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>girl</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Two papers, A and B, written by members of the same +grade and class in a test in spelling:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="25%" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Test results"> +<tr><td align='center'>A.</td><td align='center'>B.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>greatful</td><td align='left'>gratful</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>elegant</td><td align='left'>eleagent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>present</td><td align='left'>present</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>patience</td><td align='left'>paisionce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>succeed</td><td align='left'>suckseed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>severe</td><td align='left'>survere</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>accident</td><td align='left'>axadent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sometimes</td><td align='left'>sometimes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sensible</td><td align='left'>sensible</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>business</td><td align='left'>biusness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>answer</td><td align='left'>anser</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sweeping</td><td align='left'>sweping</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>properly</td><td align='left'>prooling</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>improvement</td><td align='left'>improvment</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fatiguing</td><td align='left'>fegting</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>anxious</td><td align='left'>anxchus</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>appreciate</td><td align='left'>apresheating</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>assure</td><td align='left'>ashure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>imagine</td><td align='left'>amagen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>praise</td><td align='left'>prasy</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In a test in spelling wherein fifty common words were +dictated to a class of twenty-eight pupils, the following +results were obtained:</p> + +<div class='center'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Test results"> +<tr><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'>spelled correctly all 50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'>spelled correctly between 45 and 48</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'>spelled correctly between 40 and 45</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11</td><td align='left'>spelled correctly between 30 and 40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'>spelled correctly between 20 and 30</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'>spelled correctly between 15 and 20</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>And now the question—what has all this to do with the +teaching of religion? Just this: the differences among +men as found in fields already referred to, are found also +in matters of religion. For one man it is easy to believe +in visions and all other heavenly manifestations; for another +it is next to impossible. To one man the resurrection +is the one great reality; to another it is merely a matter +of conjecture. One man feels certain that his prayers are +heard and answered; another feels equally certain that they +cannot be. One man is emotionally spiritual; another is +coldly hard-headed and matter-of-fact. The point is not +a question which man is right—it is rather that we ought +not to attempt to reach each man in exactly the same way, +nor should we expect each one to measure up to the standards +of the others.</p> + +<p>An interesting illustration of this difference in religious +attitude was shown recently in connection with the funeral +of a promising young man who had been taken in death +just as he had fairly launched upon his life's work. In a +discussion that followed the service, one good brother found +consolation in the thought that the Lord needed just such +a young man to help carry on a more important work +among the spirits already called home. His companion in +the discussion found an explanation to his satisfaction in +the thought that it was providential that the young man +could be taken when he was, that he thereby might be +spared the probable catastrophies that might have visited +him had he lived. Each man found complete solace in his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>own philosophy, though neither could accept the reasoning +of the other.</p> + +<p>An interesting case of difference of view came to the +attention of the teacher-training class at Provo when someone +asked how the lesson on Jonah could be presented so +that it would appeal to adolescent boys and girls. The +query was joined in by several others for whom Jonah had +been a stumbling block, when Brother Sainsbury, of Vernal, +startled the class by saying Jonah was his favorite story. +"I would rather teach that story than any other one in the +Bible," he declared, and illustrated his method so clearly +that the account of Jonah took on an entirely new aspect.</p> + +<p>Many men and women in the world are shocked at the +thought that God is a personality. To them the idea that +God is simply a "man made perfect," a being similar to us, +but exalted to deity, is akin to blasphemy. And then to +add the idea of a heavenly mother is beyond comprehension. +To Latter-day Saints, on the other hand, these +thoughts are the very glory of God. To them a man made +perfect is the noblest conception possible. It makes of Him +a reality. And the thought of Mother—Heaven without a +Mother would be like home without one.</p> + +<p>And so with all the principles and conceptions of religion, +men's reactions to them are as varied as they are +to all the other facts of life. Everywhere the opinions, the +capacities, the attainments of men vary. The law of individual +differences is one of the most universal in our experience.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter IX</p> + +<p>1. Just what is the meaning of the term Individual Differences?</p> + +<p>2. Illustrate such differences in families with which you are +familiar.</p> + +<p>3. Apply the test to your ward choir.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>4. Name and characterize twenty men whom you know. How +do they differ?</p> + +<p>5. Have a report brought in from your public school on the results +of given tests in arithmetic, spelling, etc.</p> + +<p>6. Have the members of your class write their opinions relative +to some point of doctrine concerning which there may be some <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has question mark instead of period">uncertainty.</ins></p> + +<p>7. Observe the attitude and response of each of the members of +a typical Sunday School, Kindergarten, of an advanced M.I.A. class.</p> + +<p>8. Illustrate individual differences as expressed in the religious +attitudes of men you know.</p> + +<p>9. To what extent are boys different from girls in mental capability +and attitude?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter VII.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND TEACHING</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter X</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The causes of individual differences.—Norsworthy and Whitley +on the significance of parentage.—The teacher's obligation to know +parents.—The influence of sex.—Environment as a factor.—Thorndike +quoted.—B.H. Jacobsen on individual differences.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>So far we simply have made the point that individuals +differ. We are concerned in this chapter in knowing how +these differences affect the teaching process. Fully to appreciate +their significance we must know not only that they exist, +and the degree of their variation, but also the forces that +produce them. On the side of heredity, race, family, and +sex, are the great modifying factors. Practically, of course, +we are concerned very little as Church teachers with problems +of race. We are all so nearly one in that regard that +a discussion of racial differences would contribute but little +to the solution of our teaching problem.</p> + +<p>The matter of family heritage is a problem of very much +more immediate concern. Someone has happily said: +"Really to know a boy one must know fully his father and +his mother." "Yes," says a commentator, "and he ought +to know a deal about the grandfather and grandmother." +The significance of parentage is made to stand out with +clearness in the following paragraph from Norsworthy and +Whitley, <i>The Psychology of Childhood</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Just as good eyesight and longevity are family characteristics, +so also color blindness, left-handedness, some slight peculiarity of +structure such as an extra finger or toe, or the Hapsburg lip, sense +defects such as deafness or blindness, tendencies to certain diseases, +especially those of the nervous system,—all these run in families. +Certain mental traits likewise are obviously handed down from parents +to child, such as strong will, memory for faces, musical imagination, +abilities in mathematics or the languages, artistic talent. In these +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>ways and many others children resemble their parents. The same +general law holds of likes and dislikes, of temperamental qualities +such as quick temper, vivacity, lovableness, moodiness. In all traits, +characteristics, features, powers both physical and mental and to +some extent moral also, children's original nature, their stock in trade, +is determined by their immediate ancestry. 'We inherit our parents' +tempers, our parents' conscientiousness, shyness and ability, as we +inherit their stature, forearm and span,' says Pearson."</p></div> + +<p>The teacher who would really appreciate the feelings +and responses of a boy in his class must be aware, therefore, +that the boy is not merely one of a dozen type individuals—he +is a product of a particular parentage, acting +as he does largely because "he was born that way."</p> + +<p>We shall point out in connection with environmental influences +the importance of a teacher's knowing the home +condition of his pupils; but it is important here, in passing, +to emphasize the point that even though a child were +never to live with its parents it could be understood by +the teacher acquainted with the peculiar traits of those parents. +"Born with a bent" is a proverb of such force that +it cannot be ignored. To know the parental heritage of a +boy is to anticipate his reaction to stimuli—is to know +what approach to make to win him.</p> + +<p>Because of the fact that in many of our organizations we +are concerned with the problem of teaching boys and girls +together, the question of the influence of sex is one which +we must face. There are those who hold that boys and +girls are so fundamentally different by nature that they +ought not to be taught coeducationally. Others maintain +that they are essentially alike in feeling and intellectuality, +and that because of the fact that eventually they are to be +mated in the great partnership of life they should be +held together as much as possible during the younger years +of their lives. Most authorities are agreed that boys and +girls differ not so much because they are possessed of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>different native tendencies, but because they live differently—they +follow different lines of activity, and therefore develop +different interests. To quote again from Norsworthy +and Whitley:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That men and women are different, that their natures are not +the same, has long been an accepted fact. Out of this fact of difference +have grown many hot discussions as to the superiority of one +or the other nature as a whole. The present point of view of scientists +seems well expressed by Ellis when he says, 'We may regard all +such discussions as absolutely futile and foolish. If it is a question +of determining the existence and significance of some particular physical +sexual difference, a conclusion may not be impossible. To make +any broad statement of the phenomena is to recognize that no general +conclusion is possible. Now and again we come across facts which +group themselves with a <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cerain'">certain</ins> uniformity, but as we continue, we +find other equally important facts which group themselves with equal +uniformity in another sense. The result produces compensation.' +The question of interest then is, what in nature is peculiar to the +male sex and what to the female? What traits will be true of a boy, +merely because he is a boy, and vice versa? This has been an +extremely difficult question to answer, because of the difficulty encountered +in trying to eliminate the influence of environment and +training. Boys are what they are because of their original nature +plus their surroundings. Some would claim that if we could give boys +and girls the same surroundings, the same social requirements, the +same treatment from babyhood, there would be no difference in the +resulting natures. Training undoubtedly accentuates inborn sex differences, +and it is true that a reversal of training does lessen this +difference; however, the weight of opinion at present is that differences +in intellect and character do exist because of differences +of sex, but that these have been unduly magnified. H.B. +Thompson, in her investigation entitled <i>The Mental Traits of Sex</i>, +finds that 'Motor ability in most of its forms is better developed in +men than in women. In strength, rapidity of movement, and rate +of fatigue, they have a very decided advantage, and in precision of +movement a slight advantage.... The thresholds are on the whole +lower in women, discriminative sensibility is on the whole better +in men.... All these differences, however, are slight. As for the +intellectual faculties, women are decidedly superior to men in memory, +and possibly more rapid in associative thinking. Men are probably +superior in ingenuity.... The data on the life of feeling indicate +that <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'their'">there</ins> is little, if any, sexual difference in the degree of domination +by emotion, and that social consciousness is more prominent in +men, and religious consciousness in women.'</p> + +<p>"Pearson, in his measurement of traits, not by objective tests but +by opinions of people who know the individual, finds that boys are +more athletic, noisy, self-assertive, self-conscious; less popular, duller +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>in conscience, quicker-tempered, less sullen, a little duller intellectually +and less efficient in penmanship. Heymans and Wiersma, +following the same general method as Pearson, state as their general +conclusions that the female is more active, more emotional, and more +unselfish than the male. 'They consider women to be more impulsive, +less efficient intellectually, and more fickle than men as a result of +the first two differences mentioned above; to be gifted in music, +acting, conversation and the invention of stories, as a result in part +of the second difference; and to think well of people and to be easily +reconciled to them as a result of the third.' Thorndike finds the +chief differences to be that the female varies less from the average +standard, is more observant of small visual details, less often color-blind, +less interested in things and their mechanisms, more interested +in people and their feelings, less given to pursuing, capturing and +maltreating living things, and more given to nursing, comforting and +relieving them than is the male. H. Ellis considers the chief differences +to be the less tendency to variability, the greater affectability, +and the greater primitiveness of the female mind, and the less ability +shown by women in dealing with the more remote and abstract interests +in life. All the authors emphasize the smallness of the differences; +and after all the striking thing is not the differences between +the sexes, but the great difference within the same sex in respect to +every mental trait tested. The difference of man from man, and woman +from woman, in any trait is almost as great as the differences between +the sexes in that trait. Sex can be the cause, then, of only a +fraction of the difference between the original nature of individuals."</p></div> + +<p>It is reasonably certain, then, that a teacher may safely +appeal to both boys and girls on the ground of the fundamental +instincts, feeling confident that common stimuli will +produce largely the same results.</p> + +<p>Important as it is that we know what our pupils are from +their parentage, it is even more important in the matter of +religious instruction that we shall appreciate the force of +the varieties of environment that have been operative. +Though boys and girls may be essentially alike at the outset +of their lives they may be thrown into such associations +as to make their ideals and conduct entirely different. +Fancy the contrast between the case of a girl brought up +for fifteen years in a household of refinement and in a companionship +of gentility, and the case of a boy who during +the same years has been the pal of bullies on street corners. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>Surely stimuli that are to promote proper reaction in these +two cases will have to be suited to the person in question.</p> + +<p>Then, too, the teacher must realize that one child may +come from a home of faith, confidence, and contentment; +whereas, another may come from a home of agitation, doubt, +and suspicion. One may have been taught to pray—another +may have been led to disbelieve. One may have been +stimulated to read over sacred books—another may have +been left to peruse cheap, sensational detective stories. To +succeed in reaching the hearts of a group of such boys and +girls, a teacher surely ought to be aware of individual +differences and ought to be fortified with a wealth of material +so that the appeal may be as varied as possible. To +quote from Thorndike's <i>Principles of Education</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A teacher has to choose what is for the greatest good of the +greatest number. He cannot expect to drive forty children abreast +along the highroad of education." "Yet the differences in children +should not blind us to their likenesses." "We need general principles +and their sagacious application to individual problems."</p> + +<p>"The worst error of teachers with respect to individual differences +is to neglect them, to form one set of fixed habits for dealing with +all children, to teach 'the child instead of countless different living +individuals.' To realize the varieties of human nature, the nature +and amount of mental differences, is to be protected against many +fallacies of teaching."</p></div> + +<p>Our treatment of individual differences was well summed +up in the following paper by B.H. Jacobsen, a member of +the B.Y.U. Teacher-Training class:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><i>The Significance of Individual Differences in Teaching</i></p> + +<p>"Individual instruction in our religious organizations as in the +public schools is under present condition impracticable. We are +compelled to teach in groups or classes of somewhat varying size. +Consequently, it is of prime importance for the teacher, in trying +to apply that fundamental principle of pedagogy—an understanding +of the being to be taught—to know first what characteristics and +tendencies, whether native or acquired, are known to a large majority +of the children in the class. Leaving out of consideration the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>possible presence of subnormal children, the language used must be +clear and simple enough to be comprehended by all; the great majority +of the questions must be intended for all to find answers to; +the stories, illustrations, incidents, pictures, and various devices +employed must be reasonably within the range of experience and +comprehension of all members.</p> + +<p>"At the same time, it is important to recognize the fact that, after +all, the class as a whole does not in any very fundamental, pedagogical +sense constitute the objective unit of instruction. Though it +seems natural for most teachers to look upon the class as a more +or less uniform mass, and the exigencies of the situation make this +to some extent unavoidable, still the individual child remains always +the real unit, and furthermore the units are all different—in appearance, +training and temperament.</p> + +<p>"In general the methods and material will be uniform for all, but +there will still be abundant opportunity for exercising little individual +touches and tricks in relation to individual pupils, especially +those who vary somewhat widely from the average. Even such a +superficial matter as size, especially superior size, might profitably +receive a little special consideration by the teacher and thus at times +save some pupil a little physical embarrassment. The boy unusually +active might be given some physical task to perform, even if it has +to be provided for the occasion, though it must not be too artificially +created, as this is sure of detection.</p> + +<p>"Questions requiring more than ordinary mental ability to answer +may be directed to those of superior alertness and intelligence, who +may also be given more difficult subjects to look up for presentation +to the class. Special interests in animals, flowers, books, aeroplanes, +industries, vocations, should be discovered and utilized by +the watchful teacher. Even though the connection may be a little +remote, any contribution of real interest and value is legitimate in +order to relieve the monotony of a dull class.</p> + +<p>"Pupils differ very widely in temperament and disposition as well +as in capacity. The timid boy or girl should be given special encouragement +and commendation, while the over-bold will take no +injury from a mild "squelch" occasionally. The child of gloomy +disposition should if anything have more smiles and sunny words +sent his way than the <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cheeful'">cheerful</ins> one, who is in no danger of losing +his share. The talkative child will need cautioning and careful directing, +while the one who seldom speaks needs the frequent stimulus +of a kind and encouraging look or word. The child who is +naturally docile and obedient will develop smoothly and without great +need of special attention and direction, while the stubborn, the rebellious, +the untractable child, the cause of continual worry and +solicitude, is the one on whom special thought must be bestowed; +for his soul is no less precious in the sight of God, and the wise +teacher may be the means of making him a useful citizen, as well +as directing him in the way of working out his eternal salvation."</p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter X</p> + +<p>1. Discuss the relative significance of race, sex, family, and environment +as factors producing individual differences.</p> + +<p>2. Why is it essential that teachers know the parents of pupils?</p> + +<p>3. What are the advantages of having boys and girls together in +class? What are the arguments for separating them?</p> + +<p>4. How can a teacher be governed by the force of individual +differences when he has to teach a group of forty pupils?</p> + +<p>5. Discuss the statement that teaching is both a social and an +individual process.</p> + +<p>6. Choose a subject of general interest and illustrate how it might +be presented to satisfy different types of pupils.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter VII.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>ATTENTION</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XI</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Attention the mother of learning.—Gregory quoted.—The fact of +attention in the Army.—What attention is.—Illustrations.—Attention +and interest.—The three types of attention: Involuntary, nonvoluntary, +voluntary.—How to secure attention.—Interest the great key to +attention.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>In that stimulating little book, <i>The Seven Laws of Teaching</i>, +by Gregory, <i>et al</i>, the second law is stated in these +words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A <i>learner</i> is one who <i>attends</i> with interest to the lesson."</p></div> + +<p>Expressed as a rule of teaching, the law is made to read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Gain and keep the attention and interest of the pupils +upon the lesson. Do not try to teach without attention."</p></div> + +<p>As a matter of fact, it is impossible to teach without +attention. A person may hold class—go through the formality +of a class exercise—but he can <i>really teach</i> only +him who <i>attends</i>. The first big, outstanding thought with +reference to attention is that we should secure it, not so +much in the interest of order, important as it is in that +connection, but because it is the <i>sine qua non</i> of <i>learning</i>.</p> + +<p>A boy may sit in a class in algebra for weeks, with his +mind far afield on some pet scheme, or building palatial +edifices in the air, but not until he <i>attends</i> does he begin +to grasp the problems presented. It is literally as well as +scripturally possible "to have ears and hear not." <i>Attention</i> +is the mother of learning.</p> + +<p>Think of the force of that word <i>attention</i> in the American +Army. It is a delight to see the ranks straighten to +that command—would that our messages of truth could +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>challenge the same response from that vast army of seekers +after truth—the boys and girls of the Church. The soldier +at attention not only stands erect, nor does he merely +keep silence—he is eagerly receptive—anxious to receive +a message which he is to translate into action. His attitude, +perhaps, is our best answer to the question, "What is +attention?" Betts says, "The concentration of the mind's +energy on one object of thought is attention."</p> + +<p>As Magnusson expresses it, "Attention is the centering of +consciousness on a portion of its contents." And Angell +adds, "Attention is simply a name for the central and most +active portion of the field of consciousness."</p> + +<p>The mind, of course, during waking hours, is never +merely passive. With its flood of ideas it is always recalling, +observing, comparing, analyzing, building toward conclusions. +These processes go on inevitably—go on with +little concern about attention. But when we narrow the +field—when we bring our mental energy to a focus on +something specific and particular we then <i>attend</i>.</p> + +<p>Betts, in his <i>The Mind and Its Education</i>, very happily +illustrates the meaning of attention:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<i>Attention Measures Mental Efficiency.</i>—In a state of attention +the mind may be likened to the rays of the sun which have been +passed through a burning glass. You may let all the rays which +can pass through your window pane fall hour after hour upon the +paper lying on your desk, and no marked effects follow. But let +the same amount of sunlight be passed through a lens and converged +to a point the size of your pencil, and the paper will at once +burst into flame."</p></div> + +<p>To follow another analogy, attention is to the energies +of the mind what the pipe line leading into the power plant +is to the water in the canyon above. It directs and concentrates +for the generation of power. Just as the water +might run on and on to little or no purpose, so the energies +of a boy or girl may be permitted to drift aimlessly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>toward no conviction unless the teacher wins him to an +attention that rivets truth to his life.</p> + +<p>In a discussion of attention the question of the relation +of interest to attention is bound to arise. Do we attend to +things because they are interesting? Or are we interested +in things because we give them our attention? The two +terms are so interwoven in meaning that they are frequently +treated under one chapter heading. Our purpose here +is not to attempt to divorce them, but rather to give them +emphasis because of their significance in the teaching +process.</p> + +<p>Attention denotes a focusing of mental energy on a particular +idea or object; interest, subjectively considered, is +an attitude of mind. Perhaps we can get a clearer idea +of the two terms if we consider the various types of attention. +First of all there is what is called <i>Involuntary</i> attention. +This is the type over which the mind has little or +no control. A person sits reading—his attention fixed on +the page in front of him—when suddenly a rock crashes +through the window immediately behind him. He jumps +to see what is wrong. His attention to his book is shifted +to the window, not because he wills it so, but because of +the suddenness and force of the stimulus. The excitation +of the auditory nerve centers compels attention. The attendant +feeling may be one of pleasure or of pain—there may +be an interest developed or there may not. Involuntary +attention clearly does not rest upon interest.</p> + +<p>Then there is what is called <i>Nonvoluntary</i> attention. I +go to a theatre and some particular musical number is featured. +It grips my interest and I follow it with rapt attention, +wholly without conscious effort. Unlike the case of +a sudden noise, in this experience my attention is not physiologically +automatic—I could control it if I chose—but I +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>choose now to give it. Interest clearly is the motor power +behind such attention. Then, finally, there is <i>Voluntary</i> +attention. I sit at a table working out a problem in arithmetic. +Outside there is being played a most exciting ball +game. My interests are almost wholly centered in the outcome +of the game, but duty bids me work out my problem. +I make myself attend to it in spite of the pull of my natural +interests.</p> + +<p>And so attention is seen to be purely the result of +physiological stimulus; it is seen to accompany—fairly +to be born out of it—interest. It is seen to be the result +of an operation of the will against the natural force +of interest. This three-fold classification is of particular +significance to the teacher. He may be sure that if he +resorts to the use of unusual stimuli he can arrest attention, +though by so doing he has no guarantee of holding it; he +may feel certain of attention if he can bring before pupils +objects and ideas which to them are interesting; he may +so win them to the purposes of his recitation that they will +give attention even though they are not interested in what +may be going on for the time being. It is evident, however, +that resorting to violent stimuli is dangerous, that +forced attention is ultimately disagreeable and certainly not +a modern commonplace in experience, that attention which +attends genuine interest is the attention most generally to +be sought.</p> + +<p>One question still remains: "How shall we proceed to +secure and to hold attention?"</p> + +<p>In the first place we should remind ourselves that it is +a difficult matter to give sustained attention to a single +object or idea, unless the object or idea changes. The difficulty +is greater with children than with adults. In the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>second place we should be mindful that it is poor policy +either to demand attention or to beg for it.</p> + +<p>Where attention has to be secured out of disorder we +are justified in making use of stimuli that shock pupils +into attention. One of the best illustrations of this sort of +procedure was the method used in the David Belasco theatre +in New York to get audiences quiet for the opening of the +performances. Mr. Belasco was convinced that the orchestra +had become a mere accompaniment to the clatter and +noise of the audience and so he did not trust to that means +to secure order. In fact, he discarded the orchestra idea. +At the appointed hour for the curtain to rise, his theatre +became suddenly dark. So dark that the blackness was +startling. Immediately upon the silence that attended the +shock the soft chiming of bells became audible which led +the audience to strain in an attempt to catch fully the effect +of the chime. At that point the curtains were drawn and +the first lines of the play fell upon the ears of a perfectly +quiet audience.</p> + +<p>It is safer and better, of course, to anticipate disorder by +getting the lesson under way in an interesting manner. +These artificial devices are serviceable as emergency measures +as well as helpful as restful variations in a class +hour. Change in posture, group exercises, periods of relaxation, +all help to make attention the more easily possible.</p> + +<p>The key to sustained attention, when all is said and done, +is interest. There is no substitute for the fascination of +interest. As Magnusson says: "Monotony is the great +enemy of attention. Interest is the attention-compelling +element of instincts and desires." The teacher can feel +assured of success only when he is so fully prepared that +his material wins attention because of its richness and ap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>propriateness. +Special thought should be given in the preparation +of a lesson to the attack to be made during the first +two minutes of a recitation. A pointed, vital question, a +challenging statement, a striking incident, a fascinating, +appropriate story, a significant quotation—these are a few +of the legitimate challenges to attention.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XI</p> + +<p>1. Discuss the statement: "There is no such thing as inattention; +when pupils appear inattentive, they are singly attentive to something +more interesting than the lesson."</p> + +<p>2. Explain the force of attention in the learning process.</p> + +<p>3. What is attention?</p> + +<p>4. Discuss and illustrate the different types of attention.</p> + +<p>5. Give some practical suggestions on the securing of attention.</p> + +<p>6. Point out the distinction between attention and interest.</p> + +<p>7. Discuss the effect of monotony on attention.</p> + +<p>8. How do children and adults differ in their powers of attention?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Pillsburg, <i>Attention</i>; Norsworthy and Whitley, <i>Psychology of +Childhood</i>; Strayer and Norsworthy, <i>How to Teach</i>; Betts, <i>How to +Teach Religion</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>; Fitch, +<i>The Art of Securing Attention</i>; Thorndike, <i>Principles of Teaching</i>; +Dewey, <i>Interest and Effort in Education</i>; Brumbaugh, <i>The Making +of a Teacher</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>WHAT MAKES FOR INTEREST</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Individual differences and interest.—What makes for interest.—Interest +begets interest.—Preparation is a great guarantee.—Knowledge +of the lives of boys and girls a great help.—The factors of interestingness: +The Vital, The Unusual, The Uncertain, The Concrete, +The Similar, The Antagonistic, The Animate.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>After discussing the relation of interest to attention we +still face the question: What is it that makes an interesting +object, or an idea interesting? Why do we find some things +naturally interesting while others are dull and commonplace? +Of course, everything is not equally interesting to +all people. Individual differences make clear the fact that +a certain stimulus will call for a response in one particular +person, quite unlike the response manifested in a person +of different temperament and training. But psychologists +are agreed that in spite of these differences there are certain +elements of interests that are generally and fundamentally +appealing to human nature. To know what it is that +makes for interest is one of the prerequisites of good +teaching.</p> + +<p>But before naming these "factors of interestingness," +may we not also name and discuss briefly some other essentials +in the matter of creating and maintaining interest?</p> + +<p>In the first place it is good to remember that a teacher +who would have his pupils interested must himself be interested. +If he would see their faces light up with the glow +of enthusiasm, he must be the charged battery to generate +the current. Interest begets interest. It is as contagious as +whooping cough—if a class is exposed it is sure to catch +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>it. The teacher who constantly complains of a dull class, +very likely is simply facing a reaction to his own dullness +or disagreeableness. "Blue Monday" isn't properly so +named merely because of the drowsy pupil. The teacher +inevitably sets the pace and determines the tone of his class. +Many a teacher when tired, or out of patience, has concluded +a recitation feeling that his pupils were about the +most stupid group he has ever faced; the same teacher +keyed up to enthusiasm has felt at the close of another +recitation that these same pupils could not be surpassed. +A student with whom the writer talked a short time ago +remarked that she could always tell whether the day's class +was going to be interesting under a particular teacher as +soon as she caught the mood in which she entered the classroom. +Half-heartedness, indifference, and unpleasantness +are all negative—they neither attract nor stimulate. Interest +and enthusiasm are the sunshine of the classroom—they +are to the human soul what the sun's rays are to +the plant.</p> + +<p>The second great guarantee of interest is preparation. +The teacher needs to have his subject matter so thoroughly +in mind that, free from textbook and notes, he can reach +out to a real contact with his boys and girls. If his eyes +are glued to his book, he cannot hope to arouse keen interest. +The eye is a great force in gripping the attention of +a class or audience. They want nothing to stand between +them and the speaker. Not long ago one of the most forceful +and eloquent public speakers in Utah failed miserably, +in addressing a thoroughly fine audience, because he was +lost in the machinery of his notes. His material was excellent—his +power as an orator unquestioned—yet he was +bound down by a lack of preparation that cost him the +mastery of his audience.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>Not only does adequate preparation enable a teacher to +reach out and take hold of his pupils; it makes it possible +for him to capitalize on the situations that are bound to +arise in class discussion. A concrete illustration to clear +up a troublesome question, an appropriate incident to hit +off some general truth, a happy phrase to crystallize a +thought—all these things are born only of adequate preparation.</p> + +<p>Not long ago a candidate for the presidency of the +United States delighted an audience of ten thousand or +more in the Salt Lake Tabernacle by his remarkable +handling of questions and comments thrown at him from +that vast audience. There was no hesitancy or uncertainty. +He spoke "as one who knew." He was prepared. He had +so lived with the questions of the day that they fairly +seemed to be part of him. The interesting teacher never +teaches all he knows. His reserve material inspires both +interest and confidence. A class begins to lose interest in +a teacher the moment they suspect that his stock in trade +is running low. The mystery, "how one small head could +carry all he knew," is still fascinating. Thorough preparation, +moreover, minimizes the likelihood of routine, the +monotony of which is always deadening. A class likes a +teacher—is interested in him—when it can't anticipate just +what he is going to do next and how he is going to do it.</p> + +<p>A further aid in holding interest is to know intimately +the life of the boys and girls taught. To appreciate fully +their attitude—to know what sort of things in life generally +appeal to them—is a very great asset to any teacher. If a +teacher knows that a boy's reaction to the story of the Israelites' +crossing the Red Sea is that that story is "some bunk," +he is fortified in knowing how to present other subjects +which are similar tests to a boy's faith and understanding. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>To know pupils' attitudes and mode of life is to know what +sort of illustrations to use, what emphasis to put upon emotional +material, what stress to lay on practical application. +In short, it is to know just how to "connect up." It stimulates +to a testing of values so that a teacher selects and +adapts his material to the needs of the boys and girls whom +he teaches.</p> + +<p>And, finally, as a key to interest, a teacher needs to know +what the "factors of interestingness" are. According to +the findings of the Public Speaking Department of the +University of Chicago, they are summed up in these seven +terms:</p> + +<ul><li>The Vital</li> +<li>The Unusual</li> +<li>The Uncertain</li> +<li>The Concrete</li> +<li>The Similar</li> +<li>The Antagonistic</li> +<li>The Animate</li> +</ul> + +<p>This list becomes more and more helpful as it is pondered. +It is surprising to find how experience can be +explained on the score of interest by reference to these +terms. Those things are vital which pertain to life—which +affect existence. Dangers are always interesting. Catastrophies +are fascinating. Just today all America is scanning +the newspapers throughout the country to find an explanation +of the Wall Street explosion. We shall not soon forget +the feverish interest that gripped the people of the world +during our recent world wars.</p> + +<p>When life is at stake, interest runs high. So it does +when property, liberty, and other sacred rights, so vital +to life, are affected. Anything vital enough to justify the +publication of an "extra" may be depended upon to grip +the interest of men and women.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>It is equally clear that a fascination attaches to things +that are unusual. New styles attract because of this fact. +Let a man oddly dressed walk along a thoroughfare—the +passersby are interested immediately. A "loud" hat or +necktie, or other item of apparel, attracts attention because +it is out of the ordinary. Much of the interest and delight +in traveling lies in this element of the new and unusual +which the traveler encounters. The experiences of childhood +which stand out most prominently are usually those +which at the time riveted themselves to the mind through +the interest of their extraordinariness.</p> + +<p>Every reader knows the fascination of uncertainty. "How +will the book turn out?" prompts many a person to turn +through hundreds of pages of a novel. An accident is +interesting not only because of its vital significance, but +because there is always a question as to how seriously those +involved may be hurt. One of the clearest illustrations of +the force of the uncertain is found attending baseball +games. Let the score stand at 10 to 2 in the eighth inning +and the grandstands and bleachers begin to empty. Few +spectators care to remain. The game is too clearly settled. +As the boys say, it is "sewed up" and there is nothing +uncertain to grip interest. But let the score stand 3 to 2 or +2 to 2 in the eighth and even the man scheduled home for +dinner stays to the end. He wants to know how the game +is "coming out."</p> + +<p>It is easier also to be interested in concrete than in abstract +things. General truths are not gripping—concrete +illustrations of those truths are. If I declare that it is important +to have faith, I create but little interest in an audience. +But if I tell that same audience how some individual +has been miraculously healed through faith, I have their +interest completely. Concrete illustrations fit into and link +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>up with our own experiences so easily and forcefully that +they are particularly interesting.</p> + +<p>So, too, with things that are similar. The mind naturally +links like with like. We are fond of making comparisons. +The interest in the similar is due to that fundamental law +of learning that we proceed from what is known to that +which is unknown and we proceed along points of similarity.</p> + +<p>And how natural it seems to be interested in things antagonistic! +Our love of contests of all sorts is evidence +of the fact. Who can resist the interest that attaches to a +quarrel—a fight—a clash of any kind. The best of classes +will leave the best of teachers, mentally at least, to witness +a dog fight. Our champion prize fighters make fortunes +out of man's interest in the antagonistic.</p> + +<p>And then, finally, we are interested in the animate. +We like action. Things in motion have a peculiar fascination. +Who does not watch with interest a moving locomotive? +Advertising experts appreciate the appeal of the +animate, as is evidenced by the great variety of moving +objects that challenge our interest as we pass up and down +the streets of a city and we respond to the challenge. In +fact, it is natural to respond to the appeal of all of these +seven terms—hence their significance in teaching.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XII</p> + +<p>1. Discuss the force of individual differences in choosing material +that will be interesting.</p> + +<p>2. Why is it so essential that the teacher be interested in what +he hopes to interest his pupils in?</p> + +<p>3. Show how preparation makes for interest.</p> + +<p>4. Why is an intimate acquaintance with the lives of pupils so +essential a factor with the interesting teacher?</p> + +<p>5. Illustrate concretely the force of each of the factors of interestingness.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter XI.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>A LABORATORY LESSON IN INTEREST</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XIII</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Interest should be inherent in the lesson taught.—An illustration +of "dragged in" interest.—Interest and the "easy" idea.—A proper +interpretation of interest.—How to make the subject of <i>Fasting</i> +interesting.—The various possibilities.—How to secure interest in the +Atonement.—How to secure interest in the Resurrection.—How to +secure interest in the story of Jonah.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>"Oh, that's all right," says one. "It is easy enough to +talk about interest, and it's easy to be interesting if you +can choose anything you like to amuse a class. But if you +have to teach them theology, and especially some of the +dry lessons that are outlined for us, I don't see how we +can be expected to make our work interesting."</p> + +<p>Of course, there is some point to such an objection. +Having been asked to teach the truths of the gospel of Jesus +Christ, we cannot defend the practice of bringing in all +kinds of material just because it is funny. And, of course, +it is true, too, that some lesson outlines upon first thought +do appear rather forbidding. But it is equally true that +there is a path of interest through the most unpromising +material, though that path does not always run alongside +the teacher's highroad of ease and unconcern. A false notion +of interest is that it denotes mere amusement—that +it is something aside from serious and sober thought.</p> + +<p>The writer recalls visiting a class taught by a person +holding such a notion. Having given his lesson but little +thought he apologized for its lack of interest by saying, +"Now, boys and girls, if you will just be quiet while we +go over the lesson, even though it isn't very interesting, +I'll read you our next chapter of <i>Huckleberry Finn</i>." And +yet the lesson, hurried over, with a little intensive study +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>could have been made as fascinating as the reading of +<i>Huckleberry Finn</i> and notably more profitable.</p> + +<p>Another misconception relative to interest is the idea that +to make a subject interesting you must so popularize it +that you cheapen it. This idea is typified in the "snap" +courses in school—courses made interesting at the expense +of painstaking application. As a matter of fact, to cheapen +a thing is ultimately to kill interest in it. Genuine interest +of real worth is born of effort and devotion to a worthy +objective. Far from dissipating the mind's energies, it +heightens and concentrates them to the mastery of the bigger +and finer things of life.</p> + +<p>A subject to be made interesting must present some element +of newness, yet must be so linked up with the experience +of the learner as to be made comprehensible. It +must, moreover, be made to appeal as essential and helpful +in the life of the learner. The two outstanding queries of +the uninterested pupil are:</p> + +<ul><li>What is it all about?</li> +<li>What's the use?</li> +</ul> + +<p>Let us, then, turn to two or three subjects which at first +thought may appear more or less dull to see whether there +is an approach to them that can be made interesting.</p> + +<p>Members of the teacher-training class at Provo were +asked to name four or five subjects which they regarded +hard to stimulate interest in. They named the following:</p> + +<ul><li>Fasting.</li> +<li>The Fall.</li> +<li>The Atonement.</li> +<li>The Resurrection.</li> +<li>The Story of Jonah.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>Let us suppose that I have met my Second Intermediate +class of eighteen boys and girls to discuss the subject of +fasting. I might begin by relating an actual experience +in which through fasting and prayer on the part of the +members of a particular family a little boy has just been +most miraculously restored to health, after an operation for +appendicitis. It was an infection case, and three doctors +agreed there was no possible chance of recovery. A fourth +doctor held out the possibility of one chance in a hundred. +And yet a two days' fast, coupled with a faith I have seldom +seen equalled, has been rewarded by the complete recovery +of the boy, who is now thoroughly well and strong.</p> + +<p>Such a concrete illustration is one possibility for arousing +interest.</p> + +<p>Or, I might proceed with a few definite, pointed questions:</p> + +<p>"How many of you eighteen boys and girls fasted this +month?"</p> + +<p>The answers show that seven have fasted; eleven have not.</p> + +<p>I proceed then to inquire why the eleven have failed +to fast. Various explanations are offered:</p> + +<p>"Oh, I forgot."</p> + +<p>"We don't fast in our home."</p> + +<p>"Father has to work all day Sunday; and so, because +mother has to get breakfast for him, we all eat."</p> + +<p>"I have a headache if I fast, so I think it is better +not to."</p> + +<p>"I don't see any use in fasting. Going around with a +long, hungry face can't help anyone."</p> + +<p>"It's easy to fast when they won't give you anything to +eat."</p> + +<p>"I like to fast just to show myself that I don't live to be +eating all the time."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>"I believe it's a good thing to give the body a little rest +once in a while."</p> + +<p>"I feel different when I fast—more spiritual or something."</p> + +<p>"It must be right to fast. The Church wouldn't ask us +to if it wasn't a good thing."</p> + +<p>The definiteness of these replies, coupled with the suspense +of wondering what the next answer will be, keeps +up a lively interest.</p> + +<p>A third possibility would be to call for the experiences +of the pupils, or experiences which have occurred in their +families, or concerning which they have read. A very rich +compilation of interesting material can be collected under +such a scheme.</p> + +<p>Or, finally, I may choose to proceed immediately with +a vigorous analysis and discussion of the whole problem. +I arouse interest by quoting a friend who has put the query +to me, "What is the use of fasting?" and then enlist the +cooperation of the class in formulating a reply. Together +we work out the possible justification of fasting.</p> + +<p>The following outline may represent the line of our +thought:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Jesus taught us to fast.</li> + <li class="level2">a. His forty days in the wilderness.</li> + <li class="level2">b. His injunction to his apostles.</li> + +<li>2. Our leaders have instituted fasting in these latter days.</li> + +<li>3. By fasting we develop a mastery over our appetites. +The body is made to serve the will.</li> + +<li>4. Physiologically, it is a good thing to fast. Many +scientists are now recommending regular rests for the digestive organs.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>5. Fasting makes possible an elevation of spirit.</li> + +<li>6. Our system of fasting makes it possible to see +that no one in the Church wants for food.</li> + +<li>7. Fasting enables us to appreciate the feelings of +those who are less fortunate in the world than we are, who +are denied the blessings we enjoy.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Of course, each idea needs to be introduced and developed +in a concrete, vigorous manner. So treated, fasting +can be made a very fascinating subject.</p> + +<p>The following suggestions on introducing the lesson on +the Resurrection to little children have been drawn up by +one of the most successful kindergarten teachers in the +Church:</p> + +<p>"There are several things to be considered before presenting +the lesson on the Resurrection to little children.</p> + +<p>"First, the teacher must feel that she <i>can</i> present it. In +other words, she must love the story and feel the importance +of it. She must also be able to see the beautiful side and +remember that she is teaching, 'There is no death; but life +eternal.'</p> + +<p>"The next question to consider is: How are we going to +present it? We must lead the child from the known to +the unknown, through the child's own experience. Therefore +we go to nature, because all nature appeals to the +child. But in order to create the right atmosphere, the +teacher in selecting the subject must feel that what he has +selected is the very thing he wants in order to explain to +the child, 'There is no death.'</p> + +<p>"There are several ways in which the subject may be approached +through nature. We may take the Autumn and +let the children tell what happens to the trees, flowers, and +different plants. Lead them to see the condition after the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>leaves are off. Then what will happen next Spring. Or +we may take one specific tree or brush and talk of the twig +where the leaves were in the summer, but have now fallen +to the ground. The twig looks dead. But on opening the +bud and removing the brown covering we find the tiny +leaf inside waiting and preparing to come forth in the +Spring.</p> + +<p>"The bulb may be used in a similar way, leading the +child to see the bulb as it is before planting, then to see +what happens when we plant it.</p> + +<p>"The caterpillar may also be used. Here we have the +live worm getting ready to go into his cocoon and is absent +for some time; then he returns, only in another form. A +higher stage.</p> + +<p>"Lead the child to see that every thing in nature has a +period of changing, of apparently going away for a short +time, but is not dead—it returns to life.</p> + +<p>"Be sure to have the objects you are talking about before +the class, while you are discussing the subject. If not obtainable, +use a picture, or draw them."</p> + +<p>The problem of the story of Jonah is usually submitted +with a twinkle in the eye of him who raises the question. +The world has so generally relegated it to the heap of the +impossible that even some of our own people look rather +amazed when a champion for Jonah steps forward. And +yet this story properly approached is one of the teacher's +greatest opportunities. If it is to be presented to small +children it can be told very beautifully, either as a lesson +on disobedience or, from the point of view of the people +of Nineveh, as a lesson on fasting and prayer. Little children +will not be troubled with doubt and disbelief unless +the teacher fosters such attitudes.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>To older minds, of course, the story already is a good +bit of a stumbling block, and therefore needs to be given +thoughtful preparation.</p> + +<p>At the outset, with older students, we ought to lead +them into the beauties of the story—beauties which all +too frequently are wholly unknown to the ordinary boy +or girl. Read the story:</p> + +<ul><li>The call that comes to Jonah.</li> +<li>His hesitancy.</li> +<li>His dodging of duty.</li> +<li>His selfish judgments.</li> +<li>His punishment.</li> +<li>His attitude toward the people of Nineveh.</li> +<li>The lesson taught.</li> +</ul> + +<p>"Yes," says the young skeptic, "but how about the whale +idea? Do you expect us to believe that stuff? It's contrary +to all natural law."</p> + +<p>Let's meet the issue squarely. The Bible says that Jonah +was swallowed by a big fish. Science is agreed that that +part of the account is easily possible—nothing contrary to +natural law so far.</p> + +<p>"But what about the three days? That surely is."</p> + +<p>Here is a challenge. Is it possible that life can be suspended, +"and restored"? Let the <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'sciptures'">scriptures</ins> testify. It was +so in the case of the daughter of Jairus. (Mark 5:22-43.)</p> + +<p>So was it in the case of Lazarus. (John 11:23-44.)</p> + +<p>Consider the case <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'of of'">of</ins> the Son of God Himself! Buried +in the tomb, Jesus rose the third day. If you can believe +in the resurrection, you can believe in the restoration of +Jonah. It is interesting to note that Jesus Himself accepted +the story of Jonah. See Matthew 12:40:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's +belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in +the heart of the earth."</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>To doubt Jonah is to question the Master. Not only so, +but if a person throws out the story of Jonah, he faces a +chain of miraculous events from one end of the Bible to +the other from which he will have difficulty to escape. You +ask me to explain Jonah, I shall reply by asking you to +explain:</p> + +<ul><li>The creation of man.</li> +<li>The flood.</li> +<li>The confusion of Babel.</li> +<li>The parting of the Red Sea.</li> +<li>The three Hebrews and the furnace.</li> +<li>Elisha and the ax.</li> +<li>The birth of the Savior.</li> +<li>His resurrection.</li> +<li>One-third of the account given by Matthew.</li> +<li>Your own birth.</li> +</ul> + +<p>May one not accept with confidence the word of God +as contained in the Doctrine & Covenants, Sec. 35:8?</p> + +<p>"For I am God, and mine arm is not shortened; and I +will show miracles, signs and wonders unto all those who +<i>believe on my name</i>."</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XIII</p> + +<p>1. Discuss the proper use of stories in securing and maintaining +interest.</p> + +<p>2. Point out the danger of bringing in foreign "funny" material.</p> + +<p>3. Show how difficult subjects may be made of even greater interest +than easy ones.</p> + +<p>4. Use the greater part of this class hour for illustrating how to +create interest in subjects ordinarily found hard to teach.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter XI.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>THE MORE IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS IN TEACHING</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XIV</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The steps involved in the preparation of a lesson: The aim; organization; +illustration; application; questions.—Problems involved +in the presentation of a lesson: The point of contact; illustration; +the lesson statement.—Various possibilities.—The review: questioning; +application.—The matter summarized.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>So many textbooks have been written about teaching—so +many points of view have been advanced—such a variety +of terminology has been employed, even in the expression +of a single educational notion—that beginning teachers are +frequently at a loss to know just how to set about the task +of teaching. Leaving for further consideration the more +purely theoretical aspects of our problem, let us face the +questions of most immediate concern:</p> + +<ul><li><span class="smcap">How to Prepare a Lesson.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">How to Present a Lesson.</span></li> +</ul> + +<p>Is there not a common-sense procedure which we can +agree to as promising best results in these two fundamental +steps? At the outset let us agree that preparation +and presentation are inseparable aspects of but one process. +Preparation consists of the work done <i>behind the scenes</i>—presentation +involves the <i>getting over</i> of the results of that +work to the <i>audience</i>—the class. Frequently teachers are +confused because they mistake directions governing <i>preparation</i> +as applying to <i>presentation</i>. For instance, one teacher +proceeded to drill a class of small children on the memorizing +of the aim—an abstract general truth—unmindful of +the fact that the <i>aim</i> was set down for the teacher's guidance—a +focus for his preparation done behind the scenes.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>Though in the <i>preparation</i> of a lesson we keep the aim +clearly in mind, and though, when we stand before our +class, we let it function in the background of our consciousness +as an objective in our procedure, we ought not to hurl +it at our class. As a generalized truth it can make but +little appeal to young minds, and it ought to be self-evident, +at the end of a successful recitation, to mature minds.</p> + +<p>And so with the matter of organization. We skeletonize +our thoughts behind the scenes, but the skeleton is rather +an unsightly specimen to exhibit before a class. The outline +should be inherent in the lesson as presented, but it +ought not to protrude so that the means will be mistaken +for an end. Subsequent chapters will illustrate both the +selection of an aim and its elaboration through suitable +organization.</p> + +<p>The successful preparation of a lesson involves at least +five major steps. They are named here that the problem +of preparation may be grasped as a whole. Later chapters +will develop at length each step in its turn.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Aim.</i> A generalized statement, a kernel of +truth about which all of the facts of the lesson are made +to center. A lesson may be built up on a passage of scripture, +on the experience of a person or a people, or on a +vital question, etc. But in any case, though we are interested +in the facts involved, we are interested not in the facts +as an end in themselves, but rather because of the truth +involved in the facts. In other words, we seek to sift out +of the material offered in a lesson an essential truth which +helps us in a solution of the problems of life. Attention +to the aim is a guarantee against mere running over of +matter of fact.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Organization.</i> A teacher should outline his lesson so +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>that pupils may easily follow him through the subject matter +presented to the ultimate truth that lies beyond.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Illustration.</i> Illustrations are what make truth vivid. +Successful teachers owe much of their success to their +ability through story or incident to drive home to the experience +of pupils those fundamental truths which in their +general terms make but little appeal. One of the most helpful +practices for teachers who would become effective is the +habit of clipping and filing available illustrative material. +There is a wealth of rich, concrete matter appearing regularly +in our magazines and other publications. What is +good today likely will be equally good a year or two years +hence when we shall face the problem of teaching again +today's lesson. An alphabetic letter file may be had for a +few cents in which can be filed away all sorts of helpful +material. It pays to collect and save!</p> + +<p>4. <i>Application.</i> Having selected his aim, the teacher +knows the result he should like to have follow his lesson, +in the lives of his pupils. He knows, too, their tendencies +and their needs. In giving attention to application he is +merely making a survey of the possible channel into which +he can direct his pupils' activities. In considering application +he asks, "Of what use will this material be in the +experience of my pupils?" The test-application is the real +test—both of the subject matter presented and of the effectiveness +of the presentation.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Questions.</i> Finally, lesson preparation is not complete +unless the teacher has formulated a few thought-provoking +questions which go to the very heart of the lesson. +The question is the great challenge to the seeker after truth. +It is easy to ask questions, but to propound queries that stir +pupils to an intellectual awakening is a real art. Surely +no preparation can be fully complete unless it involves:</p> + +<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>The selection of an aim.</li> +<li>The orderly organization of material.</li> +<li>The collecting of rich illustrations.</li> +<li>The pondering of facts to their application.</li> +<li>The formulating of at least a few thoroughly stimulating questions.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Can we not agree to these steps as fundamental in the +proper preparation of our lessons in all of our Church +organizations?</p> + +<p>With the subject matter well in mind—the work behind +the scenes completed, the teacher is then prepared for the +problem of presentation—is ready to appear on the stage +of class activity. The first outstanding problem in lesson +presentation is that of the <i>Point of Contact</i>. This is a +phrase variously interpreted and often misunderstood. Perhaps +it is not the happiest expression we could wish, but +it is so generally used and is so <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'signficant'">significant</ins> when understood +that we ought to standardize it and interpret it as it affects +our Church work.</p> + +<p>When a class assembles for recitation purposes its members +present themselves with all kinds of mental attitudes +and mind content. The various groups of a Mutual class +may have been engaged in all sorts of activities just before +entering their classroom. One group may have been discussing +politics; another may have been engaged in a game +of ball; a third may have been practicing as a quartette; +and still a fourth may have been busy at office work. Facing +such a collection of groups stands a teacher who for an +hour or more has dismissed all temporal matters, and has +been pondering the spiritual significance of prayer. Evidently +there is a great mental chasm between them. Their +coming together and thinking on common ground involves +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>the <i>Point of Contact</i>. There must be contact if an influence +for good is to be exerted. Either the teacher must +succeed in bringing the boys to where he is "in thought," +or he must go to "where they are."</p> + +<p>Teachers in Bible lessons all too frequently hurry off +into the Holy Land, going back some two <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'thouand'">thousand</ins> years, +and leaving their pupils in Utah and in the here and +the present. No wonder that pupils say of such a teacher, +"We don't 'get' him." To proceed without preparing the +minds of pupils for the message and discussion of the lesson +is like planting seed without having first plowed and prepared +the ground.</p> + +<p>In the Bible lesson, it would be easy to bridge over from +the interests of today to those of Bible days. Suppose our +lesson is on Joseph who was sold into Egypt. Instead of +proceeding at once with a statement as to the parentage of +Joseph, etc., we might well center the interests of these +various-minded boys on a current observation of today—a +wonderfully fine harvest field of grain. They have all seen +that. Make a striking observation relative to the grain, +or put a question that will lead them to do that for you. +Having raised an issue, you continue by inquiring whether +or not the same conditions have prevailed elsewhere and at +other times. Did they prevail in the days of Israel? The +step then to the story of Joseph's dream, etc., is an easy one.</p> + +<p>This illustration, though simple and more or less crude, +indicates that to establish a point of contact, we must reach +out to where the pupil now is, and lead easily and naturally +to where you would have him go. Surely we cannot presume +that he has already traveled the same intellectual road +that we have gone over.</p> + +<p>Suppose we face a group of adolescent boys to teach them +a lesson on the importance of their attending church. If +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>we proceed with a preachment on their duties and obligations, +we are quite certain to lose their interest. Boys do +not like to be preached at.</p> + +<p>We know, however, that they are interested in automobiles. +By starting out with some vital observation or question +out of the automobile world, we may count on their +attention. Following the discussion thus raised, we might +then inquire the purpose of the garages that we find along +all public highways. We could dwell upon the significance +of repairs in maintaining the efficiency of cars. Now we +are prepared for the query, Is it not essential that we have +spiritual garages for the souls of men, garages where supplies +and repairs may be had?</p> + +<ul><li>The "gas" of faith.</li> +<li>The "oil" of consolation.</li> +<li>The "adjustment" of repentance.</li> +<li>The "charging" of our spiritual batteries, etc.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Once led into the subject, boys can be made to see that +spiritual problems are even more vital than material ones.</p> + +<p>The point of contact established, we next face the matter +of <i>Lesson Statement</i>. The subject matter must either be in +mind already because of home preparation, or the teacher +must supply it. In the smaller classes the teacher generally +will have to tell in good part what he wishes to convey; in +the larger classes, there are the possibilities of home preparation, +topical reports, the lecture, and the socialized recitation +built up by questions and discussions. It is not intended +here to discuss the various methods of lesson presentation—the +thought being simply that in some way the lesson +statement must be presented.</p> + +<p>Then there is the problem of connecting up the present +lesson with those that have already been presented. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>review is a vital factor in fixing in the mind the relative +value of material covered.</p> + +<p>Then, too, there is the matter of questioning to test +knowledge and stimulate discussion, together with the +weaving in of illustrative material that has already been +thought out or which may suggest itself as the lesson progresses. +If, as all this material has been presented, the +application has been made sufficiently clear to the pupils, +the presentation is complete; otherwise avenues of action +should be pointed out, care being taken to stimulate rather +than to moralize.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, then, we have the matter of preparation +as follows:</p> + + +<p class="section">Preparation</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="300" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Preparation summary"> +<tr><td></td><td align='center'><i>As it involves <br />subject matter:</i></td><td align='center'><i>As it involves <br />presentation:</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1.</td><td align='left'>The Aim</td><td align='left'>Point of Contact</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2.</td><td align='left'>Organization</td><td align='left'>Lesson Statement</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3.</td><td align='left'>Illustration</td><td align='left'>Review</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4.</td><td align='left'>Application</td><td align='left'>Illustration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5.</td><td align='left'>Questions</td><td align='left'>Application</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XIV</p> + +<p>1. Discuss the helpfulness of having a definite procedure in the +matter of lesson preparation.</p> + +<p>2. Point out the differences between lesson preparation and lesson +presentation.</p> + +<p>3. Name and discuss the essential steps in preparing a lesson.</p> + +<p>4. To what extent would you favor adopting these steps as the +fundamental processes?</p> + +<p>5. Discuss the meaning and significance of "The Point of Contact."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>6. Why is some kind of lesson statement a prerequisite to a good +recitation?</p> + +<p>7. Show how this statement may be made.</p> + +<p>8. What do you consider your most valuable device in the preparation +of a lesson?</p> + +<p>9. Discuss the importance of filing away the material looked up +in the preparation of the regular work of teaching.</p> + +<p>10. Indicate some of the best methods of filing.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Betts, <i>How to Teach Religion</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School +Teachers</i>; Thorndike, <i>Principles of Teaching</i>; Strayer and Norsworthy, +<i>How to Teach</i>; Earhart, <i>Types of Teaching</i>; Betts, <i>Classroom +Method in Management</i>; Bagley, <i>Classroom Management</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>ORGANIZING A LESSON</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XV</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>A review of the steps in lesson preparation.—The values of outlining.—Objections +answered.—Outlining a means, not an end.—The +essentials in outlining.—An illustrative outline on prayer.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Preparing a lesson is no easy matter, particularly for +those teachers who are new to the calling. There are those, +of course, for whom reading an assigned chapter through +constitutes a preparation, but to the successful teacher this +preliminary reading is only the initial step in the process. +Adequate preparation involves the following questions:</p> + +<p>What aim shall I select out of the material available as +the focus for my day's work?</p> + +<p>How shall I build about that aim a body of facts that +will establish it as a fundamental truth in life?</p> + +<p>How shall I illustrate the truths presented so that they +will strike home in the experiences of my boys and girls?</p> + +<p>How shall I make sure that members of the class will +go out from the recitation to put into practice the teachings +of the day?</p> + +<p>What questions ought I to ask to emphasize the outstanding +points of my lesson?</p> + +<p>What method of presentation can I most safely follow +to make my lesson effective?</p> + +<p>How may I discipline my class so that no disturbances +will interfere with our discussions?</p> + +<p>Reduced to simple terms, the matter of preparation together +with presentation, involves the problems of</p> + +<ul><li>Organization</li> +<li>Aim</li> +<li>Illustration</li> +<li>Application</li> +<li>Methods of presentation</li> +<li>Questioning</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>It is difficult to single out any one factor and treat it as +if it were independent of the others—teaching is a complex +art with all of these factors inseparably contributing to the +results desired—but, for purposes of clearness, may we not +proceed to give attention to each in its turn that in the end +the teaching process may the more definitely stand out in +all its aspects?</p> + +<p>For convenience, then, let us in this chapter consider +the problem of organization. How to outline a lesson is +one of the most fundamental considerations involved in +the teaching process. In fact, it is doubtful whether there +is any one more helpful attainment than the ability clearly +to outline subject matter. It not only enables the teacher +to proceed systematically, thereby insuring clearness and +adequate treatment of a lesson, but it makes it so easy and +profitable for a class to follow the discussion. Outlining +to teaching is what organization is to business. Just as the +aim points out the goal we seek, so the outline indicates the +route we shall follow to attain the goal. Outlining is +simply surveying the road before the concrete is laid.</p> + +<p>Occasionally a teacher objects to outlining on the ground +that it is too mechanical—that it destroys spontaneity and +the flow of the Spirit of the Lord. It has always seemed +to the writer that the Spirit of the Lord is quite as pleased +to follow a straight path as it is to follow a crooked one. +Outlining is not in any sense a substitute for inspiration—it +is merely a guarantee, by way of preparation, that the +teacher has done his part and can in good conscience ask +for that spiritual aid and guidance which he then is entitled +to. The fact that order is a law of heaven rather indicates +that there is no divine injunction against outlining.</p> + +<p>Of course, outlining is not an end in itself—it is a means +merely to more systematic procedure. Two difficulties fre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>quently +attach to outlining: one is that the outline is made +so complex that it hinders rather than helps in the matter +of clearness; the other is that a teacher may become "outline +bound," in which case his teaching becomes mechanical +and labored. Such a teacher illustrates clearly the force +of the passage, "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth +life."</p> + +<p>But if the outline is made simple—if it is considered as +merely a skeleton upon which is to be built the lesson—it +is one of the greatest assets a teacher can have. Perhaps +we can make the matter clearest by going through the process +of outlining a lesson, indicating the essential steps involved.</p> + +<p>Suppose we are asked to prepare a lesson on prayer. +Keep in mind that in such a preparation we face the problems +listed at the beginning of this chapter: the aim, the +illustration, the application, etc., and keep in mind also +that each of these subjects will be taken up in its turn and +that for the present we are concerned primarily with the +query, "How can I organize a lesson on prayer?" Let us +assume, too, that we are preparing this lesson for young +men and women about twenty years of age.</p> + +<p>First of all, I must decide why I am to teach the subject +of prayer. In view of the fact that the matter of the +aim is to be considered fully in the succeeding chapter, +suppose we agree that our purpose in this lesson shall be +to establish prayer as a habit of life.</p> + +<p><i>Step number one</i>, then, is the selection of an aim—a +focus for the thought of the lesson.</p> + +<p><i>Step number two</i> is the collection of random thoughts. +As I begin to ponder the subject of prayer and its influ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>ence +on life, all sorts of ideas crowd into my mind. Perhaps +I read some one's discussion of prayer—perhaps I +talk to a friend relative to it—perhaps I just ran the subject +over in my mind. The thoughts that come to me may be +vague and wholly disconnected. My immediate concern is +content—order will come later. And so I jot down, either +in my mind or on paper, such ideas as these:</p> + +<ul><li>"Prayer is the soul's sincere desire."</li> +<li>The Song "Sweet hour of prayer."</li> +<li>What is the use of prayer?</li> +<li>Are prayers answered?</li> +<li>How often should I pray?</li> +<li>Does the Lord hear and answer our prayers, or do we answer them ourselves?</li> +<li>What kinds of prayers are there?</li> +<li>How may I know how to pray?</li> +<li>Should prayers always be answered affirmatively?</li> +<li>What are the characteristics of a good prayer?</li> +<li>What prayers have impressed me most?</li> +</ul> + +<p>And so I go on. My task in step two is to scout about +intellectually in search of available, suitable material. +Many of my jottings may duplicate others already set +down; others may not be appropriate for my need; still +others may be wholly irrelevant. But I am seeking a wealth +of material that I may make my recitation as rich as +possible.</p> + +<p>Now, <i>step three</i> becomes a process of correlation and +elimination—a process of hitting upon my main headings—setting +up the milestones to mark my course of development. +And I so sift the material in my mind and sort it +out under appropriate captions. After a good bit of intellectual +rummaging about, I find that my random thoughts +on prayer fall rather naturally into four main divisions, +each capable of expression in a question:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> + +<ul><li> I. What is prayer?</li> +<li> II. Why should I pray?</li> +<li>III. How should I pray?</li> +<li> IV. When should I pray?</li> +</ul> + + +<p>But now that I have these major headings, I still face +the problems of enriching them and elaborating them so +that they will have body enough to stand. In other words, +I build up my sub-headings. Under the first question, for +instance, I group these thoughts:</p> + +<ul><li>I. What Is Prayer?</li> + +<li class="level2">1. It is communion with God.</li> + +<li class="level2">2. It is the key to God's storehouse.</li> + +<li class="level2">3. It is the key to God's heart.</li> + +<li class="level2">4. It is "The soul's sincere desire."</li> + +<li class="level2">5. It is the great anchor of faith.</li></ul> + + +<p>Under question two, I group:</p> + +<ul><li>II. Why Should I Pray?</li> + +<li class="level2">1. Because I am commanded of the Lord to pray.</li> + +<li class="level2">2. Because through prayer I keep in tune with the Spirit of the Lord.</li> + +<li class="level2">3. Because it is through prayer that I acknowledge the goodness of God.</li> + +<li class="level2">4. Because through prayer I petition for needed blessings.</li> + +<li class="level2">5. Because through prayer I establish and preserve an attitude of humility.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Under question three:</p> + +<ul><li>III. How Should I Pray?</li> + +<li class="level2">1. Simply.</li> + +<li class="level2">2. Sincerely.</li> + +<li class="level2">3. In spirit.</li> + +<li class="level2">4. After the pattern of His prayer.</li> + +<li class="level2">5. In secret as well as in public.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Under question four:</p> + +<ul><li>IV. When Should I Pray?</li> + +<li class="level2">1. Regularly.</li> + +<li class="level2">2. Morning and evening.</li> + +<li class="level2">3. To meet special needs.</li> + +<li class="level2">4. My attitude should always be one of prayerfulness.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>This matter of organization may be diagrammatically +illustrated as follows:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="16" width="90%" summary="Thoughts example"> +<tr><td class="narrow"><i>Random Thoughts</i></td><td></td><td class="narrow"><i>Organized Thoughts</i></td></tr> +<tr><td><p class="table">The hymn</p><p class="table">The song</p><p class="table">What is the use of prayer?</p><p class="table">Are prayers answered?</p><p class="table">How often should I pray?</p><p class="table">What are the characteristics of a good prayer, etc.?</p></td> + <td align="center" class="bbox"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Focus</span><br />or<br /><span class="smcap">Aim</span><br /></p><p class="center">To establish prayer as a life habit.</p></td> + <td><p class="table">I. What is Prayer?</p><p class="table">II. Why should I pray?</p><p class="table">III. How Should I Pray?</p><p class="table">IV. When Should I Pray?</p></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In short, organizing involves the search for thought +and the bringing of order out of chaos. Having selected +the aim, the main headings, and the sub-headings, we now +face <i>step four</i>—the enriching of these sub-headings in illustration, +incident, etc., so that we may link up these thoughts +with the experience of our pupils. We may think of so +much stimulating material that during the ordinary class +hour we can cover well only one of these questions. Our +purpose and the needs of the class must determine the extent +of our detail. The actual material that could be used +to enrich this lesson on prayer will be given in the chapter +on illustration.</p> + +<p><i>Step five</i> involves the problem of application, or "carry-over +into life"—a subject to which another chapter will +be devoted. Of course, we ought to say here, in passing, +that application is not something added to or "tacked on" +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>a lesson. It may be emphasized at the close of a lesson, +but in reality it pervades and is inherent in the whole +lesson.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XV</p> + +<p>1. What is meant by calling teaching a composite process?</p> + +<p>2. Point out the essential advantages in outlining lessons.</p> + +<p>3. Show how outlining is not in conflict with inspiration.</p> + +<p>4. Name the essential steps in lesson organization.</p> + +<p>5. Choose a subject from one of the manuals now in use in one +of our organizations and build up a typical lesson.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter XIV.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>ILLUSTRATING AND SUPPLEMENTING A LESSON</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XVI</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The force of illustrations.—Three kinds of illustration material: +1. maps; 2. pictures; 3. incidents.—The force of maps and map +drawing.—The appeal of good pictures.</p></div> + +<p class="section">Illustrations</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Illustrative material for a lesson on prayer.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Having discussed the organization of a lesson together +with the formulation of the aim, let us now turn to the +problem of illustrating and supplementing a lesson. In +organizing a subject for teaching we drive the nails of +major thoughts—through illustration we clinch those nails +so that they will be less likely to pull out of the memory.</p> + +<p>The three chief classes of illustrative and supplementary +material are:</p> + +<p>Maps, pictures, incidents—actual, imaginary.</p> + +<p>It is clear that in the lesson outlined on prayer, in chapter +fourteen, we should have little occasion for the use of a +map. We can, however, in connection with that lesson, +point out the force of pictures and incidents.</p> + +<p>Maps naturally are of greatest service in lessons with +historical and geographical background. The journeyings +of Israel mean so much more to us when we can follow +them from place to place on a good map. So the Book of +Mormon account clears up if we are similarly guided. +Had we authentic maps of the lands named in the Book +of Mormon, how much clearer and more interesting the history +would become! We would know the exact spot on our +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>present-day maps where Lehi and his family landed from +their heaven-directed barges; we would know where to find +the land Bountiful; where may now be found the ancient +site of the City of Zarahemla; where flows the River Sidon; +what country is indicated by the "land northward"; the +journeys of the Nephites as they were being driven; what +states saw there continued struggles against their inveterate +enemies, the Lamanites, and how they reached their final +battle-ground near the Hill Cumorah. To visit with Jesus +in Palestine adds a charm to the New Testament that is +really hard to evaluate, and surely the travels of our own +pioneers call for the aid of a good map. Thoroughly to +appreciate all that they did requires that we travel over +the wonderful trail they followed—that being impossible, +the next nearest approach is to see actually drawn out the +magnitude of their achievement. The appeal to the eye +couples so forcefully with the appeal to the ear that no +classroom ought to be without its maps. Perhaps it is not +beyond possibilities to conceive that at a not distant date +we shall have made available films for class use to intensify +the great lessons we draw from history.</p> + +<p>Pictures make a wonderful appeal, particularly so to +children. It is impossible to measure the inspirational appeal +that a single masterpiece exerts on a class of boys and +girls. A theological class in one of the Sunday Schools of +Salt Lake County was once blessed with a most magnetic +and powerful teacher. Upon his death, the class had his +picture framed and hung on the front wall of the room in +which he had taught. From that day to this the silent inspiration +of that <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'pciture'">picture</ins> has stimulated scores of young +men and women to the high ideals for which he stood.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>More generally applicable and more easily available, of +course, is the <i>Incident</i>. The ability to tell a story is one +of the finest attainments of the teacher—particularly if he +will take the pains to find vigorously wholesome and appropriate +ones. May we repeat the warning that stories ought +not to be told merely to fill out the hour, nor to tickle the +ears of the class, but to intensify and heighten the truths +contained in our lessons.</p> + +<p>Included under the heading <i>Incident</i> may be listed short +poems and all kinds of literary bits that fit in appropriately +as spice to a lesson. On the subject Prayer, the following +are some possibilities:</p> + +<p>Under question I, "What is prayer?" the hymn, "Prayer +Is the Soul's Sincere Desire."</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Prayer is the soul's sincere desire,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Uttered or unexpressed;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The motion of a hidden fire<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That trembles in the breast.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Prayer is the burden of a sigh,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The falling of a tear,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The upward glancing of an eye,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">When none but God is near.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Prayer is the simplest form of speech<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That infant lips can try;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Prayer, the sublimest strains that reach<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The Majesty on high.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Prayer is the Christian's vital breath,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The Christian's native air;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His watchword at the gates of death;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">He enters heav'n with prayer.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Returning from his ways,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">While angels in their songs rejoice,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And cry, "Behold, he prays!"<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The Saints in prayer appear as one<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In word and deed and mind,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">While with the Father and the Son<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Their fellowship they find.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span><span class="i0">Nor prayer is made on earth alone,—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The Holy Spirit pleads,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And Jesus, on the Father's throne,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">For sinners intercedes.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O thou by whom we come to God,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The Life, the Truth, the Way!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The path of prayer Thyself has trod;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Lord, teach us how to pray!<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The two songs: "Sweet Hour of Prayer," "Did You Think +to Pray?"</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"For my soul delighteth in the song of the heart, yea, the song of +the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a +blessing upon their heads." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 25:12.)</p></div> + +<p>The following selection:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Prayer—sweet breath from out a joyous heart wafting gratitude +to Heaven.</p> + +<p>"Prayer—a sacred confidence between a fearful soul and God.</p> + +<p>"Prayer—a holy balm which soothes and heals the scars in a +wounded breast.</p> + +<p>"Prayer—an angel's kiss on the longing lips of loneliness.</p> + +<p>"Prayer—a rod that bars the way between the human soul and sin.</p> + +<p>"Prayer—a choking sob of anguish from pain-drawn lips in plea +for help."</p></div> + +<p>Under question II. "Why should I pray?"</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"And that thou mayest more fully keep thyself unspotted from the +world, thou shalt go to the house of prayer and offer up thy sacraments +upon my holy day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 59:9.)</p> + +<p>"Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may +abide the day of his coming, whether in life or in death. Even so. +Amen." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:39.)</p> + +<p>"Remember that that which cometh from above is sacred, and +must be spoken with care, and by constraint of the Spirit, and in +this there is no condemnation, and ye receive the Spirit through +prayer; wherefore, without this there remaineth condemnation." +(Doc. & Cov., Sec. 63:64.)</p> + +<p>"The keys of the kingdom of God are committed unto man on +the earth, and from thence shall the gospel roll forth unto the ends +of the earth, as the stone which is cut out of the mountain without +hands shall roll forth, until it has filled the whole earth;</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>"Yea, a voice crying—Prepare ye the way of the Lord, prepare ye +the supper of the Lamb, make ready for the Bridegroom;</p> + +<p>"Pray unto the Lord, call upon his holy name, make known his +wonderful works among the people;</p> + +<p>"Call upon the Lord, that his kingdom may go forth upon the +earth, that the inhabitants thereof may receive it, and be prepared +for the days to come, in the which the Son of man shall come down +in heaven, clothed in the brightness of his glory, to meet the kingdom +of God which is set up on the earth;</p> + +<p>"Wherefore may the kingdom of God go forth, that the kingdom +of heaven may come, that thou, O God, mayest be glorified in heaven +so on earth, that thy enemies may be subdued; for thine is the +honor, power and glory, for ever and ever. Amen." (Doc. & Cov., +Sec. 65:2-6.)</p> + +<p>"Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the Spirit +indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak." (Matt. 26:42.)</p></div> + +<p>The following incidents were related by a member of +the B.Y.U. Course and are typical of scores of others +available for this lesson:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><br /><p class="center"><i>Brother Hunter's Account of the Manifestation of the Successor +to the Prophet Joseph</i></p> + +<p>"There was a great deal of discussion among the brethren and sisters +as to who should lead the Church; some thought it should be the +Prophet's son; some, one of his counselors, and some the President +of the Quorum of the Twelve. I was at a loss to come to any conclusion. +It worried me considerably and I prayed earnestly that God +would make known to me who it should be, but without avail.</p> + +<p>"I went to the meeting that had been called and listened thoughtfully +to what was said and done. The longer I listened the more +mystified I became. I bowed my head in my hands and prayed for +God to give me understanding. While I was in this attitude, Brother +Brigham arose to speak, I suppose. I heard a voice—the Prophet's +voice as natural and true as I ever heard it. I raised up quickly, +fully expecting to see the Prophet, and I did. There he stood and +there he spoke. I listened breathlessly. The form of the Prophet +gradually changed to that of Brother Brigham, but the voice was +not Brother Brigham's. It was still the Prophet's. Then beside +Brother Brigham I saw the Prophet, who turned toward the speaker +and smiled. My heart beat rapidly with joy and I knew beyond +the shadow of a doubt that Brother Brigham was called of God to +lead the Church."</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><br /><p class="center"><i>Brother Huntsman's Baby Healed</i></p> + +<p>"A fine, plump baby girl had come to the Huntsman home. As +weeks and months passed and the child failed to use its lower limbs, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>a doctor was called and pronounced the trouble infantile paralysis. +He said that it would never walk, for experience had showed that +whenever this affliction affected the lower part of the body the medical +profession could not cure it.</p> + +<p>"The Huntsman people were faithful Latter-day Saints and did not +give up hope, but called in the Elders. After a time conference was +held at Shelley and Elder David O. McKay and one other of the +general Church authorities were in attendance—I don't remember +who. After the afternoon session the child was administered to. +While sealing the anointing, Brother McKay promised the child the +use of its limbs and every organ of the body.</p> + +<p>"That night it began to move them, and the next morning stood +alone by the aid of chairs. In a few days it walked, although being +fairly fleshy. Soon after I moved away from Shelley, but a year or so +afterwards I had occasion to go to Idaho Falls and there I met +Brother and Sister Huntsman. The child was with them and ran +and played as other children."</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><br /><p class="center"><i>A Psychology Student Receives Aid</i></p> + +<p>"A friend of mine who was a student in an eastern university told +the following incident of how the Lord came to his aid.</p> + +<p>"The psychology class while studying the relationship of the brain +to life and intelligence entered into a discussion as to the nature of +intelligence, and in some way the teachings of the Prophet Joseph +Smith were brought into the discussion and jeered at, by all members +except my friend, who was a "Mormon." His defense brought +forth ridicule and intensified the discussion.</p> + +<p>"As the class period had expired without completing the argument, +a week from that day was the time set to complete it. Of course, +my friend felt that he should do all possible to defend the attitude +of the Church, so he studied, fasted and prayed, to secure the aid +of inspiration, for he well knew that nothing but scientific proof +would be accepted.</p> + +<p>"The day came and he realized that he was illy prepared, but still +hoped for divine assistance. During the giving of evidence to dispose +of the existence of intelligence separate from the workings of +the brain, and ridiculing the existence of a spirit, he prayed silently +and earnestly.</p> + +<p>"His turn came and he arose to speak. After the opening sentences +he glanced down on the paper for his evidence and found a strange +handwriting there. He says a peculiar power took possession of him. +He spoke rapidly and fluently, he declared, without comprehending +or at least remembering what he said. As he finished, his own +writing was on the paper and he knew not what had been spoken, +but there was no evidence offered to offset it.</p> + +<p>"The professor asked him to give the names of the books from +which he obtained his points, and on being told that God gave them +to him, he replied, 'It's strange, but I can't believe such nonsense.'"</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>Under question III. "How should I pray?"</p> + +<ul><li>The Lord's Prayer as a pattern.</li> +<li>The prayer in Gethsemane.</li> +<li>The Bee-Keeper's prayer—1920, June number of <i>Young +Woman's Journal</i>.</li></ul> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: missing line of text in original">as in thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public</ins> +as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.)</p> + +<p>"Therefore I say unto you, What things soever ye desire, when ye +pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them." (Mark +11:24.)</p> + +<p>"At that day ye shall ask in my name: and I say unto you, that +I will pray the Father for you." (John 16:26.)</p></div> + +<p>Under question IV. "When should I pray?"</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"He shall pray unto God, and he will be favourable unto him: +and he shall see his face with joy: for he will render unto man his +righteousness." (Job 33:26.)</p> + +<p>"And now concerning the residue, let them journey and declare +the world among the congregations of the wicked, inasmuch as it +is given." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:33.)</p> + +<p>"Draw near unto me and I will draw near unto you: seek me diligently +and ye shall find me; ask and ye shall receive; knock and it +shall be opened unto you;</p> + +<p>"Whatsoever ye ask the Father in my name it shall be given unto +you, that is expedient for you." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 88:63-64.)</p> + +<p>"Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may +abide the day of his coming, whether in life or in death." (Doc. & +Cov., Sec. 61:39.)</p> + +<p>"Therefore let the Church take heed and pray always, lest they +fall into temptation." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 20:33.)</p> + +<p>"Behold, I manifest unto you, Joseph Knight, by these words, that +you must take up your cross, in the which you must pray vocally +before the world as well as in secret, and in your family, and among +your friends, and in all places." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 23:6.)</p> + +<p>"Yea, cry unto him for mercy; for he is mighty to save.</p> + +<p>"Yea, humble yourselves, and continue in prayer unto him;</p> + +<p>"Cry unto him when ye are in your fields; yea, over all your flocks;</p> + +<p>"Cry unto him in your houses; yea, over all your household, both +morning, mid-day and evening;</p> + +<p>"Yea, cry unto him against the power of your enemies;</p> + +<p>"Yea, cry unto him against the devil, who is an enemy to all +righteousness.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>"Cry unto him over the crops of your fields, that ye may prosper +in them:</p> + +<p>"Cry over the flocks in your fields, that they may increase.</p> + +<p>"But this is not all; ye must pour out your souls in your closets, +and your secret places, and in your wilderness;</p> + +<p>"Yea, and when you do not cry unto the Lord, let your hearts be +full, drawn out in prayer unto him continually for your welfare, +and also for the welfare of those who are around you.</p> + +<p>"And now behold, my beloved brethren, I say unto you, do not +suppose that this is all; for after ye have done all these things, if +ye turn away the needy, and the naked, and visit not the sick and +afflicted, and impart of your substance, if ye have, to those who stand +in need; I say unto you, if ye do not any of these things, behold, +your prayer is vain, and availeth you nothing, and ye are as hypocrites +who do deny the faith;</p> + +<p>"Therefore, if ye do not remember to be charitable, ye are as +dross, which the refiners do cast out, (it being of no worth), and is +trodden underfoot of men." (Alma 34:18-29.)</p></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XVI</p> + +<p>1. Why need we illustrate general truths?</p> + +<p>2. Discuss the value of having pupils draw up their own maps.</p> + +<p>3. Give out of your own experience illustrations of the force of +pictures.</p> + +<p>4. Point out the value in teaching of appealing to more than one +of the senses.</p> + +<p>5. Discuss the importance of good stories in teaching.</p> + +<p>6. What are the characteristics of a good illustrative story?</p> + +<p>7. Take an ordinarily commonplace subject and show how to +illustrate it.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Those listed in Chapter XIV.</p> + +<p>Also <i>Pictures in Religious Education</i>, by Frederica Beard.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>THE AIM</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XVII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Two illustrations of the value of an aim.—Significance of the aim +in religious training.—Inadequacy of eleventh-hour preparation.—The +teacher's obligation to see through facts to truths that lie beyond.</p> + +<p>What an aim is.—Illustration.—How to determine the aim.—How +to express it.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>The late Jacob Riis, noted author and lecturer, used to +tell a very inspirational story on the force of having something +to focus attention upon. According to his story, certain +men who lived just outside of Chicago, in its early +history, had great difficulty walking to and from work during +stormy weather, because of the almost impassably +muddy conditions of the sidewalks. After trudging through +mud and slush for a long time, they conceived the idea of +laying a plank walk through the worst sections. And so +they laid two six-inch planks side by side. The scheme +helped wonderfully, except on short winter days when the +men had to go to work in the darkness of early morning +and return in the darkness of evening. It often was so dark +that they would step off the planks, and once off they were +about as muddy as if there had been no walk at all. Finally +someone suggested the idea that if a lantern were hung up +at each end of the walk it would then be easy to fix the +eye upon the lantern and keep on the walk. The suggestion +was acted upon, and thereafter the light of the lantern did +hold them to the plank. Jacob Riis argued that the lantern +of an ideal held aloft would similarly hold young men in +life's path of righteousness.</p> + +<p>A similar story is told of a farmer who experienced great +difficulty in keeping a particular hen inside the run which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>he had built outside the hen house. He had put up a wire +fence high enough, as he thought, to keep in the most ambitious +chicken. In fact, he argued that no hen could fly +over it. One hen persisted in getting out regularly, though +the farmer could never discover how she did it. Finally +he decided to lay for her (she laid for him regularly). To +his great surprise, he watched her walk around the run +carefully surveying it as she proceeded. At length she +caught sight of a beam running along the top of the wire +just above the gate. With her eye fixed upon it she made +one mighty effort and was over.</p> + +<p>The moral of the two stories is self-evident. Both hens +and men can "go over" if they have something to aim at. +It is so in life generally, and what is true of life generally +is particularly true in the matter of teaching. The aim +is one of the most significant features in the teaching +process.</p> + +<p>The teacher who knows where he is going can always +get followers.</p> + +<p>Important as is the aim in all educational endeavor, it is +doubly so in religious training. We teach religiously not +merely to build up facts or make for mental power; we +teach to mold character. We should see through facts, +therefore, to the fundamental truth lying behind and beyond +them. Such a truth constitutes an aim in religious +instruction.</p> + +<p>One of the most regrettable facts connected with some +of our teaching is that teachers leave the preparation of +their lessons until the few minutes just preceding their recitation +hour. They then hurry through a mass of facts, +rush into class and mull over these dry husks, unable in +the rush even to see the kernel of truth lying within. Little +wonder pupils tire of such rations. It is the teacher's obli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>gation +to "see through" and discover the gems that really +make lessons worth while.</p> + +<p>Forty-five minutes once a week is so meagre an allotment +of time for the teaching of the greatest principles of life! +Surely every one of those minutes should be sacredly +guarded for the consideration of vital truths. The aim, +coupled with careful organization, is one of the best safeguards +possible.</p> + +<p>The aim is the great focus for a lesson's thought. It is +the center about which all else revolves. It specifies what +shall be included and what excluded out of the great mass +of available material. A single chapter of scripture may +contain truths enough for a dozen lessons, only one of +which can be treated in any one recitation. The aim singles +out what can be appropriately grouped under one unified +discussion.</p> + +<p>If we turn, for instance, to the ninth chapter of Matthew, +we find at least eight different major incidents, each one +deserving a lesson in itself. There is the case of:</p> + +<ul><li>The palsy.</li> +<li>The charge of blasphemy.</li> +<li>The glorifying of God by the multitude.</li> +<li>The calling of Matthew.</li> +<li>The statement that only the sick need the physician.</li> +<li>The case of new cloth and the old garment.</li> +<li>The raising of the daughter of Jairus.</li> +<li>The healing of the two blind men.</li> +</ul> + +<p>It is perfectly clear that all of these incidents could not +be adequately considered in any one lesson. Assuming +that the teacher is free to handle this ninth chapter as he +pleases, we are forced to the conclusion that knowing his +class, as he does, he must choose that incident or that com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>bination +of incidents which will mean most in the lives of +his pupils. In other words, he centers his attention upon +one major central truth—his aim. By so doing he guards +against wandering and inadequacy of treatment and makes +for the unified presentation of one forceful thought.</p> + +<p>It ought to be pointed out here that every teacher must +be the judge as to what constitutes for him the best aim. +It is quite clear that any one teacher could find in this ninth +chapter of Matthew at least four or five worthy aims. Three +different teachers could possibly find as many more, each +equally worthy of development. All other things being +equal, that aim is best which most completely and forcefully +covers the chapter or passage in question. To illustrate: +Suppose we are asked to teach a lesson on the +Prodigal Son. One aim that could be chosen clearly is +that of <i>jealousy</i> on the part of the prodigal's brother. A +second one might be repentance, as typified in the action +of the prodigal. Still a third might be the compassion and +forgiveness of the father, as typical of those same qualities +in our heavenly Father. Which, to you, is the most forceful +and significant? That one to you is <i>your</i> best aim.</p> + +<p>The wording of the aim is a matter that gives rise to a +good bit of disagreement. There are those who maintain +that if the aim announces the subject as a sort of heading +that is sufficient. Others contend that the aim should crystallize +into axiomatic form the thought of the lesson. Of +course, the real force of the aim lies in its serving as the +focus of thought. The wording of it is of secondary importance. +And yet it is very excellent practice to reduce +to formal statement the truth to be presented. It is helpful +to adopt the ruling that the aim should express both a cause +and a result. Perhaps an illustration would indicate the +difference between the aim stated as a mere heading, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>stated fully and formally. Take the case of the daughter +of Jairus already referred to,</p> + +<ul> +<li><i>Mere Headings</i>:</li> + <li class="level2">Daughter of Jairus restored, or</li> + <li class="level2">The power of faith.</li> +</ul> + +<ul><li><i>Formal Aim</i>:</li> + <li class="level2">Implicit faith in God wins His choicest blessings.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Surely the latter is a more significant expression and +offers better training to the teacher than the setting down +of mere headings.</p> + +<p>The ability thus to crystallize out of a great variety of +facts a single focusing statement, coupled with the ability +then to build about that statement a clearly organized amplification, +is the sign of a real teacher. Instead of generalizing +further, let us turn to the questions on this lesson +where some laboratory exercises are set down calling for +actual practice in the selection and justification of a number +of aims.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XVII</p> + +<p>1. What is an aim?</p> + +<p>2. Why is it particularly essential to good religious teaching?</p> + +<p>3. What are the objections to "eleventh-hour" preparation?</p> + +<p>4. To what extent is a teacher handicapped in deciding upon +an aim for another teacher to follow?</p> + +<p>5. Turn to the following references and determine what possible +aims might be developed under each. Is any aim adequate for the +whole reference? In each case which do you consider your best +aim? Why? How much of the reference would you include in a +single lesson?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>John, Chapter I; Isaiah, Chapter II; III Nephi, Chapter X; Doctrine +& Covenants, Section 87.</p></div> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Colgrove, <i>The Teacher and the School</i>; Betts, <i>How to Teach +Religion</i>; Driggs, <i>The Art of Teaching</i>; Strayer and Norsworthy, +<i>How to Teach</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>APPLICATION</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XVIII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The question of application.—The matter a complex one.—Various +conceptions of the term as it affects the intellect, the emotions, or +the will.—Application may be immediate or delayed.—How to make +the application.—Illustrations.—Making the application and moralizing.—Utah +moral codes as objectives behind our teaching.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Application is one of the most important subjects in the +whole range of religious education. It is also one concerning +which there are greater varieties of opinions than concerning +almost any other subject.</p> + +<p>What is application?</p> + +<p>How is it made?</p> + +<p>Is it inherent in the lesson, or is it added as a sort of +supplement to the lesson?</p> + +<p>When is it best made?</p> + +<p>Does it always involve action?</p> + +<p>These questions are only typical of the uncertainty that +exists relative to this term.</p> + +<p>Application really goes to the very heart of all teaching. +Colloquially expressed, it raises the question in teaching, +"What's the use?" Why should certain subject matter be +presented to a class? How are class members better for +having considered particular facts? In short, application +involves the question, "What is the <i>carry-over</i> value of the +lesson?"</p> + +<p>It is impossible to dispose adequately of the matter of +application in a single statement. It fairly epitomizes the +whole process of teaching and therefore is so comprehensive +that it calls for analysis. The ultimate purpose behind +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>teaching, of course, as behind all life, is salvation. But +salvation is not had in a day. It is not the result of a +single act, nor does it grow out of particular thoughts and +aspirations. Salvation is achieved as a sum total of all that +we think, say, do, and <i>are</i>. Any lesson, therefore, that +makes pupils better in thought, word, deed, or being, has +had to that extent its application.</p> + +<p>Application of a lesson involves, then, the making sure, +on the part of the teacher, that the truths taught carry over +into the life of the pupil and modify it for good. Someone +has said that the application has been made when a pupil</p> + +<ul><li>"Knows more,</li> +<li>Feels better,</li> +<li>Acts more nobly,"</li> +</ul> + +<p>as a result of the teaching done. There is a prevalent conception +that application has been made in a recitation only +when pupils go out from a recitation and translate the principle +studied into immediate action. There are lessons +where such applications can be made and, of course, they +are to be commended. Particularly are they valuable in +the case of young children. But surely there are other +justifiable interpretations to the term application.</p> + +<p>We need to remind ourselves that there are three distinct +types of subject matter that constitute the body of our teaching +material. These are, first of all, those lessons which +are almost wholly intellectual. Debates are conducted by +the hundreds on subjects that lead not to action but to +clearer judgment. Classes study subjects by the month for +the purpose of satisfying intellectual hunger. Such questions, +for instance, as "Succession in the Presidency," or +the "Nature of the Godhead"—questions gone into by thor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>oughly +converted Latter-day Saints, not to bring themselves +into the Church, nor to lead themselves into any other kind +of action except the satisfying of their own souls as to the +truth. In other words, it appears clear that there may be +application on a purely intellectual level. Application +upon application is made until a person builds up a structure +of faith that stands upon the rock in the face of all +difficulties.</p> + +<p>A second type of lessons appeals to the emotions. They +aim to make pupils <i>feel</i> better. They may or may not lead +to immediate action. Ideally, of course, every worthy emotion +aroused should find, if possible, suitable channels for +expression. Pent up emotions may become positively +harmful. The younger the pupils the more especially is +this true. Practically every educator recognizes this fact +and gives expression to it in language similar to the following +quotation from Professor S.H. Clark:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Never awaken an emotion unless, at the same time, you strive +to open a channel through which the emotion may pass into the +realm of elevated action. If we are studying the ideals of literature, +religion, etc., with our class, we have failed in the highest duty of +teaching if we have not given them the ideal, if we have not given +them, by means of some suggestion, the opportunity for realizing +the ideal. If there is an emotion excited in our pupils through a +talk on ethics or sociology, it matters not, we fail in our duty, if +we do not take an occasion at once to guide that emotion so that +it may express itself in elevated action."</p></div> + +<p>And yet there is a question whether this insistence upon +action may not be exaggerated. Abraham Lincoln witnessed +an auction sale of slaves in his younger days. He +did not go out immediately and issue an emancipation +proclamation, and yet there are few who can doubt that +that auction sale registered an application in an ideal that +persisted in the mind of Lincoln through all those years +preceding our great civil war.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>Many a man has been saved in the hour of temptation, +in his later life, by the vividness of the recollection of +sacred truths taught at his mother's knee. There may be +just a little danger of cheapening the process of application +if it is insisted that for every ideal impressed upon the +minds of pupils there must be a corresponding immediate +response in daily actions of the pupils taught. May not a +wonderful impression become the more wonderful as it is +hallowed by the pondering of the mind through the maturing +years of childhood and young manhood?</p> + +<p>Finally there is the lesson which, though it involves both +the intellect and the emotions, appeals primarily to the will +and calls for action. There can be no question but that +this is the type of lesson of greatest significance in religious +education. We meet our pupils so infrequently, at best, +that at most we can do but a fraction of what we should +like to do to modify their lives. Our concern is to change +for the better their attitude and conduct, and therefore we +must address ourselves to the problems they face in the +every-day life which they are to live between recitations. +As Betts in his <i>How to Teach Religion</i> so well says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In the last analysis the child does not come to us that he may +learn this or that set of facts, nor that he may develop such and +such a group of feelings, but that through these he may live better. +The final test of our teaching, therefore, is just like this: Because +of our instruction, does the child live differently here and now, +as a child, in all his multiform relations in the home, the school, +the church, the community, and in his own personal life? Are the +lessons we teach translated continuously into better conduct, finer +acts, and stronger character, as shown in the daily run of the learner's +experience?</p> + +<p>"It is true that the full fruits of our teaching and of the child's +learning must wait for time and experience to bring the individual +to fuller development. But it is also true that it is impossible for +the child to lay up a store of unused knowledge and have it remain +against a later time of need in a distant future. The only knowledge +that forms a vital part of our equipment is knowledge that is in +active service, guiding our thoughts and decisions from day to day. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>Unused knowledge quickly vanishes away, leaving little more permanent +impression on the life than that left on the wave when we plunge +our hand into the water and take it out again. In similar way the +interests, ideals, and emotions which are aroused, without at the same +time affording a natural outlet for expression in deeds and conduct, +soon fade away without having fulfilled the purpose for which they +exist. The great thing in religious education is to find immediate +and natural outlet in expression, a way for the child to use what +he learns; to get the child to do those things pointed out by the +lessons we teach him."</p></div> + +<p>As the teacher faces this "carry-over" problem he is +impressed that he must touch the lives of his pupils not +only as individuals but as members of a social group. It +becomes his obligation not only to direct them in matters +pertaining to their own welfare, physically, intellectually, +and morally, but he has a responsibility in helping to establish +the standards of society to which individuals naturally +subscribe more or less unconsciously.</p> + +<p>The strong teacher's influence can be made to affect the +ideals of the athletic field, of the amusement hall, of the +church, of the business center, and of the home. These +agencies offer such a variety of possibilities that every lesson +offers easily some avenue of application. By way of illustration +let us turn to a few subjects and point out some +possibilities in the matter of application. May it be said +here, in passing, that the secret of making application lies +in not getting lost in the past so that we may walk along +with our heads turned back over the shoulder of time pondering +merely the things of the past. All too often the +teacher hurries over into the Holy Land of some four thousand +years ago, leaving a class of twentieth century boys +and girls here at home to wonder what all that ancient +material has to do with the problems that confront them +here and now. Not that we should ignore the past. Successful +application lies in reaching back into the past for +a solution of today's difficulties. But the <i>solution</i> is our +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>great concern. "We look back that we may the better go +forward."</p> + +<p>To illustrate:</p> + +<p>A lesson on Cain and Abel may find its application in a +solution of the problems of the jealousy and selfishness +that exist today. This story ought not to be merely a recounting +of murder. There is a little Cain—a little Abel—in +all of us. Consider the case of the boy who smashed +up his brother's new sled as well as his own, because he +couldn't keep up in coasting. The nature of the class will +determine the particular application. Or consider the story +of Samson and Delilah: at first thought, a story with but +little to contribute to a solution of today's problems. Yet +out of that story application can be made beautifully, +through either of these two truths:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>He who plays with sin will eventually be conquered by +it; or,</p> + +<p>Marrying outside one's church is attended by grave +dangers.</p></div> + +<p>A lesson on helpfulness was once beautifully and rather +dramatically given through the story of a rescue of a train. +A lad was out at play on a railroad track when he discovered +that a recent storm had washed out part of the road +bed. He remembered that the through passenger train was +due in a few minutes, and so rushed along the track and +by frantically waving his hat succeeded in stopping the +train just in time to prevent a terrible catastrophe. A few +well-directed questions called for the pupils' own idea of +application. They, too, would flag a train if such an occasion +should arise. They could help people generally to +guard against danger. They even carried the idea over into +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>rendering any kind of service, about the home, at school, +and elsewhere, as long as it was helpful.</p> + +<p>And so illustrations could be multiplied. The important +thing is that, having decided upon a central truth for a +lesson, the teacher then conceives avenues whereby the +truth may be carried over through action into the lives of +pupils. And, of course, he must see that they are directed +in setting about the action.</p> + +<p>The question often arises, "Isn't there danger of moralizing +in making an application?" or "What is the difference +between an application and moralizing?" Genuine and +natural application ought to be inherent in the material +presented. A good story ought to drive home its message +without further comment. Moralizing consists of "tacking +on" some generalized exhortation relative to conduct. +Moralizing is either an unnecessary and unwelcome injunction +to be or to do good, or it is an apology for a lesson that +in and of itself drives home no message. The school boy's +definition of moralizing is helpful and suggestive:</p> + +<p>"<i>Moralizing is rubbing goodness in unnecessarily.</i>"</p> + +<p>In making application of truths presented, teachers naturally +face the question as to what constitutes the fundamentals +in character development that are to be achieved. +As a sort of guide, the two Utah codes of morals, one for +children and one for youths, are rich in suggestion, both for +pupil and teacher. They are submitted herewith as helpful +in setting up the objectives toward which we are +working:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="section">Children's Code</p> + +<p>I want to grow up to be wise and strong, happy and able to make +others happy, to love and to be loved, and to do my part in the +world's work.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>During my infancy loving hands cared for me, gave me food, +clothing and shelter, and protected me from harm. I am grateful +for this care, and I want to be worthy of the love and confidence +of my mother and father and to do all I can to make them happy.</p> + +<p>I will be obedient to my parents and teachers; they are wiser than +I and thoughtful of my welfare.</p> + +<p>I have already learned that good health is necessary to strength +and happiness, and that in order to be well and to grow strong, I +must have good, wholesome food, ample exercise and sleep, and +abundant pure water and fresh air—nature's free gifts to all.</p> + +<p>My whole body I will keep clean and each part of it as sound as +good care can make it.</p> + +<p>I will have respect for all useful work, both mental and physical. +I must learn to be helpful that I may know the joy of service and +the dignity of work well done.</p> + +<p>I will begin now to earn some of the things I use. I must learn +how to spend, and how to be generous.</p> + +<p>Waste is the mother of want, and even though the want may not +be mine, if I am extravagant I am likely to bring suffering to others. +Waste of time is as wrong as waste of things; I will not be an idler.</p> + +<p>I will not put unnecessary burdens upon my associates by untidy, +careless habits; orderly ways save my own time and things as well +as those of others.</p> + +<p>I will take thought for the comfort and welfare of our animal +friends and will always avoid cruelty.</p> + +<p>I will strive for courage to speak the truth and for strength to be +fair in all my work and play, to be true to my word and faithful to +my trust. I hate lying and cheating; they are signs of cowardice +and greed. I will not seek pleasure or profit at the cost of my self-respect. +I will be considerate of the rights and feeling of others +as I would have them respect mine.</p> + +<p>I will try to control my temper and to be cheerful, kind, and +courteous in all my dealings.</p> + +<p>I will strive to be pure in thought, speech and action.</p> + +<p>My country has provided laws and civil officers to protect me, +schools for my instruction, and many other aids to a happy, useful +life. I am grateful for these benefits and will show my patriotism +by obeying the laws and defending my country against evils, both +within and without.</p> + +<p>I will keep my eyes and ears open to enjoy the world about me, +and my mind alert to understand and appreciate the good things +mankind has provided for me—science and art, poetry and music, +history and story.</p> + +<p>May God, the kind and loving Father, help me all my life to see +the right way and to follow it.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><br /><p class="section">Moral Code for Youths</p> + +<p>I am happy to be a member of that great human society which +has accumulated all the treasures of civilization. I have benefited +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>by the united labors of all mankind; for this I owe a debt of gratitude +to humanity, a debt I can pay only by serving that humanity +to the fullest extent of my ability. Through small services freely +given toward the comfort and happiness of my associates, I may grow +in power of usefulness and in my turn contribute to the welfare of +the generations that are to come.</p> + +<p>My body is the instrument of my mind and the foundation of +my character. Every organ must be conserved to perform its proper +function in the development and perfection of my life. I will, therefore, +eat only wholesome food, breathe pure air, take ample exercise +and sleep, and keep my body clean and sound. To this end, I will +refrain from the use of intoxicating drinks, narcotics and stimulants; +these lend only a seeming strength, but in reality they undermine +my powers of service and of lasting happiness. By abstaining from +these indulgences I can, moreover, help others to abstain, and thereby +increase their strength and happiness. By temperate living and +plenty of exercise in the open I can preserve my health and the more +easily refrain from evil thoughts and evil deeds.</p> + +<p>I will not pollute my body or that of another by any form of self-indulgence +or perverse yielding to passion. Such indulgence is a +desecration of the fountains of life and an insult to the dignity of +manhood and womanhood.</p> + +<p>Through the formation of sane, health-promoting habits I can avoid +having my usefulness diminished and my happiness impaired by the +consequences of my own folly.</p> + +<p>I will be modest in dress and manner, that I may in no wise +encourage sensuality.</p> + +<p>I will be thoughtful of the effects of my actions and so restrain +myself that no act of mine may mar the life or detract from the +happiness of my associates or of my successors.</p> + +<p>I will deal honestly, fairly and kindly with my fellows—always +mindful that their lives and their happiness are as sacred to them +as mine are to me.</p> + +<p>I will avoid impatience and ill temper and will endeavor to be +courteous always.</p> + +<p>I will try to save individuals rather than to condemn them, even +though their evil deeds must be condemned and offenders punished.</p> + +<p>I will have respect for the time of my fellows as I respect their +property.</p> + +<p>I will not engage in games of chance, since I do not desire reward +at the expense of others.</p> + +<p>In all my dealings I will strive for courage to speak the truth; I +despise cowardice and lying. I will do what I know to be right, +though others may ridicule or scorn me.</p> + +<p>I will be personally responsible for all that I do, and, recognizing +my limited wisdom, I will ever seek Divine Guidance to lead me in +the right way.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>I will strive for independence of judgment, but with due regard +for the superior wisdom of my elders. I must grant to my fellows +the same right of independent judgment that I claim for myself.</p> + +<p>Whatever I undertake I will do with my might, and, win or lose, +accept the result with good cheer. I would rather be worthy of success +than to secure it unworthily.</p> + +<p>I will be prompt and orderly in all my affairs, otherwise I become +a hindrance to social efficiency. I will avoid waste and extravagance +lest I bring needless privation and suffering to others as well as to +myself.</p> + +<p>It is my privilege to have a part in the world's work—a part I +must choose and perform with all diligence. "What can I do best +that society needs most?" When I have answered this question I +will pursue my vocation intelligently and energetically; first, as a +means of service to my fellow-men; and second, as a means of self-support +and aid to those that may be dependent upon me.</p> + +<p>May the love and appreciation I have for my country never +be dishonored by any act of lawlessness or want of loyalty, but may +I ever honor, uphold and obey the law and defend my country against +unrighteousness, injustice and violence. When it becomes my privilege +to vote I will use the right of suffrage as a patriotic means of +co-operating with my fellow citizens for the promotion of social +justice, peace and progress. Should I be called to public office, +I will strive for moral courage to exercise authority in accord with +justice and humanity; and, whether in or out of office, I will respond +freely to every opportunity for public service.</p> + +<p>I am grateful for the beauties of nature and for the great works +of art, music, literature and science, it is my privilege to enjoy. +These I will seek to understand and appreciate, that I may cultivate +broader sympathies and fellowship with mankind, the world, and the +Creator of all.</p></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XVIII</p> + +<p>1. How does application go to the very heart of teaching?</p> + +<p>2. Discuss the various conceptions of the term.</p> + +<p>3. Distinguish between immediate and delayed application.</p> + +<p>4. Discuss the possibility of intellectual application.</p> + +<p>5. How can applications best be made?</p> + +<p>6. When can applications best be made?</p> + +<p>7. Distinguish between making an application and moralizing.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>; Betts, <i>How to Teach +Religion</i>; Brumbaugh, <i>The Making of a Teacher</i>; Betts, <i>The Recitation</i>; +Strayer and Norsworthy, <i>How to Teach</i>; Thorndike, <i>Principles +of Teaching</i>; Colgrove, <i>The Teacher and the School</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>METHODS OF THE RECITATION</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XIX</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The question of method raised.—Danger of an entire disregard of +method.—The case of the "born" teacher.—Sound pedagogy largely +a matter of common sense.—Danger of being committed to a single +method.—The five possible methods: The Story Method; Reading +'Round; The Special Topic; The Lecture; The Discussion.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Two of the most practical questions that a teacher ever +has to solve are:</p> + +<p>How shall I go about to prepare a lesson?</p> + +<p>Having prepared a lesson, how shall I set about to teach +it to my class?</p> + +<p>The first of these questions has already been discussed +in preceding chapters; the second now calls for our consideration.</p> + +<p>Is there a <i>one best method</i>? If so, what is it? What +steps does it involve? Instead of answering these questions +directly, perhaps it will be better to point out the various +methods of the recitation, set down their characteristics and +relative values, and then formulate a conclusion.</p> + +<p>At the outset it may be advisable to sound two notes of +warning. One is against an entire disregard of methods. +There are those persons who believe that teachers are born, +not made, and that therefore a discussion of methods is +useless. The born teacher, say these persons, just teaches +naturally according to his own personality. To change his +method would be to destroy his effectiveness. If he isn't +a teacher then the study of methods will not make him one. +In either case work done on methods is lost.</p> + +<p>Of course, experience refutes both contentions. It is admittedly +true that great teachers are born to their work—<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>that +some individuals just naturally impress others and +stimulate them to high ideals. And yet there is no one so +gifted that he cannot improve through a study of the game +he is to play. Most great athletes are by nature athletic. +And yet every one of them trains to perfect himself. The +best athletes America sent to the Olympic games were wonderfully +capable men, but they were wonderfully trained +men, as well. They had studied the <i>methods</i> of their particular +sports. Great singers are born with great vocal +potentialities, but the greatest singers become so as the result +of thorough training. <i>Methods</i> elevate them to fame. +What is true of the other arts ought also to be true of +teaching.</p> + +<p>As to the class of teachers not born to the calling, it seems +perfectly clear that here is the great opportunity for a +study of the fundamentals underlying good teaching. +Sound pedagogy is just a matter of good, common sense. +Any normal person by studying how to do anything ought +in the end to come to do that thing better than if he ignored +it. I may not know how to operate an automobile. But +if I study how to operate one, if I observe those who do +know how, and if I practice operating one—surely I shall +come to be more efficient as a chauffeur.</p> + +<p>But while many will admit that this law of development +applies in the mechanical world, they hold that there is +something mystic about teaching for which only a pedagogical +birthright is a solution. The fallacy of such a +contention seems too evident to call for argument. At least +the only sensibly hopeful view to take in such a Church as +ours, in which so many members must perforce be called +to be teachers, is that power in teaching can be developed +as it can in any other field of endeavor.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>The other bit of warning applies to the kind of teacher +who is unalterably committed to a single method, not only +as the best method, but the only one worth following. +Method depends so essentially on the personality of the +teacher, on the nature of the pupils taught, and on the +subject matter to be presented, that it is a very dangerous +thing to say that, in spite of circumstances, one method is +invariably the best method.</p> + +<p>Let us, then, turn to the different methods and consider +their relative values. Five possibilities immediately suggest +themselves:</p> + +<ul><li>1. The story method.</li> +<li>2. The "reading 'round" method.</li> +<li>3. The special topic method.</li> +<li>4. The lecture method.</li> +<li>5. The discussion method, built up through questions and answers.</li> +</ul> + +<p>1. <i>The Story Method.</i> The story is the method for +childhood. "All the world loves a story." Children certainly +are a part of that world. How they thrill in response +to the appeal of a good story. Their little souls fairly +seem to open to receive it. What an opportunity—what a +sacred trust—is the teacher's as he undertakes to satisfy +that soul hunger! The subject, the story, has been so fully +gone into by Brother Driggs in his book, <i>The Art of Teaching</i>, +that we need not attempt to discuss it fully here. Then, +too, so many other excellent books have been written on the +art of the story that the teacher need only be referred to +them. Suffice it here to make two observations in passing. +The best stories for purposes of religious instruction should +possess four essential characteristics:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>Point—Brevity—Message—Adaptation to the experience +of pupils.</p> + +<p>And, of course, this message should be a truth appropriate +to the occasion—a message heightened by the spirit +of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.</p> + +<p>The second observation has to do with the telling of the +story. Naturally it should be well told. But the story hour +should not be one of mere telling. The child, in addition +to listening to the story, should be given opportunity to +express its reaction to the story told—should be directed +in discovering the avenue through which it will carry into +action the emotion aroused by the story.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The "Reading 'Round" Method.</i> The old idea of a +class coming together and sitting through a process of reading +in turn from the one book in the class as it was passed +about is largely a thing of the past. Let us hope that the +day when neither teacher nor pupil prepared his lesson is +gone forever. Surely "reading 'round" is a poor substitute +for preparation. And it clearly is a dull, routine +method of procedure. But there was one merit attached +to it that is worthy our consideration. It did bring the +scriptures into the hands of our pupils. Whatever method +we may follow, this contact with the actual word of the +Lord is a valuable asset. We cannot advocate resorting to +the old notion of "reading 'round" as an apology for a +recitation, but we can well point out the merit of seeing +to it that pupils see and read the scriptures. If the lesson +can be so conducted that reading is indulged in as a supplementary +laboratory exercise—a turning through of gems +that entice the reader to make further study of the book—then +reading can be made a very valuable factor in the +teaching process. Then, too, it is educational just to have +members of a class turn through the scriptures to know +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>what they are—what books are involved and where they +may be found. Ignorance with respect to the scriptures +is alarmingly prevalent. The following report taken from +the <i>New York Tribune</i> relative to a simple test in Bible +literature, given by an Eastern university to 139 students, +is significant:</p> + +<p>"Out of 139 only 12 reached 75%; 90 received less than +50%; 10 could not name a single book of the Old Testament. +Some who did spelled them Salms, Joob, etc. Some +named Paul, Babylonians, and Gentiles as Old Testament +books."</p> + +<p>Surely much might be said in favor of the use of books +in our classes.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Special Topic Method.</i> Much can be said both +for and against the topic method. At least three objections +to its use can be raised:</p> + +<p>A. It makes for piece-meal preparation. The lesson is +partitioned off into segments, one of which may be prepared +by a particular pupil who does not concern himself at +all with the rest of the lesson. This method, therefore, +encourages fragmentary and incomplete preparation.</p> + +<p>B. It makes for a disconnected presentation which makes +it quite impossible for pupils to get a unified conception +of the whole lesson. This is doubly bad, because of the +fact that frequently those who are assigned parts absent +themselves from class.</p> + +<p>C. It often results in dull, commonplace recitations. All +too frequently, especially if topic assignments are the usual +method of procedure, those pupils given the various topics +to work up content themselves with very meagre preparation. +They come to class, therefore, and merely run over +so many facts wholly without inspiration and often by constant +reference to notes or the text.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>Of course, these difficulties can be overcome largely by +the judicious use of the topic method. It ought not generally +to be followed as the regular order of business, but +rather as a supplementary means of enriching the lesson. +It ought not to be used so as to excuse all class members +from regular preparation of the lesson as a whole. If the +teacher will assign the lesson proper to all of the class and +then select certain aspects—certain suggested problems—for +more intensive research, the reports on special topics +can be made to contribute wonderfully to the richness of +the class hour. The topic method, then, is primarily a +supplemental method, and if wisely used has these advantages:</p> + +<p>A. It makes for an enriched lesson. It makes possible +expert opinion, and the results of special, careful investigation +which the class as a whole would be unable to make.</p> + +<p>B. It lends variety to class procedure and guarantees +that the teacher will not do all the talking.</p> + +<p>C. It fosters individual expression. It trains pupils to +formulate an attack, to organize findings, and to stand and +deliver a connected and well thought out message.</p> + +<p>D. It promotes a habit of investigation—it leads pupils +to work out for themselves the problems of the Gospel +which they encounter.</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Lecture Method.</i> The comment of a student of +the Brigham Young University on the lecture method was +unique: "The lecture method wouldn't be so bad if a +teacher really lectured—he usually just talks. And talking +a lot when you haven't much to say is pretty discouraging +to a class."</p> + +<p>Aimless talking which indulges in the main in vague generalities +can never be justified. <i>Preaching</i> presumes a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>pulpit and has little place in classwork. The teacher who +persists in talking most of the time overvalues his own +thoughts and minimizes the ideas of others. Much talking +stifles initiative and independent thinking. Then, too, it +gives no opportunity for developing pupils' power of self-expression +and provides no means for the teacher to check +the reaction going on in the pupils' minds—assuming that +one goes on! It is astonishing what erroneous notions members +of a class can get from merely hearing a lesson presented. +Given a chance to express their conclusions, they +will themselves correct many of their false impressions.</p> + +<p>There are occasions, however, when a lecture is extremely +valuable. Frequently after several weeks of discussion a +class is hungry to hear "the truth about the matter." There +is then afforded a splendid opportunity for the teacher to +drive home a real message. Then, too, specialists, because +of their advanced study on a particular subject, can often +present in an hour the results of years of investigation.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, in a lecture, the teacher can make an emotional +appeal which is practically out of the question in +other methods. His enthusiasm and conviction can be made +to "carry" his pupils to the contemplation of new truths. +Used with discretion, the <i>real lecture</i> is a valuable asset in +teaching; indulged in regularly as <i>mere talking</i> or <i>preaching</i>, +the method ought certainly to be discouraged.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Discussion Method.</i> This method, built upon +questions and their answers, is commendable for its democracy +and because of the fact that it stimulates both thought +and discussion on the part of most if not all of the pupils. +Questions are so vital to good teaching that Chapter XXI +will be devoted to their consideration. Suffice it to say +here that for all practical purposes it is the basis of the +best teaching. Discussions make it possible to reach pupils +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>"Where they are"—make it possible for everyone to contribute +of his experience to everyone else.</p> + +<p>The one outstanding difficulty with the discussion method +lies in the fact that it calls for such skilful direction. It +so easily runs off on tangents that the teacher is kept on +his mettle holding to the subject in hand.</p> + +<p>After all, each method has its advantages and its disadvantages. +There are times when any one of them can be +profitably used; it is clear that any one of them can be +abused—can be made more or less monotonous. Perhaps +we can wisely conclude that, "<i>The best method is a variety +of methods.</i>"</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XIX</p> + +<p>1. Why is it essential that teachers study methods of the recitation?</p> + +<p>2. What method do you regularly follow? Why?</p> + +<p>3. To what extent is it that a born teacher teaches without +method?</p> + +<p>4. What is pedagogy?</p> + +<p>5. Discuss the relative value of each of the five methods listed +in this chapter.</p> + +<p>6. Discuss the statement, "The best method is a variety of +methods<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: missing quote mark in original">."</ins></p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Betts, <i>How to Teach Religion</i>; Betts, <i>The Recitation</i>; Earhart, +<i>Types of Teaching</i>; Bagley, <i>Classroom Management</i>; Strayer and +Norsworthy, <i>How to Teach</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>REVIEW AND PREVIEW</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XX</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The need of review in our Church teaching.—Review a real help +to learning in that it makes for: repetition, proper connection, proper +evaluation of truth.</p> + +<p>An intelligent review is the result only of thorough preparation on +the part of the teacher.—Assignment and preparation.—Ability to +make assignments a test of good teaching.</p> + +<p>Characteristics of a good assignment: It is definite.—It raises a +problem.—It connects with the experience of pupils.—It stimulates +to action.</p> + +<p>General and specific assignments.—When to make assignments.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Each organization within the Church follows regularly +its own course of study. At the beginning of the year it +sets out upon a prescribed subject subdivided according to +the number of meetings scheduled for the year's work. As +a result, no one lesson stands out independent of all others, +but rather fits in naturally in a sequence of chapters each +of which develops some aspects of one big subject. Because +of such a plan the matters of review and preview take +on vital significance. Each lesson should be made to link +up naturally with what has already been presented and +should point out by way of anticipation what is to follow. +Many educators maintain that the ability to conduct a good +review and to make an effective assignment are two of the +surest tests of a good teacher.</p> + +<p>The problem of review is really one of the most fundamental +processes in education. It is the great key to learning. +Anyone who has enjoyed the fun of teaching young +children how to read has been impressed with the fact that +the child has to be led to see and repeat the simplest words +over and over again before they are really mastered. It is +really astonishing how many times as simple a word as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>"ran" has to be repeated before the beginner in reading +gets it fully into his consciousness. This very difficulty of +teaching mere words or letters has led to the abandonment +of the old "A-B-C" drill as the first step in reading, and +the substitution for it of an indirect method wherein, +through the laws of association, groups of words and sentences +are mastered as the symbols which express concrete +and objectified ideas. But by way of experiment, one of +the most impressive experiences open to teachers is to take +a child of four or five that has not been taught to read and +attempt to drill into its consciousness a group of half a +dozen words as simple as these: cat, fan, hat, get, man, jam. +To the teacher who has attempted such an experiment no +argument is necessary to prove the significance of review +and repetition.</p> + +<p>Review, then, first of all, is vitally essential because it +makes possible impression through repetition which insures +the fixing of ideas. Literally, review means to view again. +Psychologically it is to repeat the processes of mind which +were called into operation the first time the stimulus in +question started a mental reaction. The nervous system of +man is so constituted that in the acquirement of knowledge, +each time the nerve centers react to the same stimulus, +the tendency so to react becomes stronger, under the mere +presence of the stimulus, starts up an automatic sort of +reaction, and we say that the child knows the meaning of +the object constituting the stimulus.</p> + +<p>Not only is review thus essential in the beginning of the +learning process with children, but it remains a vital factor +as long as men and women undertake to learn. Review +guarantees recall, and recall re-establishes "nerve connections" +to the permanent fixing of impressions. Very little +of our knowledge remains ours to a purpose unless it is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>gone over and over until it is thoroughly established. A +truth that is taught in a Mutual lesson on a particular Tuesday +night, but which is never referred to again, and therefore +never recalled, very likely will soon be gone out of +consciousness and usefulness. Those truths and facts +which are of greatest functioning value to us are those +which we continue to run over in our minds and ponder. +The reinforcement of review is what establishes our permanent +working stock of truth.</p> + +<p>Not only is review valuable as a matter of recall, but it +makes for an enrichment of mental content which is altogether +desirable. The real art of review lies in calling up +an old truth in a new setting. Upon second perusal it is +seen in skilful review from a slightly different angle so +that each recall adds a reinforcement that makes for a +clinching of thought which makes it permanent. It very +often happens that the first time an idea is called to our +attention it means but little, because our mental reaction +is limited in the particular field of the presentation; the +same idea in a new setting more in keeping with our experience +may take on an entirely different significance. That +teaching is best, therefore, which presents truth from the +greatest number of angles possible, thereby guaranteeing +the richest kind of associations in the minds of pupils.</p> + +<p>Another value that attaches to the review lies in the fact +that it makes possible proper connection between new material +and old. It is axiomatic in teaching that pupils learn +new truths and take on new experiences, in terms of the old. +Teaching that unfolds—that develops new ideas that are +built upon those already understood—is the kind of teaching +attended by best results. In our organizations, meeting +as we do only once a week, we must appreciate the fact +that in the intervening time, between meetings, hundreds of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>ideas have crowded into the mind and have displaced those +that may have been there as a result of our teaching. By +calling to mind those ideas of a week ago, we not only reinforce +them, but we start a chain of thought to which it will +be very much easier to add the link of today's work than +to proceed as if forging an entirely new chain.</p> + +<p>No farmer goes out and plants grain on the unplowed +field. He plows and harrows that the soil may be prepared +not only to receive the seed, but to make generation possible.</p> + +<p>A review simply turns over the stubble field of the preceding +week's work, making ready for the planting of new +seeds that they may generate and develop.</p> + +<p>Still a further value in the matter of review lies in the +fact that the review makes more easily possible the proper +evaluation of the facts taught. In every lesson there are +major facts and truths presented and also those minor or +subordinate ones that serve to amplify and illustrate. All +too frequently a class becomes so involved in the minor details +that it may fail to grasp fully the big, underlying +truth. By careful review, the teacher can make the essentials +stand out in relief. These are the things that need to +be pondered. If they are properly grasped, thanks to the +laws of association, most of the minor facts will naturally +attach themselves, so that truths can be retained in all of +their richness of detail.</p> + +<p>It is surprising to find how frequently pupils who have +spent a year on the Book of Mormon have very little notion +of the big, outstanding features of the book. They apparently +have run over each week's lesson as so many independent +facts, never coming back to single out the essential +things in that early American civilization. Surely no +class ought to complete the course without clearly comprehending +such major items as:</p> + +<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>The contribution each of the three colonies made to Book +of Mormon civilization.</li> +<li>The general geographical location of each colony.</li> +<li>The outstanding characters in the book.</li> +<li>The coming forth of the book.</li> +<li>Why it is essential.</li> +<li>How our faith depends largely upon it.</li> +<li>The ministry of the Savior on this continent.</li> +<li>Gospel teachings of the Book of Mormon.</li> +</ul> + +<p>What is true of the study of the Book of Mormon is +equally true of all other subjects. It is so easy to get lost +in a maze of facts, in a course in the principles of the +Gospel, and yet if a teacher will hold to such basic considerations +as the articles of faith, coming back to them +regularly and linking facts presented under the appropriate +article, it is equally easy to complete the course with a +clearly defined, skeletonized basis for all future study. Two +conclusions seem obvious: as teachers we ought to conduct +reviews regularly and frequently; we ought to prepare for +them as one of the most vital factors in teaching.</p> + +<p>Important as is the review, the preview or assignment is +equally vital. To quote from Colgrove's <i>The Teacher and +the School</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<i>Importance and Value of Good Lesson Assignment.</i> From the +foregoing consideration it is clear that no other part of the teacher's +work exceeds in value and importance the proper planning and assignment +of the daily lessons. It is supplying the class and the school +with a definite plan of work. It is preparing the mind of each individual +pupil for the reception of new truths and whetting his intellectual +appetite for a feast of good things. It inspires confidence by +pointing out to the pupil just how he can use his past lessons and +acquisitions to make new conquests. It prevents pupils from misunderstanding +the lesson or approaching it with indifference or +positive aversion. It enables the pupil to approach the new lesson +in a perceiving mood, and helps pupils to form the habit of being +successful in their work and of making a daily application of their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>old knowledge. It prevents the teacher from degenerating into a +mere talker, and, where textbooks are used, should be the most vital +part of the recitation."</p></div> + +<p>The assignment is the great guarantee of a good recitation. +It sets up objectives—it points the way—it starts the +thought process that is to produce a discussion worth while +at the subsequent meeting of the class.</p> + +<p>Much has been said recently against the practice on the +part of the teacher of saying, "Take chapter three for next +time." There are superintendents of schools who refuse to +keep such teachers in their service. To make such an +assignment, particularly in classes that meet only once a +week, and especially if the assignment is made, as is too +usually the case, after the signal for class dismissal has +been given, is to promise the pupils a week in advance that +their next lesson will be very much of a failure.</p> + +<p>A good assignment is characterized by several very definite +features. In the first place it is perfectly clear. Given +at a time when pupils are following it, it gives specific +direction as to the work to be done ahead in preparation. +It indicates the direction of intellectual travel, points out +sources of material, and indicates what is to be looked for. +Reference or textbooks are so pointedly referred to that +pupils not only remember their names, they want to turn +to them to enjoy their contributions.</p> + +<p>In the second place, a good assignment raises a problem +which is a challenge to the mental powers of pupils. It +should carry a force of anticipation that capitalizes on that +great mover to action—curiosity. For instance, if the lesson +to be assigned is one on baptism, instead of simply +naming certain pages in a text to be read, the skilful teacher +may well challenge his class by bringing in a clipping from +a periodical or from some other source attempting to prove +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>that sprinkling is the correct method of baptism, or that +baptism is not essential to a man's obtaining salvation? +How can members of the class meet such an argument? +One of their first thoughts will likely be a query as to +where available material may be turned to. How easy, +then, to give references, etc. Some such problem can be +raised relative to every lesson taught, and it is a wonderful +force as an intellectual appetizer. It should both prompt +to action and point to the path to be followed.</p> + +<p>The question is often raised as to whether the assignment +should be general or specific. Perhaps the best answer +involves both kinds. There ought ordinarily to be a general +assignment that affects all of the members of a class. +The class is made up of all the individuals in the group—its +discussing ought therefore to be so made up. But in +addition to this general assignment, specific topics given to +particular members add an enrichment to the recitation of +very great value. The services of the specialist are always +of inestimable value. That class is best wherein each member +in turn becomes a specialist in looking up and bringing +in vital observations on life.</p> + +<p>As to the best time for making assignments, it is rather +hard to give a ruling that best fits all cases. Preferably +the assignment should grow out of the discussion of the +lesson in hand, and therefore logically comes at the end of +the recitation rather than at the beginning. There are +teachers, however, who, fearing interruption at the end of +the hour, map <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'our'">out</ins> their work so carefully that they can +make the assignment at the outset, merely calling attention +to it at the close of the hour. All other things being equal, +if the teacher will make himself hold sacred the time +necessary at the end of the hour for this all important matter +of assignment, it is likely that best results will follow +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>having the assignment of the next lesson grow naturally out +of the work of today. The important thing, however, is that +at some point in the recitation, the teacher shall take plenty +of time to make a carefully planned and challenging announcement +of the work ahead.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XX</p> + +<p>1. Why is it essential to good teaching that regular reviews be +conducted?</p> + +<p>2. Why are reviews more necessary in our religious work than +in regular school work?</p> + +<p>3. What are the chief purposes of a review?</p> + +<p>4. By taking a current lesson of one of the auxiliary organizations, +illustrate the work done in a good review.</p> + +<p>5. Why it is of vital importance that a teacher give special preparation +to a review?</p> + +<p>6. Show how good class preparation is conditional upon the +proper kind of assignment.</p> + +<p>7. What are the characteristics of a good assignment?</p> + +<p>8. What is the best time for making the assignment?</p> + +<p>9. Show how to make a good assignment of a current lesson from +one of the organizations.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Betts, <i>The Recitation</i>; Betts, <i>How to Teach Religion</i>; Colvin, <i>The +Learning Process</i>; Colgrove, <i>The Teacher and the School</i>; Strayer +and Norsworthy, <i>How to Teach</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<h3>THE QUESTION AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XXI</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Taking Stock.—Miss Stevens' study on questioning.—Miss Stevens +quoted.—Various types of questions: a. The review <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has colon instead of semicolon">question;</ins> b. The +fact question; c. The leading question; d. The thought or challenging +question.—Some questions on questioning.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>How many questions do you ask regularly during a recitation?</p> + +<p>What proportion of those questions are answered in full +and complete statements?</p> + +<p>How many of the answers to your questions are a matter +merely of memory? How many reveal original, creative +thinking?</p> + +<p>Such questions as these not only impress us with the +force of the question as a means of teaching, but they lead +us to examine into our own method of asking them. The +whole teaching process so easily and unconsciously develops +into a matter of routine that it is good practice occasionally +to take stock of ourselves. It is surprising to find how +many teachers develop a particular type of question which +becomes their sole stock in trade.</p> + +<p>Miss Ronniett Stevens, in her thesis, <i>The Question as a +Measure of Efficiency in Instruction</i>, has made one of the +most enlightening studies yet made on the matter of questioning. +Her results are quoted by Weigle, in his <i>Talks to +Sunday School Teachers</i>, in a passage of interest, not only +because of Miss Stevens' findings, but also because of Mr. +Weigle's own conclusions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"One of the outstanding differences, in present practice, between +the public and the Sunday school, is that most public school teachers +ask too many questions and most Sunday school teachers do not ask +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>questions enough. For the first half of this statement there is ample +evidence in the careful study by Miss Ronniett Stevens on <i>The Question +as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction</i>. Miss Stevens secured +complete stenographic reports of twenty high school lessons in English, +history, science, Latin, modern languages, and mathematics; +she observed one hundred more such lessons chosen at random, with +a view to counting and noting the number and nature of the questions +asked in each; and she followed each ten classes through an entire +day's work for the purpose of studying the aggregate question-stimulus +to which each was subjected in the course of the day.</p> + +<p>"The results of her study are surprising. In only eight of the +twenty lessons completely reported the teacher asked less than ninety +questions in the period of forty-five minutes, the average being sixty-eight. +In each of the remaining twelve lessons more than ninety +questions were asked in the same period of time, the average being +128. A freshman class in high school, in a day's work of five periods +of forty minutes each, not counting gymnasium, was subjected to 516 +questions and expected to return 516 answers, which is at the rate +of 2:58 questions and 2:58 answers per minute. The lowest number +of questions recorded in a day's work for a class was 321, and the +average number 395.</p> + +<p>"Such rapid-fire questioning, Miss Stevens rightly holds, defeats +its own ends. It maintains a nervous tension in the classroom that +must in the long run be injurious. More than that, it is a symptom +of the fact that the real work of the hour is being done by the +teacher, and the pupil's share is reduced simply to brief, punctuation-like +answers to the teacher's questions. Such questions appeal to +mere memory or to superficial judgment rather than to real thought; +they cultivate in the pupil neither independent judgment nor the +power of expression; they ignore individual needs and discourage +initiative; they make out of the classroom a place to display knowledge, +rather than a laboratory in which to acquire it.</p> + +<p>"The second half of the proposition, that most Sunday school +teachers do not ask questions enough, has not been established by +any such investigation as that of Miss Stevens. A similar study, on +the basis of complete stenographic reports, of typical Sunday school +lessons, would be a most valuable addition to our resources in the +field of religious pedagogy. Till such a study is made, one must +simply record his conviction that Sunday school teachers, as a general +rule, ask too few, rather than too many questions. This conviction +is based upon general observation and upon the frequency +of such remarks as, 'I just can't get my class to study,' 'There are +only two or three who ever answer my questions,' 'My pupils don't +know anything about the Bible,' 'As long as I do all the talking, +things go all right<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has "">,'</ins> etc." Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The whole matter of questioning can be made to stand +out most clearly, perhaps, by listing the various types of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>question, the purposes which each type serves, and the +characteristics of a good question.</p> + +<p>First of all there is the <i>Review question</i>. The great purpose +of this type of question is to systematize knowledge. +Of course, it is valuable as an aid to recollection—it is a +challenge to memory—but it is particularly helpful in that +it makes the big essential points in a course stand out in +relief with minor points properly correlated and subordinated. +The review question is a guide to the pupil whereby +he may see the relative significance of the work he has +covered. One of our great difficulties lies in the fact that +our teaching is so largely piece-meal. Today's lesson is +hurried through, isolated as it is from all that has gone +before and all that may follow. The successful teacher +through the review makes each lesson a link in the chain +of thought that underlies the whole development of the +subject in hand.</p> + +<p>The review question is essentially a carefully thought +out, searching inquiry. It calls for a turning over, in the +mind, of the material of the whole course and therefore +should allow ample time for pondering. If it does not +stimulate a "weighing process," it likely is merely a fact +question—a test of memory. Of course, there is a place at +times for this hurried type of question, but it serves the +purpose only of "connecting up" and should not be mistaken +for the evaluating question of review.</p> + +<p>The following questions on the expulsion of the Saints +from Missouri are illustrative review questions:</p> + +<p>1. To what extent, if any, were the Latter-day Saints +themselves responsible for their expulsion from Missouri?</p> + +<p>2. To what extent were the persecutions of Missouri +political? Religious?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>3. How do you account for the fact that the Lord's +people have always been a chastened people?</p> + +<p>4. Show how the Missouri persecutions have been ultimately +a blessing to the Latter-day Saints.</p> + +<p>The second type of question is the <i>fact</i> question. It +serves to check up on mental alertness and recall. It is +often helpful in arresting attention and therefore has a certain +disciplinary function. The teacher, of course, must +make sure that his pupils are grasping the subject-matter +presented, and the fact question serves admirably as a test +of knowledge. It is usually a short question calling for a +short answer, and therefore may be used in a rapid-fire +way that stimulates thought. It is this type of question that +is hurled so frequently at classes with the consequences +pointed out in the quotation from Miss Stevens.</p> + +<p>The same author lists as objections to the continued use +of these rapid-fire questions the following bad features. +They result in:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Nervous tension.</li> + +<li>2. The teacher's doing most of the work.</li> + +<li>3. Emphasis upon memory and superficial judgment.</li> + +<li>4. Little time for the art of expression.</li> + +<li>5. Little attention to the needs of particular individuals in a class.</li> + +<li>6. The class being made a place for displaying knowledge.</li> + +<li>7. Little self-reliant, independent thinking.</li> +</ul> + +<p>As illustrative of the fact question may we set down the +following:</p> + +<ul><li>Who was Joseph Smith?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></li> + +<li>What was his father's name?</li> + +<li>What was his mother's name?</li> + +<li>Where was he born?</li> + +<li>How old was he when he received his first vision?</li> + +<li>When did he receive the plates?</li> +</ul> + +<p>The <i>challenging question</i> and the <i>leading question</i> are +closely enough allied that we may well discuss them together. +They are both intended to provoke creative thinking. +The leading question aims to capitalize on what is +already in the pupil's mind in getting him to go one step +further to a conclusion we already have in mind. Instead +of telling a class of young children that Joseph Smith +prayed to the Lord for help in choosing the church to +which he might best belong, we might proceed by saying +that the Prophet had asked his father and mother—he had +asked his best friends—he had talked with all the ministers +he could find—he had read in all of the available books—now +who can tell what else he could do? The chief merit +of the leading question lies in the fact that it paves the +way for the answer. It is particularly helpful in encouraging +young and backward pupils. But is easily subject to +abuse. So much so that its use is very largely restricted +in law courts. It results too frequently in the teacher's +thinking for the pupil, and therefore ought to be used +with care.</p> + +<p>The challenging question is the question that fosters originality +of thought, independence of judgment. It simply +raises a problem and leaves pupils free to arrive at their +own conclusions. It makes for an intelligent faith so much +desired in a democratic Church such as ours. It is the one +question above all others that guarantees a vital class distinction.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>Of course, there is a place for all four of these types of +questions. As was said relative to the methods of the recitation, +the best method is a variety of methods. So with +questions. It is perfectly clear, however, that for general +purposes that question which prompts greatest reflection +and independent thinking is the best one to indulge most +frequently. The following questions out of a lesson on +Joseph Smith's First Vision are set down as typical of +thought-provoking questions:</p> + +<p>1. In view of the fact that when men choose a man for +president of a bank they look for a man of maturity and +experience, how do you explain that Joseph Smith, a mere +boy, with little training or experience, was entrusted with +the great responsibility of founding what we claim is the +greatest institution of these latter days?</p> + +<p>2. How can you convince the world that a just God +would declare that none of their churches is right?</p> + +<p>3. What vital truths are announced to the world +through his first vision?</p> + +<p>Let us conclude this chapter with one more quotation +from Miss Stevens. When asked to name the three outstanding +characteristics of a good question, she set them +down as follows:</p> + +<p>1. A good question should stimulate reflection.</p> + +<p>2. It should be adapted to the experience of the pupil.</p> + +<p>3. It should draw forth a well-rounded answer.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions on Questioning</p> + +<p>Do I call on my pupils to recite in a fixed order, according to +alphabet or seating, so that they are warned not to attend till their +turn comes?</p> + +<p>Do I name the pupil who is to answer before I put the question?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>Do I ask direct questions or alternative questions which can be +answered without knowledge or thought?</p> + +<p>Do I ask chiefly fact questions?</p> + +<p>Do I ask leading or suggestive questions?</p> + +<p>Do I repeat my questions? Attention.</p> + +<p>Do I answer my own questions?</p> + +<p>Do I ask confusing, changed questions?</p> + +<p>Do I ask foolish questions that no one can answer?</p> + +<p>Do my questions make pupils think?</p> + +<p>Do my questions follow up the answer and lead to new organization +of knowledge?</p> + +<p>Do I repeat the pupil's answer?</p> + +<p>Do my questions reach all the members of the class?</p> + +<p>Do I make the recitation an inquisition, or do I pursue a slow +pupil and listen while pupils express themselves freely and naturally?</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XXI</p> + +<p>1. Why is it essential that we prepare questions as we do other +material?</p> + +<p>2. What are the dangers that attend the asking of a great number +of fact questions?</p> + +<p>3. Discuss the relative value of the "W's"—what, who, when, +where, and <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks period">why.</ins></p> + +<p>4. Discuss each of the questions on questioning in this chapter.</p> + +<p>5. Bring in three thought-provoking questions on one of the current +lessons in the month's work of one of the auxiliary organizations.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Fitch, <i>The Art of Questioning</i>; Stevens, <i>The Question as a Measure +of Efficiency in Instruction</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i>; +Horne, <i>Story Telling, Questioning, and Studying</i>; Brumbaugh, +<i>The Making of a Teacher</i>; Driggs, <i>The Art of Teaching</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2> + +<h3>THE PROBLEM OF DISCIPLINE</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XXII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>A popular misconception of discipline.—Discipline inherent in +teaching.—Importance of discipline in our religious teaching.—Changed +attitude within the past three centuries toward discipline.—What +discipline is.</p> + +<p>Methods of securing discipline: The method of rewards; The +method of "pleasing the teacher"; The method of punishment; The +method of social appeal; The method of interest.</p> + +<p>The importance of a proper attitude on the part of one who disciplines.—What +constitutes such an attitude?</p><br /></div> + + +<p>Back in 1916 the writer of these chapters was invited to +address a group of teachers on the subject of discipline. +This particular lecture came toward the end of a series of +lectures given on the various pedagogical truths underlying +teaching. One particular teacher, who had listened to all +of the lectures, expressed appreciation of the fact that discipline +was to be discussed—it apparently was his one concern, +as indicated in his remark:</p> + +<p>"We have listened to some excellent theories in these +lectures. But I have to teach a class of real live boys and +girls. How can I keep the little rascals quiet long enough +to work the theories out?"</p> + +<p>The remark expresses admirably the attitude of very +many teachers relative to discipline. They regard teaching +as one thing—discipline as quite another. With them +discipline involves some sort of magic process or the application +of some iron rule authority, which secures order +that teaching may then be indulged in. As a matter of +fact, discipline is inherent in good teaching. It is not a +matter of correction so much as a matter of prevention. +The good disciplinarian anticipates disorder—directs the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>energies of his pupils so that the disorder is made impossible +by attention to legitimate interests.</p> + +<p>Discipline is one of the most pressing problems in the +quorums and organizations of the Church today. On every +hand the complaint is registered that proper respect is not +shown, either for those in important positions or for our +places of worship.</p> + +<p>The spirit that accompanies the political rally or basketball +game, held in our amusement halls, too frequently is +carried into our sacred meetings. The spirit of unconcern +is carried into our classrooms until all too often to call the +condition one of disorder is a very inadequate description +of the procedure.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note the changing attitude generally +in the matter of discipline. The harshness of other days +is largely replaced by a leniency that borders on "easiness." +Our whole attitude toward criminals has been revolutionized, +and our human impulses have carried over into the +realm of teaching, until now, at least in the opinion of very +many critics, we have drifted largely into "soft pedagogy"—a +process of trying to please regardless of the consequences.</p> + +<p>Earlier treatises on education devoted a good bit of +space to the amount and kind of punishment that should +be administered in a well-ordered school. Punishment is +decidedly out of taste these days. The biography of an old +German master discloses the fact that during his teaching +career he had administered 911,527 raps with his cane, +20,989 with a ruler, 136,715 with his hand, and that he was +responsible for 1,115,800 slaps on the head. The same +attitude is reflected in the fact that in England, as late as +the year 1800, two hundred twenty-three offenses were +punishable by death. The offenses included shooting rab<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>bits, +stealing, defacing Westminster Bridge, etc. In our day +we hesitate to apply the extreme penalty even to the +murderer.</p> + +<p>The attitude toward the content of teaching has undergone +a change quite in keeping with that attached to +method. There was a time when pedagogical philosophy +rather hinted, "It doesn't make any difference what you +teach a boy, as long as he doesn't like it." The hint these +days might more nearly read: "It doesn't make any difference +how valuable certain material is for a boy, don't +attempt to teach it to him unless it fascinates him." Our +effort to interest our pupils has practically resulted in taking +the scriptures, particularly the Old Testament, out of +our organizations. Of course, the doctrine of interest is a +very vital one, but there are bounds beyond which we +ought not to push it.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, perfectly obvious that there is urgent need +of discipline. Any effort at social control demands it. The +army succeeds as it does because of its discipline. Wherever +a group of individuals undertake action in common, every +member must be willing to sink <i>interests</i> of <i>self</i> in <i>welfare</i> +of <i>others</i>. As was pointed out in the chapter on Individual +Differences, a class is made up of all kinds of individuals. +They vary in capacity, in ideals, in training, in attitude, in +disposition, and in purpose. Manifestly group progress +will be made possible in any such case by a mutual willingness +to co-operate—a willingness to attend a discussion +even though not particularly interested in it, but because +it may be of concern to someone else whose interests I +have undertaken to promote. My very presence in the +class imposes such a responsibility upon me.</p> + +<p>It is essential in a discussion of discipline that we agree +as to just what discipline is. It is not <i>mere silence</i>. Silent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>"quietness" may be agreeable, but it certainly does not +make for achievement. Such silence would be of little +worth if it could be achieved, and it cannot be achieved +with twentieth century human beings. The question of the +lad who had been taken to task for his disturbance is always +refreshing. The teacher, after a somewhat prolonged +scolding, had concluded:</p> + +<p>"Now, Tommie, do be quiet."</p> + +<p>"What fur?"</p> + +<p>The English may not be the choicest, but the sense is +wonderfully significant to the teacher who would really +understand the problem of discipline.</p> + +<p>Discipline is not repression. The <i>D</i> of discipline and +the <i>D</i> of don't have been confused all too often. Just as +the too frequent use of the brakes on an automobile ruins +the lining, so the too frequent "don't" of repression ruins +the "goodwill lining" of the boy, and when that lining is +gone the "brake squeaks," and in emergencies doesn't hold +at all.</p> + +<p>Discipline rather consists in that direction of wholesome +activity which creates an atmosphere of intellectual endeavor +in which every individual of a group can profitably +follow his own interests while allowing every other individual +to do the same thing free from interference. Discipline +makes it possible for all to do the thing to be done +to advantage. It may at times require silence, it may involve +vigorous action—it always presumes intelligent direction +that holds those concerned to the orderly pursuit of +an established goal.</p> + +<p>Various means have been devised for the securing of +discipline. The <i>doctrine of rewards</i> has been and still is +being followed extensively. To give an individual something +for being good has never appealed to educators as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>fundamentally sound. It puts a false evaluation upon +virtue. It may be that such a policy must be resorted to +in emergencies, but followed regularly it is likely to be +attended with disastrous results. The boy who has regularly +to be bought into doing what he should will likely +raise his price until the method of rewards becomes ruinous +both to the father and the boy. To "heroize" a boy in +class every time he does a meritorious act will very likely +spoil him. Encouragement, of course, is helpful, but it +ought not to be overindulged. A stick of candy may induce +a child to go to bed <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'agreebly'">agreeably</ins> each night, but the candy +may spoil other things than the bedspread. Moral fibre +is built up by developing the habit of doing a thing because +it is right—because it ought to be done. There are teachers +and preachers who hold the interest of those taught by +tickling their ears with material, either funny or nonsensical. +There is a question whether it is not a dangerous +practice in an effort to win them to what should be an +attitude of religious devotion.</p> + +<p>Then there is the doctrine that children should be good +to please their parents and teachers. This doctrine is akin +to that of rewards. It sets up something of a false ideal, +though of course it is a splendid thing to teach appreciation +of those who help us. Much can be defended which +seeks to inculcate in the minds of children reverence for +their elders. The chief difficulty lies in the fact that this +doctrine may not continue to appeal as fundamentally +sound.</p> + +<p>A third method for securing discipline is to compel it. +This is to resort to the law of things. A certain amount +of law should characterize both the home and the classroom. +Obedience and order are the first laws of heaven +and are essential to good social environment. But the law +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>should be so administered that the obedience exacted rests +upon an intelligent understanding of the purpose behind +the law. Otherwise there comes a time when mere authority +fails to control. It is a good thing to train children to abide +by regulations out of a sense of duty. If duty and love +can be coupled, the combination makes for permanent law-abiding. +Arbitrary authority and blind obedience have +produced Germany. Strong leadership coupled with democratic +co-operation and loyalty have produced America.</p> + +<p>Still another doctrine of discipline rests upon a social +appeal. Members of a group agree that in the interest of +everyone's welfare each individual will subscribe to certain +conditions regardless of their application to him. This +principle, fundamental in all democracies, can safely be +trusted to secure desired results in groups mature enough +to assure sound judgment. The sense of justice in the +human soul is a safe guarantee of both liberty and good +order. Many of our classes no doubt could be improved +noticeably if we could enlist the co-operation of the members +to the extent that they would assume to govern themselves.</p> + +<p>Finally there is the doctrine of interest as a means of +maintaining discipline. This doctrine implies that a teacher +should get his class so interested in doing what he wants it +to do that it hasn't any inclination to do what it ought not +to do. This doctrine is not the pernicious doctrine hinted +at earlier in this chapter of cheapening everything into +"easiness." Genuine interest may lead not only to effort, +but to sacrifice. The boy who plays football does not play +because of the ease of the game—he is fascinated by his +interest in the struggle. Ample preparation and a complete +understanding of pupils will make possible an interest that +disciplines without any evidence of discipline. Surely this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>is the modern doctrine of discipline, though with it should +be coupled that wholesome respect for authority that +prompts citizens to abide by the law.</p> + +<p>No discussion of discipline would be complete which did +not mention at least the significance of attitude on the part +of one who disciplines. In so many cases when a boy is +corrected he complains of the teacher,</p> + +<p>"Oh, well, he's got it in for me."</p> + +<p>It is always interesting to know whether a parent or +teacher disciplines a child because the child needs it, or +because the parent or teacher is unnerved and has to give +expression to his feelings. The disciplinarian who can +correct, when correction is necessary, both in firmness yet +in fairness, so that the person who is corrected is made +to feel that the correction grows out of a desire to help +rather than merely to punish—that disciplinarian will exert +an influence for good that is hard to estimate. He is both +a friend and a benefactor.</p> + +<p>Let us conclude this chapter with that wonderful passage +from the Doctrine & Covenants which gives us the word of +the Lord on this matter of controlling others:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Behold, there are many called, but few are chosen. And why are +they not chosen?</p> + +<p>"Because their hearts are set so much upon the things of this world, +and aspire to the honors of men, that they do not learn this one +lesson—</p> + +<p>"That the rights of the Priesthood are inseparably connected with +the powers of heaven, and that the powers of heaven cannot be controlled +nor handled only upon the principles of righteousness.</p> + +<p>"That they may be conferred upon us, it is true; but when we +undertake to cover our sins, or to gratify our pride, our vain ambitions, +or to exercise control, or dominion, or compulsion, upon the +souls of the children of men, in any degree of unrighteousness, +behold, the heavens withdraw themselves; the Spirit of the Lord is +grieved; and when it is withdrawn, Amen to the Priesthood, or the +authority of that man.</p> + +<p>"Behold! ere he is aware, he is left unto himself, to kick against +the pricks; to persecute the Saints, and to fight against God.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>"We have learned, by sad experience, that it is the nature and +disposition of almost all men, as soon as they get a little authority, +as they suppose, they will immediately begin to exercise unrighteous +dominion.</p> + +<p>"Hence many are called, but few are chosen.</p> + +<p>"No power or influence can or ought to be maintained by virtue +of the Priesthood, only by persuasion, by long suffering, by gentleness, +and meekness, and by love unfeigned;</p> + +<p>"By kindness, and pure knowledge, which shall greatly enlarge +the soul without hypocrisy, and without guile;</p> + +<p>"Reproving betimes with sharpness, when moved upon by the Holy +Ghost, and then showing forth afterwards an increase of love toward +him whom thou hast reproved, lest he esteem thee to be his enemy;</p> + +<p>"That he may know that thy faithfulness is stronger than the cords +of death;</p> + +<p>"Let thy bowels also be full of charity towards all men, and to +the household of faith, and let virtue garnish thy thoughts unceasingly, +then shall thy confidence wax strong in the presence of God, +and the doctrine of the Priesthood shall distil upon thy soul as the +dews from heaven.</p> + +<p>"The Holy Ghost shall be thy constant companion, and thy sceptre +an unchanging sceptre of righteousness and truth, and thy dominion +shall be an everlasting dominion, and without compulsory means it +shall flow unto thee forever and ever." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 121:34-46.)</p></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XXII</p> + +<p>1. What constitutes good discipline?</p> + +<p>2. What factors contribute to make discipline a real problem in +our Church?</p> + +<p>3. Discuss our attitude toward discipline today as compared with +the attitude toward it a generation ago.</p> + +<p>4. Name the various methods of securing discipline.</p> + +<p>5. Discuss their relative values.</p> + +<p>6. Why is the teacher's attitude so important a factor in discipline?</p> + +<p>7. What qualities are involved in the proper attitude?</p> + +<p>8. Discuss preparation in its bearing upon discipline.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Doctrine & Covenants; Bagley, <i>School Discipline</i>; O'Shea, <i>Everyday +Problems in Teaching</i>; Brumbaugh, <i>The Making of a Teacher</i>; +Dewey, <i>Interest and Effort in Education</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII</h2> + +<h3>CREATING CLASS SPIRIT</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XXIII</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>The "pull" of a good class.—The appeal of an attractive classroom.—Making +it "our room."—The teacher and class spirit.—Capitalizing +on the leadership of the class.—Stimulating free participation.—Out +of class activities.—Some possibilities.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>There is a "pull" to certain classes—a pull that has all +the force of a magnet. Pupils not only go to such a class +willingly, but anticipate with pleasure the approach of the +recitation hour. When duty is coupled with pleasure, there +is a force for righteousness that is beyond measure. Of +the various factors that contribute to the creation of a class +spirit, the following are offered as being among the most +helpful.</p> + +<p>1. <i>An Attractive Classroom.</i> While it is true that most +of the organizations in the Church do not have surplus +funds for beautifying their buildings, and while it is equally +true that many a good lesson has been conducted on the +dirt floors of long cabins, it is equally true that rooms can +be beautified, and that pleasant surroundings can be made +a potent force in holding to our organizations the men and +women and boys and girls of the Church. Of course, elaborate, +expensive decorations ought to be discouraged. Simplicity +always is more consistent with the spirit of worship +than is extravagance. But contrast the difference in effect +on children of a bare, untidy, makeshift room as against a +cozy room decorated with a few beautiful pictures or draperies +and made homelike with comfortable seats and tidy +arrangement.</p> + +<p>Nor is any great expense involved. The writer recalls +visiting a kindergarten class in one of the schools in Salt +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>Lake County. The ward authorities had not been asked +for a dollar to fit up the room, and yet it had one of the +"homiest" atmospheres imaginable. The teacher of the +class, in addition to having an interest in the class, had an +artistic temperament. She had collected through a number +of years the most beautiful pictures that had appeared in +the magazines. These in their home-made frames transformed +the walls of her room into a veritable art gallery—wherever +the eye of the visitor rested, it was greeted by +a picture that, through its beauty, drove home an appreciation +of the finer things of life. The children, too, had been +stimulated to a pride in their room. They had brought in +the available old rags from their homes and, as the result +of a Sunday School entertainment which they had put on +with the co-operation of the other departments of the +school, they had had the rags woven into one of those +cheerful, old-fashioned home-made carpets. It was perfectly +clear that the children took delight in going to this +"their room" each Sunday morning. Their pride prompted +them to take care of what they regarded as their room, and +made for a spirit of quiet and good order hard to surpass.</p> + +<p>During the course in teacher-training at Provo, last summer, +one of the members of the class courteously took the +pains to see that a bouquet of flowers adorned the teacher's +desk each day that the class met. It is impossible to estimate +the effect of those flowers. Their beauty, coupled with +the thoughtfulness that brought them in, made for a "fragrance +of spirit" that exerted a remarkable influence.</p> + +<p>Once the idea becomes established, pupils will take delight +in making their classroom a place in which they will +love to meet.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Teacher.</i> We have already discussed at length +the personality of the teacher and its force in teaching. We +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>need only emphasize the fact here that the magnetism of +the teacher, either through what he is or what he gives, is +the one great factor that makes for class spirit. The class +inevitably reflects the attitude of the man who directs it. +He must radiate enthusiasm before it can be caught by his +pupils. His inspiration in making them feel that their class +is "the one class" of an organization is only too gladly responded +to by those whom he teaches. If he impresses the +class with the fact that he joins with them because he loves +so to do rather than because he has a duty to perform—if +he makes suggestions in the interest of a better class—if he +starts out by doing something himself by way of a contribution +to the class and its spirit—he can be reasonably +sure that his class will come more than half-way to join in +his plans.</p> + +<p>Not only his attitude is a vital factor—his preparation +must be of the same enthusiastic type. A pupil of a very +successful teacher in Salt Lake City recently made the remark, +"I wouldn't think of missing Brother ——'s class. +He gives me food for a week." Pressed as to the explanation +of this enthusiasm, he added, "Brother —— is +unique. He always attacks a subject in such a new and +thorough way. He goes below the surface and really +teaches us the Gospel." It is not strange, of course, that +such advertising on the part of class members has built +up an enrollment of some seventy-five pupils. Let us, then, +remind ourselves that boys like a teacher</p> + +<ul><li>"Who has pep,"</li> +<li>"Who tells us something new,"</li> +<li>"Who doesn't preach at us."</li> +</ul> + +<p>3. <i>Capitalizing on the Leadership of the Class.</i> Just as +in every band of horses there is a leader, so there is in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>every group of boys and girls. And as with the leaders, so +with the followers. "Get the leaders," says a veteran +horseman, "and you have all the rest." It is frequently the +case that a teacher does not know intimately all of his +pupils. Perhaps in many cases that teacher can know well +a few of the outstanding leaders. He can well accompany +them on hikes, can take them to a theatre, a ball game, or +for a ride. If he wins them they become his lieutenants—they +make his class. A word from him and these "under +officers" lead the whole class to the desired reaction. "Take +your leading pupils into your confidence and they will +establish you in the confidence of all the rest." The experience +is related of a teacher sent into southern Utah to +take charge of a class of boys who had "dismissed" three +teachers already, within the first half year of school. When +the newcomer arrived, the air was full of rumblings as to +what was to become of number four. He was variously +cautioned to make an early departure, to go into school +"armed" to "expect anything." But this particular teacher +appreciated the fact that he was best armed when backed +by the confidence and good will of his class. It was an +easy matter to have pointed out for him "the meanest boy +of the lot." This boy he sought out and found playing a +game of horseshoe. Invited to take a place in the game, he +entered the circle of the "outlaws" by winning decisively +from their champion—"the meanest boy." To this boy, the +new teacher was a "real fellow." Whatever he said, went! +The word was circulated overnight among the boys of the +town. The teacher already was master of the situation. +"The meanest boy," instead of being the chief outlaw, now +took pride in being chief lieutenant. Winning the leader +won the group, and teacher number four not only stayed the +year out, but was petitioned to come back a second year. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>As a matter of fact, he says, he taught school in that town +for seven years.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Putting a Premium on Participation.</i> One of the +most interesting classes the writer has ever visited was a +theological class in the Granite Stake. The teacher was +committed to the policy of taking as little as possible of +the class period himself, but he was also committed to the +policy of getting his pupils to do the most possible. For +the particular day in question he had assigned a discussion +of baptism. One member of the class had been asked to +discuss sprinkling as the correct method, another had +been assigned immersion. The two young men brought in +their findings as if they had been trained for a debate. +Within the forty minutes devoted to the recitation baptism +had been gone into as thoroughly as the writer has ever +seen it gone into during the course of a single lesson, and +the members of the class had been delightfully entertained +and enlightened. When the bell rang announcing the close +of the recitation, the class petitioned to have the discussion +continued the following Sunday. It was perfectly clear +how the teacher had built up his enrollment.</p> + +<p>It is fundamental in human nature to love social combat. +The clash of mind versus mind makes a wonderful appeal. +Witness a political convention or an open forum debate! +Let it be known that a vital subject is to be discussed by +men who are really prepared and other men bestir themselves +to be in attendance. Surely no subjects are full of +more vital significance than questions of life and life eternal. +If a teacher will take the pains to select attention-compelling +headings and then stimulate representative +members of his class really to work out something of a +contribution, he need have no fear of the success of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>class. Such procedure not only guarantees a good class—it +promotes faith on the part of those participating as +few other things can. Too frequently we content ourselves +with the routine of commonplace "talk." There is no enthusiasm +in mere routine as there is none in listless listening +to generalities. Our effort should be to make our classes +intellectual social centers with everybody participating.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Promoting Class Activities Out of Hours.</i> The Seventies +who harvested the grain for the widow of one of their +members did a splendid bit of service, not only for her but +for their own quorum. A common objective in service +made for a common bond in fellowship.</p> + +<p>The Primary class that was stimulated to take a basket +of flowers to one of its sick members was helped not only +in the making of someone happy, but in building up a class +spirit that guaranteed success.</p> + +<p>There are so many possibilities open to the teacher who +really cares. Just the other evening the teacher of a class +of Bee Hive girls called them together for a little social +entertainment that they might talk over plans for the approaching +season. What a capital attitude? Not to wait +till the season opened, but to take the pains to look up the +available, prospective class members and make ready for an +enthusiastic campaign. Of course, such a teacher will +succeed.</p> + +<p>Class socials of all sorts, baseball teams, authors' clubs, +bits of ward service, visits to institutions of interest—scores +of worthy opportunities present themselves always to the +teacher who is anxious to build up a genuine class spirit. +And that spirit is the one great guarantee of real joy in +teaching—it makes a class one which its members will +always hold in memory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XXIII</p> + +<p>1. Why is it essential that a teacher build up a class spirit?</p> + +<p>2. Give three practical suggestions on the subject of beautifying +classrooms.</p> + +<p>3. Discuss the importance of the attitude of a teacher in promoting +class spirit.</p> + +<p>4. Point out possible methods for enlisting the co-operation of +class leaders.</p> + +<p>5. What do you consider your best method of stimulating members +to participate in class <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original has period instead of question mark">discussions?</ins></p> + +<p>6. What kind of class activities contribute most to the life of +your class?</p> + +<p>7. Discuss the advisability of promoting class athletic teams.</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>Colgrove, <i>The Teacher and the School</i>; Weigle, <i>Talks to Sunday +School Teachers</i>; Dewey, <i>Interest and Effort in Education</i>; O'Shea, +<i>Everyday Problems in Teaching</i>; Norsworthy and Whitley, <i>Psychology +of Childhood</i>.</p> + + + +<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV</h2> + +<h3>CONVERSION—THE REAL TEST OF TEACHING</h3> + +<p class="section">Outline—Chapter XXIV</p> + +<div class="outline"><p>Character, a great power in conversion.—Our concern the converted +teacher and also the converted pupil.—The converted teacher believes +what he teaches.—The converted teacher practices what he teaches.—The +force of "Come, follow me."—What makes for conversion.—The +teacher's obligation to kindle the spiritual fire.—His obligation to +feature testimony-bearing.—His obligation to take his pupils where +they will feel the spirit of testimony.</p><br /></div> + + +<p>A number of years ago a young graduate of one of our +eastern universities was employed to teach science in a +school in Japan. He was employed with the understanding +that though he was free to advance whatever scientific theories +he chose he should say nothing about his Christian +religion. He accepted the conditions gladly, and during the +first year of his service was careful not even to mention +Christianity. He not only taught his classes in science, but +he joined with the boys in their athletics and in their social +life generally. Being both an athlete and a leader, he was +soon looked to as the life of the school. His clean life was +an inspiration. He inevitably set a Christian standard. +Before the end of the second year, though he had preached +never a word, forty young men made application for membership +in his church. His life and ideals had converted +them as no preaching could have done.</p> + +<p>What was true in this case is inevitably true in the case +of all real teachers. What a man is breathes a power of +conversion that no force or argument can equal. Hence this +concluding chapter—Conversion, the Real Test of +Teaching.</p> + +<p>First of all, we are concerned with the conversion of the +teacher; secondly, with the conversion of the pupil. They +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>are inseparably interwoven. Only the converted teacher can +make converts of his pupils. And surely there is very great +need of this very thing—<i>the making of real converts of our +boys and girls</i> that they may come fully to appreciate the +significance of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Upon them rests +the carrying forward of that great work which only the +<i>conversion</i> of our pioneer forefathers could have achieved.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the converted teacher <i>believes</i> what he +teaches. There is no half-hearted attitude toward the subject +in hand. To him it is both true and vital. He teaches +with a positiveness and an assurance which grip pupils. +What a difference between the speech in which a speaker +merely makes certain observations—sets forth certain specified +facts—and the speech in which those same facts are +heightened by that glow of conviction which stamps them +as indispensably essential to proper living. The prayer of +a man who does not believe in prayer is an example of the +emptiness of unbelief. There is one minister in Chicago +who openly announces that God does not and can not +answer the prayers of mankind. And yet he prays. And +what mockery is his praying. Mere words. No man is +ever touched by such an empty form. Such prayers have +none of that <i>Heaven Force</i> which establishes communion +with the Lord. Surely "They draw near me with their lips, +but their hearts are far from me."</p> + +<p>To everyone comes the experience of listening to the +heavy phrases of him who would argue and harrangue his +auditors into salvation. How his words seem not only to +close their minds, but to shut their hearts as well. He fairly +talks so loudly that they can't hear him. And then some +humble follower of Him who shunned the orator's eloquence +moves to tears the same audience by his simple +utterance of what he knows and feels to be true. He adds +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>the conviction of conversion to mere "hard-headedness." +When a man knows that which he teaches is true there is +a spirit that gives power to what he says. "The letter killeth, +but the spirit giveth life."</p> + +<p>The experience of a Montana railroad executive gives +force to this thought. He told one of our leaders how he +had always been impressed with the achievements of our +Church. In fact, he became such an admirer of the wonderful +organization of the "Mormon" Church that he decided +to adopt the same kind of organization in his railroad. To +quote: "I thought if I could apply the same system up here +that you have in the 'Mormon' Church it would work just +the same for me as it did for you. I have copied its plan +with the First Presidency, the Council of the Twelve, the +Presiding Bishop, and all the other officers. I have tried it—but +it wouldn't work for me." Only a Latter-day Saint +can fully understand why.</p> + +<p>And so the teacher who would become a converter must +feel the truth of what he teaches so that a spirit of conviction +extends from him to his class and so takes hold of the +members that they, too, feel the truth of what he says. In +short, the real teacher must have a testimony of the truthfulness +of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. He must be caught +up by that same spirit that opened the heavens to the +Prophet Joseph Smith—only then can he really teach. The +Lord has so revealed:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"And they shall observe the covenants and church articles to do +them, and these shall be their teaching, as they shall be directed +by the Spirit;</p> + +<p>"And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the prayer of faith, +and if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., +Sec. 42:13, 14.)</p> + +<p>"Verily I say unto you, he that is ordained of me and sent forth +to preach the word of truth by the Comforter, in the Spirit of Truth, +doth he preach it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>"And if it be by some other way, it is not of God.</p> + +<p>"And again, he that receiveth the word of truth, doth he receive +it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way?</p> + +<p>"If it be some other way it be not of God:</p> + +<p>"Therefore, why is it that ye cannot understand and know that +he that receiveth the word by the Spirit of Truth, receiveth it as +it is preached by the Spirit of Truth?</p> + +<p>"Wherefore, he that preacheth and he that receiveth, understandeth +one another, and both are edified and rejoice together;</p> + +<p>"And that which doth not edify is not of God and is darkness;</p> + +<p>"That which is of God is light; and he that receiveth light and continueth +in God, receiveth more light, and that light groweth brighter +and brighter until the perfect day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 50:17-24.)</p></div> + +<p>In the second place, the teacher's belief must be translated +into daily life. "Come, follow me," is the admonition +that makes for conversion. A young man recently, in +characterizing the biggest failure among teachers that he +had ever known, remarked, "He simply couldn't teach us +anything. He started in by giving us a vigorous lecture +against tobacco, but before a week had passed we all knew +that he himself smoked. He might just as well have given +up teaching right there. We couldn't see any truth in him +after that, for the 'smoke' of his own deception."</p> + +<p>Of course, he was not converted. A similar experience +is related of the principal of a school who, with his faculty +of teachers, made it a school rule that there should be no +playing of cards on the part of the students. The rule +recorded, however, the principal proceeded to participate +in downtown card parties until he established a reputation, +in the language of the boys, as a "card shark." Not only +did that principal find it impossible thereafter to combat +the evil of students cutting classes to play cards, he lost +that confidence on the part of the student body without +which school discipline cannot be achieved. Lack of conversion—such +conversion as leads a man to practice what +he preaches—cost him his position.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>To the teacher who would develop the power of conversion, +may we make reference by way of review to those suggestions +in an earlier chapter that make for spiritual +growth:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Live a clean life.</li> +<li>2. Read the word of the Lord.</li> +<li>3. Do the duties assigned by those in authority.</li> +<li>4. Subscribe to all the principles of the Gospel.</li> +<li>5. Cultivate a real spirit of prayer.</li> +</ul> + +<p>If the teacher is really converted, of course the conversion +of his pupils follows very largely as a corollary. But +by way of practical suggestion, it may be helpful to list +some things that may be done to promote a spirit of testimony +on the part of the pupils. At the outset a teacher +ought to appreciate just what a testimony is and how it +varies with the age and experience of children. It is clearly +a mistake as a general rule to expect young children to give +expression to a testimony such as might be borne by an +adult. True, some children enjoy at an early age the spirit +of testimony to such an extent that they do seem to know +that the Gospel is true. But it is wiser not to expect too +much. Then, too, testimonies vary with individuals. Teachers +ought to look out for expressions which are characteristic +of the pupil in question rather than to expect all pupils +to measure up to a set standard.</p> + +<p>With a proper conception of a testimony, the teacher +then owes certain rather definite obligations to his class.</p> + +<p>He ought to feature testimony bearing rather than to +apologize for it. In the teaching of the Gospel of Jesus +Christ there can be no more sacred opportunity than that +which allows pupils to open their hearts to their Creator.</p> + +<p>Then, too, the teacher owes it to his class to <i>kindle</i> the +spiritual fire which alone can make for testimony bearing. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>Brother Maeser had a very effective way of illustrating the +significance of this obligation. As he expressed the thought, +no one would feel that he had completed his task of warming +a house if he merely put into the grate the necessary +paper, wood and coal. He might have all these, but until +he struck the match which would kindle the fire, no warmth +would be felt. And so, spiritually, the fire of a testimony-meeting +needs to be kindled. All too often, a teacher opens +the class hour with some such statement as this, "Now, boys +and girls, today is Fast Day. I hope you won't let the time +go to waste." What inspiration in such an opening! That +teacher has not only not kindled the fire, he has brought +in a lump or two of coal—hard at that—with no kindling +even as a promise of a fire. On the other hand, the successful +teacher comes before his class with a vital truth that +thrills him and gives it a concrete expression which prompts +pupils to add similar experiences out of their own lives.</p> + +<p>Then, too, the teacher may well bring into his class by +way of inspiration someone well established in the faith +whose experiences are full of the spirit of conversion. +There are in every ward in the Church those men and +women who know of a surety that the gospel is true. Why +not bring them in occasionally to stimulate testimony bearing? +Might it not be well, also, to take the class as a class +to our Fast Day Sacrament service, there to let them enjoy +the wonderful spirit of testimony that is so characteristic +of these meetings? There is a feeling of conversion that +attends these meetings that all boys and girls must feel—must +feel so keenly that they in turn will want to give expression +to their own convictions.</p> + +<p>And finally, as teachers, let us remind ourselves that in +this matter of promoting the bearing of testimonies we +should exercise a patience that is full of tolerance and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>bearance. +Some few individuals are converted suddenly; +others respond to the truth gradually; and there are those +who do well if they really respond to the feeling of conversion +at the end of a lifetime. As one of our leaders has +so beautifully pointed out, the Master, Himself, did not +convert the world in a day, nor a year—He has not converted +it in all these centuries. His plan seems to be to +teach the truth and wait patiently until the divinity in man +asserts itself—until man walks by his own light into +eternal truth. Under the inspiration of such example may +teachers well labor on in earnestness, happy in the thought +that He will hasten in His own due time what to them +may seem a long, slow process.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Perchance, in heaven, one day to me<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Some blessed Saint will come and say,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">'All hail, beloved; but for thee<br /></span> +<span class="i2">My soul to death had fallen a prey';<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And oh! what rapture in the thought,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">One soul to glory to have brought."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="section">Questions and Suggestions—Chapter XXIV</p> + +<p>1. Why is conversion the real test of religious teaching?</p> + +<p>2. What are the outstanding characteristics of a person newly +converted to the Church?</p> + +<p>3. Discuss the significance of each of the factors that make for +conversion.</p> + +<p>4. Illustrate how to kindle the spiritual fire.</p> + +<p>5. State why or why not you favor making assignments for testimony +day.</p> + +<p>6. What is a testimony?</p> + +<p>7. How may children best cultivate a testimony?</p> + +<p>8. What principle or practice means most to you by way of affirming +your own testimony?</p> + + +<p class="section">Helpful References</p> + +<p>The Doctrine & Covenants, The Bible, The Book of Mormon, The +Voice of Warning, Rays of Living Light.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="Bibliography" id="Bibliography"></a><i>Bibliography</i></h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" width="100%" summary="Bibliography"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Art of Teaching</i></td><td align='left'>Driggs</td><td align='left'>Deseret Book Co., Salt Lake.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Art of Questioning</i></td><td align='left'>Fitch</td><td align='left'>A. Flanigan Co., Chicago.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Story Telling, Questioning and Studying</i></td><td align='left'>Horne</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Principles of Psychology</i></td><td align='left'>James</td><td align='left'>H. Holt & Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Fundamentals of Child Study</i></td><td align='left'>Kirkpatrick</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>A Study of Child Nature</i></td><td align='left'>Harrison</td><td align='left'>R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Chicago.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Psychology of Childhood</i></td><td align='left'>Norsworthy and Whitley</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Essentials of Character</i></td><td align='left'>Sisson</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Principles of Teaching</i></td><td align='left'>Thorndike</td><td align='left'>A.G. Seiler, New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Education for Character</i></td><td align='left'>Sharp</td><td align='left'>Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Ideal Teacher</i></td><td align='left'>G.H. Palmer</td><td align='left'>Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Seven Laws of Teaching</i></td><td align='left'>J.M. Gregory</td><td align='left'>The Pilgrim Press, Chicago.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Point of Contact in Teaching</i></td><td align='left'>Dubois</td><td align='left'>Dodd, Mead & Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Interest and Effort in Education</i></td><td align='left'>Dewey</td><td align='left'>Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Boy Problem</i></td><td align='left'>Forbush</td><td align='left'>The Pilgrim Press, Chicago.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Training the Boy</i></td><td align='left'>McKeever</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Types of Teaching</i></td><td align='left'>Earhart</td><td align='left'>Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>How to Teach Religion</i></td><td align='left'>Betts</td><td align='left'>The Abingdon Press, New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Talks to Sunday School Teachers</i></td><td align='left'>Weigle</td><td align='left'>Doran Publishing Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Everyday Problems in Teaching</i></td><td align='left'>O'Shea</td><td align='left'>Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Talks to Teachers</i></td><td align='left'>James</td><td align='left'>H. Holt & Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span><i>How to Teach</i></td><td align='left'>Strayer and Norsworthy</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Making of a Teacher</i></td><td align='left'>Brumbaugh</td><td align='left'>Sunday School Times Co., Phila.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Learning Process</i></td><td align='left'>Colvin</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Teacher and the School</i></td><td align='left'>Colgrove</td><td align='left'>Chas. Scribner & Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pictures in Religious Education</i></td><td align='left'>Beard</td><td align='left'>Geo. H. Doran Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Nervous System</i></td><td align='left'>Stiles</td><td align='left'>W.B. Saunders Co., Phila.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Classroom Teacher</i></td><td align='left'>Strayer and Englehardt</td><td align='left'>American Book Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>The Recitation</i></td><td align='left'>Betts</td><td align='left'>Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Attention</i></td><td align='left'>Pillsbury</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Religious Education in the Family</i></td><td align='left'>Cope</td><td align='left'>University of Chicago Press.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Classroom Method and Management</i></td><td align='left'>Betts</td><td align='left'>Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Classroom Management</i></td><td align='left'>Bagley</td><td align='left'>MacMillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /></div> + +<div class='tnote'><h4>Transcriber's Note</h4> +<p>Obvious printing errors were repaired and noted by the use of +a dashed <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'underilne'">underline</ins> +in the text. Scrolling the mouse over such text will display the change that was made.</p></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Principles of Teaching, by Adam S. Bennion + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING *** + +***** This file should be named 17307-h.htm or 17307-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/3/0/17307/ + +Produced by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Amy Cunningham and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Principles of Teaching + +Author: Adam S. Bennion + +Release Date: December 14, 2005 [EBook #17307] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Amy Cunningham and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Principles of +Teaching + +BY ADAM S. BENNION +_Superintendent of Church Schools_ + + +Designed for Quorum Instructors and Auxiliary Class +Teachers of the Church of Jesus Christ of +Latter-day Saints. + +Published by +THE GENERAL BOARDS OF THE AUXILIARY ORGANIZATIONS +OF THE CHURCH + +1921 + + + +1952 + +Reprint of the original + +FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING RELIGION + +Copyright, 1921 + +By Adam S. Bennion + +For the General Boards of the +Auxiliary Organizations +of the Church + + + + +PREFACE +to the 1952 Edition + + +Two texts have been written for the teacher training program of the +Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints since Dr. Adam S. Bennion's +Book _Principles of Teaching_ was published, yet in spite of the fact +that this book has been out of print several years so many requests for +it have poured in that the General Superintendency has decided to +satisfy the demand with this new edition. + +This book with its classic qualities in many ways fits Shakespeare's +description of a beautiful woman when he said, "Age cannot wither her +nor custom dim her infinite variety." Anyone who knows Dr. Bennion or +has read his writings knows that neither custom nor age has dimmed his +infinite variety. Furthermore, a glance at the table of contents of this +book will reveal the fact that the problems and principles treated +herein are just as real today as they were when the text was written. + +This little volume is republished in the hope that it again will become +one of the basic texts in the teacher training program and fulfill its +mission as an instrument in the hands of sincere people who have the +devout wish of learning how to teach the principles of the gospel by the +power of the Holy Spirit. + + H.A. Dixon, Chairman + Teacher Training Committee + + + + +_Contents_ + + +Chapter Page + + Preface vii + I Purposes Behind Teaching 1 + II What Is Teaching? 7 + III The Joys of Teaching 14 + IV Personality 20 + V Personality 26 + VI Attainment 33 + VII Native Tendencies 40 + VIII What to Do With Native Tendencies 46 + IX Individual Differences 53 + X Individual Differences and Teaching 61 + XI Attention 68 + XII What Makes for Interest 74 + XIII A Laboratory Lesson in Interest 80 + XIV The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 88 + XV Organizing the Lesson 96 + XVI Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson 103 + XVII The Aim 111 +XVIII Application 116 + XIX Methods of the Recitation 126 + XX Review and Preview 134 + XXI The Question as a Factor in Education 142 + XXII The Problem of Discipline 149 +XXIII Creating Class Spirit 157 + XXIV Conversion--The Real Test of Teaching 164 + Bibliography 171 + + + + +_Preface_ + + +That ever-old question, "How to Teach," becomes ever new when made to +read, "How to Teach Better." This volume aims to raise those problems +which every teacher sooner or later faces, and it attempts to suggest an +approach by way of solution which will insure at least some degree of +growth towards efficiency. These chapters originally were prepared for +the course offered to teacher-trainers in the Summer School of the +Brigham Young University, in 1920. The teachers in that course were an +inspiration to the author and are responsible for many of the thoughts +expressed in the pages of this book. + +The successful teacher ever views his calling as an opportunity--not as +an obligation. To associate with young people is a rare privilege; to +teach them is an inspiration; to lead them into the glorious truths of +the Gospel of Jesus Christ is heavenly joy itself. This little volume +hopes to push open the door of opportunity a little wider, that more of +that joy may be realized. + + "Perchance, in heaven, one day to me + Some blessed Saint will come and say, + 'All hail, beloved; but for thee + My soul to death had fallen a prey'; + And oh! what rapture in the thought, + One soul to glory to have brought." + + ADAM S. BENNION. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +PURPOSES BEHIND TEACHING + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER I + + The worth of souls.--The Father's joy in the soul that is + saved.--The teacher's responsibility.--Teaching, a sacred + calling.--Our Church a teaching Church. + + Our three-fold purpose in Teaching: + a--To guarantee salvation of the individual members of the + Church. + + b--To pass on the wonderful heritage handed down by our pioneer + forefathers. + + c--To make more easily possible the conversion of the world. + + + "Remember the worth of souls is great in the sight of God; + + "For, behold, the Lord your Redeemer suffered death in the flesh; + wherefore he suffered the pain of all men, that all men might repent + and come unto him. + + "And he hath risen again from the dead, that he might bring all men + unto him, on conditions of repentance; + + "And how great is his joy in the soul that repenteth. + + "Wherefore, you are called to cry repentance unto this people; + + "And if it so be that you should labor all your days in crying + repentance unto his people, and bring, save it be one soul unto me, + how great shall be your joy with him in the kingdom of my Father? + + "And now, if your joy will be great with one soul that you have + brought unto me into the kingdom of my Father, how great will be your + joy if you should bring many souls unto me?" (Doc. & Cov., Sec. + 18:10-16.) + + "For behold, this is my work and my glory--to bring to pass the + immortality and eternal life of man." (Moses 1:39.) + +If this is the work and glory of the Lord, how great must be the +responsibility of the teachers of Zion, His copartners in the business +of saving humankind! Next to parenthood, teaching involves us in the +most sacred relationship known to man. The teacher akin to the parent is +the steward of human souls--his purpose to bless and to elevate. + +The first great question that should concern the Latter-day Saint +teacher is, "Why do I teach?" To appreciate fully the real purposes +behind teaching is the first great guarantee of success. For teaching is +"no mere job"--it is a sacred calling--a trust of the Lord Himself under +the divine injunction, "Feed my sheep" (John 21:15). For the teacher who +has caught a glimpse of his real responsibility there is no +indifference, no eleventh-hour preparation, no feeling of unconcern +about the welfare of his pupils between lessons--for him there is +constant inspiration in the thought, "To me is given the privilege of +being the cupbearer between the Master and His children who would drink +at His fountain of truth." + +The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been variously +designated by those not of us: "The Great Industrial Church," "The +Church of Pioneers," "The Church of Wonderful Organization." It might +well be called "The Teaching Church." There is scarcely a man or woman +in it that has not at some time been asked to respond to the call of +teacher. Our people have been a remarkable people because they have been +remarkably taught--taught of the Lord and His prophets. Our future can +be secure only as it is guaranteed this same good teaching. Every +teacher must come to realize that "Mormonism" is at stake when he +teaches. "Why do I teach?" goes to the very heart of teaching. + +The answer to this question is to be found, in part at least, in the +three-fold objectives of our Church. First, the salvation and exaltation +of the individual soul. As already pointed out, this is the very "work +and glory" of the Father. Man is born into the world a child of +divinity--born for the purpose of development and perfection. Life is +the great laboratory in which he works out his experiment of eternity. +In potentiality, a God--in actuality, a creature of heredity, +environment, and teaching. "Why do I teach?" To help someone else +realize his divinity--to assist him to become all that he might +become--to make of him what he might not be but for my teaching. + +Someone has jocularly said: "The child is born into the world half +angel, half imp. The imp develops naturally, the angel has to be +cultivated." The teacher is the great cultivator of souls. Whether we +say the child is half angel and half imp, we know that he is capable of +doing both good and evil and that he develops character as he practices +virtue and avoids vice. We know, too, that he mentally develops. Born +with the capacity to do, he behaves to his own blessing or condemnation. +There is no such thing as static life. To the teacher is given the +privilege of pointing to the higher life. He is the gardener in the +garden of life. His task is to plant and to cultivate the flowers of +noble thoughts and deeds rather than to let the human soul grow up to +weeds. This purpose becomes all the more significant when we realize +that the effects of our teaching are not only to modify a life here of +three-score and ten--they are impressions attendant throughout eternity. +As the poet Goethe has said, "Life is the childhood of our immortality," +and the teachings of childhood are what determine the character of +maturity. The thought is given additional emphasis in the beautiful +little poem, "Planting," by W. Lomax Childress: + + Who plants a tree may live + To see its leaves unfold, + The greenness of its summer garb, + Its autumn tinge of gold. + + Who plants a flower may live + To see its beauty grow, + The lily whiten on its stalk, + The rambler rose to blow. + + Who sows the seed may find + The field of harvest fair, + The song of reapers ringing clear, + When all the sheaves are there. + + But time will fell the tree, + The rose will fade and die, + The harvest time will pass away, + As does the song and sigh. + + But whoso plants in love, + The word of hope and trust, + Shall find it still alive with God-- + It is not made of dust. + + It cannot fade nor change, + Though worlds may scattered be, + For love alone has high repose + In immortality. + +If the teacher, as he stands before his class, could project his vision +into the future--could see his pupils developed into manhood and +womanhood, and could see all that he might do or fail to do, he would +read a meaning well-nigh beyond comprehension into the question, "Why do +I teach?" + +A second answer to this query lies in our obligation to pass on the +wonderful heritage which we here received from our pioneer forefathers. +The story of their sacrifice, devotion, and achievement is unique in the +history of the world. Only recently a pioneer of 1852 thrilled a +parents' class in one of our wards with the simple narrative of his +early experiences. His account of Indian raids, of the experience with +Johnston's army, of privations and suffering, of social pastimes--all of +these things rang with a spirit of romance. None of his auditors will +ever forget the story of his aunt who gave up her seat in her wagon to a +sick friend for whom no provision had been made, and trudged across the +plains afoot that one more soul might rejoice in Zion. Every pioneer can +tell this sort of thrilling story. Could our young people enjoy the +companionship of these pioneers there would be little need of alarm +concerning their faith. Unfortunately, each year sees fewer of these +pioneers left to tell their story. It is to the teacher, both of the +fireside and the classroom, that we must look for the perpetuation of +the spirit of '47. The ideals and achievements of the pioneers are such +an inspiration, such a challenge to the youth of the Church today--that +teachers ought to glory in the opportunity to keep alive the memories of +the past. Our pioneer heritage ought never to be forfeited to +indifference. It is a heritage that could come only out of pioneer life. +Such courage to face sacrifice, such devotion to God, such loyalty to +government, such consecration to the task of conquering an unpromising +and forbidding desert, such determination to secure the advantages of +education, such unselfish devotion to the welfare of their +fellows--where could we turn for such inspiration to one who would +teach? + +Nor is it enough that we strive to perfect the individual membership of +the Church and preserve the social heritage out of the past--we assume +to become the teachers of the world. It is our blessing to belong to a +Church built upon revelation--a Church established and taught of the +Lord. But with that blessing comes the injunction to carry this gospel +of the kingdom to every nation and clime. "Mormonism" was not revealed +for a few Saints alone who were to establish Zion--it was to be +proclaimed to all the world. Every Latter-day Saint is enjoined to teach +the truth. Whether called as a missionary, or pursuing his regular +calling at home, his privilege and his obligation is to cry repentance +and preach the plan of salvation. The better we teach, the sooner we +shall make possible the realization of God's purposes in the world. The +two thousand young men and women who go out each year to represent us +in the ministry should go out well trained, not only that they may +represent our Church as an institution which believes that "the glory of +God is intelligence," but also that they may win intelligent men and +women to the truth. Only he who is well taught may become a good +teacher--hence the need of intelligent, devoted service. "Why do I +teach?" far from being an idle question, goes to the very heart of the +future of the Church. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER I + +1. How many of the members of your ward are actively engaged in other +than parental teaching? + +2. What significance is attached to calling our Church a teaching +Church? + +3. Discuss the significance of Jesus' being a teacher. + +4. Compare the responsibility of teaching with that of parenthood. + +5. Enumerate the chief purposes behind teaching. + +6. In your opinion, which is the greatest purpose? Why? + +7. To what extent does the following statement apply to the welfare of +our Church: + + "That nation that does not revere its past, plays little part in the + present, and soon finds that it has no future." + +8. Discuss our obligation under the injunction to teach the gospel to +the world. + +9. Discuss the need here at home of better teaching. + +10. In what sense are we trustees of the heritage left by the pioneers? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Doctrine & Covenants: James, _Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals_; +Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School +Teachers_; Strayer, _A Brief Course in the Teaching Process_; Betts, +_How to Teach Religion_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Sharp, +_Education for Character_. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +WHAT IS TEACHING? + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER II + + Teaching a complex art.--What teaching is not.--What teaching + is.--What it involves.--Presentation of facts.--Organization and + evaluation of knowledge.--Interpretation and elaboration of + truth.--Inspiration to high ideals.--Encouragement and direction + given to expression.--Discovery of pupils' better + selves.--Inspiration of example as well as precept.--Application of + truths taught in lives of pupils. + + +The query, "What constitutes teaching?" cannot be answered off-hand. It +is so complex an art, so fine an art, as Professor Driggs points out, +that it has to be pondered to be understood and appreciated. It is often +considered to be mere lesson-hearing and lesson-giving. The difference +between mere instructions and teaching is as great as the distinction +between eating and digestion. + +The following definition of _teaching_, contributed by a former state +superintendent of schools, is rich in suggestion: + + "Teaching is the process of training an individual through the + formation of habits, the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of + ideals, and the fixing of permanent interests so that he shall become + a clean, intelligent, self-supporting member of society, who has the + power to govern himself, can participate in noble enjoyments, and has + the desire and the courage to revere God and serve his fellows." + +Teaching does not merely consist of an inquisition of questions with +appropriate answers thrown in; it surely is not mere reading; nor can it +be mistaken for preaching or lecturing. These are all means that may be +employed in the process of teaching. And they are important, too. We +have been cautioned much, of late years, not to lose ourselves in the +process of doling out facts--but that rather we should occupy ourselves +teaching boys and girls. That all sounds well--the writer of these +lessons has himself proclaimed this doctrine--but we have discovered +that you cannot teach boys and girls _nothing_. They no more can be +happy _listening_ to _nothing_ than they can be content _doing nothing_. + +And so we now urge the significance of having a rich supply of subject +matter--a substantial content of lesson material. But the doctrine holds +that the teacher ought not to lose himself in mere facts--they are +merely the medium through which he arrives at, and drives home the +truth. + + "It is the teacher's task to make changes for the better in the + abilities, habits and attitudes of boys and girls. Her efficiency can + be evaluated fairly only in terms of her success at this task. In + other words, if a teacher is rated at all, she should be rated not + only by the clothes she wears, or the method she chooses, but by the + results she secures."--_Journal of Educational Research_, May, 1920. + +We have said that teaching is a complex art. It consists of at least +these eight fundamentals, each one of which, or any combination of +which, may be featured in any one particular lesson: + + 1. Presentation of facts. + 2. Organization and evaluation of knowledge. + 3. Interpretation and elaboration of truth. + 4. Inspiration to high ideals. + 5. Encouragement and direction given to expression. + 6. Discovery of pupils' better selves. + 7. Inspiration of example as well as precept. + 8. Application of truths taught in lives of the pupils. + + +I. PRESENTATION OF FACTS + +Facts constitute the background upon which the mind operates. There may +be many or few--they may be presented in a lecture of thirty minutes, in +the reading of a dozen pages, or they may be called forth out of the +mind by a single stimulating question. But we ought not to confuse the +issue. If we are to discuss any matter in the hope of reaching a +conclusion in truth, we must have material upon which the mind can build +that conclusion. We are not concerned in this chapter with method of +procedure in getting the facts before a class--the important thought +here is that the facts in rich abundance should be supplied. A certain +young lady protested recently against going to Sunday School. Her +explanation of her attitude is best expressed in her own words: "I get +sick and tired of going to a class where I never hear anything new or +worth while." Exaggerated, of course, but students are crying for bread, +and ought not to be turned away with a stone. + + +II. ORGANIZATION AND EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE + +We have hinted that a lesson may not have facts enough to justify the +time it takes--there is, on the other hand, danger that the whole time +of the class may be consumed in a mere rehearsal of facts as facts. Only +recently a significant complaint was voiced by a young man who has gone +through training in practically all of our organizations. "I don't seem +to know anything at all," he said, "about the history of Israel, as a +whole. I can recall certain isolated facts about particular persons or +places, but I can't give any intelligent answer at all to such questions +as these: + +"Who were the Israelites? What were their big movements relative to the +Promised Land? What is the history of Israel up to the time of the +Savior? What is their history subsequently? Are we of Israel and how?" + +The young man was not complaining--he merely regretted his ignorance on +points of vital interest. He was in need of further organization of the +knowledge he had. He had not been given the big central ideas about +which to build the minor ones. Relative importance had not been taught +him through that organized review that is so valuable in review. The +teacher ought to come back time and again to pause on the big +essentials--the peaks of gospel teaching. + + +III. INTERPRETATION AND ELABORATION OF TRUTH + +It is really surprising how many various notions of an idea will be +carried away by the members of a class from a single declaration on the +part of a teacher. A phase of a subject may be presented which links up +with a particular experience of one of the pupils. To him there is only +one interpretation. To another pupil the phase of the subject presented +might make no appeal at all, or linked up with a different experience +might lead to an entirely different conclusion. Truths need to be +elaborated and interpreted from all possible angles--all possible phases +should be developed. An interesting discussion recently took place with +a young man who had "gone off" on a pet doctrinal theory. His whole +conception built itself up about a single passage of scripture. +Satisfied with a single notion, he had shut his eyes to all else and +"knew that he was right." Properly to be taught, he needed to be trained +to suspend his judgment until _all the evidence_ was in. + + +IV. INSPIRATION TO HIGH IDEALS + +Men and women like to be carried to the heights. They like to be lifted +out of their lower selves into what they may become. It is the teacher's +delight to let his class stand tip-toe on the facts of subject matter to +peep into the glories of the gospel plan of life and salvation. In 1903 +Sanford Bell, of the University of Colorado, reported the results of a +survey conducted with 543 men and 488 women to ascertain whether they +liked male or female teachers better and just what it was that made them +like those teachers who had meant most in their lives. The survey showed +that the following influences stood out in the order named: + + Moral uplift. + Inspiration. + Stimulus to intellectual awakening. + Spur to scholarship. + Help in getting a firm grip on the vital issues of life. + Personal kindness. + Encouragement in crises. + +What a testimonial to the force of inspiration to higher ideals! + + +V. ENCOURAGEMENT AND DIRECTION GIVEN TO PUPILS' EXPRESSION + +Most pupils in class are ordinarily inclined to sit silently by and let +someone else do the talking. And yet, everyone enjoys participating in a +lesson when once "the ice is broken." It is the teacher's task first of +all to create an atmosphere of easy expression and then later to help +make that expression adequate and effective. The bishop of one of our +wards in southern Utah declared, not long ago, that he traced the +beginning of his testimony back to a Primary lesson in which a skillful +teacher led him to commit himself very enthusiastically to the notion +that the Lord does answer prayers. He said he defended the proposition +so vigorously that he set about to make sure from experience that he was +right. The details of securing this expression will be more fully worked +out in the chapter on Methods of the Recitation. + + +VI. DISCOVERY OF PUPILS' BETTER SELVES + +One of the most fascinating problems in teaching is to come to know the +real nature of our pupils--to get below surface appearances to the very +boy himself. Most of the work of solving this problem necessarily must +be done out of class. Such intimate knowledge is the result of personal +contact when no barriers of class recitation interfere. It involves time +and effort, of course, but it is really the key to genuine teaching. It +makes possible what we have named as factor number eight, which may be +disposed of here for present purposes. We read of bygone days largely +because in them we hope to find a solution to the problems of Jimmie +Livingston today. How can we effect the solution if all that we know of +Jimmie is that he is one of our fifteen scouts? We must see him in +action, must associate with him as he encounters his problems, if we +would help him solve them. Our discovery of our pupils' better selves, +and intelligent application, go together hand in hand. + + +VII. INSPIRATION OF EXAMPLE AS WELL AS PRECEPT + +When Emerson declared, "What you are thunders so loudly in my ears that +I can't hear what you say," he sounded a mighty note to teachers. +Hundreds of boys and girls have been stimulated to better lives by the +desire "to be like teacher." "Come, follow me," is the great password to +the calling of teacher. The teacher conducts a class on Sunday +morning--he really teaches all during the week. When Elbert Hubbard +added his new commandment, "Remember the week-days, to keep them holy," +he must have had teachers in mind. A student in one of our Church +schools was once heard to say, "My teacher teaches me more religion by +the way he plays basketball than by the way he teaches theology." It +was what Jesus did that made him Savior of the world. He was the +greatest _teacher_ because he was the greatest man. + +Surely teaching is a complex art! + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER II + +1. What is teaching? + +2. Why is it essential that we get a clear conception of just what +teaching is? + +3. Discuss the importance of building the recitation upon a good +foundation of facts. + +4. Why are facts alone not a guarantee of a successful recitation? + +5. What is the teacher's obligation in the matter of organizing +knowledge? + +6. Discuss the significance of teaching as an interpretation of truth. + +7. Discuss the teacher's obligation to discover pupils' better selves. + +8. What is the relative importance of expression and impression in +teaching? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Gregory, _The Seven Laws of Teaching_; +Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a +Teacher_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE JOYS OF TEACHING + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER III + + The Joys that attend Teaching: Enrichment of the spirit.--Guarantee + of the teacher's own growth and development.--Restraining and + uplifting influence on the moral character of the + teacher.--Satisfaction that attends seeing pupils + develop.--Inspirational companionship.--Contentment that attaches + to duty done.--Outpouring of the blessings of the Lord. + + +Chapters one and two emphasized the thought that the purposes behind +teaching impose a sacred obligation on the part of those who aspire to +teach. But lest the obligation appear burdensome, let us remind +ourselves that compensation is one of the great laws of life. "To him +who gives shall be given" applies to teaching as to few other things. +Verily he who loses his life finds it. The devotion of the real teacher, +though it involves labor, anxiety and sacrifice, is repaid ten-fold. +Only he who has fully given himself in service to others can appreciate +the joy that attends teaching--particularly that teaching enjoined upon +us by the Master and which is its own recompense. + +It is difficult to enumerate all of the blessings that attend the +service of the teacher, but let us consider a few that stand out +pre-eminently. + +If there were none other than this first one it would justify all that +is done in the name of teaching; namely, "the enrichment of spirit." +"There is a spirit in man: and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth +them understanding." To feel the thrill of that inspiration is a +compensation beyond price. The Lord, having commanded us to teach (see +Sec. 88:77-81, Doc. & Cov.), has followed the command with the promise +of a blessing, one of the richest in all scripture. + + "For thus saith the Lord, I, the Lord, am merciful and gracious unto + those who fear me, and delight to honor those who serve me in + righteousness and in truth unto the end; + + "Great shall be their reward and eternal shall be their glory; + + "And to them will I reveal all mysteries, yea, all the hidden + mysteries of my kingdom from days of old, and for ages to come will I + make known unto them the good pleasure of my will concerning all + things pertaining to my kingdom; + + "Yea, even the wonders of eternity shall they know, and things to + come will I show them, even the things of many generations; + + "And their wisdom shall be great, and their understanding reach to + heaven: and before them the wisdom of the wise shall perish, and the + understanding of the prudent shall come to naught; + + "For by my Spirit will I enlighten them, and by my power will I make + known unto them the secrets of my will; yea, even those things which + eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor yet entered into the heart of + man." (Doc. & Cov. 76:5-10.) + +This constitutes a promissory note signed by our heavenly Father +Himself. A blessing beyond compare--a dividend unfailing--and our only +investment--devoted service! Companionship with the Spirit of the Lord! +That is what it means, if we serve Him in faith and humility. + + "Be thou humble, and the Lord thy God shall lead thee by the hand, + and give thee answer to thy prayers." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 112:10.) + +Like all other gifts and attainments, the Spirit of the Lord has to be +cultivated. Teaching insures a cultivation as few other things in life +can. An enriched spirit, then, is the first great reward of the teacher. + +A second satisfaction is the guarantee of one's own growth and +development. Teachers invariably declare that they have learned more, +especially in the first year of teaching, than in any year at college. A +consciousness of the fact that it is hard to teach that which is not +well known incites that type of study which makes for growth. A good +class is a great "pace-setter." Intellectually it has the pull of +achievement. The real teacher always is the greatest student in the +class. The "drive" of having a regular task to perform, especially when +that task is checked up as it is by students, leads many a person to a +development unknown to him who is free to slide. "Blessed is he who has +to do things." Responsibility is the great force that builds character. +Compare the relative development of the person who spends Tuesday +evening at home with the evening paper, or at some other pastime, and of +the person who, having accepted fully the call to teach, leads a class +of truth-seekers through an hour's discussion of some vital subject. +Follow the development through the Tuesday evenings of a lifetime. + +How easy to understand that there are varying degrees of glory +hereafter. + +A third value of teaching lies in the fact that the position of teacher +exercises a restraining influence for good on the moral life of the +teacher. He is sustained by a consciousness that his conduct is his only +evidence to his pupils that his practice is consistent with his theory. +His class follows him in emulation or in criticism in all that he does. +"Come, follow me," lifts the real teacher over the pitfalls of +temptation. He cannot do forbidden work on the Sabbath, he cannot +indulge in the use of tobacco, he cannot stoop to folly--his class +stands between him and all these things. A teacher recently gave +expression to the value of this restraining force when she said, "I urge +my girls so vigorously not to go to the movies on Sunday that I find my +conscience in rebellion if anyone asks me to go." + +Many a man in attempting to convert another to the righteousness of a +particular issue has found himself to be his own best convert. He comes +to appreciate the fact that the trail he establishes is the path +followed by those whom he influences. He hears the voice of the child as +recorded in the little poem: + + I STEPPED IN YOUR STEPS ALL THE WAY + + "A father and his tiny son + Crossed a rough street one stormy day, + 'See papa!' cried the little one, + 'I stepped in your steps all the way!' + + "Ah, random, childish hands, that deal + Quick thrusts no coat of proof could stay! + It touched him with the touch of steel-- + 'I stepped in your steps all the way!' + + "If this man shirks his manhood's due + And heeds what lying voices say, + It is not one who falls, but two, + 'I stepped in your steps all the way!' + + "But they who thrust off greed and fear, + Who love and watch, who toil and pray, + How their hearts carol when they say, + 'I stepped in your steps all the way!'" + +Still another joy that attends teaching is the satisfaction of seeing +pupils develop. The sculptor finds real happiness in watching his clay +take on the form and expression of his model; the artist glories as his +colors grow into life; the parent finds supreme joy in seeing himself +"re-grow" in his child; so the teacher delights to see his pupils build +their lives on the truths he has taught. The joy is doubly sweet if it +is heightened by an expression of appreciation on the part of the +pupils. Few experiences can bring the thrill of real happiness that +comes to the teacher when a former student, once perhaps a little +inclined to mischief or carelessness, takes him by the hand with a "God +bless you for helping me find my better self." + +An officer of the British army, in recounting those experiences which +had come to him in the recent world war, and which he said he never +could forget, referred to one which more than compensated him for all +the effort he had ever put into his preparation for teaching. Because of +his position in the army it became his duty to discipline a group of +boys for what in the army is a serious offense. In that group was a boy +who had formerly been a pupil under the officer in one of our ward +organizations. Chagrin was stamped on the face of the boy as he came +forward for reprimand. Regret and remorse were in the heart of the +officer. They soon gave way to pride, however, as the boy assured him +that worse than any punishment was the humiliation of being brought +before his own teacher, and he further assured him that never again +would he do a thing that would mar the sacred relations of pupil and +teacher. + +A further compensation attached to teaching is that of inspirational +companionship. It is a blessed privilege to enjoy the sunshine of youth. +Every pupil contributes an association with one of God's choice spirits. +To live and work with children and adolescents is one of the finest of +safeguards against old age. The teacher not only partakes of the joy of +his group--they constitute him a link between his generation and theirs. +Their newness of life, their optimism, their spontaneity, their joy, +they gladly pass on to their teacher. + +Moreover, the teacher enjoys the uplifting associations of his fellow +teachers. Among those consecrated to a noble service, there is a spirit +unknown to him who has not enjoyed such communion. Whether he is +conscious of it or not, the teacher responds to the pull of such a +group. Scores of teachers have testified that the associations they have +enjoyed as members of a local board, stake board, or general board, are +among the happiest of their lives. + +And finally there is the contentment of mind that comes as a result of a +duty well done. The human soul is so constituted that any task well +performed brings a feeling of satisfaction, and this is doubly +heightened when the duty performed is of the nature of a free will +offering. Still more so when it is shared in by others to their +blessing. Just as we hope for an eventual crowning under the blessing, +"Well done, thou good and faithful servant," so we treasure those +benedictions along the way that attend the discharge of a sacred +obligation. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER III + +1. Quote some of the promises of the Lord to those who do His will. + +2. How is teaching one of the surest guarantees of the blessings of +eternal life? + +3. What are the immediate joys attached to teaching? + +4. Discuss the application to teaching of the truth--"He who loses his +life shall find it." + +5. What types of companionship are assured him who teaches? + +6. As you now recall them, what distinct pleasures stand out in your +teaching experience? + +7. Discuss Section 76 of the Doctrine & Covenants as one of the most +valuable promissory notes ever given to mankind. + +8. Discuss the force of a duty done as a guarantee of joy. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Doctrine and Covenants: Slattery, _Living Teachers_; Sharp, _Education +for Character_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Betts, _How +to Teach Religion_. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +PERSONALITY + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER IV + + The worth of a great teacher.--Good teachers not necessarily + born.--Some boys' observations on teachers.--A high school + survey.--Clapp's _Essential Characteristics_.--Betts' _Three + Classes of Teachers_.--His list of qualities. + + + "A great teacher is worth more to a state, though he teach by the + roadside, than a faculty of mediocrities housed in Gothic + piles."--_Chicago Tribune_, September, 1919. + +We may stress the sacred obligation of the teacher; we may discuss in +detail mechanical processes involved in lesson preparation; we may +analyze child nature in all of its complexity; but after all we come +back to the _Personality of the Teacher_ as the great outstanding factor +in pedagogical success. _That something in the man_ that grips people! + +Very generally this _Personal Equation_ has been looked upon as a +certain indefinable possession enjoyed by the favored few. In a certain +sense this is true. Personality is largely inherent in the individual +and therefore differs as fully as do individuals. But of recent years +educators have carried on extensive investigations in this field of +personality and have succeeded in reducing to comprehensible terms those +qualities which seem to be most responsible for achievements of +successful teachers. Observation leads us all to similar deductions and +constitutes one of the most interesting experiments open to those +concerned with the teaching process. + +Why, with the same amount of preparation, does one teacher succeed with +a class over which another has no control at all? + +Why is it that one class is crowded each week, while another adjourns +for lack of membership? + +The writer a short time ago, after addressing the members of a ward +M.I.A., asked a group of scouts to remain after the meeting, to whom he +put the question, "What is it that you like or dislike in teachers?" The +group was a thoroughly typical group--real boys, full of life and +equally full of frankness. They contributed the following replies: + + 1. We like a fellow that's full of pep. + 2. We like a fellow that doesn't preach all the time. + 3. We like a fellow that makes us be good. + 4. We like a fellow that tells us new things. + +Boylike, they were "strong" for pep--a little word with a big +significance. Vigor, enthusiasm, sense of humor, attack, +forcefulness--all of these qualities are summed up in these three +letters. + +And the interesting thing is that while the boys liked to be told new +things, they didn't want to be preached at. They evidently had the boy's +idea of preaching who characterized it as, "talking a lot when you +haven't anything to say." + +Still more interesting is the fact that boys like to be made to be good. +In spite of their fun and their seeming indifference they really are +serious in a desire to subscribe to the laws of order that make progress +possible. + +A principal of the Granite High School carried on an investigation +through a period of four years to ascertain just what it is that +students like in teachers. During those years students set down various +attributes and qualities, which are summarized below just as they were +given: + + _Desirable Characteristics_ + + Congeniality. + Broadmindedness. + Wide knowledge. + Personality that makes discipline easy. + Willingness to entertain questions. + Realization that students need help. + Sense of humor--ability to take a joke. + Optimism--cheerfulness. + Sympathy. + Originality. + Progressiveness. + Effective expression. + Pleasing appearance--"good looking." + Tact. + Patience. + Sincerity. + +Among the characteristics which they did not like in teachers they named +the following: + + _Undesirable Characteristics_ + + Grouchiness. + Wandering in method. + Indifference to need for help. + Too close holding to the text. + Distant attitude--aloofness. + Partiality. + Excitability. + Irritability. + Pessimism--"in the dumps." + Indifferent assignments. + Hazy explanations. + Failure to cover assignments. + Distracting facial expressions. + Attitude of "lording it over." + Sarcasm. + Poor taste in dress. + Bluffing--"the tables turned." + Discipline for discipline's sake. + "Holier than thouness." + +_Desirable Capabilities_ + +They also reduced to rather memorable phrases a half dozen desirable +capabilities: + + 1. The ability to make students work and want to work. + 2. The ability to make definite assignments. + 3. The ability to make clear explanations. + 4. The ability to be pleasant without being easy. + 5. The ability to emphasize essentials. + 6. The ability to capitalize on new ideas. + 7. The ability to be human. + +A number of years ago Clapp conducted a similar survey among one hundred +leading school men of America, asking them to list the ten most +essential characteristics of a good teacher. From the lists sent in +Clapp compiled the ten qualities in the order named most frequently by +the one hundred men: + + 1. Sympathy. + 2. Address. + 3. Enthusiasm. + 4. Sincerity. + 5. Personal Appearance. + 6. Optimism. + 7. Scholarship. + 8. Vitality. + 9. Fairness. + 10. Reserve or dignity. + +George Herbert Betts, in his stimulating book, _How to Teach Religion_, +says there are three classes of teachers: + + "Two types of teachers are remembered: One to be forgiven after years + have softened the antagonisms and resentments; the other to be + thought of with honor and gratitude as long as memory lasts. Between + these two is a third and a larger group: those who are forgotten, + because they failed to stamp a lasting impression on their pupils. + This group represents the mediocrity of the profession, not bad + enough to be actively forgiven, not good enough to claim a place in + gratitude and remembrance." + +Mr. Betts then goes on with a very exhaustive list of positive and +negative qualities in teachers--a list so valuable that we set it down +here for reference. + + _Positive Qualities_ _Negative Qualities_ + +1. Open-minded, inquiring, broad. Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry for + truth. + +2. Accurate, thorough, discerning. Indefinite, superficial, lazy. + +3. Judicious, balanced, fair. Prejudiced, led by likes and + dislikes. + +4. Original, independent, Dependent, imitative, subservient. + resourceful. + +5. Decisive, possessing convictions. Uncertain, wavering, undecided. + +6. Cheerful, joyous, optimistic. Gloomy, morose, pessimistic, bitter. + +7. Amiable, friendly, agreeable. Repellent, unsociable, disagreeable. + +8. Democratic, broadly sympathetic. Snobbish, self-centered, exclusive. + +9. Tolerant, sense of humor, Opinionated, dogmatic, intolerant. + generous. + +10. Kind, courteous, tactful. Cruel, rude, untactful. + +11. Tractable, co-operative, Stubborn, not able to work with + teachable. others. + +12. Loyal, honorable, dependable. Disloyal, uncertain dependability. + +13. Executive, forceful, vigorous. Uncertain, weak, not capable. + +14. High ideals, worthy, exalted. Low standards, base, contemptible. + +15. Modest, self-effacing. Egotistical, vain, autocratic. + +16. Courageous, daring, firm. Overcautious, weak, vacillating. + +17. Honest, truthful, frank, Low standards of honor and truth. + sincere. + +18. Patient, calm, equable. Irritable, excitable, moody. + +19. Generous, open-hearted, Stingy, selfish, resentful. + forgiving. + +20. Responsive, congenial. Cold, repulsive, uninviting. + +21. Punctual, on schedule, capable. Tardy, usually behindhand, + incapable. + +22. Methodical, consistent, logical. Haphazard, desultory, inconsistent. + +23. Altruistic, given to service. Indifferent, not socially minded. + +24. Refined, alive to beauty, Coarse, lacking aesthetic quality. + artistic. + +25. Self-controlled, decision, Suggestible, easily led, uncertain. + purpose. + +26. Good physical carriage, dignity. Lack of poise, ill posture, no + grace. + +27. Taste in attire, cleanliness, Careless in dress, frumpy, no pride. + pride. + +28. Face smiling, voice pleasant. Somber expression, voice unpleasant. + +29. Physical endurance, vigor, Quickly tired, weak, sluggish. + strength. + +30. Spiritual responsiveness, Spiritually weak, inconstant, + strong. uncertain. + +31. Prayer life warm, satisfying. Prayer cold, formal, little comfort. + +32. Religious certainty, peace, Conflict, strain, uncertainty. + quiet. + +33. Religious experience expanding. Spiritual life static or losing + force. + +34. God a near, inspiring reality. God distant, unreal, hard of + approach. + +35. Power to win others to religion. Influence little or negative. + +36. Interest in Bible and religion. Little concern for religion and + Bible. + +37. Religion makes life fuller and Religion felt as a limitation. + richer. + +38. Deeply believe great Lacking in foundations for faith. + fundamentals. + +39. Increasing triumph over sin. Too frequent falling before + temptation. + +40. Religious future hopeful. Religious growth uncertain. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER IV + +1. Think of the teachers who stand out most clearly in your memory. Why +do they so stand out? + +2. Name the qualities that made the Savior the _Great Teacher_. + +3. If you had to choose between a fairly capable but humble teacher, and +a very capable but conceited one, which one would be your choice? Why? + +4. What is your argument against the idea, "Teachers are born, not +made"? + +5. Discuss the relative significance of the qualities quoted from Betts. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +O'Shea, _Every-day Problems in Teaching_; Betts, _How to Teach +Religion_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Palmer, _The Ideal +Teacher_; Slattery, _Living Teachers_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School +Teachers_. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +PERSONALITY + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER V + + The six major qualities:--a. Sympathy.--b. Sincerity.--c. + Optimism.--d. Scholarly attitude.--e. Vitality.--f. Spirituality. + + +To set about to cultivate separate qualities would be rather a +discouraging undertaking. As a matter of fact, many of the +characteristics named really overlap, while others are secondary in +importance. For practical purposes let us enlarge upon five or six +qualities which everyone will agree are fundamental to teaching success. + +The class in Teacher Training, at the Brigham Young University, in the +summer of 1920, named these six as the most fundamental: + + 1. Sympathy. + 2. Sincerity. + 3. Optimism. + 4. Scholarly attitude. + 5. Vitality. + 6. Spirituality. + +No attempt was made to set them down in the order of relative +importance. + + +1. SYMPATHY + +This is a very broad and far-reaching term. It rests upon experience and +imagination and involves the ability to live, at least temporarily, +someone else's life. Sympathy is fundamentally vicarious. Properly to +sympathize with children a man must re-live in memory his own childhood +or he must have the power of imagination to see things through their +eyes. Many a teacher has condemned pupils for doing what to them was +perfectly normal. We too frequently persist in viewing a situation from +our own point of view rather than in going around to the other side to +look at it as our pupils see it. It is no easy matter thus "to get out +of ourselves" and become a boy or girl again, but it is worth the +effort. + +Along with this ability at vicarious living, sympathy involves an +interest in others. Sympathy is a matter of concern in the affairs of +others. The rush and stir of modern life fairly seem to force us to +focus our attention upon self, but if we would succeed as teachers, we +must make ourselves enter into the lives of our pupils out of an +interest to see how they conduct their lives, and the reasons for such +conduct. + +Coupled with this interest in others and the imagination to see through +their eyes, sympathy involves a desire to help them. A man may have an +interest in people born out of mere curiosity or for selfish purposes, +but if he has sympathy for them, he must be moved with a desire to help +and to bless them. + +And, finally, sympathy involves the actual doing of something by way of +service. President Grant liked to refer to a situation wherein a +particular person was in distress. Friends of all sorts came along +expressing regret and professing sympathy. Finally a fellow stepped +forward and said, "I feel to sympathize with this person to the extent +of fifty dollars." "That man," said President Grant, "has sympathy in +his heart as well as in his purse." + + +2. SINCERITY + +Surely this is a foundation principle in teaching: + + "Thou must to thyself be true, + If thou the truth would teach; + Thy soul must overflow, + If thou another soul would reach." + +A teacher must really be converted to what he teaches or there is a +hollowness to all that he utters. "Children and dogs," it is said, are +the great judges of sincerity--they instinctively know a friend. No +teacher can continue to stand on false ground before his pupils. The +superintendent of one of our Sunday Schools, having selected one of the +most talented persons in his ward to teach a Second Intermediate Class +was astonished some months later to receive a request from the class for +a change of teachers. The class could assign no specific reasons for +their objections, except that they didn't get anything out of the class. +A year later the superintendent learned that the teacher was living in +violation of the regulations of the Church, on a particular principle, +and it was perfectly clear why his message didn't ring home. + +The sincere teacher not only believes what he teaches--he consecrates +his best efforts to the task in hand. He urges no excuse for absence or +lack of preparation--"he is there." He lets his class feel that for the +time being it is his greatest concern. He meets with boys and girls +because he loves to and reaches out to them with an enthusiasm that +cannot be questioned. + + +3. OPTIMISM + +is the sunshine of the classroom. It is as natural to expect a plant to +develop when covered with a blanket as it is to expect a class to be +full of activity and responsiveness under an influence of unnatural +solemnity. Lincoln is quoted as having declared, "You can catch more +flies with a drop of honey than with a gallon of vinegar"--a homely +expression, but full of suggestion. A grouch is no magnet. + +A little girl when questioned why she liked her Sunday School teacher +said, "Oh, she always smiles at me and says, hello." There is contagion +in the cheeriness of a smile that cannot be resisted. Children live so +naturally in an atmosphere of happiness and fun that teachers of +religious instruction may well guard against making their work too +formally sober. Frequently teachers feel the seriousness of their +undertaking so keenly that they worry or discipline themselves into a +state of pedagogical unnaturalness. There is very great force behind the +comment of the student who appreciated the teacher who could be human. +The experience is told of a teacher who continued to have difficulty +with one of her pupils. He so persisted in violating regulations that he +was kept in after school regularly, and yet after school hours he was +one of the most helpful lads in the school; in fact, he and the teacher +seemed almost chummy. Struck by the difference in his attitude, the +teacher remarked to him one afternoon, as he went about cleaning the +blackboard, "Jimmie, I have just been wondering about you. You're one of +my best workers after school--I can't understand how you can be so +different during school hours and after." + +"Gee, that's funny," put in Jimmie, "I was just thinking the same thing +about you." + +To be cheerful without being easy is a real art. Liberty is so often +converted into license, and a spirit of fun so easily transformed into +mischief and disorder. And yet cheerfulness is the great key to the +human heart. + +An attitude of looking for the good in pupils will lead to a response of +friendliness on their part which is the basis of all teaching. + + +4. SCHOLARLY ATTITUDE + +If a teacher would cultivate an appetite for learning among his pupils +he must himself hunger for knowledge. Most young people will "take +intellectually if sufficiently exposed." A scholarly attitude implies +first of all a growing mastery of subject matter. To quote an eminent +writer on religious education, "A common bane of Sunday school teaching +has been the haziness of the teacher's own ideas concerning the truths +of religion." + +Fancy the hostess who would invite her guests to a dinner, and upon +their arrival indicate to them that she had made only vague plans to +receive them. No special place for their wraps, no entertainment for +their amusement, and then fancy her asking them to sit down to a +warmed-up conglomeration of left-overs. + +Of course, it is only in fancy that we can imagine such a service. Yet +reports frequently indicate that there are class recitations, +intellectual banquets, for which the preparation has been about as +meagre as that indicated. Surely he who would feast others upon His word +should prepare unceasingly. Let us keep in mind the comment--"We like +the fellow who tells us something new." + +Along with this mastery of subject matter, a scholarly attitude implies +both broadmindedness and openmindedness. Seekers after truth should +welcome it from all available sources, and ought not to be handicapped +by bias or prejudice. Tolerance and a willingness to entertain +questions--a constant effort to view a subject from every possible +angle--a poise that attends self-control even under stress of +annoyance--these things are all involved in a truly scholarly attack +upon any given problem. + + +5. VITALITY + +One of the qualities most favorably and frequently commented on by +students is what they call "pep." A certain vigor of attack that seems +to go directly to the point at stake, putting at rest all other +business and making discipline unnecessary, is what twentieth century +young people seem to like. The element of hero worship prompts them to +demand that the leader shall "do things." They like the "push" that +takes a man over the top, the drive that wins a ball game, the energy +that stamps the business man with success. Vitality is an inherent +factor in leadership. + + +6. SPIRITUALITY + +The crowning glory of the successful religious teacher is that spiritual +glow which links up heaven and earth. + + "And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the power of faith, and if + ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. + 42:14.) + +This divine injunction is given us because we have undertaken to teach +His Gospel. We would lead others to Him. And this is possible only as we +lead by the light of His Holy Spirit. Above our knowledge of facts and +our understanding of child nature must be placed our communion with that +Spirit which touches the hearts of men. + +If a teacher would prepare a young man for a place in a modern business +house he must teach him the ways of business,--buying, selling, +collecting, managing, etc.,--matters of fact, governed by the laws of +barter and trade. If that same teacher would teach the same young man +the way of eternal life, he must substitute for the laws of man the word +of the Lord, and for the spirit of exchange, the Spirit of Heaven. A +pupil can be prepared for the kingdom of God only as he is led to +respond to and appreciate His Spirit, and to do His will. While it is +true that the best way to prepare for heaven is to live the best +possible life here on earth, yet we need the Spirit of the Lord to +interpret what constitutes that best possible life. + +There is power in the intellect of man; there is glory in that power +when it is heightened by the Spirit of the Almighty. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER V + +1. What is sympathy? + +2. Why is it so essential in teaching? + +3. Why is sincerity a foundation principle in all teaching? + +4. Discuss the obligation on the part of the teacher to leave his +troubles outside the classroom. + +5. Discuss the statement--"Cheerfulness is spiritual sunshine." + +6. Illustrate the value of cheerfulness. + +7. What is the significance of the term, scholarly attitude? + +8. Just what constitutes vitality? + +9. Show how it is essential to teaching. + +10. Why name spirituality as the crowning characteristic of the good +teacher? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter IV. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +ATTAINMENT + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER VI + + The possibility of growth in teaching.--How to develop + spirituality: a. By cultivating the spirit of prayer; b. By leading + a clean life; c. By obeying the principles of the Gospel; d. By + performing one's duty in the Church; e. By reading and pondering + the word of the Lord.--How to develop other qualities: a. By taking + a personal inventory; b. By coming in contact with the best in life + through reading and companionship; c. By forming the habit of + systematic study; d. By assuming responsibility. + + +While we may agree as to what constitutes the desirable characteristics +in teachers it is far easier to name them than to attain them. We have +already pointed out that teaching is a complex art proficiency in which +is the result of a long, painstaking process. But success in teaching as +in all other pursuits is possible of achievement. We have heard so +frequently that teachers must be born, not made, that many prospective +teachers, feeling that they have been denied this pedagogical +birthright, give up in despair. Of course, it is naturally easy for some +individuals to teach--they do seem born possessed of a teaching +personality, but they are not given a monopoly on the profession. + +The Lord has too many children to be taught to leave their instruction +to a few favored ones. The qualities listed in chapter five may be +developed, in varying degrees, of course, by any normal person anxious +to serve his fellows. The "will to do" is the great key to success. + +To him who would develop spiritually, these five suggestions may be +helpful: + +First, cultivate the spirit of prayer. The president of one of our +stakes made the remark once that he believed only a few of the men and +women of his stake really pray. "They go through the form, all right," +he said; "they repeat the words--but they do not enter into the spirit +of the prayer. If the Lord doesn't draw nearer to them than they do to +Him I doubt that their prayers are really of very great force." + +The ability to pray is the great test of a spiritual life. "The faith to +pray" is a gift to be cultivated through devoted practice. The teacher +who would have his pupils draw nearer to him must himself draw near to +the Lord. The promise, "Ask, and ye shall receive, seek, and ye shall +find," was given only to those who ask in faith. This constant prayer of +faith, then is the first great guarantee of the Spirit. + +The second is a clean life. Just as it is impossible for water to make +its way through a dirty, clogged pipe, so it is for the Spirit to flow +through a channel of unrighteous desires. A visitor was interested a +short time ago in Canada in attempting to get a drink out of a pipe that +had been installed to carry water from a spring in the side of a +mountain to a pool at the side of the road. Due to neglect, moss and +filth had been allowed to collect about the bottom of the pipe, until it +was nearly choked up. Getting a drink was out of the question. And yet +there was plenty of water in the spring above--just as fine water as had +ever flowed from that source. It was simply denied passage down to those +who would drink. And so with the Spirit. The Lord is still able to +bless--all too frequently, we so live that "the passage is clogged." The +Word of Wisdom is not only a guarantee of health--it is the key to +communication with the Spirit. And what is true of the body applies with +even greater force to cleanliness of mind. The teacher might well adopt +this prayer: + + "Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within + me." + +The third great guarantee of the Spirit is an unswerving obedience to +all principles of the Gospel. To teach belief a man must believe. Firmly +grounded in all the cardinal principles the teacher may well inspire a +spirit of the Gospel, but not otherwise. Doubt and uncertainty will keep +the teacher from the position of counsel and leadership. + +The fourth assurance in the matter of developing spirituality is the +consistent performance of one's religious obligations. The complaint is +often made that teachers in a particular organization will meet their +classes regularly, but that done they seem to consider their religious +duties discharged. Teaching does not excuse a person from attending the +other services required of Latter-day Saints. He is asked to attend +Sacrament meetings, Priesthood meetings, Union meetings, special +preparation meetings--they are all essential to the full development of +the Spirit of the Gospel, which is the spirit of teaching. The teacher +may rightly expect to be sustained only as he sustains those who preside +over him. + + "For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what + measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." (Matt. 7:2.) + +And finally, if we would enjoy the spirit of our work we must +familiarize ourselves with the Word of the Lord. To read it is to +associate in thought with Him. His Spirit pervades all that He has said, +whether in ancient or modern times. One of our apostles frequently +remarked that if he would feel fully in touch with the spirit of his +calling he must read regularly from the Doctrine & Covenants. "That book +keeps me attuned as no other book can." It is not given to us to +associate here with the Master, but through His recorded words we can +live over all that He once lived. Thereby we not only come really to +know what He would have us do, we partake of a spirit that surpasses +understanding. + + "Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life." + +As for attainment in other matters involved in the teaching process, the +teachers who attended the course at the Brigham Young University were +agreed that regular practice in the following processes will insure +marked growth and development: + +1. The taking of a personal inventory at regular intervals. "Am I the +kind of teacher I should like to go to?" starts an investigation full of +suggestiveness. The qualities listed in chapter four constitute a +reference chart for analysis. A teacher can become his own best critic +if he sets up the proper ideals by way of a standard. A teacher in one +of our Church schools in Idaho carried out an interesting investigation +during the year 1919-1920. Anxious that he should not monopolize the +time in his recitations, he asked one of his students to tabulate the +time of the class period as follows: + + Number of questions asked by teacher. + Number of questions asked by pupils. + Amount of time consumed by teacher. + Amount of time consumed by pupils. + +He was astonished to discover that of the forty-five minutes given to +recitation he was regularly using an average of thirty-two minutes. +Similar investigations can be carried on by any interested teacher. + +2. Contact with the best in life. It is a fundamental law in life that +life is an adaptation to environment. The writer has been interested in +observing the force of this law as it affects animal life. Lizards in +Emery county are slate-gray in color that they may be less conspicuous +on a background of clay and gray sandstone; the same animals in St. +George take on a reddish color--an adaptation to their environment of +red sandstone. + +Nor is the operation of this law merely a physical process. On a trip +into Canada recently the writer traveled some distance with a group of +bankers in attendance at a convention at Great Falls. On his way home he +took a train on which there was a troupe of vaudeville players. The +contrast was too marked to escape notice. One group had responded to an +environment of sober business negotiations--the other to the gayety of +the footlights. And so the teacher who would grow must put himself into +an environment that makes the kind of growth he desires +natural--inevitable. Through good books he can associate with the choice +spirits of all ages. No one denies his acquaintanceship. Great men have +given their best thoughts to many of the problems that confront us. We +can capitalize on their wisdom by reading their books. We re-enforce +ourselves with their strength. + +Magazines, too, are full of stimulation. They constitute a kind of +intellectual clearing house for the best thought of the world today. +Business houses value them so highly in promoting the advancement of +their employees that they subscribe regularly. One manager remarked: "No +one factor makes for greater growth among my men than reading the +achievements of others--leaders in their lines--through the magazines." +There is scarcely a phase of life which is not being fully written about +in the current issues of the leading magazines. + +Then, too, contact with men and women of achievement is a remarkable +stimulus to growth. + +There are leaders in every community--men and women rich in +experience--who will gladly discuss the vital issues of life with those +who approach them. There still remain, too, pioneers with their +wonderful stories of sacrifice and devotion. To the teacher who will +take the pains there is an untold wealth of material in the lives of the +men and women about him. + +3. Regular habits of systematic study. Thorough intensive effort finds +its best reward in the intellectual growth that it insures. In these +days of the hurry of business and the whirl of commercialized amusements +there is little time left for study except for him who makes himself +subscribe to a system of work. Thirty minutes of concentrated effort a +day works wonders in the matter of growth. President Grant was a +splendid evidence of the force of persistent effort in his writing, his +business success, and his rise to the leadership of half a million +Latter-day Saints. + +4. Assuming the obligations of responsibility. In every organization +there are constant calls upon teachers to perform laborious tasks. It is +so natural to seek to avoid them--so easy to leave them for somebody +else--that we have to cultivate vigorously a habit of accepting the +obligations that present themselves. The difficulties of responsibility +are often burdensome, but they are an essential guarantee of +achievement. "Welcome the task that makes you go beyond your ordinary +self, if you would grow!" + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VI + +1. Discuss our obligation to grow. + +2. Point out the difference between praying and merely saying prayers. + +3. Discuss the various means which guarantee spiritual growth. + +4. Comment on the thought that a personal inventory is as essential to +teaching as it is to financial success. + +5. What is your daily scheme for systematic study? + +6. What plan do you follow in an attempt to know the scriptures? + +7. Why is it so important that we assume the responsibilities placed +upon us? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter IV. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +NATIVE TENDENCIES + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER VII + + Importance of Child Study to teachers.--Teaching both a social and + an individual process.--A Child's characteristics--his + birthright.--What the nervous system is.--Types of original + responses.--The significance of instinctive action.--Colvin's list + of native tendencies.--Sisson's list.--A knowledge of native + tendencies essential to proper control of human behavior. + + +We have now discussed the significance and meaning of teaching, together +with the consideration of the characteristics that constitute the +personal equation of the teacher. It is now pertinent that we give some +attention to the nature of the child to be taught, that we may the more +intelligently discuss methods of teaching, or how teacher and pupil get +together in an exchange of knowledge. + +Teaching is a unique process. It is both social and individual. The +teacher meets a class--a collection of pupils in a social unit. In one +way he is concerned with them generally--he directs group action. But in +addition to this social aspect, the problem involves his giving +attention to each individual in the group. He may put a general +question, but he gets an individual reply. In short, he must be aware of +the fact that his pupils, for purposes of recitation, are all alike; and +at the same time he must appreciate the fact that they are peculiarly +different. In a later chapter we shall consider these differences; let +us here consider the points of similarity. + +The fact that a boy is a boy makes him heir to all of the +characteristics that man has developed. These characteristics are his +birthright. He responds in a particular way to stimuli because the race +before him has so responded. There is no need here of entering into a +discussion as to how great a controlling factor heredity may be in a +man's life, or how potent environment may be in modifying that life--we +are concerned rather with the result--that man is as he is. It is +essential that we know his characteristics, particularly as they +manifest themselves in youth, so that we may know what to expect in his +conduct and so that we may proceed to modify and control that conduct. +Just as the first task of the physician is to diagnose his case--to get +at the cause of the difficulty before he proceeds to suggest a +remedy--so the first consideration of the teacher is a query, "Whom do I +teach?" + +Man may normally be expected to respond in a particular way to a +particular stimulus because men throughout the history of the race have +so responded. Certain connections have been established in his nervous +system and he acts accordingly--he does what he does because he is +_man_. We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the physiological +processes involved in thinking and other forms of behavior, but perhaps +we may well set down a statement or two relative to man's tendencies to +act, and their explanations: + + "The nervous system is composed of neurones of three types: Those + that receive, the afferent; those that effect action, the efferent; + and those that connect, the associative. The meeting places of these + neurones are the synapses. All neurones have the three + characteristics of sensitivity, conductivity, and modifiability. In + order for conduct or feeling or intellect to be present, at least two + neurones must be active, and in all but a few of the human activities + many more are involved. The possibility of conduct or intelligence + depends upon the connections at the synapses,--upon the possibility + of the current affecting neurones in a certain definite way. The + possession of an 'original nature,' then, means the possession, as a + matter of inheritance, of certain connections between neurones, the + possession of certain synapses which are in functional contact and + across which a current may pass merely as a matter of structure. Just + why certain synapses should be thus connected is the whole question + of heredity. Two factors seem to affect the functional contact of a + synapses,--first, proximity of the neurone ends, and second, some + sort of permeability which makes a current travel on one rather than + another of two neurones equally near together in space. This + proximity and permeability are both provided for by the structure and + constitution of the nervous system. It should be noted that the + connection of neurones is not a one-to-one affair, but the + multiplicity of fibrils provided by original nature makes it possible + for one afferent to discharge into many neurones, and for one + efferent neurone to receive the current from many neurones. Thus the + individual when born is equipped with potentialities of character, + intellect and conduct, because of the pre-formed connections or + tendencies to connections present in his nervous system. + + "_Types of Original Responses._--These unlearned tendencies which + make up the original nature of the human race are usually classified + into automatic or physiological actions, reflexes, instincts, and + capacities. Automatic actions are such as those controlling the + heart-beats, digestive and intestinal movements; the contraction of + the pupil of the eye from light, sneezing, swallowing, etc., are + reflexes; imitation, fighting, and fear, are instincts, which + capacities refer to those more subtle traits by means of which an + individual becomes a good linguist, or is tactful, or gains skill in + handling tools. However, there is no sharp line of division between + these various unlearned tendencies; what one psychologist calls a + reflex or a series of reflexes, another will call an instinct. It + seems better to consider them as of the same general character but + differing from each other in simplicity, definiteness, uniformity of + response, variableness among individuals, and modifiability. They + range from movements such as the action of the blood vessels to those + concerned in hunting and collecting; from the simple, definite, + uniform knee-jerk, which is very similar in all people and open to + very little modification, to the capacity for scholarship, which is + extremely complex, vague as to definition, variable both as to + manifestation in one individual and amounts amongst people in + general, and is open to almost endless modification. This fund of + unlearned tendencies is the capital with which each child starts, the + capital which makes education and progress possible, as well as the + capital which limits the extent to which progress and development in + any line may proceed." _The Psychology of Childhood_, pp. 21, 22, 23. + +Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, begins his second +chapter in a rather unique and helpful manner relative to this same +question: + + "The little human animal, like every other, is born going. He is + already wound up. His lungs expand and contract; his heart is pumping + away; his stomach is ready to handle food. These organic, vital + activities he does not initiate. They begin themselves. The organism + possesses them by nature. They are the very conditions of life. + + "There are many other activities, not so obviously vital as these, + for which nature winds him up quite as thoroughly--yes, and sets him + to go off at the proper time for each. He will suck when brought to + the breast as unfailingly as his lungs will begin to work upon + contact with the air. He will cry from hunger or discomfort, clasp + anything that touches his fingers or toes, carry to his mouth + whatever he can grasp, in time smile when smiled at, later grow + afraid when left alone or in the dark, manifest anger and affection, + walk, run, play, question, imitate, collect things, pull things + apart, put them together again, take pleasure in being with friends, + act shy before strangers, find a chum, belong to a 'gang' or 'bunch,' + quarrel, fight, become reconciled, and some day fall in love with one + of the opposite sex. These, and many more, are just his natural human + ways. He does not of purpose initiate them any more than he initiates + breathing or heart-beat. He does these things because he is so born + and built. They are his instincts." + +As Norsworthy and Whitley point out, we are not especially concerned +with the boundary lines between automatic actions, reflexes, and +instincts--we are rather concerned with the fact that human beings +possess native tendencies to act in particular ways. Some psychologists +stress them as instincts; others as capacities, but they have all pretty +generally agreed that under certain stimuli there are natural tendencies +to react. + +These tendencies begin to manifest themselves at birth--they are all +potentialities with the birth of the child--and continue to develop in +turn, certain ones being more pronounced in the various stages of the +child's life. Colvin in his _The Learning Process_, runs through the +complete list of possibilities. According to him man, in a lifetime, is +characterized by the following tendencies: Fear, anger, sympathy, +affection, play, imitation, curiosity, acquisitiveness, +constructiveness, self-assertion (leadership), self-abasement, rivalry, +envy, jealousy, pugnacity, clannishness, the hunting and predatory +instincts, the migratory instinct, love of adventure and the unknown, +superstition, the sex instincts, which express themselves in sex-love, +vanity, coquetry, modesty; and, closely allied with these, the love of +nature and of solitude, and the aesthetic, the religious, and the moral +emotions. + +Sisson, in a little book that every teacher ought to know, _The +Essentials of Character_, emphasizes the importance for teaching of ten +tendencies: bodily activity, sense-hunger and curiosity, suggestibility, +tastes and aesthetic appreciation, self-assertion, love, joy, fear, the +growing-up impulse, the love of approbation. + +As already indicated, the teacher should give attention to these +tendencies that he may the better know how to proceed. If he knows that +the one great outstanding impulse of a boy of seven is to do something, +he perhaps will be less likely to plan an hour's recitation on the +theory that for that hour the boy is to do nothing. If he knows that one +of the greatest tendencies of boys from ten to fourteen is to organize +"gangs" for social and "political" purposes, he will very likely +capitalize on this idea in building up a good strong class spirit. + +Knowing that children naturally respond to certain stimuli in very +definite ways, the teacher can better set about to furnish the right +stimuli--he can be in a better position to _direct and control +behavior_. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VII + +1. What significance attaches to the statement, "Children are born +'going'"? + +2. Why is it of vital importance that teachers give attention to the +native tendencies in children? + +3. What constitutes instinctive action? Illustrate. + +4. Name the instincts that are essentially individualistic. Those that +are essentially social. + +5. What native tendencies are of most concern to teachers? + +6. Discuss the relative significance of heredity, environment, and +training in the development of children. + +7. To what extent is a child limited in its development by its nervous +system? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of Childhood_; Weigle, _Talks to +Sunday School Teachers_; Colvin, _The Learning Process_; Sisson, _The +Essentials of Character_; Stiles, _The Nervous System and its +Conservation_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Harrison, _A Study +of Child Nature_; Kirkpatrick, _Fundamentals of Child Study_. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +"WHAT TO DO WITH NATIVE TENDENCIES" + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER VIII + + Characteristic tendencies of the various stages of child life.--The + teacher's attitude toward them.--Follow the grain. + + Four methods of procedure: 1. The method of disuse; 2. The method + of rewards and punishment; 3. The method of substitution; 4. The + method of stimulation and sublimation. + + +Having listed the native tendencies generally, we might well now +consider them as they manifest themselves at the various stages of an +individual's development. As already indicated, they constitute his +birthright as a human being, though most of them are present in the +early years of his life only in potentiality. Psychologists of recent +years have made extensive observations as to what instincts are most +prominent at given periods. Teachers are referred particularly to the +volumes of Kirkpatrick, Harrison, and Norsworthy and Whitley. In this +latter book, pages 286, 287, and 298-302, will be found an interesting +tabulation of characteristics at the age of five and at eleven. For the +years of adolescence Professor Beeley, in his course at the Brigham +Young Summer School, in the Psychology of Adolescence, worked out very +fully the characteristics unique in this period, though many of them, of +course, are present at other stages: + + +CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUE IN THE ADOLESCENT PERIOD + + 1. Maturing of the sex instincts. + 2. Rapid limb growth. + 3. Over-awkwardness. + 4. Visceral organs develop rapidly (heart, liver, lungs, genital + organs.) + 5. Change in physical proportions; features take on definite + characteristics. + 6. Brain structure has matured. + 7. Self-awareness. + 8. Personal pride and desire for social approval. + 9. Egotism. + 10. Unstable, "hair-trigger," conflicting emotions. + 11. Altruism, sincere interest in the well-being of others. + 12. Religious and moral awakening. + 13. New attitude. + 14. Aesthetic awakening. + 15. Puzzle to everybody. + 16. Desire to abandon conventionalities, struggle for self-assertion. + 17. Career motive. + 18. Period of "palling" and mating; clique and "gang" spirit. + 19. Positiveness,--affirmation, denial. + 20. Inordinate desire for excessive amusement. + 21. Evidence of hereditary influences. + 22. "Hero worship," castle building. + 23. "Wanderlust." + 24. Hyper-suggestibility. + 25. Ideals; ambitions. + 27. Yearning for adult responsibility. + +Having listed these tendencies we still face the question, "What shall +we do with them? What is their significance in teaching?" + +It is perfectly clear, in the first place, that we ought not to ignore +them. None of them is wholly useless, and few of them can safely be +developed just as they first manifest themselves. They call for training +and direction. + + "Some instincts are to be cherished almost as they are; some rooted + out by withholding stimuli, or by making their exercise result in + pain or discomfort, or by substituting desirable habits in their + place; most of the instincts should be modified and + redirected."--(_Thorndike._) + +Our concern as teachers ought to be that in our work with boys and +girls, men and women, we are aware of these natural tendencies that we +may work with them rather than contrary to them--that we may "follow the +grain" of human nature. + +Since these tendencies are the result of responses to stimuli they may +be modified by attention either to the stimuli or to the reaction that +attends the stimulation. Four methods call for our consideration: + + 1. The method of disuse. + 2. The method of rewards and punishments. + 3. The method of substitution. + 4. The method of stimulation and sublimation. + +No one of these methods can be said always to be best. The nature of the +person in question, his previous experience and training, together with +the circumstances attending a given situation, all are factors which +determine how we should proceed. The vital point is, that both as +parents and teachers we should guard against falling into the rut of +applying the same treatment to all cases regardless of their nature. + + +1. THE METHOD OF DISUSE + +This method is largely negative. It aims to safeguard an individual +against ills by withholding stimuli. The mother aims to keep scissors +out of reach and sight of the baby that it may not be lured into danger. +Some parents, upon discerning that the pugnacious instinct is +manifesting itself vigorously in their boy, isolate him from other +boys--keep him by himself through a period of a year or more that the +tendency may not be accentuated. Other parents, observing their +daughter's inclination to be frivolous, or seeing the instinct of sex +begin to manifest itself in her interest in young men, send her away to +a girl's school--a sort of intellectual nunnery. + +Frequently teachers follow this method in the conduct of their classes. +The tendency to self-assertion and verbal combat, natural to youth, is +smothered by an unwillingness on the part of the teacher to indulge +questions and debate or by a marked inclination to do all the talking. + +It is clear that this method of disuse has its place in the training of +children, though grave dangers attend its too frequent indulgence. +Children and others of immature judgment need the protection of +withheld stimuli. But clearly this is not a method to be recommended for +general application. The boy who is never allowed to quarrel or fight +may very possibly grow up to be a man afraid to meet the battles of +life; the girl, if her natural emotions are checked, may lose those very +qualities that make for the highest type of womanhood and motherhood. +Fortunately, in these days, it is pretty nearly impossible to bring boys +and girls up in "glass houses." Doubly fortunate, for they are made +happy in their bringing up and are fitted for a world not particularly +devoted to the fondling of humankind. + + +2. THE METHOD OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS + +This method is clearly illustrated in the training of "trick" animals. +These creatures through innumerable repetitions are made to do +phenomenal "stunts." In the training for every successful "try" they are +rewarded with a cube of sugar, a piece of candy, or some other +pleasure-producing article; for every miss they are punished--made to +suffer pain or discomfort. This same sort of procedure carries over into +human affairs. Witness the hickory stick and the ruler, or count the +nickels and caresses. Ridicule before the class, and praise for +commendable behavior or performance, are typical of this same method. If +it is followed, and it clearly has a place in the training of children, +care should be exercised to see that in the child's mind in any case +there is clear connection between what he has done and the treatment +that he receives. With some parents it fairly seems as if their one +remedy for all offenses is a tingling in the epidermis--it is equally +clear that with some teachers their one weapon is sarcasm. All too +frequently these measures grow out of unsettled nerves or stirred up +passions, on the part of the parent or teacher, and have really but +little connection--remote at best--with the offense in question. There +may be an abuse in the matter of rewards, too, of course, but as a rule +few classes suffer from too much appreciation. The real art of +discipline lies in making the reward or the punishment naturally grow +out of the conduct indulged in. + + +3. THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION + +Because of the fact that some stimuli inevitably lead to discomfort and +disaster--that some conduct is bad--there is need of a method of +substitution. The child's mind needs to be led from the contemplation of +an undesirable course of action to something quite different. Frequently +a child cannot be satisfied with a mere denial, and circumstances may +not be favorable to punishment--yet the correction must be made. +Substitution is the avenue of escape. A striking illustration in point +occurred recently in a cafe in Montana. A trio of foreigners, father, +mother, and two-year-old son, came in and sat down at one of the tables. +Soon after the parents began to eat, the child caught sight of a little +silver pitcher for which he began to beg. Whining and crying, mixed in +with the begging, created a good bit of disturbance. The only attempted +solution on the part of the parents was a series of: "Don't do that!" +"No! no!" "Keep quiet, Marti!" a continued focusing of the child's +attention on what he ought not to do, and an added note to the +disturbance. Then an American across the aisle having surveyed the +situation took out of his pocket a folder full of brightly colored +views. The charm worked beautifully--the meal went on free from +disturbance--and the child was happy. + +This method involves a good bit of resourcefulness, calling at times +for what seems an impossible amount of ingenuity. As someone has said, +"It is beating the other fellow to it." It merits the consideration of +those who have to handle boys and girls who are regularly up to +"stunts." + + +4. THE METHOD OF STIMULATION AND SUBLIMATION + +This method is rather closely akin to that of substitution, with the +exception that it capitalizes on tendencies already in operation and +raises them to a higher level. Stimulation, of course, merely means the +bringing of children into contact with desirable stimuli on every +possible occasion; in fact, it involves the making of favorable +occasions. + +Sublimation involves building upon native tendencies to an elevated +realization. Educationally this method is most full of promise. It is +seen in kindergarten methods when a child is led from mere meaningless +playing with toys to constructive manipulation of blocks, tools, etc. It +is seen admirably in football where the pugnacious tendency of boys is +capitalized on to build manliness in struggle and to develop a spirit of +fair play. It is seen in the fostering of a girl's fondness for dolls, +so that it may crystallize into the devotion of motherhood. It is seen +when a boys' man leads a "gang" of boys into an association for social +betterment. It is seen when a teacher works upon the instinct to collect +and hoard, elevating it into a desire for the acquisition of knowledge +and the finer things of life. + +Whatever our method, let us give due consideration to the natural +inclinations and aptitudes of boys and girls--let us help them to +achieve fully their own potentialities. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VIII + +1. Point out the essential differences between boys and girls at the age +of six and seven and those of sixteen and seventeen. + +2. Discuss the significance of the following phrase: "The grain in human +nature." + +3. How can the hunting instinct be appealed to in religious stimulation? + +4. Of what significance is the "gang spirit" to teachers of adolescents? + +5. How can rivalry be made an asset in teaching? + +6. How can the fighting instinct in children best be directed? + +7. Why is biography so valuable in material for teaching? + +8. Why is it so essential that we put responsibility upon boys and +girls? How should this fact affect teaching? + +9. What are the dangers that attend an attempt to keep children quiet +for any length of time? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter VII. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER IX + + Fundamental significance of individual differences.--Typical + illustration.--The truth illustrated physically; in range of voice, + in speed, in mental capabilities.--The same truth applied + spiritually.--Some cases in point. + + +Everybody is like everybody else in this--that everybody is different +from everybody else. Having discussed how all men enjoy a common +heritage by way of native endowments, let us now turn to a consideration +of how men differ. + +Two of the terms most frequently met in recent educational publications +are statistical methods and individual differences. There is nothing +particularly new in this latter term--it merely represents a new +emphasis being given to the old idea that no two of us are alike. Every +parent is aware of the very marked differences in his children. Even +twins differ in disposition and mental capabilities. In fact, one of the +difficulties that attaches to parenthood is just this problem of making +provision in one household for such various personalities. + +A member of the stake presidency in one of the stakes in southern Utah, +in discussing this matter a short time ago, remarked that in his family +of four boys one very definitely had decided to become a farmer and was +already busy at getting acquainted with the details of the work; a +second boy was devoted to music and voiced a very vigorous protest +against farming; the third son was so bashful and reticent that he +hadn't given expression to any notion of preference; the fourth, a +happy-go-lucky sort of chap, free and noisy in his cutting up about the +place, wasn't worrying about what he was to do in life--he just didn't +want anything to do with strenuous effort. + +"How can I drive a four-horse team such as that?" was the interesting +query of this father. + +Practically every family presents this variety of attitude and +practically every parent is trying to work out a solution to the +problem, so there is nothing startling about the term individual +differences. Educators have just given the matter more careful and +scholarly attention of recent years. + +If the matter of differences in children constitutes a problem of +concern in a family of from two to ten children, how much greater must +that problem be in a class from thirty to fifty with approximately as +many families represented. The problem has led to some very interesting +investigations--investigations so simple that they can be carried on by +anyone interested. For instance, if we could line up all the men in Salt +Lake City according to size we should find at one end of the line a few +exceptionally tall men, likely from six feet to six feet six inches in +height. At the other end of the line would be a few exceptionally small +men--undersized men from three feet eight or ten inches to four feet six +inches. In between these two types would come in graduated order all +sorts of men with a decidedly large number standing about five feet six +or eight inches. This latter height we call the average. + +Practically we see the significance of these differences. No +manufacturer thinks of making one size of overall in the hope that it +will fit each of these men. He adapts his garment to their size, and he +knows approximately how many of each size will be called for in the +course of ordinary business. + +If these same men could be taken one by one into a music studio and have +their voices tested for range, the same interesting variations would be +found. There would be a few very high tenors, a few exceptionally low +bassos, and a crowd with medium range with fillers-in all along the +line. + +If we were interested in carrying the experiment still further we might +apply the speed test. In a 100-yard dash a few men would be found to be +particularly fast, a few others would trail away behind at a snail's +pace, while the big crowd of men would make the distance in "average +time." + +Of course, it would be foolish to attempt to make tenors of all these +men--equally foolish to try to make speeders of them all. In these +practical matters we appreciate the wisdom of letting each man fit into +that niche for which he is qualified. + +Nor are these differences confined to the field of physical +characteristics and achievements. Tests by the hundred have demonstrated +beyond all question that they hold equally well of mental capabilities. +In the past children have gone to school at the age of six. They have +remained there because they were six. At seven they were in grade two, +and so on up through the grades of our public schools. Tests and +measurements now, however, are showing that such a procedure works both +a hardship and an injustice on the pupils. Some boys at six are found as +capable of doing work in grade two as other boys at eight. Some boys and +girls at six are found wholly incapable of doing what is required in +grade one. One of the most promising prospects ahead educationally is +that we shall be able to find out just the capacity of a child +regardless of his age, and fit him into what he can do well, making +provisions for his passing on as he shows capability for higher work. +Not only has this matter of individual differences been found to apply +generally in the various grades of our schools--it has been found to +have significant bearing upon achievements in particular subjects. For +all too long a time we have held a boy in grade four until he mastered +what we have called his grade four arithmetic, spelling, geography, +grammar, history, etc. As a matter of fact, many a boy who is a +fourth-grader in grammar may be only a second-grader in arithmetic--a +girl, for whom fourth grade arithmetic is an impossibility, because of +her special liking for reading, may be seventh grade in her capacity in +that subject. In the specific subjects, individual differences have been +found to be most marked. Surely it is unfair to ask a boy "born short" +in history to keep up to the pace of a comrade "born long" in that +subject; so, too, it is unfair to ask a girl "born long" in geography to +hold back to the pace of one "born short" in that subject. The results +of these observations are leading to developments that are full of +promise for the educational interests of the future. + +In order that we may more fully appreciate the reality of these +observations let us set down the concrete results of a few experiments. + +The first three tests are quoted from Thorndike: + +In a test in addition, all pupils being allowed the same time, + + 1 pupil did 3 examples correctly + 2 pupils did 4 examples correctly + 1 pupil did 5 examples correctly + 5 pupils did 6 examples correctly + 2 pupils did 7 examples correctly + 4 pupils did 8 examples correctly + 6 pupils did 9 examples correctly + 14 pupils did 10 examples correctly + 8 pupils did 11 examples correctly + 7 pupils did 12 examples correctly + 8 pupils did 13 examples correctly + 5 pupils did 14 examples correctly + 5 pupils did 15 examples correctly + 6 pupils did 16 examples correctly + 1 pupil did 17 examples correctly + 5 pupils did 18 examples correctly + 1 pupil did 19 examples correctly + 2 pupils did 20 examples correctly + +The rapidity of movement of ten-year-old girls, as measured by the +number of crosses made in a fixed time: + + 6 or 7 by 1 girl + 8 or 9 by 0 girl + 10 or 11 by 4 girls + 12 or 13 by 3 girls + 14 or 15 by 21 girls + 16 or 17 by 29 girls + 18 or 19 by 33 girls + 20 or 21 by 13 girls + 22 or 23 by 15 girls + 24 or 25 by 11 girls + 26 or 27 by 5 girls + 28 or 29 by 2 girls + 30 or 31 by 5 girls + 32 or 33 by 3 girls + 34 or 35 by 5 girls + 36 or 37 by 0 girl + 38 or 49 by 4 girls + 40 or 41 by 1 girl + +Two papers, A and B, written by members of the same grade and class in a +test in spelling: + + A. B. + greatful gratful + elegant eleagent + present present + patience paisionce + succeed suckseed + severe survere + accident axadent + sometimes sometimes + sensible sensible + business biusness + answer anser + sweeping sweping + properly prooling + improvement improvment + fatiguing fegting + anxious anxchus + appreciate apresheating + assure ashure + imagine amagen + praise prasy + +In a test in spelling wherein fifty common words were dictated to a +class of twenty-eight pupils, the following results were obtained: + + 2 spelled correctly all 50 + 3 spelled correctly between 45 and 48 + 5 spelled correctly between 40 and 45 + 11 spelled correctly between 30 and 40 + 6 spelled correctly between 20 and 30 + 1 spelled correctly between 15 and 20 + +And now the question--what has all this to do with the teaching of +religion? Just this: the differences among men as found in fields +already referred to, are found also in matters of religion. For one man +it is easy to believe in visions and all other heavenly manifestations; +for another it is next to impossible. To one man the resurrection is the +one great reality; to another it is merely a matter of conjecture. One +man feels certain that his prayers are heard and answered; another feels +equally certain that they cannot be. One man is emotionally spiritual; +another is coldly hard-headed and matter-of-fact. The point is not a +question which man is right--it is rather that we ought not to attempt +to reach each man in exactly the same way, nor should we expect each one +to measure up to the standards of the others. + +An interesting illustration of this difference in religious attitude was +shown recently in connection with the funeral of a promising young man +who had been taken in death just as he had fairly launched upon his +life's work. In a discussion that followed the service, one good brother +found consolation in the thought that the Lord needed just such a young +man to help carry on a more important work among the spirits already +called home. His companion in the discussion found an explanation to his +satisfaction in the thought that it was providential that the young man +could be taken when he was, that he thereby might be spared the probable +catastrophies that might have visited him had he lived. Each man found +complete solace in his own philosophy, though neither could accept the +reasoning of the other. + +An interesting case of difference of view came to the attention of the +teacher-training class at Provo when someone asked how the lesson on +Jonah could be presented so that it would appeal to adolescent boys and +girls. The query was joined in by several others for whom Jonah had been +a stumbling block, when Brother Sainsbury, of Vernal, startled the class +by saying Jonah was his favorite story. "I would rather teach that story +than any other one in the Bible," he declared, and illustrated his +method so clearly that the account of Jonah took on an entirely new +aspect. + +Many men and women in the world are shocked at the thought that God is a +personality. To them the idea that God is simply a "man made perfect," a +being similar to us, but exalted to deity, is akin to blasphemy. And +then to add the idea of a heavenly mother is beyond comprehension. To +Latter-day Saints, on the other hand, these thoughts are the very glory +of God. To them a man made perfect is the noblest conception possible. +It makes of Him a reality. And the thought of Mother--Heaven without a +Mother would be like home without one. + +And so with all the principles and conceptions of religion, men's +reactions to them are as varied as they are to all the other facts of +life. Everywhere the opinions, the capacities, the attainments of men +vary. The law of individual differences is one of the most universal in +our experience. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER IX + +1. Just what is the meaning of the term Individual Differences? + +2. Illustrate such differences in families with which you are familiar. + +3. Apply the test to your ward choir. + +4. Name and characterize twenty men whom you know. How do they differ? + +5. Have a report brought in from your public school on the results of +given tests in arithmetic, spelling, etc. + +6. Have the members of your class write their opinions relative to some +point of doctrine concerning which there may be some uncertainty. + +7. Observe the attitude and response of each of the members of a typical +Sunday School, Kindergarten, of an advanced M.I.A. class. + +8. Illustrate individual differences as expressed in the religious +attitudes of men you know. + +9. To what extent are boys different from girls in mental capability and +attitude? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter VII. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND TEACHING + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER X + + The causes of individual differences.--Norsworthy and Whitley on + the significance of parentage.--The teacher's obligation to know + parents.--The influence of sex.--Environment as a + factor.--Thorndike quoted.--B.H. Jacobsen on individual + differences. + + +So far we simply have made the point that individuals differ. We are +concerned in this chapter in knowing how these differences affect the +teaching process. Fully to appreciate their significance we must know +not only that they exist, and the degree of their variation, but also +the forces that produce them. On the side of heredity, race, family, and +sex, are the great modifying factors. Practically, of course, we are +concerned very little as Church teachers with problems of race. We are +all so nearly one in that regard that a discussion of racial differences +would contribute but little to the solution of our teaching problem. + +The matter of family heritage is a problem of very much more immediate +concern. Someone has happily said: "Really to know a boy one must know +fully his father and his mother." "Yes," says a commentator, "and he +ought to know a deal about the grandfather and grandmother." The +significance of parentage is made to stand out with clearness in the +following paragraph from Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of +Childhood_: + + "Just as good eyesight and longevity are family characteristics, so + also color blindness, left-handedness, some slight peculiarity of + structure such as an extra finger or toe, or the Hapsburg lip, sense + defects such as deafness or blindness, tendencies to certain + diseases, especially those of the nervous system,--all these run in + families. Certain mental traits likewise are obviously handed down + from parents to child, such as strong will, memory for faces, musical + imagination, abilities in mathematics or the languages, artistic + talent. In these ways and many others children resemble their + parents. The same general law holds of likes and dislikes, of + temperamental qualities such as quick temper, vivacity, lovableness, + moodiness. In all traits, characteristics, features, powers both + physical and mental and to some extent moral also, children's + original nature, their stock in trade, is determined by their + immediate ancestry. 'We inherit our parents' tempers, our parents' + conscientiousness, shyness and ability, as we inherit their stature, + forearm and span,' says Pearson." + +The teacher who would really appreciate the feelings and responses of a +boy in his class must be aware, therefore, that the boy is not merely +one of a dozen type individuals--he is a product of a particular +parentage, acting as he does largely because "he was born that way." + +We shall point out in connection with environmental influences the +importance of a teacher's knowing the home condition of his pupils; but +it is important here, in passing, to emphasize the point that even +though a child were never to live with its parents it could be +understood by the teacher acquainted with the peculiar traits of those +parents. "Born with a bent" is a proverb of such force that it cannot be +ignored. To know the parental heritage of a boy is to anticipate his +reaction to stimuli--is to know what approach to make to win him. + +Because of the fact that in many of our organizations we are concerned +with the problem of teaching boys and girls together, the question of +the influence of sex is one which we must face. There are those who hold +that boys and girls are so fundamentally different by nature that they +ought not to be taught coeducationally. Others maintain that they are +essentially alike in feeling and intellectuality, and that because of +the fact that eventually they are to be mated in the great partnership +of life they should be held together as much as possible during the +younger years of their lives. Most authorities are agreed that boys and +girls differ not so much because they are possessed of different native +tendencies, but because they live differently--they follow different +lines of activity, and therefore develop different interests. To quote +again from Norsworthy and Whitley: + + "That men and women are different, that their natures are not the + same, has long been an accepted fact. Out of this fact of difference + have grown many hot discussions as to the superiority of one or the + other nature as a whole. The present point of view of scientists + seems well expressed by Ellis when he says, 'We may regard all such + discussions as absolutely futile and foolish. If it is a question of + determining the existence and significance of some particular + physical sexual difference, a conclusion may not be impossible. To + make any broad statement of the phenomena is to recognize that no + general conclusion is possible. Now and again we come across facts + which group themselves with a certain uniformity, but as we continue, + we find other equally important facts which group themselves with + equal uniformity in another sense. The result produces compensation.' + The question of interest then is, what in nature is peculiar to the + male sex and what to the female? What traits will be true of a boy, + merely because he is a boy, and vice versa? This has been an + extremely difficult question to answer, because of the difficulty + encountered in trying to eliminate the influence of environment and + training. Boys are what they are because of their original nature + plus their surroundings. Some would claim that if we could give boys + and girls the same surroundings, the same social requirements, the + same treatment from babyhood, there would be no difference in the + resulting natures. Training undoubtedly accentuates inborn sex + differences, and it is true that a reversal of training does lessen + this difference; however, the weight of opinion at present is that + differences in intellect and character do exist because of + differences of sex, but that these have been unduly magnified. H.B. + Thompson, in her investigation entitled _The Mental Traits of Sex_, + finds that 'Motor ability in most of its forms is better developed in + men than in women. In strength, rapidity of movement, and rate of + fatigue, they have a very decided advantage, and in precision of + movement a slight advantage.... The thresholds are on the whole lower + in women, discriminative sensibility is on the whole better in + men.... All these differences, however, are slight. As for the + intellectual faculties, women are decidedly superior to men in + memory, and possibly more rapid in associative thinking. Men are + probably superior in ingenuity.... The data on the life of feeling + indicate that there is little, if any, sexual difference in the + degree of domination by emotion, and that social consciousness is + more prominent in men, and religious consciousness in women.' + + "Pearson, in his measurement of traits, not by objective tests but by + opinions of people who know the individual, finds that boys are more + athletic, noisy, self-assertive, self-conscious; less popular, duller + in conscience, quicker-tempered, less sullen, a little duller + intellectually and less efficient in penmanship. Heymans and Wiersma, + following the same general method as Pearson, state as their general + conclusions that the female is more active, more emotional, and more + unselfish than the male. 'They consider women to be more impulsive, + less efficient intellectually, and more fickle than men as a result + of the first two differences mentioned above; to be gifted in music, + acting, conversation and the invention of stories, as a result in + part of the second difference; and to think well of people and to be + easily reconciled to them as a result of the third.' Thorndike finds + the chief differences to be that the female varies less from the + average standard, is more observant of small visual details, less + often color-blind, less interested in things and their mechanisms, + more interested in people and their feelings, less given to pursuing, + capturing and maltreating living things, and more given to nursing, + comforting and relieving them than is the male. H. Ellis considers + the chief differences to be the less tendency to variability, the + greater affectability, and the greater primitiveness of the female + mind, and the less ability shown by women in dealing with the more + remote and abstract interests in life. All the authors emphasize the + smallness of the differences; and after all the striking thing is not + the differences between the sexes, but the great difference within + the same sex in respect to every mental trait tested. The difference + of man from man, and woman from woman, in any trait is almost as + great as the differences between the sexes in that trait. Sex can be + the cause, then, of only a fraction of the difference between the + original nature of individuals." + +It is reasonably certain, then, that a teacher may safely appeal to both +boys and girls on the ground of the fundamental instincts, feeling +confident that common stimuli will produce largely the same results. + +Important as it is that we know what our pupils are from their +parentage, it is even more important in the matter of religious +instruction that we shall appreciate the force of the varieties of +environment that have been operative. Though boys and girls may be +essentially alike at the outset of their lives they may be thrown into +such associations as to make their ideals and conduct entirely +different. Fancy the contrast between the case of a girl brought up for +fifteen years in a household of refinement and in a companionship of +gentility, and the case of a boy who during the same years has been the +pal of bullies on street corners. Surely stimuli that are to promote +proper reaction in these two cases will have to be suited to the person +in question. + +Then, too, the teacher must realize that one child may come from a home +of faith, confidence, and contentment; whereas, another may come from a +home of agitation, doubt, and suspicion. One may have been taught to +pray--another may have been led to disbelieve. One may have been +stimulated to read over sacred books--another may have been left to +peruse cheap, sensational detective stories. To succeed in reaching the +hearts of a group of such boys and girls, a teacher surely ought to be +aware of individual differences and ought to be fortified with a wealth +of material so that the appeal may be as varied as possible. To quote +from Thorndike's _Principles of Education_: + + "A teacher has to choose what is for the greatest good of the + greatest number. He cannot expect to drive forty children abreast + along the highroad of education." "Yet the differences in children + should not blind us to their likenesses." "We need general principles + and their sagacious application to individual problems." + + "The worst error of teachers with respect to individual differences + is to neglect them, to form one set of fixed habits for dealing with + all children, to teach 'the child instead of countless different + living individuals.' To realize the varieties of human nature, the + nature and amount of mental differences, is to be protected against + many fallacies of teaching." + +Our treatment of individual differences was well summed up in the +following paper by B.H. Jacobsen, a member of the B.Y.U. +Teacher-Training class: + + _The Significance of Individual Differences in Teaching_ + + "Individual instruction in our religious organizations as in the + public schools is under present condition impracticable. We are + compelled to teach in groups or classes of somewhat varying size. + Consequently, it is of prime importance for the teacher, in trying to + apply that fundamental principle of pedagogy--an understanding of the + being to be taught--to know first what characteristics and + tendencies, whether native or acquired, are known to a large majority + of the children in the class. Leaving out of consideration the + possible presence of subnormal children, the language used must be + clear and simple enough to be comprehended by all; the great majority + of the questions must be intended for all to find answers to; the + stories, illustrations, incidents, pictures, and various devices + employed must be reasonably within the range of experience and + comprehension of all members. + + "At the same time, it is important to recognize the fact that, after + all, the class as a whole does not in any very fundamental, + pedagogical sense constitute the objective unit of instruction. + Though it seems natural for most teachers to look upon the class as a + more or less uniform mass, and the exigencies of the situation make + this to some extent unavoidable, still the individual child remains + always the real unit, and furthermore the units are all different--in + appearance, training and temperament. + + "In general the methods and material will be uniform for all, but + there will still be abundant opportunity for exercising little + individual touches and tricks in relation to individual pupils, + especially those who vary somewhat widely from the average. Even such + a superficial matter as size, especially superior size, might + profitably receive a little special consideration by the teacher and + thus at times save some pupil a little physical embarrassment. The + boy unusually active might be given some physical task to perform, + even if it has to be provided for the occasion, though it must not be + too artificially created, as this is sure of detection. + + "Questions requiring more than ordinary mental ability to answer may + be directed to those of superior alertness and intelligence, who may + also be given more difficult subjects to look up for presentation to + the class. Special interests in animals, flowers, books, aeroplanes, + industries, vocations, should be discovered and utilized by the + watchful teacher. Even though the connection may be a little remote, + any contribution of real interest and value is legitimate in order to + relieve the monotony of a dull class. + + "Pupils differ very widely in temperament and disposition as well as + in capacity. The timid boy or girl should be given special + encouragement and commendation, while the over-bold will take no + injury from a mild "squelch" occasionally. The child of gloomy + disposition should if anything have more smiles and sunny words sent + his way than the cheerful one, who is in no danger of losing his + share. The talkative child will need cautioning and careful + directing, while the one who seldom speaks needs the frequent + stimulus of a kind and encouraging look or word. The child who is + naturally docile and obedient will develop smoothly and without great + need of special attention and direction, while the stubborn, the + rebellious, the untractable child, the cause of continual worry and + solicitude, is the one on whom special thought must be bestowed; for + his soul is no less precious in the sight of God, and the wise + teacher may be the means of making him a useful citizen, as well as + directing him in the way of working out his eternal salvation." + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER X + +1. Discuss the relative significance of race, sex, family, and +environment as factors producing individual differences. + +2. Why is it essential that teachers know the parents of pupils? + +3. What are the advantages of having boys and girls together in class? +What are the arguments for separating them? + +4. How can a teacher be governed by the force of individual differences +when he has to teach a group of forty pupils? + +5. Discuss the statement that teaching is both a social and an +individual process. + +6. Choose a subject of general interest and illustrate how it might be +presented to satisfy different types of pupils. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter VII. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +ATTENTION + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XI + + Attention the mother of learning.--Gregory quoted.--The fact of + attention in the Army.--What attention + is.--Illustrations.--Attention and interest.--The three types of + attention: Involuntary, nonvoluntary, voluntary.--How to secure + attention.--Interest the great key to attention. + + +In that stimulating little book, _The Seven Laws of Teaching_, by +Gregory, _et al_, the second law is stated in these words: + + "A _learner_ is one who _attends_ with interest to the lesson." + +Expressed as a rule of teaching, the law is made to read: + + "Gain and keep the attention and interest of the pupils upon the + lesson. Do not try to teach without attention." + +As a matter of fact, it is impossible to teach without attention. A +person may hold class--go through the formality of a class exercise--but +he can _really teach_ only him who _attends_. The first big, outstanding +thought with reference to attention is that we should secure it, not so +much in the interest of order, important as it is in that connection, +but because it is the _sine qua non_ of _learning_. + +A boy may sit in a class in algebra for weeks, with his mind far afield +on some pet scheme, or building palatial edifices in the air, but not +until he _attends_ does he begin to grasp the problems presented. It is +literally as well as scripturally possible "to have ears and hear not." +_Attention_ is the mother of learning. + +Think of the force of that word _attention_ in the American Army. It is +a delight to see the ranks straighten to that command--would that our +messages of truth could challenge the same response from that vast army +of seekers after truth--the boys and girls of the Church. The soldier at +attention not only stands erect, nor does he merely keep silence--he is +eagerly receptive--anxious to receive a message which he is to translate +into action. His attitude, perhaps, is our best answer to the question, +"What is attention?" Betts says, "The concentration of the mind's energy +on one object of thought is attention." + +As Magnusson expresses it, "Attention is the centering of consciousness +on a portion of its contents." And Angell adds, "Attention is simply a +name for the central and most active portion of the field of +consciousness." + +The mind, of course, during waking hours, is never merely passive. With +its flood of ideas it is always recalling, observing, comparing, +analyzing, building toward conclusions. These processes go on +inevitably--go on with little concern about attention. But when we +narrow the field--when we bring our mental energy to a focus on +something specific and particular we then _attend_. + +Betts, in his _The Mind and Its Education_, very happily illustrates the +meaning of attention: + + "_Attention Measures Mental Efficiency._--In a state of attention the + mind may be likened to the rays of the sun which have been passed + through a burning glass. You may let all the rays which can pass + through your window pane fall hour after hour upon the paper lying on + your desk, and no marked effects follow. But let the same amount of + sunlight be passed through a lens and converged to a point the size + of your pencil, and the paper will at once burst into flame." + +To follow another analogy, attention is to the energies of the mind what +the pipe line leading into the power plant is to the water in the canyon +above. It directs and concentrates for the generation of power. Just as +the water might run on and on to little or no purpose, so the energies +of a boy or girl may be permitted to drift aimlessly toward no +conviction unless the teacher wins him to an attention that rivets truth +to his life. + +In a discussion of attention the question of the relation of interest to +attention is bound to arise. Do we attend to things because they are +interesting? Or are we interested in things because we give them our +attention? The two terms are so interwoven in meaning that they are +frequently treated under one chapter heading. Our purpose here is not to +attempt to divorce them, but rather to give them emphasis because of +their significance in the teaching process. + +Attention denotes a focusing of mental energy on a particular idea or +object; interest, subjectively considered, is an attitude of mind. +Perhaps we can get a clearer idea of the two terms if we consider the +various types of attention. First of all there is what is called +_Involuntary_ attention. This is the type over which the mind has little +or no control. A person sits reading--his attention fixed on the page in +front of him--when suddenly a rock crashes through the window +immediately behind him. He jumps to see what is wrong. His attention to +his book is shifted to the window, not because he wills it so, but +because of the suddenness and force of the stimulus. The excitation of +the auditory nerve centers compels attention. The attendant feeling may +be one of pleasure or of pain--there may be an interest developed or +there may not. Involuntary attention clearly does not rest upon +interest. + +Then there is what is called _Nonvoluntary_ attention. I go to a theatre +and some particular musical number is featured. It grips my interest and +I follow it with rapt attention, wholly without conscious effort. Unlike +the case of a sudden noise, in this experience my attention is not +physiologically automatic--I could control it if I chose--but I choose +now to give it. Interest clearly is the motor power behind such +attention. Then, finally, there is _Voluntary_ attention. I sit at a +table working out a problem in arithmetic. Outside there is being played +a most exciting ball game. My interests are almost wholly centered in +the outcome of the game, but duty bids me work out my problem. I make +myself attend to it in spite of the pull of my natural interests. + +And so attention is seen to be purely the result of physiological +stimulus; it is seen to accompany--fairly to be born out of +it--interest. It is seen to be the result of an operation of the will +against the natural force of interest. This three-fold classification is +of particular significance to the teacher. He may be sure that if he +resorts to the use of unusual stimuli he can arrest attention, though by +so doing he has no guarantee of holding it; he may feel certain of +attention if he can bring before pupils objects and ideas which to them +are interesting; he may so win them to the purposes of his recitation +that they will give attention even though they are not interested in +what may be going on for the time being. It is evident, however, that +resorting to violent stimuli is dangerous, that forced attention is +ultimately disagreeable and certainly not a modern commonplace in +experience, that attention which attends genuine interest is the +attention most generally to be sought. + +One question still remains: "How shall we proceed to secure and to hold +attention?" + +In the first place we should remind ourselves that it is a difficult +matter to give sustained attention to a single object or idea, unless +the object or idea changes. The difficulty is greater with children than +with adults. In the second place we should be mindful that it is poor +policy either to demand attention or to beg for it. + +Where attention has to be secured out of disorder we are justified in +making use of stimuli that shock pupils into attention. One of the best +illustrations of this sort of procedure was the method used in the David +Belasco theatre in New York to get audiences quiet for the opening of +the performances. Mr. Belasco was convinced that the orchestra had +become a mere accompaniment to the clatter and noise of the audience and +so he did not trust to that means to secure order. In fact, he discarded +the orchestra idea. At the appointed hour for the curtain to rise, his +theatre became suddenly dark. So dark that the blackness was startling. +Immediately upon the silence that attended the shock the soft chiming of +bells became audible which led the audience to strain in an attempt to +catch fully the effect of the chime. At that point the curtains were +drawn and the first lines of the play fell upon the ears of a perfectly +quiet audience. + +It is safer and better, of course, to anticipate disorder by getting the +lesson under way in an interesting manner. These artificial devices are +serviceable as emergency measures as well as helpful as restful +variations in a class hour. Change in posture, group exercises, periods +of relaxation, all help to make attention the more easily possible. + +The key to sustained attention, when all is said and done, is interest. +There is no substitute for the fascination of interest. As Magnusson +says: "Monotony is the great enemy of attention. Interest is the +attention-compelling element of instincts and desires." The teacher can +feel assured of success only when he is so fully prepared that his +material wins attention because of its richness and appropriateness. +Special thought should be given in the preparation of a lesson to the +attack to be made during the first two minutes of a recitation. A +pointed, vital question, a challenging statement, a striking incident, a +fascinating, appropriate story, a significant quotation--these are a few +of the legitimate challenges to attention. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XI + +1. Discuss the statement: "There is no such thing as inattention; when +pupils appear inattentive, they are singly attentive to something more +interesting than the lesson." + +2. Explain the force of attention in the learning process. + +3. What is attention? + +4. Discuss and illustrate the different types of attention. + +5. Give some practical suggestions on the securing of attention. + +6. Point out the distinction between attention and interest. + +7. Discuss the effect of monotony on attention. + +8. How do children and adults differ in their powers of attention? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Pillsburg, _Attention_; Norsworthy and Whitley, _Psychology of +Childhood_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Betts, _How to Teach +Religion_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Fitch, _The Art of +Securing Attention_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Dewey, +_Interest and Effort in Education_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a +Teacher_. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +WHAT MAKES FOR INTEREST + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XII + + Individual differences and interest.--What makes for + interest.--Interest begets interest.--Preparation is a great + guarantee.--Knowledge of the lives of boys and girls a great + help.--The factors of interestingness: The Vital, The Unusual, The + Uncertain, The Concrete, The Similar, The Antagonistic, The + Animate. + + +After discussing the relation of interest to attention we still face the +question: What is it that makes an interesting object, or an idea +interesting? Why do we find some things naturally interesting while +others are dull and commonplace? Of course, everything is not equally +interesting to all people. Individual differences make clear the fact +that a certain stimulus will call for a response in one particular +person, quite unlike the response manifested in a person of different +temperament and training. But psychologists are agreed that in spite of +these differences there are certain elements of interests that are +generally and fundamentally appealing to human nature. To know what it +is that makes for interest is one of the prerequisites of good teaching. + +But before naming these "factors of interestingness," may we not also +name and discuss briefly some other essentials in the matter of creating +and maintaining interest? + +In the first place it is good to remember that a teacher who would have +his pupils interested must himself be interested. If he would see their +faces light up with the glow of enthusiasm, he must be the charged +battery to generate the current. Interest begets interest. It is as +contagious as whooping cough--if a class is exposed it is sure to catch +it. The teacher who constantly complains of a dull class, very likely +is simply facing a reaction to his own dullness or disagreeableness. +"Blue Monday" isn't properly so named merely because of the drowsy +pupil. The teacher inevitably sets the pace and determines the tone of +his class. Many a teacher when tired, or out of patience, has concluded +a recitation feeling that his pupils were about the most stupid group he +has ever faced; the same teacher keyed up to enthusiasm has felt at the +close of another recitation that these same pupils could not be +surpassed. A student with whom the writer talked a short time ago +remarked that she could always tell whether the day's class was going to +be interesting under a particular teacher as soon as she caught the mood +in which she entered the classroom. Half-heartedness, indifference, and +unpleasantness are all negative--they neither attract nor stimulate. +Interest and enthusiasm are the sunshine of the classroom--they are to +the human soul what the sun's rays are to the plant. + +The second great guarantee of interest is preparation. The teacher needs +to have his subject matter so thoroughly in mind that, free from +textbook and notes, he can reach out to a real contact with his boys and +girls. If his eyes are glued to his book, he cannot hope to arouse keen +interest. The eye is a great force in gripping the attention of a class +or audience. They want nothing to stand between them and the speaker. +Not long ago one of the most forceful and eloquent public speakers in +Utah failed miserably, in addressing a thoroughly fine audience, because +he was lost in the machinery of his notes. His material was +excellent--his power as an orator unquestioned--yet he was bound down by +a lack of preparation that cost him the mastery of his audience. + +Not only does adequate preparation enable a teacher to reach out and +take hold of his pupils; it makes it possible for him to capitalize on +the situations that are bound to arise in class discussion. A concrete +illustration to clear up a troublesome question, an appropriate incident +to hit off some general truth, a happy phrase to crystallize a +thought--all these things are born only of adequate preparation. + +Not long ago a candidate for the presidency of the United States +delighted an audience of ten thousand or more in the Salt Lake +Tabernacle by his remarkable handling of questions and comments thrown +at him from that vast audience. There was no hesitancy or uncertainty. +He spoke "as one who knew." He was prepared. He had so lived with the +questions of the day that they fairly seemed to be part of him. The +interesting teacher never teaches all he knows. His reserve material +inspires both interest and confidence. A class begins to lose interest +in a teacher the moment they suspect that his stock in trade is running +low. The mystery, "how one small head could carry all he knew," is still +fascinating. Thorough preparation, moreover, minimizes the likelihood of +routine, the monotony of which is always deadening. A class likes a +teacher--is interested in him--when it can't anticipate just what he is +going to do next and how he is going to do it. + +A further aid in holding interest is to know intimately the life of the +boys and girls taught. To appreciate fully their attitude--to know what +sort of things in life generally appeal to them--is a very great asset +to any teacher. If a teacher knows that a boy's reaction to the story of +the Israelites' crossing the Red Sea is that that story is "some bunk," +he is fortified in knowing how to present other subjects which are +similar tests to a boy's faith and understanding. To know pupils' +attitudes and mode of life is to know what sort of illustrations to use, +what emphasis to put upon emotional material, what stress to lay on +practical application. In short, it is to know just how to "connect up." +It stimulates to a testing of values so that a teacher selects and +adapts his material to the needs of the boys and girls whom he teaches. + +And, finally, as a key to interest, a teacher needs to know what the +"factors of interestingness" are. According to the findings of the +Public Speaking Department of the University of Chicago, they are summed +up in these seven terms: + + The Vital + The Unusual + The Uncertain + The Concrete + The Similar + The Antagonistic + The Animate + +This list becomes more and more helpful as it is pondered. It is +surprising to find how experience can be explained on the score of +interest by reference to these terms. Those things are vital which +pertain to life--which affect existence. Dangers are always interesting. +Catastrophies are fascinating. Just today all America is scanning the +newspapers throughout the country to find an explanation of the Wall +Street explosion. We shall not soon forget the feverish interest that +gripped the people of the world during our recent world wars. + +When life is at stake, interest runs high. So it does when property, +liberty, and other sacred rights, so vital to life, are affected. +Anything vital enough to justify the publication of an "extra" may be +depended upon to grip the interest of men and women. + +It is equally clear that a fascination attaches to things that are +unusual. New styles attract because of this fact. Let a man oddly +dressed walk along a thoroughfare--the passersby are interested +immediately. A "loud" hat or necktie, or other item of apparel, attracts +attention because it is out of the ordinary. Much of the interest and +delight in traveling lies in this element of the new and unusual which +the traveler encounters. The experiences of childhood which stand out +most prominently are usually those which at the time riveted themselves +to the mind through the interest of their extraordinariness. + +Every reader knows the fascination of uncertainty. "How will the book +turn out?" prompts many a person to turn through hundreds of pages of a +novel. An accident is interesting not only because of its vital +significance, but because there is always a question as to how seriously +those involved may be hurt. One of the clearest illustrations of the +force of the uncertain is found attending baseball games. Let the score +stand at 10 to 2 in the eighth inning and the grandstands and bleachers +begin to empty. Few spectators care to remain. The game is too clearly +settled. As the boys say, it is "sewed up" and there is nothing +uncertain to grip interest. But let the score stand 3 to 2 or 2 to 2 in +the eighth and even the man scheduled home for dinner stays to the end. +He wants to know how the game is "coming out." + +It is easier also to be interested in concrete than in abstract things. +General truths are not gripping--concrete illustrations of those truths +are. If I declare that it is important to have faith, I create but +little interest in an audience. But if I tell that same audience how +some individual has been miraculously healed through faith, I have their +interest completely. Concrete illustrations fit into and link up with +our own experiences so easily and forcefully that they are particularly +interesting. + +So, too, with things that are similar. The mind naturally links like +with like. We are fond of making comparisons. The interest in the +similar is due to that fundamental law of learning that we proceed from +what is known to that which is unknown and we proceed along points of +similarity. + +And how natural it seems to be interested in things antagonistic! Our +love of contests of all sorts is evidence of the fact. Who can resist +the interest that attaches to a quarrel--a fight--a clash of any kind. +The best of classes will leave the best of teachers, mentally at least, +to witness a dog fight. Our champion prize fighters make fortunes out of +man's interest in the antagonistic. + +And then, finally, we are interested in the animate. We like action. +Things in motion have a peculiar fascination. Who does not watch with +interest a moving locomotive? Advertising experts appreciate the appeal +of the animate, as is evidenced by the great variety of moving objects +that challenge our interest as we pass up and down the streets of a city +and we respond to the challenge. In fact, it is natural to respond to +the appeal of all of these seven terms--hence their significance in +teaching. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XII + +1. Discuss the force of individual differences in choosing material that +will be interesting. + +2. Why is it so essential that the teacher be interested in what he +hopes to interest his pupils in? + +3. Show how preparation makes for interest. + +4. Why is an intimate acquaintance with the lives of pupils so essential +a factor with the interesting teacher? + +5. Illustrate concretely the force of each of the factors of +interestingness. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter XI. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A LABORATORY LESSON IN INTEREST + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIII + + Interest should be inherent in the lesson taught.--An illustration + of "dragged in" interest.--Interest and the "easy" idea.--A proper + interpretation of interest.--How to make the subject of _Fasting_ + interesting.--The various possibilities.--How to secure interest in + the Atonement.--How to secure interest in the Resurrection.--How to + secure interest in the story of Jonah. + + +"Oh, that's all right," says one. "It is easy enough to talk about +interest, and it's easy to be interesting if you can choose anything you +like to amuse a class. But if you have to teach them theology, and +especially some of the dry lessons that are outlined for us, I don't see +how we can be expected to make our work interesting." + +Of course, there is some point to such an objection. Having been asked +to teach the truths of the gospel of Jesus Christ, we cannot defend the +practice of bringing in all kinds of material just because it is funny. +And, of course, it is true, too, that some lesson outlines upon first +thought do appear rather forbidding. But it is equally true that there +is a path of interest through the most unpromising material, though that +path does not always run alongside the teacher's highroad of ease and +unconcern. A false notion of interest is that it denotes mere +amusement--that it is something aside from serious and sober thought. + +The writer recalls visiting a class taught by a person holding such a +notion. Having given his lesson but little thought he apologized for its +lack of interest by saying, "Now, boys and girls, if you will just be +quiet while we go over the lesson, even though it isn't very +interesting, I'll read you our next chapter of _Huckleberry Finn_." And +yet the lesson, hurried over, with a little intensive study could have +been made as fascinating as the reading of _Huckleberry Finn_ and +notably more profitable. + +Another misconception relative to interest is the idea that to make a +subject interesting you must so popularize it that you cheapen it. This +idea is typified in the "snap" courses in school--courses made +interesting at the expense of painstaking application. As a matter of +fact, to cheapen a thing is ultimately to kill interest in it. Genuine +interest of real worth is born of effort and devotion to a worthy +objective. Far from dissipating the mind's energies, it heightens and +concentrates them to the mastery of the bigger and finer things of life. + +A subject to be made interesting must present some element of newness, +yet must be so linked up with the experience of the learner as to be +made comprehensible. It must, moreover, be made to appeal as essential +and helpful in the life of the learner. The two outstanding queries of +the uninterested pupil are: + + What is it all about? + What's the use? + +Let us, then, turn to two or three subjects which at first thought may +appear more or less dull to see whether there is an approach to them +that can be made interesting. + +Members of the teacher-training class at Provo were asked to name four +or five subjects which they regarded hard to stimulate interest in. They +named the following: + + Fasting. + The Fall. + The Atonement. + The Resurrection. + The Story of Jonah. + +Let us suppose that I have met my Second Intermediate class of eighteen +boys and girls to discuss the subject of fasting. I might begin by +relating an actual experience in which through fasting and prayer on the +part of the members of a particular family a little boy has just been +most miraculously restored to health, after an operation for +appendicitis. It was an infection case, and three doctors agreed there +was no possible chance of recovery. A fourth doctor held out the +possibility of one chance in a hundred. And yet a two days' fast, +coupled with a faith I have seldom seen equalled, has been rewarded by +the complete recovery of the boy, who is now thoroughly well and strong. + +Such a concrete illustration is one possibility for arousing interest. + +Or, I might proceed with a few definite, pointed questions: + +"How many of you eighteen boys and girls fasted this month?" + +The answers show that seven have fasted; eleven have not. + +I proceed then to inquire why the eleven have failed to fast. Various +explanations are offered: + +"Oh, I forgot." + +"We don't fast in our home." + +"Father has to work all day Sunday; and so, because mother has to get +breakfast for him, we all eat." + +"I have a headache if I fast, so I think it is better not to." + +"I don't see any use in fasting. Going around with a long, hungry face +can't help anyone." + +"It's easy to fast when they won't give you anything to eat." + +"I like to fast just to show myself that I don't live to be eating all +the time." + +"I believe it's a good thing to give the body a little rest once in a +while." + +"I feel different when I fast--more spiritual or something." + +"It must be right to fast. The Church wouldn't ask us to if it wasn't a +good thing." + +The definiteness of these replies, coupled with the suspense of +wondering what the next answer will be, keeps up a lively interest. + +A third possibility would be to call for the experiences of the pupils, +or experiences which have occurred in their families, or concerning +which they have read. A very rich compilation of interesting material +can be collected under such a scheme. + +Or, finally, I may choose to proceed immediately with a vigorous +analysis and discussion of the whole problem. I arouse interest by +quoting a friend who has put the query to me, "What is the use of +fasting?" and then enlist the cooperation of the class in formulating a +reply. Together we work out the possible justification of fasting. + +The following outline may represent the line of our thought: + +1. Jesus taught us to fast. + a. His forty days in the wilderness. + b. His injunction to his apostles. + +2. Our leaders have instituted fasting in these latter days. + +3. By fasting we develop a mastery over our appetites. The body is made +to serve the will. + +4. Physiologically, it is a good thing to fast. Many scientists are now +recommending regular rests for the digestive organs. + +5. Fasting makes possible an elevation of spirit. + +6. Our system of fasting makes it possible to see that no one in the +Church wants for food. + +7. Fasting enables us to appreciate the feelings of those who are less +fortunate in the world than we are, who are denied the blessings we +enjoy. + +Of course, each idea needs to be introduced and developed in a concrete, +vigorous manner. So treated, fasting can be made a very fascinating +subject. + +The following suggestions on introducing the lesson on the Resurrection +to little children have been drawn up by one of the most successful +kindergarten teachers in the Church: + +"There are several things to be considered before presenting the lesson +on the Resurrection to little children. + +"First, the teacher must feel that she _can_ present it. In other words, +she must love the story and feel the importance of it. She must also be +able to see the beautiful side and remember that she is teaching, 'There +is no death; but life eternal.' + +"The next question to consider is: How are we going to present it? We +must lead the child from the known to the unknown, through the child's +own experience. Therefore we go to nature, because all nature appeals to +the child. But in order to create the right atmosphere, the teacher in +selecting the subject must feel that what he has selected is the very +thing he wants in order to explain to the child, 'There is no death.' + +"There are several ways in which the subject may be approached through +nature. We may take the Autumn and let the children tell what happens to +the trees, flowers, and different plants. Lead them to see the condition +after the leaves are off. Then what will happen next Spring. Or we may +take one specific tree or brush and talk of the twig where the leaves +were in the summer, but have now fallen to the ground. The twig looks +dead. But on opening the bud and removing the brown covering we find the +tiny leaf inside waiting and preparing to come forth in the Spring. + +"The bulb may be used in a similar way, leading the child to see the +bulb as it is before planting, then to see what happens when we plant +it. + +"The caterpillar may also be used. Here we have the live worm getting +ready to go into his cocoon and is absent for some time; then he +returns, only in another form. A higher stage. + +"Lead the child to see that every thing in nature has a period of +changing, of apparently going away for a short time, but is not dead--it +returns to life. + +"Be sure to have the objects you are talking about before the class, +while you are discussing the subject. If not obtainable, use a picture, +or draw them." + +The problem of the story of Jonah is usually submitted with a twinkle in +the eye of him who raises the question. The world has so generally +relegated it to the heap of the impossible that even some of our own +people look rather amazed when a champion for Jonah steps forward. And +yet this story properly approached is one of the teacher's greatest +opportunities. If it is to be presented to small children it can be told +very beautifully, either as a lesson on disobedience or, from the point +of view of the people of Nineveh, as a lesson on fasting and prayer. +Little children will not be troubled with doubt and disbelief unless the +teacher fosters such attitudes. + +To older minds, of course, the story already is a good bit of a +stumbling block, and therefore needs to be given thoughtful preparation. + +At the outset, with older students, we ought to lead them into the +beauties of the story--beauties which all too frequently are wholly +unknown to the ordinary boy or girl. Read the story: + + The call that comes to Jonah. + His hesitancy. + His dodging of duty. + His selfish judgments. + His punishment. + His attitude toward the people of Nineveh. + The lesson taught. + +"Yes," says the young skeptic, "but how about the whale idea? Do you +expect us to believe that stuff? It's contrary to all natural law." + +Let's meet the issue squarely. The Bible says that Jonah was swallowed +by a big fish. Science is agreed that that part of the account is easily +possible--nothing contrary to natural law so far. + +"But what about the three days? That surely is." + +Here is a challenge. Is it possible that life can be suspended, "and +restored"? Let the scriptures testify. It was so in the case of the +daughter of Jairus. (Mark 5:22-43.) + +So was it in the case of Lazarus. (John 11:23-44.) + +Consider the case of the Son of God Himself! Buried in the tomb, +Jesus rose the third day. If you can believe in the resurrection, you +can believe in the restoration of Jonah. It is interesting to note that +Jesus Himself accepted the story of Jonah. See Matthew 12:40: + + "For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; + so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart + of the earth." + +To doubt Jonah is to question the Master. Not only so, but if a person +throws out the story of Jonah, he faces a chain of miraculous events +from one end of the Bible to the other from which he will have +difficulty to escape. You ask me to explain Jonah, I shall reply by +asking you to explain: + + The creation of man. + The flood. + The confusion of Babel. + The parting of the Red Sea. + The three Hebrews and the furnace. + Elisha and the ax. + The birth of the Savior. + His resurrection. + One-third of the account given by Matthew. + Your own birth. + +May one not accept with confidence the word of God as contained in the +Doctrine & Covenants, Sec. 35:8? + +"For I am God, and mine arm is not shortened; and I will show miracles, +signs and wonders unto all those who _believe on my name_." + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIII + +1. Discuss the proper use of stories in securing and maintaining +interest. + +2. Point out the danger of bringing in foreign "funny" material. + +3. Show how difficult subjects may be made of even greater interest than +easy ones. + +4. Use the greater part of this class hour for illustrating how to +create interest in subjects ordinarily found hard to teach. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter XI. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE MORE IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS IN TEACHING + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIV + + The steps involved in the preparation of a lesson: The aim; + organization; illustration; application; questions.--Problems + involved in the presentation of a lesson: The point of contact; + illustration; the lesson statement.--Various possibilities.--The + review: questioning; application.--The matter summarized. + + +So many textbooks have been written about teaching--so many points of +view have been advanced--such a variety of terminology has been +employed, even in the expression of a single educational notion--that +beginning teachers are frequently at a loss to know just how to set +about the task of teaching. Leaving for further consideration the more +purely theoretical aspects of our problem, let us face the questions of +most immediate concern: + + HOW TO PREPARE A LESSON. + HOW TO PRESENT A LESSON. + +Is there not a common-sense procedure which we can agree to as promising +best results in these two fundamental steps? At the outset let us agree +that preparation and presentation are inseparable aspects of but one +process. Preparation consists of the work done _behind the +scenes_--presentation involves the _getting over_ of the results of that +work to the _audience_--the class. Frequently teachers are confused +because they mistake directions governing _preparation_ as applying to +_presentation_. For instance, one teacher proceeded to drill a class of +small children on the memorizing of the aim--an abstract general +truth--unmindful of the fact that the _aim_ was set down for the +teacher's guidance--a focus for his preparation done behind the scenes. + +Though in the _preparation_ of a lesson we keep the aim clearly in +mind, and though, when we stand before our class, we let it function in +the background of our consciousness as an objective in our procedure, we +ought not to hurl it at our class. As a generalized truth it can make +but little appeal to young minds, and it ought to be self-evident, at +the end of a successful recitation, to mature minds. + +And so with the matter of organization. We skeletonize our thoughts +behind the scenes, but the skeleton is rather an unsightly specimen to +exhibit before a class. The outline should be inherent in the lesson as +presented, but it ought not to protrude so that the means will be +mistaken for an end. Subsequent chapters will illustrate both the +selection of an aim and its elaboration through suitable organization. + +The successful preparation of a lesson involves at least five major +steps. They are named here that the problem of preparation may be +grasped as a whole. Later chapters will develop at length each step in +its turn. + +1. _The Aim._ A generalized statement, a kernel of truth about which all +of the facts of the lesson are made to center. A lesson may be built up +on a passage of scripture, on the experience of a person or a people, or +on a vital question, etc. But in any case, though we are interested in +the facts involved, we are interested not in the facts as an end in +themselves, but rather because of the truth involved in the facts. In +other words, we seek to sift out of the material offered in a lesson an +essential truth which helps us in a solution of the problems of life. +Attention to the aim is a guarantee against mere running over of matter +of fact. + +2. _Organization._ A teacher should outline his lesson so that pupils +may easily follow him through the subject matter presented to the +ultimate truth that lies beyond. + +3. _Illustration._ Illustrations are what make truth vivid. Successful +teachers owe much of their success to their ability through story or +incident to drive home to the experience of pupils those fundamental +truths which in their general terms make but little appeal. One of the +most helpful practices for teachers who would become effective is the +habit of clipping and filing available illustrative material. There is a +wealth of rich, concrete matter appearing regularly in our magazines and +other publications. What is good today likely will be equally good a +year or two years hence when we shall face the problem of teaching again +today's lesson. An alphabetic letter file may be had for a few cents in +which can be filed away all sorts of helpful material. It pays to +collect and save! + +4. _Application._ Having selected his aim, the teacher knows the result +he should like to have follow his lesson, in the lives of his pupils. He +knows, too, their tendencies and their needs. In giving attention to +application he is merely making a survey of the possible channel into +which he can direct his pupils' activities. In considering application +he asks, "Of what use will this material be in the experience of my +pupils?" The test-application is the real test--both of the subject +matter presented and of the effectiveness of the presentation. + +5. _Questions._ Finally, lesson preparation is not complete unless the +teacher has formulated a few thought-provoking questions which go to the +very heart of the lesson. The question is the great challenge to the +seeker after truth. It is easy to ask questions, but to propound queries +that stir pupils to an intellectual awakening is a real art. Surely no +preparation can be fully complete unless it involves: + + The selection of an aim. + The orderly organization of material. + The collecting of rich illustrations. + The pondering of facts to their application. + The formulating of at least a few thoroughly stimulating questions. + +Can we not agree to these steps as fundamental in the proper preparation +of our lessons in all of our Church organizations? + +With the subject matter well in mind--the work behind the scenes +completed, the teacher is then prepared for the problem of +presentation--is ready to appear on the stage of class activity. The +first outstanding problem in lesson presentation is that of the _Point +of Contact_. This is a phrase variously interpreted and often +misunderstood. Perhaps it is not the happiest expression we could wish, +but it is so generally used and is so significant when understood that +we ought to standardize it and interpret it as it affects our Church +work. + +When a class assembles for recitation purposes its members present +themselves with all kinds of mental attitudes and mind content. The +various groups of a Mutual class may have been engaged in all sorts of +activities just before entering their classroom. One group may have been +discussing politics; another may have been engaged in a game of ball; a +third may have been practicing as a quartette; and still a fourth may +have been busy at office work. Facing such a collection of groups stands +a teacher who for an hour or more has dismissed all temporal matters, +and has been pondering the spiritual significance of prayer. Evidently +there is a great mental chasm between them. Their coming together and +thinking on common ground involves the _Point of Contact_. There must +be contact if an influence for good is to be exerted. Either the teacher +must succeed in bringing the boys to where he is "in thought," or he +must go to "where they are." + +Teachers in Bible lessons all too frequently hurry off into the Holy +Land, going back some two thousand years, and leaving their pupils in +Utah and in the here and the present. No wonder that pupils say of such +a teacher, "We don't 'get' him." To proceed without preparing the minds +of pupils for the message and discussion of the lesson is like planting +seed without having first plowed and prepared the ground. + +In the Bible lesson, it would be easy to bridge over from the interests +of today to those of Bible days. Suppose our lesson is on Joseph who was +sold into Egypt. Instead of proceeding at once with a statement as to +the parentage of Joseph, etc., we might well center the interests of +these various-minded boys on a current observation of today--a +wonderfully fine harvest field of grain. They have all seen that. Make a +striking observation relative to the grain, or put a question that will +lead them to do that for you. Having raised an issue, you continue by +inquiring whether or not the same conditions have prevailed elsewhere +and at other times. Did they prevail in the days of Israel? The step +then to the story of Joseph's dream, etc., is an easy one. + +This illustration, though simple and more or less crude, indicates that +to establish a point of contact, we must reach out to where the pupil +now is, and lead easily and naturally to where you would have him go. +Surely we cannot presume that he has already traveled the same +intellectual road that we have gone over. + +Suppose we face a group of adolescent boys to teach them a lesson on the +importance of their attending church. If we proceed with a preachment +on their duties and obligations, we are quite certain to lose their +interest. Boys do not like to be preached at. + +We know, however, that they are interested in automobiles. By starting +out with some vital observation or question out of the automobile world, +we may count on their attention. Following the discussion thus raised, +we might then inquire the purpose of the garages that we find along all +public highways. We could dwell upon the significance of repairs in +maintaining the efficiency of cars. Now we are prepared for the query, +Is it not essential that we have spiritual garages for the souls of men, +garages where supplies and repairs may be had? + + The "gas" of faith. + The "oil" of consolation. + The "adjustment" of repentance. + The "charging" of our spiritual batteries, etc. + +Once led into the subject, boys can be made to see that spiritual +problems are even more vital than material ones. + +The point of contact established, we next face the matter of _Lesson +Statement_. The subject matter must either be in mind already because of +home preparation, or the teacher must supply it. In the smaller classes +the teacher generally will have to tell in good part what he wishes to +convey; in the larger classes, there are the possibilities of home +preparation, topical reports, the lecture, and the socialized recitation +built up by questions and discussions. It is not intended here to +discuss the various methods of lesson presentation--the thought being +simply that in some way the lesson statement must be presented. + +Then there is the problem of connecting up the present lesson with those +that have already been presented. The review is a vital factor in +fixing in the mind the relative value of material covered. + +Then, too, there is the matter of questioning to test knowledge and +stimulate discussion, together with the weaving in of illustrative +material that has already been thought out or which may suggest itself +as the lesson progresses. If, as all this material has been presented, +the application has been made sufficiently clear to the pupils, the +presentation is complete; otherwise avenues of action should be pointed +out, care being taken to stimulate rather than to moralize. + +In conclusion, then, we have the matter of preparation as follows: + + PREPARATION + + _As it involves subject matter_: _As it involves presentation_: + + 1. The Aim Point of Contact + 2. Organization Lesson Statement + 3. Illustration Review + 4. Application Illustration + 5. Questions Application + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIV + +1. Discuss the helpfulness of having a definite procedure in the matter +of lesson preparation. + +2. Point out the differences between lesson preparation and lesson +presentation. + +3. Name and discuss the essential steps in preparing a lesson. + +4. To what extent would you favor adopting these steps as the +fundamental processes? + +5. Discuss the meaning and significance of "The Point of Contact." + +6. Why is some kind of lesson statement a prerequisite to a good +recitation? + +7. Show how this statement may be made. + +8. What do you consider your most valuable device in the preparation of +a lesson? + +9. Discuss the importance of filing away the material looked up in the +preparation of the regular work of teaching. + +10. Indicate some of the best methods of filing. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School +Teachers_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Strayer and Norsworthy, +_How to Teach_; Earhart, _Types of Teaching_; Betts, _Classroom Method +in Management_; Bagley, _Classroom Management_. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +ORGANIZING A LESSON + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XV + + A review of the steps in lesson preparation.--The values of + outlining.--Objections answered.--Outlining a means, not an + end.--The essentials in outlining.--An illustrative outline on + prayer. + + +Preparing a lesson is no easy matter, particularly for those teachers +who are new to the calling. There are those, of course, for whom reading +an assigned chapter through constitutes a preparation, but to the +successful teacher this preliminary reading is only the initial step in +the process. Adequate preparation involves the following questions: + +What aim shall I select out of the material available as the focus for +my day's work? + +How shall I build about that aim a body of facts that will establish it +as a fundamental truth in life? + +How shall I illustrate the truths presented so that they will strike +home in the experiences of my boys and girls? + +How shall I make sure that members of the class will go out from the +recitation to put into practice the teachings of the day? + +What questions ought I to ask to emphasize the outstanding points of my +lesson? + +What method of presentation can I most safely follow to make my lesson +effective? + +How may I discipline my class so that no disturbances will interfere +with our discussions? + +Reduced to simple terms, the matter of preparation together with +presentation, involves the problems of + + Organization + Aim + Illustration + Application + Methods of presentation + Questioning + +It is difficult to single out any one factor and treat it as if it were +independent of the others--teaching is a complex art with all of these +factors inseparably contributing to the results desired--but, for +purposes of clearness, may we not proceed to give attention to each in +its turn that in the end the teaching process may the more definitely +stand out in all its aspects? + +For convenience, then, let us in this chapter consider the problem of +organization. How to outline a lesson is one of the most fundamental +considerations involved in the teaching process. In fact, it is doubtful +whether there is any one more helpful attainment than the ability +clearly to outline subject matter. It not only enables the teacher to +proceed systematically, thereby insuring clearness and adequate +treatment of a lesson, but it makes it so easy and profitable for a +class to follow the discussion. Outlining to teaching is what +organization is to business. Just as the aim points out the goal we +seek, so the outline indicates the route we shall follow to attain the +goal. Outlining is simply surveying the road before the concrete is +laid. + +Occasionally a teacher objects to outlining on the ground that it is too +mechanical--that it destroys spontaneity and the flow of the Spirit of +the Lord. It has always seemed to the writer that the Spirit of the Lord +is quite as pleased to follow a straight path as it is to follow a +crooked one. Outlining is not in any sense a substitute for +inspiration--it is merely a guarantee, by way of preparation, that the +teacher has done his part and can in good conscience ask for that +spiritual aid and guidance which he then is entitled to. The fact that +order is a law of heaven rather indicates that there is no divine +injunction against outlining. + +Of course, outlining is not an end in itself--it is a means merely to +more systematic procedure. Two difficulties frequently attach to +outlining: one is that the outline is made so complex that it hinders +rather than helps in the matter of clearness; the other is that a +teacher may become "outline bound," in which case his teaching becomes +mechanical and labored. Such a teacher illustrates clearly the force of +the passage, "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life." + +But if the outline is made simple--if it is considered as merely a +skeleton upon which is to be built the lesson--it is one of the greatest +assets a teacher can have. Perhaps we can make the matter clearest by +going through the process of outlining a lesson, indicating the +essential steps involved. + +Suppose we are asked to prepare a lesson on prayer. Keep in mind that in +such a preparation we face the problems listed at the beginning of this +chapter: the aim, the illustration, the application, etc., and keep in +mind also that each of these subjects will be taken up in its turn and +that for the present we are concerned primarily with the query, "How can +I organize a lesson on prayer?" Let us assume, too, that we are +preparing this lesson for young men and women about twenty years of age. + +First of all, I must decide why I am to teach the subject of prayer. In +view of the fact that the matter of the aim is to be considered fully in +the succeeding chapter, suppose we agree that our purpose in this lesson +shall be to establish prayer as a habit of life. + +_Step number one_, then, is the selection of an aim--a focus for the +thought of the lesson. + +_Step number two_ is the collection of random thoughts. As I begin to +ponder the subject of prayer and its influence on life, all sorts of +ideas crowd into my mind. Perhaps I read some one's discussion of +prayer--perhaps I talk to a friend relative to it--perhaps I just ran +the subject over in my mind. The thoughts that come to me may be vague +and wholly disconnected. My immediate concern is content--order will +come later. And so I jot down, either in my mind or on paper, such ideas +as these: + + "Prayer is the soul's sincere desire." + The Song "Sweet hour of prayer." + What is the use of prayer? + Are prayers answered? + How often should I pray? + Does the Lord hear and answer our prayers, or do we answer them + ourselves? + What kinds of prayers are there? + How may I know how to pray? + Should prayers always be answered affirmatively? + What are the characteristics of a good prayer? + What prayers have impressed me most? + +And so I go on. My task in step two is to scout about intellectually in +search of available, suitable material. Many of my jottings may +duplicate others already set down; others may not be appropriate for my +need; still others may be wholly irrelevant. But I am seeking a wealth +of material that I may make my recitation as rich as possible. + +Now, _step three_ becomes a process of correlation and elimination--a +process of hitting upon my main headings--setting up the milestones to +mark my course of development. And I so sift the material in my mind and +sort it out under appropriate captions. After a good bit of intellectual +rummaging about, I find that my random thoughts on prayer fall rather +naturally into four main divisions, each capable of expression in a +question: + + I. What is prayer? + II. Why should I pray? + III. How should I pray? + IV. When should I pray? + +But now that I have these major headings, I still face the problems of +enriching them and elaborating them so that they will have body enough +to stand. In other words, I build up my sub-headings. Under the first +question, for instance, I group these thoughts: + + I. What Is Prayer? + 1. It is communion with God. + 2. It is the key to God's storehouse. + 3. It is the key to God's heart. + 4. It is "The soul's sincere desire." + 5. It is the great anchor of faith. + +Under question two, I group: + + II. Why Should I Pray? + 1. Because I am commanded of the Lord to pray. + 2. Because through prayer I keep in tune with the Spirit of the + Lord. + 3. Because it is through prayer that I acknowledge the goodness of + God. + 4. Because through prayer I petition for needed blessings. + 5. Because through prayer I establish and preserve an attitude of + humility. + +Under question three: + + III. How Should I Pray? + 1. Simply. + 2. Sincerely. + 3. In spirit. + 4. After the pattern of His prayer. + 5. In secret as well as in public. + +Under question four: + + IV. When Should I Pray? + 1. Regularly. + 2. Morning and evening. + 3. To meet special needs. + 4. My attitude should always be one of prayerfulness. + +This matter of organization may be diagrammatically illustrated as +follows: + + _Random Thoughts_ _Organized Thoughts_ + + The hymn + + The song ______________ + | | + What is the use | FOCUS | I. What is Prayer? + of prayer? | or | + | AIM | II. Why should I pray? + Are prayers answered? | | + | To establish | III. How Should I Pray? + How often should | prayer as a | + I pray? | life habit. | IV. When Should I Pray? + |______________| + What are the + characteristics of + a good prayer, etc.? + +In short, organizing involves the search for thought and the bringing of +order out of chaos. Having selected the aim, the main headings, and the +sub-headings, we now face _step four_--the enriching of these +sub-headings in illustration, incident, etc., so that we may link up +these thoughts with the experience of our pupils. We may think of so +much stimulating material that during the ordinary class hour we can +cover well only one of these questions. Our purpose and the needs of the +class must determine the extent of our detail. The actual material that +could be used to enrich this lesson on prayer will be given in the +chapter on illustration. + +_Step five_ involves the problem of application, or "carry-over into +life"--a subject to which another chapter will be devoted. Of course, we +ought to say here, in passing, that application is not something added +to or "tacked on" a lesson. It may be emphasized at the close of a +lesson, but in reality it pervades and is inherent in the whole lesson. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XV + +1. What is meant by calling teaching a composite process? + +2. Point out the essential advantages in outlining lessons. + +3. Show how outlining is not in conflict with inspiration. + +4. Name the essential steps in lesson organization. + +5. Choose a subject from one of the manuals now in use in one of our +organizations and build up a typical lesson. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter XIV. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +ILLUSTRATING AND SUPPLEMENTING A LESSON + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVI + + The force of illustrations.--Three kinds of illustration material: + 1. maps; 2. pictures; 3. incidents.--The force of maps and map + drawing.--The appeal of good pictures. + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + Illustrative material for a lesson on prayer. + + +Having discussed the organization of a lesson together with the +formulation of the aim, let us now turn to the problem of illustrating +and supplementing a lesson. In organizing a subject for teaching we +drive the nails of major thoughts--through illustration we clinch those +nails so that they will be less likely to pull out of the memory. + +The three chief classes of illustrative and supplementary material are: + +Maps, pictures, incidents--actual, imaginary. + +It is clear that in the lesson outlined on prayer, in chapter fourteen, +we should have little occasion for the use of a map. We can, however, in +connection with that lesson, point out the force of pictures and +incidents. + +Maps naturally are of greatest service in lessons with historical and +geographical background. The journeyings of Israel mean so much more to +us when we can follow them from place to place on a good map. So the +Book of Mormon account clears up if we are similarly guided. Had we +authentic maps of the lands named in the Book of Mormon, how much +clearer and more interesting the history would become! We would know the +exact spot on our present-day maps where Lehi and his family landed +from their heaven-directed barges; we would know where to find the land +Bountiful; where may now be found the ancient site of the City of +Zarahemla; where flows the River Sidon; what country is indicated by the +"land northward"; the journeys of the Nephites as they were being +driven; what states saw there continued struggles against their +inveterate enemies, the Lamanites, and how they reached their final +battle-ground near the Hill Cumorah. To visit with Jesus in Palestine +adds a charm to the New Testament that is really hard to evaluate, and +surely the travels of our own pioneers call for the aid of a good map. +Thoroughly to appreciate all that they did requires that we travel over +the wonderful trail they followed--that being impossible, the next +nearest approach is to see actually drawn out the magnitude of their +achievement. The appeal to the eye couples so forcefully with the appeal +to the ear that no classroom ought to be without its maps. Perhaps it is +not beyond possibilities to conceive that at a not distant date we shall +have made available films for class use to intensify the great lessons +we draw from history. + +Pictures make a wonderful appeal, particularly so to children. It is +impossible to measure the inspirational appeal that a single masterpiece +exerts on a class of boys and girls. A theological class in one of the +Sunday Schools of Salt Lake County was once blessed with a most magnetic +and powerful teacher. Upon his death, the class had his picture framed +and hung on the front wall of the room in which he had taught. From that +day to this the silent inspiration of that picture has stimulated scores +of young men and women to the high ideals for which he stood. + +More generally applicable and more easily available, of course, is the +_Incident_. The ability to tell a story is one of the finest attainments +of the teacher--particularly if he will take the pains to find +vigorously wholesome and appropriate ones. May we repeat the warning +that stories ought not to be told merely to fill out the hour, nor to +tickle the ears of the class, but to intensify and heighten the truths +contained in our lessons. + +Included under the heading _Incident_ may be listed short poems and all +kinds of literary bits that fit in appropriately as spice to a lesson. +On the subject Prayer, the following are some possibilities: + +Under question I, "What is prayer?" the hymn, "Prayer Is the Soul's +Sincere Desire." + + Prayer is the soul's sincere desire, + Uttered or unexpressed; + The motion of a hidden fire + That trembles in the breast. + + Prayer is the burden of a sigh, + The falling of a tear, + The upward glancing of an eye, + When none but God is near. + + Prayer is the simplest form of speech + That infant lips can try; + Prayer, the sublimest strains that reach + The Majesty on high. + + Prayer is the Christian's vital breath, + The Christian's native air; + His watchword at the gates of death; + He enters heav'n with prayer. + + Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice + Returning from his ways, + While angels in their songs rejoice, + And cry, "Behold, he prays!" + + The Saints in prayer appear as one + In word and deed and mind, + While with the Father and the Son + Their fellowship they find. + + Nor prayer is made on earth alone,-- + The Holy Spirit pleads, + And Jesus, on the Father's throne, + For sinners intercedes. + + O thou by whom we come to God, + The Life, the Truth, the Way! + The path of prayer Thyself has trod; + Lord, teach us how to pray! + +The two songs: "Sweet Hour of Prayer," "Did You Think to Pray?" + + "For my soul delighteth in the song of the heart, yea, the song of + the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a + blessing upon their heads." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 25:12.) + +The following selection: + + "Prayer--sweet breath from out a joyous heart wafting gratitude to + Heaven. + + "Prayer--a sacred confidence between a fearful soul and God. + + "Prayer--a holy balm which soothes and heals the scars in a wounded + breast. + + "Prayer--an angel's kiss on the longing lips of loneliness. + + "Prayer--a rod that bars the way between the human soul and sin. + + "Prayer--a choking sob of anguish from pain-drawn lips in plea for + help." + +Under question II. "Why should I pray?" + + "And that thou mayest more fully keep thyself unspotted from the + world, thou shalt go to the house of prayer and offer up thy + sacraments upon my holy day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 59:9.) + + "Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may abide + the day of his coming, whether in life or in death. Even so. Amen." + (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:39.) + + "Remember that that which cometh from above is sacred, and must be + spoken with care, and by constraint of the Spirit, and in this there + is no condemnation, and ye receive the Spirit through prayer; + wherefore, without this there remaineth condemnation." (Doc. & Cov., + Sec. 63:64.) + + "The keys of the kingdom of God are committed unto man on the earth, + and from thence shall the gospel roll forth unto the ends of the + earth, as the stone which is cut out of the mountain without hands + shall roll forth, until it has filled the whole earth; + + "Yea, a voice crying--Prepare ye the way of the Lord, prepare ye the + supper of the Lamb, make ready for the Bridegroom; + + "Pray unto the Lord, call upon his holy name, make known his + wonderful works among the people; + + "Call upon the Lord, that his kingdom may go forth upon the earth, + that the inhabitants thereof may receive it, and be prepared for the + days to come, in the which the Son of man shall come down in heaven, + clothed in the brightness of his glory, to meet the kingdom of God + which is set up on the earth; + + "Wherefore may the kingdom of God go forth, that the kingdom of + heaven may come, that thou, O God, mayest be glorified in heaven so + on earth, that thy enemies may be subdued; for thine is the honor, + power and glory, for ever and ever. Amen." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. + 65:2-6.) + + "Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the Spirit indeed + is willing, but the flesh is weak." (Matt. 26:42.) + +The following incidents were related by a member of the B.Y.U. Course +and are typical of scores of others available for this lesson: + + _Brother Hunter's Account of the Manifestation of the Successor to + the Prophet Joseph_ + + "There was a great deal of discussion among the brethren and sisters + as to who should lead the Church; some thought it should be the + Prophet's son; some, one of his counselors, and some the President of + the Quorum of the Twelve. I was at a loss to come to any conclusion. + It worried me considerably and I prayed earnestly that God would make + known to me who it should be, but without avail. + + "I went to the meeting that had been called and listened thoughtfully + to what was said and done. The longer I listened the more mystified I + became. I bowed my head in my hands and prayed for God to give me + understanding. While I was in this attitude, Brother Brigham arose to + speak, I suppose. I heard a voice--the Prophet's voice as natural and + true as I ever heard it. I raised up quickly, fully expecting to see + the Prophet, and I did. There he stood and there he spoke. I listened + breathlessly. The form of the Prophet gradually changed to that of + Brother Brigham, but the voice was not Brother Brigham's. It was + still the Prophet's. Then beside Brother Brigham I saw the Prophet, + who turned toward the speaker and smiled. My heart beat rapidly with + joy and I knew beyond the shadow of a doubt that Brother Brigham was + called of God to lead the Church." + + _Brother Huntsman's Baby Healed_ + + "A fine, plump baby girl had come to the Huntsman home. As weeks and + months passed and the child failed to use its lower limbs, a doctor + was called and pronounced the trouble infantile paralysis. He said + that it would never walk, for experience had showed that whenever + this affliction affected the lower part of the body the medical + profession could not cure it. + + "The Huntsman people were faithful Latter-day Saints and did not give + up hope, but called in the Elders. After a time conference was held + at Shelley and Elder David O. McKay and one other of the general + Church authorities were in attendance--I don't remember who. After + the afternoon session the child was administered to. While sealing + the anointing, Brother McKay promised the child the use of its limbs + and every organ of the body. + + "That night it began to move them, and the next morning stood alone + by the aid of chairs. In a few days it walked, although being fairly + fleshy. Soon after I moved away from Shelley, but a year or so + afterwards I had occasion to go to Idaho Falls and there I met + Brother and Sister Huntsman. The child was with them and ran and + played as other children." + + _A Psychology Student Receives Aid_ + + "A friend of mine who was a student in an eastern university told the + following incident of how the Lord came to his aid. + + "The psychology class while studying the relationship of the brain to + life and intelligence entered into a discussion as to the nature of + intelligence, and in some way the teachings of the Prophet Joseph + Smith were brought into the discussion and jeered at, by all members + except my friend, who was a "Mormon." His defense brought forth + ridicule and intensified the discussion. + + "As the class period had expired without completing the argument, a + week from that day was the time set to complete it. Of course, my + friend felt that he should do all possible to defend the attitude of + the Church, so he studied, fasted and prayed, to secure the aid of + inspiration, for he well knew that nothing but scientific proof would + be accepted. + + "The day came and he realized that he was illy prepared, but still + hoped for divine assistance. During the giving of evidence to dispose + of the existence of intelligence separate from the workings of the + brain, and ridiculing the existence of a spirit, he prayed silently + and earnestly. + + "His turn came and he arose to speak. After the opening sentences he + glanced down on the paper for his evidence and found a strange + handwriting there. He says a peculiar power took possession of him. + He spoke rapidly and fluently, he declared, without comprehending or + at least remembering what he said. As he finished, his own writing + was on the paper and he knew not what had been spoken, but there was + no evidence offered to offset it. + + "The professor asked him to give the names of the books from which he + obtained his points, and on being told that God gave them to him, he + replied, 'It's strange, but I can't believe such nonsense.'" + +Under question III. "How should I pray?" + +The Lord's Prayer as a pattern. + +The prayer in Gethsemane. + +The Bee-Keeper's prayer--1920, June number of _Young Woman's Journal_. + + "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well as in + thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public as + well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.) + + "Therefore I say unto you, What things soever ye desire, when ye + pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them." (Mark + 11:24.) + + "At that day ye shall ask in my name: and I say unto you, that I will + pray the Father for you." (John 16:26.) + +Under question IV. "When should I pray?" + + "He shall pray unto God, and he will be favourable unto him: and he + shall see his face with joy: for he will render unto man his + righteousness." (Job 33:26.) + + "And now concerning the residue, let them journey and declare the + world among the congregations of the wicked, inasmuch as it is + given." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:33.) + + "Draw near unto me and I will draw near unto you: seek me diligently + and ye shall find me; ask and ye shall receive; knock and it shall be + opened unto you; + + "Whatsoever ye ask the Father in my name it shall be given unto you, + that is expedient for you." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 88:63-64.) + + "Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may abide + the day of his coming, whether in life or in death." (Doc. & Cov., + Sec. 61:39.) + + "Therefore let the Church take heed and pray always, lest they fall + into temptation." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 20:33.) + + "Behold, I manifest unto you, Joseph Knight, by these words, that you + must take up your cross, in the which you must pray vocally before + the world as well as in secret, and in your family, and among your + friends, and in all places." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 23:6.) + + "Yea, cry unto him for mercy; for he is mighty to save. + + "Yea, humble yourselves, and continue in prayer unto him; + + "Cry unto him when ye are in your fields; yea, over all your flocks; + + "Cry unto him in your houses; yea, over all your household, both + morning, mid-day and evening; + + "Yea, cry unto him against the power of your enemies; + + "Yea, cry unto him against the devil, who is an enemy to all + righteousness. + + "Cry unto him over the crops of your fields, that ye may prosper in + them: + + "Cry over the flocks in your fields, that they may increase. + + "But this is not all; ye must pour out your souls in your closets, + and your secret places, and in your wilderness; + + "Yea, and when you do not cry unto the Lord, let your hearts be full, + drawn out in prayer unto him continually for your welfare, and also + for the welfare of those who are around you. + + "And now behold, my beloved brethren, I say unto you, do not suppose + that this is all; for after ye have done all these things, if ye turn + away the needy, and the naked, and visit not the sick and afflicted, + and impart of your substance, if ye have, to those who stand in need; + I say unto you, if ye do not any of these things, behold, your prayer + is vain, and availeth you nothing, and ye are as hypocrites who do + deny the faith; + + "Therefore, if ye do not remember to be charitable, ye are as dross, + which the refiners do cast out, (it being of no worth), and is + trodden underfoot of men." (Alma 34:18-29.) + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVI + +1. Why need we illustrate general truths? + +2. Discuss the value of having pupils draw up their own maps. + +3. Give out of your own experience illustrations of the force of +pictures. + +4. Point out the value in teaching of appealing to more than one of the +senses. + +5. Discuss the importance of good stories in teaching. + +6. What are the characteristics of a good illustrative story? + +7. Take an ordinarily commonplace subject and show how to illustrate it. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Those listed in Chapter XIV. + +Also _Pictures in Religious Education_, by Frederica Beard. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE AIM + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVII + + Two illustrations of the value of an aim.--Significance of the aim + in religious training.--Inadequacy of eleventh-hour + preparation.--The teacher's obligation to see through facts to + truths that lie beyond. + + What an aim is.--Illustration.--How to determine the aim.--How to + express it. + + +The late Jacob Riis, noted author and lecturer, used to tell a very +inspirational story on the force of having something to focus attention +upon. According to his story, certain men who lived just outside of +Chicago, in its early history, had great difficulty walking to and from +work during stormy weather, because of the almost impassably muddy +conditions of the sidewalks. After trudging through mud and slush for a +long time, they conceived the idea of laying a plank walk through the +worst sections. And so they laid two six-inch planks side by side. The +scheme helped wonderfully, except on short winter days when the men had +to go to work in the darkness of early morning and return in the +darkness of evening. It often was so dark that they would step off the +planks, and once off they were about as muddy as if there had been no +walk at all. Finally someone suggested the idea that if a lantern were +hung up at each end of the walk it would then be easy to fix the eye +upon the lantern and keep on the walk. The suggestion was acted upon, +and thereafter the light of the lantern did hold them to the plank. +Jacob Riis argued that the lantern of an ideal held aloft would +similarly hold young men in life's path of righteousness. + +A similar story is told of a farmer who experienced great difficulty in +keeping a particular hen inside the run which he had built outside the +hen house. He had put up a wire fence high enough, as he thought, to +keep in the most ambitious chicken. In fact, he argued that no hen could +fly over it. One hen persisted in getting out regularly, though the +farmer could never discover how she did it. Finally he decided to lay +for her (she laid for him regularly). To his great surprise, he watched +her walk around the run carefully surveying it as she proceeded. At +length she caught sight of a beam running along the top of the wire just +above the gate. With her eye fixed upon it she made one mighty effort +and was over. + +The moral of the two stories is self-evident. Both hens and men can "go +over" if they have something to aim at. It is so in life generally, and +what is true of life generally is particularly true in the matter of +teaching. The aim is one of the most significant features in the +teaching process. + +The teacher who knows where he is going can always get followers. + +Important as is the aim in all educational endeavor, it is doubly so in +religious training. We teach religiously not merely to build up facts or +make for mental power; we teach to mold character. We should see through +facts, therefore, to the fundamental truth lying behind and beyond them. +Such a truth constitutes an aim in religious instruction. + +One of the most regrettable facts connected with some of our teaching is +that teachers leave the preparation of their lessons until the few +minutes just preceding their recitation hour. They then hurry through a +mass of facts, rush into class and mull over these dry husks, unable in +the rush even to see the kernel of truth lying within. Little wonder +pupils tire of such rations. It is the teacher's obligation to "see +through" and discover the gems that really make lessons worth while. + +Forty-five minutes once a week is so meagre an allotment of time for the +teaching of the greatest principles of life! Surely every one of those +minutes should be sacredly guarded for the consideration of vital +truths. The aim, coupled with careful organization, is one of the best +safeguards possible. + +The aim is the great focus for a lesson's thought. It is the center +about which all else revolves. It specifies what shall be included and +what excluded out of the great mass of available material. A single +chapter of scripture may contain truths enough for a dozen lessons, only +one of which can be treated in any one recitation. The aim singles out +what can be appropriately grouped under one unified discussion. + +If we turn, for instance, to the ninth chapter of Matthew, we find at +least eight different major incidents, each one deserving a lesson in +itself. There is the case of: + + The palsy. + The charge of blasphemy. + The glorifying of God by the multitude. + The calling of Matthew. + The statement that only the sick need the physician. + The case of new cloth and the old garment. + The raising of the daughter of Jairus. + The healing of the two blind men. + +It is perfectly clear that all of these incidents could not be +adequately considered in any one lesson. Assuming that the teacher is +free to handle this ninth chapter as he pleases, we are forced to the +conclusion that knowing his class, as he does, he must choose that +incident or that combination of incidents which will mean most in the +lives of his pupils. In other words, he centers his attention upon one +major central truth--his aim. By so doing he guards against wandering +and inadequacy of treatment and makes for the unified presentation of +one forceful thought. + +It ought to be pointed out here that every teacher must be the judge as +to what constitutes for him the best aim. It is quite clear that any one +teacher could find in this ninth chapter of Matthew at least four or +five worthy aims. Three different teachers could possibly find as many +more, each equally worthy of development. All other things being equal, +that aim is best which most completely and forcefully covers the chapter +or passage in question. To illustrate: Suppose we are asked to teach a +lesson on the Prodigal Son. One aim that could be chosen clearly is that +of _jealousy_ on the part of the prodigal's brother. A second one might +be repentance, as typified in the action of the prodigal. Still a third +might be the compassion and forgiveness of the father, as typical of +those same qualities in our heavenly Father. Which, to you, is the most +forceful and significant? That one to you is _your_ best aim. + +The wording of the aim is a matter that gives rise to a good bit of +disagreement. There are those who maintain that if the aim announces the +subject as a sort of heading that is sufficient. Others contend that the +aim should crystallize into axiomatic form the thought of the lesson. Of +course, the real force of the aim lies in its serving as the focus of +thought. The wording of it is of secondary importance. And yet it is +very excellent practice to reduce to formal statement the truth to be +presented. It is helpful to adopt the ruling that the aim should express +both a cause and a result. Perhaps an illustration would indicate the +difference between the aim stated as a mere heading, and stated fully +and formally. Take the case of the daughter of Jairus already referred +to, + + _Mere Headings_: + Daughter of Jairus restored, or + The power of faith. + + _Formal Aim_: + Implicit faith in God wins His choicest blessings. + +Surely the latter is a more significant expression and offers better +training to the teacher than the setting down of mere headings. + +The ability thus to crystallize out of a great variety of facts a single +focusing statement, coupled with the ability then to build about that +statement a clearly organized amplification, is the sign of a real +teacher. Instead of generalizing further, let us turn to the questions +on this lesson where some laboratory exercises are set down calling for +actual practice in the selection and justification of a number of aims. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVII + +1. What is an aim? + +2. Why is it particularly essential to good religious teaching? + +3. What are the objections to "eleventh-hour" preparation? + +4. To what extent is a teacher handicapped in deciding upon an aim for +another teacher to follow? + +5. Turn to the following references and determine what possible aims +might be developed under each. Is any aim adequate for the whole +reference? In each case which do you consider your best aim? Why? How +much of the reference would you include in a single lesson? + +John, Chapter I; Isaiah, Chapter II; III Nephi, Chapter X; Doctrine & +Covenants, Section 87. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; +Driggs, _The Art of Teaching_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +APPLICATION + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVIII + + The question of application.--The matter a complex one.--Various + conceptions of the term as it affects the intellect, the emotions, + or the will.--Application may be immediate or delayed.--How to make + the application.--Illustrations.--Making the application and + moralizing.--Utah moral codes as objectives behind our teaching. + + +Application is one of the most important subjects in the whole range of +religious education. It is also one concerning which there are greater +varieties of opinions than concerning almost any other subject. + +What is application? + +How is it made? + +Is it inherent in the lesson, or is it added as a sort of supplement to +the lesson? + +When is it best made? + +Does it always involve action? + +These questions are only typical of the uncertainty that exists relative +to this term. + +Application really goes to the very heart of all teaching. Colloquially +expressed, it raises the question in teaching, "What's the use?" Why +should certain subject matter be presented to a class? How are class +members better for having considered particular facts? In short, +application involves the question, "What is the _carry-over_ value of +the lesson?" + +It is impossible to dispose adequately of the matter of application in a +single statement. It fairly epitomizes the whole process of teaching and +therefore is so comprehensive that it calls for analysis. The ultimate +purpose behind teaching, of course, as behind all life, is salvation. +But salvation is not had in a day. It is not the result of a single act, +nor does it grow out of particular thoughts and aspirations. Salvation +is achieved as a sum total of all that we think, say, do, and _are_. Any +lesson, therefore, that makes pupils better in thought, word, deed, or +being, has had to that extent its application. + +Application of a lesson involves, then, the making sure, on the part of +the teacher, that the truths taught carry over into the life of the +pupil and modify it for good. Someone has said that the application has +been made when a pupil + + "Knows more, + Feels better, + Acts more nobly," + +as a result of the teaching done. There is a prevalent conception that +application has been made in a recitation only when pupils go out from a +recitation and translate the principle studied into immediate action. +There are lessons where such applications can be made and, of course, +they are to be commended. Particularly are they valuable in the case of +young children. But surely there are other justifiable interpretations +to the term application. + +We need to remind ourselves that there are three distinct types of +subject matter that constitute the body of our teaching material. These +are, first of all, those lessons which are almost wholly intellectual. +Debates are conducted by the hundreds on subjects that lead not to +action but to clearer judgment. Classes study subjects by the month for +the purpose of satisfying intellectual hunger. Such questions, for +instance, as "Succession in the Presidency," or the "Nature of the +Godhead"--questions gone into by thoroughly converted Latter-day +Saints, not to bring themselves into the Church, nor to lead themselves +into any other kind of action except the satisfying of their own souls +as to the truth. In other words, it appears clear that there may be +application on a purely intellectual level. Application upon application +is made until a person builds up a structure of faith that stands upon +the rock in the face of all difficulties. + +A second type of lessons appeals to the emotions. They aim to make +pupils _feel_ better. They may or may not lead to immediate action. +Ideally, of course, every worthy emotion aroused should find, if +possible, suitable channels for expression. Pent up emotions may become +positively harmful. The younger the pupils the more especially is this +true. Practically every educator recognizes this fact and gives +expression to it in language similar to the following quotation from +Professor S.H. Clark: + + "Never awaken an emotion unless, at the same time, you strive to open + a channel through which the emotion may pass into the realm of + elevated action. If we are studying the ideals of literature, + religion, etc., with our class, we have failed in the highest duty of + teaching if we have not given them the ideal, if we have not given + them, by means of some suggestion, the opportunity for realizing the + ideal. If there is an emotion excited in our pupils through a talk on + ethics or sociology, it matters not, we fail in our duty, if we do + not take an occasion at once to guide that emotion so that it may + express itself in elevated action." + +And yet there is a question whether this insistence upon action may not +be exaggerated. Abraham Lincoln witnessed an auction sale of slaves in +his younger days. He did not go out immediately and issue an +emancipation proclamation, and yet there are few who can doubt that that +auction sale registered an application in an ideal that persisted in the +mind of Lincoln through all those years preceding our great civil war. + +Many a man has been saved in the hour of temptation, in his later life, +by the vividness of the recollection of sacred truths taught at his +mother's knee. There may be just a little danger of cheapening the +process of application if it is insisted that for every ideal impressed +upon the minds of pupils there must be a corresponding immediate +response in daily actions of the pupils taught. May not a wonderful +impression become the more wonderful as it is hallowed by the pondering +of the mind through the maturing years of childhood and young manhood? + +Finally there is the lesson which, though it involves both the intellect +and the emotions, appeals primarily to the will and calls for action. +There can be no question but that this is the type of lesson of greatest +significance in religious education. We meet our pupils so infrequently, +at best, that at most we can do but a fraction of what we should like to +do to modify their lives. Our concern is to change for the better their +attitude and conduct, and therefore we must address ourselves to the +problems they face in the every-day life which they are to live between +recitations. As Betts in his _How to Teach Religion_ so well says: + + "In the last analysis the child does not come to us that he may learn + this or that set of facts, nor that he may develop such and such a + group of feelings, but that through these he may live better. The + final test of our teaching, therefore, is just like this: Because of + our instruction, does the child live differently here and now, as a + child, in all his multiform relations in the home, the school, the + church, the community, and in his own personal life? Are the lessons + we teach translated continuously into better conduct, finer acts, and + stronger character, as shown in the daily run of the learner's + experience? + + "It is true that the full fruits of our teaching and of the child's + learning must wait for time and experience to bring the individual to + fuller development. But it is also true that it is impossible for the + child to lay up a store of unused knowledge and have it remain + against a later time of need in a distant future. The only knowledge + that forms a vital part of our equipment is knowledge that is in + active service, guiding our thoughts and decisions from day to day. + Unused knowledge quickly vanishes away, leaving little more + permanent impression on the life than that left on the wave when we + plunge our hand into the water and take it out again. In similar way + the interests, ideals, and emotions which are aroused, without at the + same time affording a natural outlet for expression in deeds and + conduct, soon fade away without having fulfilled the purpose for + which they exist. The great thing in religious education is to find + immediate and natural outlet in expression, a way for the child to + use what he learns; to get the child to do those things pointed out + by the lessons we teach him." + +As the teacher faces this "carry-over" problem he is impressed that he +must touch the lives of his pupils not only as individuals but as +members of a social group. It becomes his obligation not only to direct +them in matters pertaining to their own welfare, physically, +intellectually, and morally, but he has a responsibility in helping to +establish the standards of society to which individuals naturally +subscribe more or less unconsciously. + +The strong teacher's influence can be made to affect the ideals of the +athletic field, of the amusement hall, of the church, of the business +center, and of the home. These agencies offer such a variety of +possibilities that every lesson offers easily some avenue of +application. By way of illustration let us turn to a few subjects and +point out some possibilities in the matter of application. May it be +said here, in passing, that the secret of making application lies in not +getting lost in the past so that we may walk along with our heads turned +back over the shoulder of time pondering merely the things of the past. +All too often the teacher hurries over into the Holy Land of some four +thousand years ago, leaving a class of twentieth century boys and girls +here at home to wonder what all that ancient material has to do with the +problems that confront them here and now. Not that we should ignore the +past. Successful application lies in reaching back into the past for a +solution of today's difficulties. But the _solution_ is our great +concern. "We look back that we may the better go forward." + +To illustrate: + +A lesson on Cain and Abel may find its application in a solution of the +problems of the jealousy and selfishness that exist today. This story +ought not to be merely a recounting of murder. There is a little Cain--a +little Abel--in all of us. Consider the case of the boy who smashed up +his brother's new sled as well as his own, because he couldn't keep up +in coasting. The nature of the class will determine the particular +application. Or consider the story of Samson and Delilah: at first +thought, a story with but little to contribute to a solution of today's +problems. Yet out of that story application can be made beautifully, +through either of these two truths: + + He who plays with sin will eventually be conquered by it; or, + + Marrying outside one's church is attended by grave dangers. + +A lesson on helpfulness was once beautifully and rather dramatically +given through the story of a rescue of a train. A lad was out at play on +a railroad track when he discovered that a recent storm had washed out +part of the road bed. He remembered that the through passenger train was +due in a few minutes, and so rushed along the track and by frantically +waving his hat succeeded in stopping the train just in time to prevent a +terrible catastrophe. A few well-directed questions called for the +pupils' own idea of application. They, too, would flag a train if such +an occasion should arise. They could help people generally to guard +against danger. They even carried the idea over into rendering any kind +of service, about the home, at school, and elsewhere, as long as it was +helpful. + +And so illustrations could be multiplied. The important thing is that, +having decided upon a central truth for a lesson, the teacher then +conceives avenues whereby the truth may be carried over through action +into the lives of pupils. And, of course, he must see that they are +directed in setting about the action. + +The question often arises, "Isn't there danger of moralizing in making +an application?" or "What is the difference between an application and +moralizing?" Genuine and natural application ought to be inherent in the +material presented. A good story ought to drive home its message without +further comment. Moralizing consists of "tacking on" some generalized +exhortation relative to conduct. Moralizing is either an unnecessary and +unwelcome injunction to be or to do good, or it is an apology for a +lesson that in and of itself drives home no message. The school boy's +definition of moralizing is helpful and suggestive: + +"_Moralizing is rubbing goodness in unnecessarily._" + +In making application of truths presented, teachers naturally face the +question as to what constitutes the fundamentals in character +development that are to be achieved. As a sort of guide, the two Utah +codes of morals, one for children and one for youths, are rich in +suggestion, both for pupil and teacher. They are submitted herewith as +helpful in setting up the objectives toward which we are working: + + + CHILDREN'S CODE + + I want to grow up to be wise and strong, happy and able to make + others happy, to love and to be loved, and to do my part in the + world's work. + + During my infancy loving hands cared for me, gave me food, clothing + and shelter, and protected me from harm. I am grateful for this care, + and I want to be worthy of the love and confidence of my mother and + father and to do all I can to make them happy. + + I will be obedient to my parents and teachers; they are wiser than I + and thoughtful of my welfare. + + I have already learned that good health is necessary to strength and + happiness, and that in order to be well and to grow strong, I must + have good, wholesome food, ample exercise and sleep, and abundant + pure water and fresh air--nature's free gifts to all. + + My whole body I will keep clean and each part of it as sound as good + care can make it. + + I will have respect for all useful work, both mental and physical. I + must learn to be helpful that I may know the joy of service and the + dignity of work well done. + + I will begin now to earn some of the things I use. I must learn how + to spend, and how to be generous. + + Waste is the mother of want, and even though the want may not be + mine, if I am extravagant I am likely to bring suffering to others. + Waste of time is as wrong as waste of things; I will not be an idler. + + I will not put unnecessary burdens upon my associates by untidy, + careless habits; orderly ways save my own time and things as well as + those of others. + + I will take thought for the comfort and welfare of our animal friends + and will always avoid cruelty. + + I will strive for courage to speak the truth and for strength to be + fair in all my work and play, to be true to my word and faithful to + my trust. I hate lying and cheating; they are signs of cowardice and + greed. I will not seek pleasure or profit at the cost of my + self-respect. I will be considerate of the rights and feeling of + others as I would have them respect mine. + + I will try to control my temper and to be cheerful, kind, and + courteous in all my dealings. + + I will strive to be pure in thought, speech and action. + + My country has provided laws and civil officers to protect me, + schools for my instruction, and many other aids to a happy, useful + life. I am grateful for these benefits and will show my patriotism by + obeying the laws and defending my country against evils, both within + and without. + + I will keep my eyes and ears open to enjoy the world about me, and my + mind alert to understand and appreciate the good things mankind has + provided for me--science and art, poetry and music, history and + story. + + May God, the kind and loving Father, help me all my life to see the + right way and to follow it. + + + MORAL CODE FOR YOUTHS + + I am happy to be a member of that great human society which has + accumulated all the treasures of civilization. I have benefited by + the united labors of all mankind; for this I owe a debt of gratitude + to humanity, a debt I can pay only by serving that humanity to the + fullest extent of my ability. Through small services freely given + toward the comfort and happiness of my associates, I may grow in + power of usefulness and in my turn contribute to the welfare of the + generations that are to come. + + My body is the instrument of my mind and the foundation of my + character. Every organ must be conserved to perform its proper + function in the development and perfection of my life. I will, + therefore, eat only wholesome food, breathe pure air, take ample + exercise and sleep, and keep my body clean and sound. To this end, I + will refrain from the use of intoxicating drinks, narcotics and + stimulants; these lend only a seeming strength, but in reality they + undermine my powers of service and of lasting happiness. By + abstaining from these indulgences I can, moreover, help others to + abstain, and thereby increase their strength and happiness. By + temperate living and plenty of exercise in the open I can preserve my + health and the more easily refrain from evil thoughts and evil deeds. + + I will not pollute my body or that of another by any form of + self-indulgence or perverse yielding to passion. Such indulgence is a + desecration of the fountains of life and an insult to the dignity of + manhood and womanhood. + + Through the formation of sane, health-promoting habits I can avoid + having my usefulness diminished and my happiness impaired by the + consequences of my own folly. + + I will be modest in dress and manner, that I may in no wise encourage + sensuality. + + I will be thoughtful of the effects of my actions and so restrain + myself that no act of mine may mar the life or detract from the + happiness of my associates or of my successors. + + I will deal honestly, fairly and kindly with my fellows--always + mindful that their lives and their happiness are as sacred to them as + mine are to me. + + I will avoid impatience and ill temper and will endeavor to be + courteous always. + + I will try to save individuals rather than to condemn them, even + though their evil deeds must be condemned and offenders punished. + + I will have respect for the time of my fellows as I respect their + property. + + I will not engage in games of chance, since I do not desire reward at + the expense of others. + + In all my dealings I will strive for courage to speak the truth; I + despise cowardice and lying. I will do what I know to be right, + though others may ridicule or scorn me. + + I will be personally responsible for all that I do, and, recognizing + my limited wisdom, I will ever seek Divine Guidance to lead me in the + right way. + + I will strive for independence of judgment, but with due regard for + the superior wisdom of my elders. I must grant to my fellows the same + right of independent judgment that I claim for myself. + + Whatever I undertake I will do with my might, and, win or lose, + accept the result with good cheer. I would rather be worthy of + success than to secure it unworthily. + + I will be prompt and orderly in all my affairs, otherwise I become a + hindrance to social efficiency. I will avoid waste and extravagance + lest I bring needless privation and suffering to others as well as to + myself. + + It is my privilege to have a part in the world's work--a part I must + choose and perform with all diligence. "What can I do best that + society needs most?" When I have answered this question I will pursue + my vocation intelligently and energetically; first, as a means of + service to my fellow-men; and second, as a means of self-support and + aid to those that may be dependent upon me. + + May the love and appreciation I have for my country never be + dishonored by any act of lawlessness or want of loyalty, but may I + ever honor, uphold and obey the law and defend my country against + unrighteousness, injustice and violence. When it becomes my privilege + to vote I will use the right of suffrage as a patriotic means of + co-operating with my fellow citizens for the promotion of social + justice, peace and progress. Should I be called to public office, I + will strive for moral courage to exercise authority in accord with + justice and humanity; and, whether in or out of office, I will + respond freely to every opportunity for public service. + + I am grateful for the beauties of nature and for the great works of + art, music, literature and science, it is my privilege to enjoy. + These I will seek to understand and appreciate, that I may cultivate + broader sympathies and fellowship with mankind, the world, and the + Creator of all. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVIII + +1. How does application go to the very heart of teaching? + +2. Discuss the various conceptions of the term. + +3. Distinguish between immediate and delayed application. + +4. Discuss the possibility of intellectual application. + +5. How can applications best be made? + +6. When can applications best be made? + +7. Distinguish between making an application and moralizing. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Betts, _How to Teach +Religion_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Betts, _The +Recitation_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Thorndike, +_Principles of Teaching_; Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +METHODS OF THE RECITATION + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIX + + The question of method raised.--Danger of an entire disregard of + method.--The case of the "born" teacher.--Sound pedagogy largely a + matter of common sense.--Danger of being committed to a single + method.--The five possible methods: The Story Method; Reading + 'Round; The Special Topic; The Lecture; The Discussion. + + +Two of the most practical questions that a teacher ever has to solve +are: + +How shall I go about to prepare a lesson? + +Having prepared a lesson, how shall I set about to teach it to my class? + +The first of these questions has already been discussed in preceding +chapters; the second now calls for our consideration. + +Is there a _one best method_? If so, what is it? What steps does it +involve? Instead of answering these questions directly, perhaps it will +be better to point out the various methods of the recitation, set down +their characteristics and relative values, and then formulate a +conclusion. + +At the outset it may be advisable to sound two notes of warning. One is +against an entire disregard of methods. There are those persons who +believe that teachers are born, not made, and that therefore a +discussion of methods is useless. The born teacher, say these persons, +just teaches naturally according to his own personality. To change his +method would be to destroy his effectiveness. If he isn't a teacher then +the study of methods will not make him one. In either case work done on +methods is lost. + +Of course, experience refutes both contentions. It is admittedly true +that great teachers are born to their work--that some individuals just +naturally impress others and stimulate them to high ideals. And yet +there is no one so gifted that he cannot improve through a study of the +game he is to play. Most great athletes are by nature athletic. And yet +every one of them trains to perfect himself. The best athletes America +sent to the Olympic games were wonderfully capable men, but they were +wonderfully trained men, as well. They had studied the _methods_ of +their particular sports. Great singers are born with great vocal +potentialities, but the greatest singers become so as the result of +thorough training. _Methods_ elevate them to fame. What is true of the +other arts ought also to be true of teaching. + +As to the class of teachers not born to the calling, it seems perfectly +clear that here is the great opportunity for a study of the fundamentals +underlying good teaching. Sound pedagogy is just a matter of good, +common sense. Any normal person by studying how to do anything ought in +the end to come to do that thing better than if he ignored it. I may not +know how to operate an automobile. But if I study how to operate one, if +I observe those who do know how, and if I practice operating one--surely +I shall come to be more efficient as a chauffeur. + +But while many will admit that this law of development applies in the +mechanical world, they hold that there is something mystic about +teaching for which only a pedagogical birthright is a solution. The +fallacy of such a contention seems too evident to call for argument. At +least the only sensibly hopeful view to take in such a Church as ours, +in which so many members must perforce be called to be teachers, is that +power in teaching can be developed as it can in any other field of +endeavor. + +The other bit of warning applies to the kind of teacher who is +unalterably committed to a single method, not only as the best method, +but the only one worth following. Method depends so essentially on the +personality of the teacher, on the nature of the pupils taught, and on +the subject matter to be presented, that it is a very dangerous thing to +say that, in spite of circumstances, one method is invariably the best +method. + +Let us, then, turn to the different methods and consider their relative +values. Five possibilities immediately suggest themselves: + + 1. The story method. + 2. The "reading 'round" method. + 3. The special topic method. + 4. The lecture method. + 5. The discussion method, built up through questions and answers. + +1. _The Story Method._ The story is the method for childhood. "All the +world loves a story." Children certainly are a part of that world. How +they thrill in response to the appeal of a good story. Their little +souls fairly seem to open to receive it. What an opportunity--what a +sacred trust--is the teacher's as he undertakes to satisfy that soul +hunger! The subject, the story, has been so fully gone into by Brother +Driggs in his book, _The Art of Teaching_, that we need not attempt to +discuss it fully here. Then, too, so many other excellent books have +been written on the art of the story that the teacher need only be +referred to them. Suffice it here to make two observations in passing. +The best stories for purposes of religious instruction should possess +four essential characteristics: + +Point--Brevity--Message--Adaptation to the experience of pupils. + +And, of course, this message should be a truth appropriate to the +occasion--a message heightened by the spirit of the Gospel of Jesus +Christ. + +The second observation has to do with the telling of the story. +Naturally it should be well told. But the story hour should not be one +of mere telling. The child, in addition to listening to the story, +should be given opportunity to express its reaction to the story +told--should be directed in discovering the avenue through which it will +carry into action the emotion aroused by the story. + +2. _The "Reading 'Round" Method._ The old idea of a class coming +together and sitting through a process of reading in turn from the one +book in the class as it was passed about is largely a thing of the past. +Let us hope that the day when neither teacher nor pupil prepared his +lesson is gone forever. Surely "reading 'round" is a poor substitute for +preparation. And it clearly is a dull, routine method of procedure. But +there was one merit attached to it that is worthy our consideration. It +did bring the scriptures into the hands of our pupils. Whatever method +we may follow, this contact with the actual word of the Lord is a +valuable asset. We cannot advocate resorting to the old notion of +"reading 'round" as an apology for a recitation, but we can well point +out the merit of seeing to it that pupils see and read the scriptures. +If the lesson can be so conducted that reading is indulged in as a +supplementary laboratory exercise--a turning through of gems that entice +the reader to make further study of the book--then reading can be made a +very valuable factor in the teaching process. Then, too, it is +educational just to have members of a class turn through the scriptures +to know what they are--what books are involved and where they may be +found. Ignorance with respect to the scriptures is alarmingly prevalent. +The following report taken from the _New York Tribune_ relative to a +simple test in Bible literature, given by an Eastern university to 139 +students, is significant: + +"Out of 139 only 12 reached 75%; 90 received less than 50%; 10 could not +name a single book of the Old Testament. Some who did spelled them +Salms, Joob, etc. Some named Paul, Babylonians, and Gentiles as Old +Testament books." + +Surely much might be said in favor of the use of books in our classes. + +3. _The Special Topic Method._ Much can be said both for and against the +topic method. At least three objections to its use can be raised: + +A. It makes for piece-meal preparation. The lesson is partitioned off +into segments, one of which may be prepared by a particular pupil who +does not concern himself at all with the rest of the lesson. This +method, therefore, encourages fragmentary and incomplete preparation. + +B. It makes for a disconnected presentation which makes it quite +impossible for pupils to get a unified conception of the whole lesson. +This is doubly bad, because of the fact that frequently those who are +assigned parts absent themselves from class. + +C. It often results in dull, commonplace recitations. All too +frequently, especially if topic assignments are the usual method of +procedure, those pupils given the various topics to work up content +themselves with very meagre preparation. They come to class, therefore, +and merely run over so many facts wholly without inspiration and often +by constant reference to notes or the text. + +Of course, these difficulties can be overcome largely by the judicious +use of the topic method. It ought not generally to be followed as the +regular order of business, but rather as a supplementary means of +enriching the lesson. It ought not to be used so as to excuse all class +members from regular preparation of the lesson as a whole. If the +teacher will assign the lesson proper to all of the class and then +select certain aspects--certain suggested problems--for more intensive +research, the reports on special topics can be made to contribute +wonderfully to the richness of the class hour. The topic method, then, +is primarily a supplemental method, and if wisely used has these +advantages: + +A. It makes for an enriched lesson. It makes possible expert opinion, +and the results of special, careful investigation which the class as a +whole would be unable to make. + +B. It lends variety to class procedure and guarantees that the teacher +will not do all the talking. + +C. It fosters individual expression. It trains pupils to formulate an +attack, to organize findings, and to stand and deliver a connected and +well thought out message. + +D. It promotes a habit of investigation--it leads pupils to work out for +themselves the problems of the Gospel which they encounter. + +4. _The Lecture Method._ The comment of a student of the Brigham Young +University on the lecture method was unique: "The lecture method +wouldn't be so bad if a teacher really lectured--he usually just talks. +And talking a lot when you haven't much to say is pretty discouraging to +a class." + +Aimless talking which indulges in the main in vague generalities can +never be justified. _Preaching_ presumes a pulpit and has little place +in classwork. The teacher who persists in talking most of the time +overvalues his own thoughts and minimizes the ideas of others. Much +talking stifles initiative and independent thinking. Then, too, it gives +no opportunity for developing pupils' power of self-expression and +provides no means for the teacher to check the reaction going on in the +pupils' minds--assuming that one goes on! It is astonishing what +erroneous notions members of a class can get from merely hearing a +lesson presented. Given a chance to express their conclusions, they will +themselves correct many of their false impressions. + +There are occasions, however, when a lecture is extremely valuable. +Frequently after several weeks of discussion a class is hungry to hear +"the truth about the matter." There is then afforded a splendid +opportunity for the teacher to drive home a real message. Then, too, +specialists, because of their advanced study on a particular subject, +can often present in an hour the results of years of investigation. + +Furthermore, in a lecture, the teacher can make an emotional appeal +which is practically out of the question in other methods. His +enthusiasm and conviction can be made to "carry" his pupils to the +contemplation of new truths. Used with discretion, the _real lecture_ is +a valuable asset in teaching; indulged in regularly as _mere talking_ or +_preaching_, the method ought certainly to be discouraged. + +5. _The Discussion Method._ This method, built upon questions and their +answers, is commendable for its democracy and because of the fact that +it stimulates both thought and discussion on the part of most if not all +of the pupils. Questions are so vital to good teaching that Chapter XXI +will be devoted to their consideration. Suffice it to say here that for +all practical purposes it is the basis of the best teaching. Discussions +make it possible to reach pupils "Where they are"--make it possible for +everyone to contribute of his experience to everyone else. + +The one outstanding difficulty with the discussion method lies in the +fact that it calls for such skilful direction. It so easily runs off on +tangents that the teacher is kept on his mettle holding to the subject +in hand. + +After all, each method has its advantages and its disadvantages. There +are times when any one of them can be profitably used; it is clear that +any one of them can be abused--can be made more or less monotonous. +Perhaps we can wisely conclude that, "_The best method is a variety of +methods._" + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIX + +1. Why is it essential that teachers study methods of the recitation? + +2. What method do you regularly follow? Why? + +3. To what extent is it that a born teacher teaches without method? + +4. What is pedagogy? + +5. Discuss the relative value of each of the five methods listed in this +chapter. + +6. Discuss the statement, "The best method is a variety of methods." + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Betts, _The Recitation_; Earhart, _Types +of Teaching_; Bagley, _Classroom Management_; Strayer and Norsworthy, +_How to Teach_. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +REVIEW AND PREVIEW + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XX + + The need of review in our Church teaching.--Review a real help to + learning in that it makes for: repetition, proper connection, + proper evaluation of truth. + + An intelligent review is the result only of thorough preparation on + the part of the teacher.--Assignment and preparation.--Ability to + make assignments a test of good teaching. + + Characteristics of a good assignment: It is definite.--It raises a + problem.--It connects with the experience of pupils.--It stimulates + to action. + + General and specific assignments.--When to make assignments. + + +Each organization within the Church follows regularly its own course of +study. At the beginning of the year it sets out upon a prescribed +subject subdivided according to the number of meetings scheduled for the +year's work. As a result, no one lesson stands out independent of all +others, but rather fits in naturally in a sequence of chapters each of +which develops some aspects of one big subject. Because of such a plan +the matters of review and preview take on vital significance. Each +lesson should be made to link up naturally with what has already been +presented and should point out by way of anticipation what is to follow. +Many educators maintain that the ability to conduct a good review and to +make an effective assignment are two of the surest tests of a good +teacher. + +The problem of review is really one of the most fundamental processes in +education. It is the great key to learning. Anyone who has enjoyed the +fun of teaching young children how to read has been impressed with the +fact that the child has to be led to see and repeat the simplest words +over and over again before they are really mastered. It is really +astonishing how many times as simple a word as "ran" has to be repeated +before the beginner in reading gets it fully into his consciousness. +This very difficulty of teaching mere words or letters has led to the +abandonment of the old "A-B-C" drill as the first step in reading, and +the substitution for it of an indirect method wherein, through the laws +of association, groups of words and sentences are mastered as the +symbols which express concrete and objectified ideas. But by way of +experiment, one of the most impressive experiences open to teachers is +to take a child of four or five that has not been taught to read and +attempt to drill into its consciousness a group of half a dozen words as +simple as these: cat, fan, hat, get, man, jam. To the teacher who has +attempted such an experiment no argument is necessary to prove the +significance of review and repetition. + +Review, then, first of all, is vitally essential because it makes +possible impression through repetition which insures the fixing of +ideas. Literally, review means to view again. Psychologically it is to +repeat the processes of mind which were called into operation the first +time the stimulus in question started a mental reaction. The nervous +system of man is so constituted that in the acquirement of knowledge, +each time the nerve centers react to the same stimulus, the tendency so +to react becomes stronger, under the mere presence of the stimulus, +starts up an automatic sort of reaction, and we say that the child knows +the meaning of the object constituting the stimulus. + +Not only is review thus essential in the beginning of the learning +process with children, but it remains a vital factor as long as men and +women undertake to learn. Review guarantees recall, and recall +re-establishes "nerve connections" to the permanent fixing of +impressions. Very little of our knowledge remains ours to a purpose +unless it is gone over and over until it is thoroughly established. A +truth that is taught in a Mutual lesson on a particular Tuesday night, +but which is never referred to again, and therefore never recalled, very +likely will soon be gone out of consciousness and usefulness. Those +truths and facts which are of greatest functioning value to us are those +which we continue to run over in our minds and ponder. The reinforcement +of review is what establishes our permanent working stock of truth. + +Not only is review valuable as a matter of recall, but it makes for an +enrichment of mental content which is altogether desirable. The real art +of review lies in calling up an old truth in a new setting. Upon second +perusal it is seen in skilful review from a slightly different angle so +that each recall adds a reinforcement that makes for a clinching of +thought which makes it permanent. It very often happens that the first +time an idea is called to our attention it means but little, because our +mental reaction is limited in the particular field of the presentation; +the same idea in a new setting more in keeping with our experience may +take on an entirely different significance. That teaching is best, +therefore, which presents truth from the greatest number of angles +possible, thereby guaranteeing the richest kind of associations in the +minds of pupils. + +Another value that attaches to the review lies in the fact that it makes +possible proper connection between new material and old. It is axiomatic +in teaching that pupils learn new truths and take on new experiences, in +terms of the old. Teaching that unfolds--that develops new ideas that +are built upon those already understood--is the kind of teaching +attended by best results. In our organizations, meeting as we do only +once a week, we must appreciate the fact that in the intervening time, +between meetings, hundreds of ideas have crowded into the mind and have +displaced those that may have been there as a result of our teaching. By +calling to mind those ideas of a week ago, we not only reinforce them, +but we start a chain of thought to which it will be very much easier to +add the link of today's work than to proceed as if forging an entirely +new chain. + +No farmer goes out and plants grain on the unplowed field. He plows and +harrows that the soil may be prepared not only to receive the seed, but +to make generation possible. + +A review simply turns over the stubble field of the preceding week's +work, making ready for the planting of new seeds that they may generate +and develop. + +Still a further value in the matter of review lies in the fact that the +review makes more easily possible the proper evaluation of the facts +taught. In every lesson there are major facts and truths presented and +also those minor or subordinate ones that serve to amplify and +illustrate. All too frequently a class becomes so involved in the minor +details that it may fail to grasp fully the big, underlying truth. By +careful review, the teacher can make the essentials stand out in relief. +These are the things that need to be pondered. If they are properly +grasped, thanks to the laws of association, most of the minor facts will +naturally attach themselves, so that truths can be retained in all of +their richness of detail. + +It is surprising to find how frequently pupils who have spent a year on +the Book of Mormon have very little notion of the big, outstanding +features of the book. They apparently have run over each week's lesson +as so many independent facts, never coming back to single out the +essential things in that early American civilization. Surely no class +ought to complete the course without clearly comprehending such major +items as: + + The contribution each of the three colonies made to Book of Mormon + civilization. + + The general geographical location of each colony. + + The outstanding characters in the book. + + The coming forth of the book. + + Why it is essential. + + How our faith depends largely upon it. + + The ministry of the Savior on this continent. + + Gospel teachings of the Book of Mormon. + +What is true of the study of the Book of Mormon is equally true of all +other subjects. It is so easy to get lost in a maze of facts, in a +course in the principles of the Gospel, and yet if a teacher will hold +to such basic considerations as the articles of faith, coming back to +them regularly and linking facts presented under the appropriate +article, it is equally easy to complete the course with a clearly +defined, skeletonized basis for all future study. Two conclusions seem +obvious: as teachers we ought to conduct reviews regularly and +frequently; we ought to prepare for them as one of the most vital +factors in teaching. + +Important as is the review, the preview or assignment is equally vital. +To quote from Colgrove's _The Teacher and the School_: + + "_Importance and Value of Good Lesson Assignment._ From the foregoing + consideration it is clear that no other part of the teacher's work + exceeds in value and importance the proper planning and assignment of + the daily lessons. It is supplying the class and the school with a + definite plan of work. It is preparing the mind of each individual + pupil for the reception of new truths and whetting his intellectual + appetite for a feast of good things. It inspires confidence by + pointing out to the pupil just how he can use his past lessons and + acquisitions to make new conquests. It prevents pupils from + misunderstanding the lesson or approaching it with indifference or + positive aversion. It enables the pupil to approach the new lesson in + a perceiving mood, and helps pupils to form the habit of being + successful in their work and of making a daily application of their + old knowledge. It prevents the teacher from degenerating into a mere + talker, and, where textbooks are used, should be the most vital part + of the recitation." + +The assignment is the great guarantee of a good recitation. It sets up +objectives--it points the way--it starts the thought process that is to +produce a discussion worth while at the subsequent meeting of the class. + +Much has been said recently against the practice on the part of the +teacher of saying, "Take chapter three for next time." There are +superintendents of schools who refuse to keep such teachers in their +service. To make such an assignment, particularly in classes that meet +only once a week, and especially if the assignment is made, as is too +usually the case, after the signal for class dismissal has been given, +is to promise the pupils a week in advance that their next lesson will +be very much of a failure. + +A good assignment is characterized by several very definite features. In +the first place it is perfectly clear. Given at a time when pupils are +following it, it gives specific direction as to the work to be done +ahead in preparation. It indicates the direction of intellectual travel, +points out sources of material, and indicates what is to be looked for. +Reference or textbooks are so pointedly referred to that pupils not only +remember their names, they want to turn to them to enjoy their +contributions. + +In the second place, a good assignment raises a problem which is a +challenge to the mental powers of pupils. It should carry a force of +anticipation that capitalizes on that great mover to action--curiosity. +For instance, if the lesson to be assigned is one on baptism, instead of +simply naming certain pages in a text to be read, the skilful teacher +may well challenge his class by bringing in a clipping from a periodical +or from some other source attempting to prove that sprinkling is the +correct method of baptism, or that baptism is not essential to a man's +obtaining salvation? How can members of the class meet such an argument? +One of their first thoughts will likely be a query as to where available +material may be turned to. How easy, then, to give references, etc. Some +such problem can be raised relative to every lesson taught, and it is a +wonderful force as an intellectual appetizer. It should both prompt to +action and point to the path to be followed. + +The question is often raised as to whether the assignment should be +general or specific. Perhaps the best answer involves both kinds. There +ought ordinarily to be a general assignment that affects all of the +members of a class. The class is made up of all the individuals in the +group--its discussing ought therefore to be so made up. But in addition +to this general assignment, specific topics given to particular members +add an enrichment to the recitation of very great value. The services of +the specialist are always of inestimable value. That class is best +wherein each member in turn becomes a specialist in looking up and +bringing in vital observations on life. + +As to the best time for making assignments, it is rather hard to give a +ruling that best fits all cases. Preferably the assignment should grow +out of the discussion of the lesson in hand, and therefore logically +comes at the end of the recitation rather than at the beginning. There +are teachers, however, who, fearing interruption at the end of the hour, +map out their work so carefully that they can make the assignment at the +outset, merely calling attention to it at the close of the hour. All +other things being equal, if the teacher will make himself hold sacred +the time necessary at the end of the hour for this all important matter +of assignment, it is likely that best results will follow having the +assignment of the next lesson grow naturally out of the work of today. +The important thing, however, is that at some point in the recitation, +the teacher shall take plenty of time to make a carefully planned and +challenging announcement of the work ahead. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XX + +1. Why is it essential to good teaching that regular reviews be +conducted? + +2. Why are reviews more necessary in our religious work than in regular +school work? + +3. What are the chief purposes of a review? + +4. By taking a current lesson of one of the auxiliary organizations, +illustrate the work done in a good review. + +5. Why it is of vital importance that a teacher give special preparation +to a review? + +6. Show how good class preparation is conditional upon the proper kind +of assignment. + +7. What are the characteristics of a good assignment? + +8. What is the best time for making the assignment? + +9. Show how to make a good assignment of a current lesson from one of +the organizations. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Betts, _The Recitation_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Colvin, _The +Learning Process_; Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Strayer and +Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE QUESTION AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXI + + Taking Stock.--Miss Stevens' study on questioning.--Miss Stevens + quoted.--Various types of questions: a. The review question; b. The + fact question; c. The leading question; d. The thought or + challenging question.--Some questions on questioning. + + +How many questions do you ask regularly during a recitation? + +What proportion of those questions are answered in full and complete +statements? + +How many of the answers to your questions are a matter merely of memory? +How many reveal original, creative thinking? + +Such questions as these not only impress us with the force of the +question as a means of teaching, but they lead us to examine into our +own method of asking them. The whole teaching process so easily and +unconsciously develops into a matter of routine that it is good practice +occasionally to take stock of ourselves. It is surprising to find how +many teachers develop a particular type of question which becomes their +sole stock in trade. + +Miss Ronniett Stevens, in her thesis, _The Question as a Measure of +Efficiency in Instruction_, has made one of the most enlightening +studies yet made on the matter of questioning. Her results are quoted by +Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, in a passage of +interest, not only because of Miss Stevens' findings, but also because +of Mr. Weigle's own conclusions: + + "One of the outstanding differences, in present practice, between the + public and the Sunday school, is that most public school teachers ask + too many questions and most Sunday school teachers do not ask + questions enough. For the first half of this statement there is + ample evidence in the careful study by Miss Ronniett Stevens on _The + Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction_. Miss Stevens + secured complete stenographic reports of twenty high school lessons + in English, history, science, Latin, modern languages, and + mathematics; she observed one hundred more such lessons chosen at + random, with a view to counting and noting the number and nature of + the questions asked in each; and she followed each ten classes + through an entire day's work for the purpose of studying the + aggregate question-stimulus to which each was subjected in the course + of the day. + + "The results of her study are surprising. In only eight of the twenty + lessons completely reported the teacher asked less than ninety + questions in the period of forty-five minutes, the average being + sixty-eight. In each of the remaining twelve lessons more than ninety + questions were asked in the same period of time, the average being + 128. A freshman class in high school, in a day's work of five periods + of forty minutes each, not counting gymnasium, was subjected to 516 + questions and expected to return 516 answers, which is at the rate of + 2:58 questions and 2:58 answers per minute. The lowest number of + questions recorded in a day's work for a class was 321, and the + average number 395. + + "Such rapid-fire questioning, Miss Stevens rightly holds, defeats its + own ends. It maintains a nervous tension in the classroom that must + in the long run be injurious. More than that, it is a symptom of the + fact that the real work of the hour is being done by the teacher, and + the pupil's share is reduced simply to brief, punctuation-like + answers to the teacher's questions. Such questions appeal to mere + memory or to superficial judgment rather than to real thought; they + cultivate in the pupil neither independent judgment nor the power of + expression; they ignore individual needs and discourage initiative; + they make out of the classroom a place to display knowledge, rather + than a laboratory in which to acquire it. + + "The second half of the proposition, that most Sunday school teachers + do not ask questions enough, has not been established by any such + investigation as that of Miss Stevens. A similar study, on the basis + of complete stenographic reports, of typical Sunday school lessons, + would be a most valuable addition to our resources in the field of + religious pedagogy. Till such a study is made, one must simply record + his conviction that Sunday school teachers, as a general rule, ask + too few, rather than too many questions. This conviction is based + upon general observation and upon the frequency of such remarks as, + 'I just can't get my class to study,' 'There are only two or three + who ever answer my questions,' 'My pupils don't know anything about + the Bible,' 'As long as I do all the talking, things go all right,' + etc." Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_. + +The whole matter of questioning can be made to stand out most clearly, +perhaps, by listing the various types of question, the purposes which +each type serves, and the characteristics of a good question. + +First of all there is the _Review question_. The great purpose of this +type of question is to systematize knowledge. Of course, it is valuable +as an aid to recollection--it is a challenge to memory--but it is +particularly helpful in that it makes the big essential points in a +course stand out in relief with minor points properly correlated and +subordinated. The review question is a guide to the pupil whereby he may +see the relative significance of the work he has covered. One of our +great difficulties lies in the fact that our teaching is so largely +piece-meal. Today's lesson is hurried through, isolated as it is from +all that has gone before and all that may follow. The successful teacher +through the review makes each lesson a link in the chain of thought that +underlies the whole development of the subject in hand. + +The review question is essentially a carefully thought out, searching +inquiry. It calls for a turning over, in the mind, of the material of +the whole course and therefore should allow ample time for pondering. If +it does not stimulate a "weighing process," it likely is merely a fact +question--a test of memory. Of course, there is a place at times for +this hurried type of question, but it serves the purpose only of +"connecting up" and should not be mistaken for the evaluating question +of review. + +The following questions on the expulsion of the Saints from Missouri are +illustrative review questions: + +1. To what extent, if any, were the Latter-day Saints themselves +responsible for their expulsion from Missouri? + +2. To what extent were the persecutions of Missouri political? +Religious? + +3. How do you account for the fact that the Lord's people have always +been a chastened people? + +4. Show how the Missouri persecutions have been ultimately a blessing to +the Latter-day Saints. + +The second type of question is the _fact_ question. It serves to check +up on mental alertness and recall. It is often helpful in arresting +attention and therefore has a certain disciplinary function. The +teacher, of course, must make sure that his pupils are grasping the +subject-matter presented, and the fact question serves admirably as a +test of knowledge. It is usually a short question calling for a short +answer, and therefore may be used in a rapid-fire way that stimulates +thought. It is this type of question that is hurled so frequently at +classes with the consequences pointed out in the quotation from Miss +Stevens. + +The same author lists as objections to the continued use of these +rapid-fire questions the following bad features. They result in: + +1. Nervous tension. + +2. The teacher's doing most of the work. + +3. Emphasis upon memory and superficial judgment. + +4. Little time for the art of expression. + +5. Little attention to the needs of particular individuals in a class. + +6. The class being made a place for displaying knowledge. + +7. Little self-reliant, independent thinking. + +As illustrative of the fact question may we set down the following: + +Who was Joseph Smith? + +What was his father's name? + +What was his mother's name? + +Where was he born? + +How old was he when he received his first vision? + +When did he receive the plates? + +The _challenging question_ and the _leading question_ are closely enough +allied that we may well discuss them together. They are both intended to +provoke creative thinking. The leading question aims to capitalize on +what is already in the pupil's mind in getting him to go one step +further to a conclusion we already have in mind. Instead of telling a +class of young children that Joseph Smith prayed to the Lord for help in +choosing the church to which he might best belong, we might proceed by +saying that the Prophet had asked his father and mother--he had asked +his best friends--he had talked with all the ministers he could find--he +had read in all of the available books--now who can tell what else he +could do? The chief merit of the leading question lies in the fact that +it paves the way for the answer. It is particularly helpful in +encouraging young and backward pupils. But is easily subject to abuse. +So much so that its use is very largely restricted in law courts. It +results too frequently in the teacher's thinking for the pupil, and +therefore ought to be used with care. + +The challenging question is the question that fosters originality of +thought, independence of judgment. It simply raises a problem and leaves +pupils free to arrive at their own conclusions. It makes for an +intelligent faith so much desired in a democratic Church such as ours. +It is the one question above all others that guarantees a vital class +distinction. + +Of course, there is a place for all four of these types of questions. +As was said relative to the methods of the recitation, the best method +is a variety of methods. So with questions. It is perfectly clear, +however, that for general purposes that question which prompts greatest +reflection and independent thinking is the best one to indulge most +frequently. The following questions out of a lesson on Joseph Smith's +First Vision are set down as typical of thought-provoking questions: + +1. In view of the fact that when men choose a man for president of a +bank they look for a man of maturity and experience, how do you explain +that Joseph Smith, a mere boy, with little training or experience, was +entrusted with the great responsibility of founding what we claim is the +greatest institution of these latter days? + +2. How can you convince the world that a just God would declare that +none of their churches is right? + +3. What vital truths are announced to the world through his first +vision? + +Let us conclude this chapter with one more quotation from Miss Stevens. +When asked to name the three outstanding characteristics of a good +question, she set them down as follows: + +1. A good question should stimulate reflection. + +2. It should be adapted to the experience of the pupil. + +3. It should draw forth a well-rounded answer. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON QUESTIONING + +Do I call on my pupils to recite in a fixed order, according to alphabet +or seating, so that they are warned not to attend till their turn comes? + +Do I name the pupil who is to answer before I put the question? + +Do I ask direct questions or alternative questions which can be +answered without knowledge or thought? + +Do I ask chiefly fact questions? + +Do I ask leading or suggestive questions? + +Do I repeat my questions? Attention. + +Do I answer my own questions? + +Do I ask confusing, changed questions? + +Do I ask foolish questions that no one can answer? + +Do my questions make pupils think? + +Do my questions follow up the answer and lead to new organization of +knowledge? + +Do I repeat the pupil's answer? + +Do my questions reach all the members of the class? + +Do I make the recitation an inquisition, or do I pursue a slow pupil and +listen while pupils express themselves freely and naturally? + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXI + +1. Why is it essential that we prepare questions as we do other +material? + +2. What are the dangers that attend the asking of a great number of fact +questions? + +3. Discuss the relative value of the "W's"--what, who, when, where, and +why. + +4. Discuss each of the questions on questioning in this chapter. + +5. Bring in three thought-provoking questions on one of the current +lessons in the month's work of one of the auxiliary organizations. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Fitch, _The Art of Questioning_; Stevens, _The Question as a Measure of +Efficiency in Instruction_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; +Horne, _Story Telling, Questioning, and Studying_; Brumbaugh, _The +Making of a Teacher_; Driggs, _The Art of Teaching_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE PROBLEM OF DISCIPLINE + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXII + + A popular misconception of discipline.--Discipline inherent in + teaching.--Importance of discipline in our religious + teaching.--Changed attitude within the past three centuries toward + discipline.--What discipline is. + + Methods of securing discipline: The method of rewards; The method + of "pleasing the teacher"; The method of punishment; The method of + social appeal; The method of interest. + + The importance of a proper attitude on the part of one who + disciplines.--What constitutes such an attitude? + + +Back in 1916 the writer of these chapters was invited to address a group +of teachers on the subject of discipline. This particular lecture came +toward the end of a series of lectures given on the various pedagogical +truths underlying teaching. One particular teacher, who had listened to +all of the lectures, expressed appreciation of the fact that discipline +was to be discussed--it apparently was his one concern, as indicated in +his remark: + +"We have listened to some excellent theories in these lectures. But I +have to teach a class of real live boys and girls. How can I keep the +little rascals quiet long enough to work the theories out?" + +The remark expresses admirably the attitude of very many teachers +relative to discipline. They regard teaching as one thing--discipline as +quite another. With them discipline involves some sort of magic process +or the application of some iron rule authority, which secures order that +teaching may then be indulged in. As a matter of fact, discipline is +inherent in good teaching. It is not a matter of correction so much as a +matter of prevention. The good disciplinarian anticipates +disorder--directs the energies of his pupils so that the disorder is +made impossible by attention to legitimate interests. + +Discipline is one of the most pressing problems in the quorums and +organizations of the Church today. On every hand the complaint is +registered that proper respect is not shown, either for those in +important positions or for our places of worship. + +The spirit that accompanies the political rally or basketball game, held +in our amusement halls, too frequently is carried into our sacred +meetings. The spirit of unconcern is carried into our classrooms until +all too often to call the condition one of disorder is a very inadequate +description of the procedure. + +It is interesting to note the changing attitude generally in the matter +of discipline. The harshness of other days is largely replaced by a +leniency that borders on "easiness." Our whole attitude toward criminals +has been revolutionized, and our human impulses have carried over into +the realm of teaching, until now, at least in the opinion of very many +critics, we have drifted largely into "soft pedagogy"--a process of +trying to please regardless of the consequences. + +Earlier treatises on education devoted a good bit of space to the amount +and kind of punishment that should be administered in a well-ordered +school. Punishment is decidedly out of taste these days. The biography +of an old German master discloses the fact that during his teaching +career he had administered 911,527 raps with his cane, 20,989 with a +ruler, 136,715 with his hand, and that he was responsible for 1,115,800 +slaps on the head. The same attitude is reflected in the fact that in +England, as late as the year 1800, two hundred twenty-three offenses +were punishable by death. The offenses included shooting rabbits, +stealing, defacing Westminster Bridge, etc. In our day we hesitate to +apply the extreme penalty even to the murderer. + +The attitude toward the content of teaching has undergone a change quite +in keeping with that attached to method. There was a time when +pedagogical philosophy rather hinted, "It doesn't make any difference +what you teach a boy, as long as he doesn't like it." The hint these +days might more nearly read: "It doesn't make any difference how +valuable certain material is for a boy, don't attempt to teach it to him +unless it fascinates him." Our effort to interest our pupils has +practically resulted in taking the scriptures, particularly the Old +Testament, out of our organizations. Of course, the doctrine of interest +is a very vital one, but there are bounds beyond which we ought not to +push it. + +It is, therefore, perfectly obvious that there is urgent need of +discipline. Any effort at social control demands it. The army succeeds +as it does because of its discipline. Wherever a group of individuals +undertake action in common, every member must be willing to sink +_interests_ of _self_ in _welfare_ of _others_. As was pointed out in +the chapter on Individual Differences, a class is made up of all kinds +of individuals. They vary in capacity, in ideals, in training, in +attitude, in disposition, and in purpose. Manifestly group progress will +be made possible in any such case by a mutual willingness to +co-operate--a willingness to attend a discussion even though not +particularly interested in it, but because it may be of concern to +someone else whose interests I have undertaken to promote. My very +presence in the class imposes such a responsibility upon me. + +It is essential in a discussion of discipline that we agree as to just +what discipline is. It is not _mere silence_. Silent "quietness" may be +agreeable, but it certainly does not make for achievement. Such silence +would be of little worth if it could be achieved, and it cannot be +achieved with twentieth century human beings. The question of the lad +who had been taken to task for his disturbance is always refreshing. The +teacher, after a somewhat prolonged scolding, had concluded: + +"Now, Tommie, do be quiet." + +"What fur?" + +The English may not be the choicest, but the sense is wonderfully +significant to the teacher who would really understand the problem of +discipline. + +Discipline is not repression. The _D_ of discipline and the _D_ of don't +have been confused all too often. Just as the too frequent use of the +brakes on an automobile ruins the lining, so the too frequent "don't" of +repression ruins the "goodwill lining" of the boy, and when that lining +is gone the "brake squeaks," and in emergencies doesn't hold at all. + +Discipline rather consists in that direction of wholesome activity which +creates an atmosphere of intellectual endeavor in which every individual +of a group can profitably follow his own interests while allowing every +other individual to do the same thing free from interference. Discipline +makes it possible for all to do the thing to be done to advantage. It +may at times require silence, it may involve vigorous action--it always +presumes intelligent direction that holds those concerned to the orderly +pursuit of an established goal. + +Various means have been devised for the securing of discipline. The +_doctrine of rewards_ has been and still is being followed extensively. +To give an individual something for being good has never appealed to +educators as fundamentally sound. It puts a false evaluation upon +virtue. It may be that such a policy must be resorted to in emergencies, +but followed regularly it is likely to be attended with disastrous +results. The boy who has regularly to be bought into doing what he +should will likely raise his price until the method of rewards becomes +ruinous both to the father and the boy. To "heroize" a boy in class +every time he does a meritorious act will very likely spoil him. +Encouragement, of course, is helpful, but it ought not to be +overindulged. A stick of candy may induce a child to go to bed agreeably +each night, but the candy may spoil other things than the bedspread. +Moral fibre is built up by developing the habit of doing a thing because +it is right--because it ought to be done. There are teachers and +preachers who hold the interest of those taught by tickling their ears +with material, either funny or nonsensical. There is a question whether +it is not a dangerous practice in an effort to win them to what should +be an attitude of religious devotion. + +Then there is the doctrine that children should be good to please their +parents and teachers. This doctrine is akin to that of rewards. It sets +up something of a false ideal, though of course it is a splendid thing +to teach appreciation of those who help us. Much can be defended which +seeks to inculcate in the minds of children reverence for their elders. +The chief difficulty lies in the fact that this doctrine may not +continue to appeal as fundamentally sound. + +A third method for securing discipline is to compel it. This is to +resort to the law of things. A certain amount of law should characterize +both the home and the classroom. Obedience and order are the first laws +of heaven and are essential to good social environment. But the law +should be so administered that the obedience exacted rests upon an +intelligent understanding of the purpose behind the law. Otherwise there +comes a time when mere authority fails to control. It is a good thing to +train children to abide by regulations out of a sense of duty. If duty +and love can be coupled, the combination makes for permanent +law-abiding. Arbitrary authority and blind obedience have produced +Germany. Strong leadership coupled with democratic co-operation and +loyalty have produced America. + +Still another doctrine of discipline rests upon a social appeal. Members +of a group agree that in the interest of everyone's welfare each +individual will subscribe to certain conditions regardless of their +application to him. This principle, fundamental in all democracies, can +safely be trusted to secure desired results in groups mature enough to +assure sound judgment. The sense of justice in the human soul is a safe +guarantee of both liberty and good order. Many of our classes no doubt +could be improved noticeably if we could enlist the co-operation of the +members to the extent that they would assume to govern themselves. + +Finally there is the doctrine of interest as a means of maintaining +discipline. This doctrine implies that a teacher should get his class so +interested in doing what he wants it to do that it hasn't any +inclination to do what it ought not to do. This doctrine is not the +pernicious doctrine hinted at earlier in this chapter of cheapening +everything into "easiness." Genuine interest may lead not only to +effort, but to sacrifice. The boy who plays football does not play +because of the ease of the game--he is fascinated by his interest in the +struggle. Ample preparation and a complete understanding of pupils will +make possible an interest that disciplines without any evidence of +discipline. Surely this is the modern doctrine of discipline, though +with it should be coupled that wholesome respect for authority that +prompts citizens to abide by the law. + +No discussion of discipline would be complete which did not mention at +least the significance of attitude on the part of one who disciplines. +In so many cases when a boy is corrected he complains of the teacher, + +"Oh, well, he's got it in for me." + +It is always interesting to know whether a parent or teacher disciplines +a child because the child needs it, or because the parent or teacher is +unnerved and has to give expression to his feelings. The disciplinarian +who can correct, when correction is necessary, both in firmness yet in +fairness, so that the person who is corrected is made to feel that the +correction grows out of a desire to help rather than merely to +punish--that disciplinarian will exert an influence for good that is +hard to estimate. He is both a friend and a benefactor. + +Let us conclude this chapter with that wonderful passage from the +Doctrine & Covenants which gives us the word of the Lord on this matter +of controlling others: + + "Behold, there are many called, but few are chosen. And why are they + not chosen? + + "Because their hearts are set so much upon the things of this world, + and aspire to the honors of men, that they do not learn this one + lesson-- + + "That the rights of the Priesthood are inseparably connected with the + powers of heaven, and that the powers of heaven cannot be controlled + nor handled only upon the principles of righteousness. + + "That they may be conferred upon us, it is true; but when we + undertake to cover our sins, or to gratify our pride, our vain + ambitions, or to exercise control, or dominion, or compulsion, upon + the souls of the children of men, in any degree of unrighteousness, + behold, the heavens withdraw themselves; the Spirit of the Lord is + grieved; and when it is withdrawn, Amen to the Priesthood, or the + authority of that man. + + "Behold! ere he is aware, he is left unto himself, to kick against + the pricks; to persecute the Saints, and to fight against God. + + "We have learned, by sad experience, that it is the nature and + disposition of almost all men, as soon as they get a little + authority, as they suppose, they will immediately begin to exercise + unrighteous dominion. + + "Hence many are called, but few are chosen. + + "No power or influence can or ought to be maintained by virtue of the + Priesthood, only by persuasion, by long suffering, by gentleness, and + meekness, and by love unfeigned; + + "By kindness, and pure knowledge, which shall greatly enlarge the + soul without hypocrisy, and without guile; + + "Reproving betimes with sharpness, when moved upon by the Holy Ghost, + and then showing forth afterwards an increase of love toward him whom + thou hast reproved, lest he esteem thee to be his enemy; + + "That he may know that thy faithfulness is stronger than the cords of + death; + + "Let thy bowels also be full of charity towards all men, and to the + household of faith, and let virtue garnish thy thoughts unceasingly, + then shall thy confidence wax strong in the presence of God, and the + doctrine of the Priesthood shall distil upon thy soul as the dews + from heaven. + + "The Holy Ghost shall be thy constant companion, and thy sceptre an + unchanging sceptre of righteousness and truth, and thy dominion shall + be an everlasting dominion, and without compulsory means it shall + flow unto thee forever and ever." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 121:34-46.) + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXII + +1. What constitutes good discipline? + +2. What factors contribute to make discipline a real problem in our +Church? + +3. Discuss our attitude toward discipline today as compared with the +attitude toward it a generation ago. + +4. Name the various methods of securing discipline. + +5. Discuss their relative values. + +6. Why is the teacher's attitude so important a factor in discipline? + +7. What qualities are involved in the proper attitude? + +8. Discuss preparation in its bearing upon discipline. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Doctrine & Covenants; Bagley, _School Discipline_; O'Shea, _Everyday +Problems in Teaching_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Dewey, +_Interest and Effort in Education_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +CREATING CLASS SPIRIT + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXIII + + The "pull" of a good class.--The appeal of an attractive + classroom.--Making it "our room."--The teacher and class + spirit.--Capitalizing on the leadership of the class.--Stimulating + free participation.--Out of class activities.--Some possibilities. + + +There is a "pull" to certain classes--a pull that has all the force of a +magnet. Pupils not only go to such a class willingly, but anticipate +with pleasure the approach of the recitation hour. When duty is coupled +with pleasure, there is a force for righteousness that is beyond +measure. Of the various factors that contribute to the creation of a +class spirit, the following are offered as being among the most helpful. + +1. _An Attractive Classroom._ While it is true that most of the +organizations in the Church do not have surplus funds for beautifying +their buildings, and while it is equally true that many a good lesson +has been conducted on the dirt floors of long cabins, it is equally true +that rooms can be beautified, and that pleasant surroundings can be made +a potent force in holding to our organizations the men and women and +boys and girls of the Church. Of course, elaborate, expensive +decorations ought to be discouraged. Simplicity always is more +consistent with the spirit of worship than is extravagance. But contrast +the difference in effect on children of a bare, untidy, makeshift room +as against a cozy room decorated with a few beautiful pictures or +draperies and made homelike with comfortable seats and tidy arrangement. + +Nor is any great expense involved. The writer recalls visiting a +kindergarten class in one of the schools in Salt Lake County. The ward +authorities had not been asked for a dollar to fit up the room, and yet +it had one of the "homiest" atmospheres imaginable. The teacher of the +class, in addition to having an interest in the class, had an artistic +temperament. She had collected through a number of years the most +beautiful pictures that had appeared in the magazines. These in their +home-made frames transformed the walls of her room into a veritable art +gallery--wherever the eye of the visitor rested, it was greeted by a +picture that, through its beauty, drove home an appreciation of the +finer things of life. The children, too, had been stimulated to a pride +in their room. They had brought in the available old rags from their +homes and, as the result of a Sunday School entertainment which they had +put on with the co-operation of the other departments of the school, +they had had the rags woven into one of those cheerful, old-fashioned +home-made carpets. It was perfectly clear that the children took delight +in going to this "their room" each Sunday morning. Their pride prompted +them to take care of what they regarded as their room, and made for a +spirit of quiet and good order hard to surpass. + +During the course in teacher-training at Provo, last summer, one of the +members of the class courteously took the pains to see that a bouquet of +flowers adorned the teacher's desk each day that the class met. It is +impossible to estimate the effect of those flowers. Their beauty, +coupled with the thoughtfulness that brought them in, made for a +"fragrance of spirit" that exerted a remarkable influence. + +Once the idea becomes established, pupils will take delight in making +their classroom a place in which they will love to meet. + +2. _The Teacher._ We have already discussed at length the personality of +the teacher and its force in teaching. We need only emphasize the fact +here that the magnetism of the teacher, either through what he is or +what he gives, is the one great factor that makes for class spirit. The +class inevitably reflects the attitude of the man who directs it. He +must radiate enthusiasm before it can be caught by his pupils. His +inspiration in making them feel that their class is "the one class" of +an organization is only too gladly responded to by those whom he +teaches. If he impresses the class with the fact that he joins with them +because he loves so to do rather than because he has a duty to +perform--if he makes suggestions in the interest of a better class--if +he starts out by doing something himself by way of a contribution to the +class and its spirit--he can be reasonably sure that his class will come +more than half-way to join in his plans. + +Not only his attitude is a vital factor--his preparation must be of the +same enthusiastic type. A pupil of a very successful teacher in Salt +Lake City recently made the remark, "I wouldn't think of missing +Brother ----'s class. He gives me food for a week." Pressed as to the +explanation of this enthusiasm, he added, "Brother ---- is unique. He +always attacks a subject in such a new and thorough way. He goes below +the surface and really teaches us the Gospel." It is not strange, of +course, that such advertising on the part of class members has built up +an enrollment of some seventy-five pupils. Let us, then, remind +ourselves that boys like a teacher + + "Who has pep," + "Who tells us something new," + "Who doesn't preach at us." + +3. _Capitalizing on the Leadership of the Class._ Just as in every band +of horses there is a leader, so there is in every group of boys and +girls. And as with the leaders, so with the followers. "Get the +leaders," says a veteran horseman, "and you have all the rest." It is +frequently the case that a teacher does not know intimately all of his +pupils. Perhaps in many cases that teacher can know well a few of the +outstanding leaders. He can well accompany them on hikes, can take them +to a theatre, a ball game, or for a ride. If he wins them they become +his lieutenants--they make his class. A word from him and these "under +officers" lead the whole class to the desired reaction. "Take your +leading pupils into your confidence and they will establish you in the +confidence of all the rest." The experience is related of a teacher sent +into southern Utah to take charge of a class of boys who had "dismissed" +three teachers already, within the first half year of school. When the +newcomer arrived, the air was full of rumblings as to what was to become +of number four. He was variously cautioned to make an early departure, +to go into school "armed" to "expect anything." But this particular +teacher appreciated the fact that he was best armed when backed by the +confidence and good will of his class. It was an easy matter to have +pointed out for him "the meanest boy of the lot." This boy he sought out +and found playing a game of horseshoe. Invited to take a place in the +game, he entered the circle of the "outlaws" by winning decisively from +their champion--"the meanest boy." To this boy, the new teacher was a +"real fellow." Whatever he said, went! The word was circulated overnight +among the boys of the town. The teacher already was master of the +situation. "The meanest boy," instead of being the chief outlaw, now +took pride in being chief lieutenant. Winning the leader won the group, +and teacher number four not only stayed the year out, but was petitioned +to come back a second year. As a matter of fact, he says, he taught +school in that town for seven years. + +4. _Putting a Premium on Participation._ One of the most interesting +classes the writer has ever visited was a theological class in the +Granite Stake. The teacher was committed to the policy of taking as +little as possible of the class period himself, but he was also +committed to the policy of getting his pupils to do the most possible. +For the particular day in question he had assigned a discussion of +baptism. One member of the class had been asked to discuss sprinkling as +the correct method, another had been assigned immersion. The two young +men brought in their findings as if they had been trained for a debate. +Within the forty minutes devoted to the recitation baptism had been gone +into as thoroughly as the writer has ever seen it gone into during the +course of a single lesson, and the members of the class had been +delightfully entertained and enlightened. When the bell rang announcing +the close of the recitation, the class petitioned to have the discussion +continued the following Sunday. It was perfectly clear how the teacher +had built up his enrollment. + +It is fundamental in human nature to love social combat. The clash of +mind versus mind makes a wonderful appeal. Witness a political +convention or an open forum debate! Let it be known that a vital subject +is to be discussed by men who are really prepared and other men bestir +themselves to be in attendance. Surely no subjects are full of more +vital significance than questions of life and life eternal. If a teacher +will take the pains to select attention-compelling headings and then +stimulate representative members of his class really to work out +something of a contribution, he need have no fear of the success of his +class. Such procedure not only guarantees a good class--it promotes +faith on the part of those participating as few other things can. Too +frequently we content ourselves with the routine of commonplace "talk." +There is no enthusiasm in mere routine as there is none in listless +listening to generalities. Our effort should be to make our classes +intellectual social centers with everybody participating. + +5. _Promoting Class Activities Out of Hours._ The Seventies who +harvested the grain for the widow of one of their members did a splendid +bit of service, not only for her but for their own quorum. A common +objective in service made for a common bond in fellowship. + +The Primary class that was stimulated to take a basket of flowers to one +of its sick members was helped not only in the making of someone happy, +but in building up a class spirit that guaranteed success. + +There are so many possibilities open to the teacher who really cares. +Just the other evening the teacher of a class of Bee Hive girls called +them together for a little social entertainment that they might talk +over plans for the approaching season. What a capital attitude? Not to +wait till the season opened, but to take the pains to look up the +available, prospective class members and make ready for an enthusiastic +campaign. Of course, such a teacher will succeed. + +Class socials of all sorts, baseball teams, authors' clubs, bits of ward +service, visits to institutions of interest--scores of worthy +opportunities present themselves always to the teacher who is anxious to +build up a genuine class spirit. And that spirit is the one great +guarantee of real joy in teaching--it makes a class one which its +members will always hold in memory. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXIII + +1. Why is it essential that a teacher build up a class spirit? + +2. Give three practical suggestions on the subject of beautifying +classrooms. + +3. Discuss the importance of the attitude of a teacher in promoting +class spirit. + +4. Point out possible methods for enlisting the co-operation of class +leaders. + +5. What do you consider your best method of stimulating members to +participate in class discussions? + +6. What kind of class activities contribute most to the life of your +class? + +7. Discuss the advisability of promoting class athletic teams. + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School +Teachers_; Dewey, _Interest and Effort in Education_; O'Shea, _Everyday +Problems in Teaching_; Norsworthy and Whitley, _Psychology of +Childhood_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +CONVERSION--THE REAL TEST OF TEACHING + + OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXIV + + Character, a great power in conversion.--Our concern the converted + teacher and also the converted pupil.--The converted teacher + believes what he teaches.--The converted teacher practices what he + teaches.--The force of "Come, follow me."--What makes for + conversion.--The teacher's obligation to kindle the spiritual + fire.--His obligation to feature testimony-bearing.--His obligation + to take his pupils where they will feel the spirit of testimony. + + +A number of years ago a young graduate of one of our eastern +universities was employed to teach science in a school in Japan. He was +employed with the understanding that though he was free to advance +whatever scientific theories he chose he should say nothing about his +Christian religion. He accepted the conditions gladly, and during the +first year of his service was careful not even to mention Christianity. +He not only taught his classes in science, but he joined with the boys +in their athletics and in their social life generally. Being both an +athlete and a leader, he was soon looked to as the life of the school. +His clean life was an inspiration. He inevitably set a Christian +standard. Before the end of the second year, though he had preached +never a word, forty young men made application for membership in his +church. His life and ideals had converted them as no preaching could +have done. + +What was true in this case is inevitably true in the case of all real +teachers. What a man is breathes a power of conversion that no force or +argument can equal. Hence this concluding chapter--Conversion, the Real +Test of Teaching. + +First of all, we are concerned with the conversion of the teacher; +secondly, with the conversion of the pupil. They are inseparably +interwoven. Only the converted teacher can make converts of his pupils. +And surely there is very great need of this very thing--_the making of +real converts of our boys and girls_ that they may come fully to +appreciate the significance of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Upon them +rests the carrying forward of that great work which only the +_conversion_ of our pioneer forefathers could have achieved. + +In the first place, the converted teacher _believes_ what he teaches. +There is no half-hearted attitude toward the subject in hand. To him it +is both true and vital. He teaches with a positiveness and an assurance +which grip pupils. What a difference between the speech in which a +speaker merely makes certain observations--sets forth certain specified +facts--and the speech in which those same facts are heightened by that +glow of conviction which stamps them as indispensably essential to +proper living. The prayer of a man who does not believe in prayer is an +example of the emptiness of unbelief. There is one minister in Chicago +who openly announces that God does not and can not answer the prayers of +mankind. And yet he prays. And what mockery is his praying. Mere words. +No man is ever touched by such an empty form. Such prayers have none of +that _Heaven Force_ which establishes communion with the Lord. Surely +"They draw near me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me." + +To everyone comes the experience of listening to the heavy phrases of +him who would argue and harrangue his auditors into salvation. How his +words seem not only to close their minds, but to shut their hearts as +well. He fairly talks so loudly that they can't hear him. And then some +humble follower of Him who shunned the orator's eloquence moves to +tears the same audience by his simple utterance of what he knows and +feels to be true. He adds the conviction of conversion to mere +"hard-headedness." When a man knows that which he teaches is true there +is a spirit that gives power to what he says. "The letter killeth, but +the spirit giveth life." + +The experience of a Montana railroad executive gives force to this +thought. He told one of our leaders how he had always been impressed +with the achievements of our Church. In fact, he became such an admirer +of the wonderful organization of the "Mormon" Church that he decided to +adopt the same kind of organization in his railroad. To quote: "I +thought if I could apply the same system up here that you have in the +'Mormon' Church it would work just the same for me as it did for you. I +have copied its plan with the First Presidency, the Council of the +Twelve, the Presiding Bishop, and all the other officers. I have tried +it--but it wouldn't work for me." Only a Latter-day Saint can fully +understand why. + +And so the teacher who would become a converter must feel the truth of +what he teaches so that a spirit of conviction extends from him to his +class and so takes hold of the members that they, too, feel the truth of +what he says. In short, the real teacher must have a testimony of the +truthfulness of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. He must be caught up by that +same spirit that opened the heavens to the Prophet Joseph Smith--only +then can he really teach. The Lord has so revealed: + + "And they shall observe the covenants and church articles to do them, + and these shall be their teaching, as they shall be directed by the + Spirit; + + "And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the prayer of faith, and + if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. + 42:13, 14.) + + "Verily I say unto you, he that is ordained of me and sent forth to + preach the word of truth by the Comforter, in the Spirit of Truth, + doth he preach it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way? + + "And if it be by some other way, it is not of God. + + "And again, he that receiveth the word of truth, doth he receive it + by the Spirit of Truth or some other way? + + "If it be some other way it be not of God: + + "Therefore, why is it that ye cannot understand and know that he that + receiveth the word by the Spirit of Truth, receiveth it as it is + preached by the Spirit of Truth? + + "Wherefore, he that preacheth and he that receiveth, understandeth + one another, and both are edified and rejoice together; + + "And that which doth not edify is not of God and is darkness; + + "That which is of God is light; and he that receiveth light and + continueth in God, receiveth more light, and that light groweth + brighter and brighter until the perfect day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. + 50:17-24.) + +In the second place, the teacher's belief must be translated into daily +life. "Come, follow me," is the admonition that makes for conversion. A +young man recently, in characterizing the biggest failure among teachers +that he had ever known, remarked, "He simply couldn't teach us anything. +He started in by giving us a vigorous lecture against tobacco, but +before a week had passed we all knew that he himself smoked. He might +just as well have given up teaching right there. We couldn't see any +truth in him after that, for the 'smoke' of his own deception." + +Of course, he was not converted. A similar experience is related of the +principal of a school who, with his faculty of teachers, made it a +school rule that there should be no playing of cards on the part of the +students. The rule recorded, however, the principal proceeded to +participate in downtown card parties until he established a reputation, +in the language of the boys, as a "card shark." Not only did that +principal find it impossible thereafter to combat the evil of students +cutting classes to play cards, he lost that confidence on the part of +the student body without which school discipline cannot be achieved. +Lack of conversion--such conversion as leads a man to practice what he +preaches--cost him his position. + +To the teacher who would develop the power of conversion, may we make +reference by way of review to those suggestions in an earlier chapter +that make for spiritual growth: + + 1. Live a clean life. + 2. Read the word of the Lord. + 3. Do the duties assigned by those in authority. + 4. Subscribe to all the principles of the Gospel. + 5. Cultivate a real spirit of prayer. + +If the teacher is really converted, of course the conversion of his +pupils follows very largely as a corollary. But by way of practical +suggestion, it may be helpful to list some things that may be done to +promote a spirit of testimony on the part of the pupils. At the outset a +teacher ought to appreciate just what a testimony is and how it varies +with the age and experience of children. It is clearly a mistake as a +general rule to expect young children to give expression to a testimony +such as might be borne by an adult. True, some children enjoy at an +early age the spirit of testimony to such an extent that they do seem to +know that the Gospel is true. But it is wiser not to expect too much. +Then, too, testimonies vary with individuals. Teachers ought to look out +for expressions which are characteristic of the pupil in question rather +than to expect all pupils to measure up to a set standard. + +With a proper conception of a testimony, the teacher then owes certain +rather definite obligations to his class. + +He ought to feature testimony bearing rather than to apologize for it. +In the teaching of the Gospel of Jesus Christ there can be no more +sacred opportunity than that which allows pupils to open their hearts to +their Creator. + +Then, too, the teacher owes it to his class to _kindle_ the spiritual +fire which alone can make for testimony bearing. Brother Maeser had a +very effective way of illustrating the significance of this obligation. +As he expressed the thought, no one would feel that he had completed his +task of warming a house if he merely put into the grate the necessary +paper, wood and coal. He might have all these, but until he struck the +match which would kindle the fire, no warmth would be felt. And so, +spiritually, the fire of a testimony-meeting needs to be kindled. All +too often, a teacher opens the class hour with some such statement as +this, "Now, boys and girls, today is Fast Day. I hope you won't let the +time go to waste." What inspiration in such an opening! That teacher has +not only not kindled the fire, he has brought in a lump or two of +coal--hard at that--with no kindling even as a promise of a fire. On the +other hand, the successful teacher comes before his class with a vital +truth that thrills him and gives it a concrete expression which prompts +pupils to add similar experiences out of their own lives. + +Then, too, the teacher may well bring into his class by way of +inspiration someone well established in the faith whose experiences are +full of the spirit of conversion. There are in every ward in the Church +those men and women who know of a surety that the gospel is true. Why +not bring them in occasionally to stimulate testimony bearing? Might it +not be well, also, to take the class as a class to our Fast Day +Sacrament service, there to let them enjoy the wonderful spirit of +testimony that is so characteristic of these meetings? There is a +feeling of conversion that attends these meetings that all boys and +girls must feel--must feel so keenly that they in turn will want to give +expression to their own convictions. + +And finally, as teachers, let us remind ourselves that in this matter of +promoting the bearing of testimonies we should exercise a patience that +is full of tolerance and forbearance. Some few individuals are +converted suddenly; others respond to the truth gradually; and there are +those who do well if they really respond to the feeling of conversion at +the end of a lifetime. As one of our leaders has so beautifully pointed +out, the Master, Himself, did not convert the world in a day, nor a +year--He has not converted it in all these centuries. His plan seems to +be to teach the truth and wait patiently until the divinity in man +asserts itself--until man walks by his own light into eternal truth. +Under the inspiration of such example may teachers well labor on in +earnestness, happy in the thought that He will hasten in His own due +time what to them may seem a long, slow process. + + "Perchance, in heaven, one day to me + Some blessed Saint will come and say, + 'All hail, beloved; but for thee + My soul to death had fallen a prey'; + And oh! what rapture in the thought, + One soul to glory to have brought." + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXIV + +1. Why is conversion the real test of religious teaching? + +2. What are the outstanding characteristics of a person newly converted +to the Church? + +3. Discuss the significance of each of the factors that make for +conversion. + +4. Illustrate how to kindle the spiritual fire. + +5. State why or why not you favor making assignments for testimony day. + +6. What is a testimony? + +7. How may children best cultivate a testimony? + +8. What principle or practice means most to you by way of affirming your +own testimony? + + +HELPFUL REFERENCES + +The Doctrine & Covenants, The Bible, The Book of Mormon, The Voice of +Warning, Rays of Living Light. + + + + +_Bibliography_ + + +_The Art of Teaching_ + Driggs Deseret Book Co., Salt Lake. + +_The Art of Questioning_ + Fitch A. Flanigan Co., Chicago. + +_Story Telling, Questioning and Studying_ + Horne MacMillan Co., New York. + +_Principles of Psychology_ + James H. Holt & Co., New York. + +_Fundamentals of Child Study_ + Kirkpatrick MacMillan Co., New York. + +_A Study of Child Nature_ + Harrison R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Chicago. + +_Psychology of Childhood_ + Norsworthy and Whitley MacMillan Co., New York. + +_The Essentials of Character_ + Sisson MacMillan Co., New York. + +_Principles of Teaching_ + Thorndike A.G. Seiler, New York. + +_Education for Character_ + Sharp Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis. + +_The Ideal Teacher_ + G.H. Palmer Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. + +_The Seven Laws of Teaching_ + J.M. Gregory The Pilgrim Press, Chicago. + +_The Point of Contact in Teaching_ + Dubois Dodd, Mead & Co., New York. + +_Interest and Effort in Education_ + Dewey Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. + +_The Boy Problem_ + Forbush The Pilgrim Press, Chicago. + +_Training the Boy_ + McKeever MacMillan Co., New York. + +_Types of Teaching_ + Earhart Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. + +_How to Teach Religion_ + Betts The Abingdon Press, New York. + +_Talks to Sunday School Teachers_ + Weigle Doran Publishing Co., New York. + +_Everyday Problems in Teaching_ + O'Shea Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis. + +_Talks to Teachers_ + James H. Holt & Co., New York. + +_How to Teach_ + Strayer and Norsworthy MacMillan Co., New York. + +_The Making of a Teacher_ + Brumbaugh Sunday School Times Co., Phila. + +_The Learning Process_ + Colvin MacMillan Co., New York. + +_The Teacher and the School_ + Colgrove Chas. Scribner & Co., New York. + +_Pictures in Religious Education_ + Beard Geo. H. Doran Co., New York. + +_The Nervous System_ + Stiles W.B. Saunders Co., Phila. + +_The Classroom Teacher_ + Strayer and Englehardt American Book Co., New York. + +_The Recitation_ + Betts Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. + +_Attention_ + Pillsbury MacMillan Co., New York. + +_Religious Education in the Family_ + Cope University of Chicago Press. + +_Classroom Method and Management_ + Betts Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis. + +_Classroom Management_ + Bagley MacMillan Co., New York. + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + +Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed below. + + +Chapter I "a Church built upon revelation" + Corrected typo: "builded" + +Chapter VI "using an average of thirty-two minutes" + Corrected typo: "mintues" + + "their employees that they subscribe regularly" + Corrected typo: "reguarly" + +Chapter VII "A Child's characteristics--his" + Corrected typo: "charactertistics" + + "These organic, vital activities" + Corrected typo: "acitivities" + + "All nuerones have" + "nuerones must be active" + Corrected typos: "neurones" + +Chapter VIII "method of rewards and punishment;" + Corrected typo: "punishment:" + + "will be found an interesting tabulation" + Corrected typo: "tabluation" + + "few of them can safely be developed" + Corrected typo: "devoloped" + +Chapter IX "wasn't worrying about what he was" + Corrected typo: "worying" + + "concerning which there may be some uncertainty." + Corrected typo: "uncertainty?" + +Chapter X "group themselves with a certain uniformity" + Corrected typo: "cerain" + + "indicate that there is little" + Corrected typo: "their is" + + "sent his way than the cheerful one" + Corrected typo: "cheeful" + +Chapter XIII "Let the scriptures testify" + Corrected typo: "sciptures" + + "Consider the case of the Son" + Corrected typo: "case of of the Son" + +Chapter XIV "is so significant when understood" + Corrected typo: "signficant" + + "going back some two thousand years" + Corrected typo: "thouand" + +Chapter XVI "the silent inspiration of that picture" + Corrected typo: "pciture" + +Chapter XIX "the statement, "The best method is a variety of methods."" + Closing quote missing in original + +Chapter XX "map out their work so carefully" + Corrected typo: "map our" + +Chapter XXI "a. The review question;" + Corrected typo: "question:" + + "'As long as I do all the talking, things go all right,'" + Closing single quote was double quote in original + + "when, where, and why." + Missing period in original + +Chapter XXII "to go to bed agreeably" + Corrected typo: "agreebly" + +Chapter XXIII "to participate in class discussions?" + Corrected typo: "discussions." + + +In addition, in Chapter XVI a full line was missing. The original reads: + + "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well + as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.) + +The corrected text is: + + "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well + as in thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public + as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.) + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Principles of Teaching, by Adam S. 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