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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The New York Subway, by Anonymous
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The New York Subway
+       Its Construction and Equipment
+
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2006  [eBook #17569]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW YORK SUBWAY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Ronald Holder, Diane Monico, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 17569-h.htm or 17569-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/7/5/6/17569/17569-h/17569-h.htm)
+      or
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+
+
+
+
+
+Interborough Rapid Transit
+
+THE NEW YORK SUBWAY
+
+Its Construction and Equipment
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING ROOM OF POWER HOUSE]
+
+
+[Illustration: (I.R.T. symbol)]
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Interborough Rapid Transit Company
+ANNO. DOMI. MCMIV
+Copyright, 1904, by
+Interborough Rapid Transit Co.
+New York
+Planned and Executed by The
+McGraw Publishing Co.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: (McGraw Publishing Company New York logo)]
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                            Page No.
+
+INTRODUCTION,                                                  13
+
+CHAPTER    I. THE ROUTE OF THE ROAD--PASSENGER STATIONS
+              AND TRACKS,                                      23
+
+CHAPTER   II. TYPES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION,               37
+
+CHAPTER  III. POWER HOUSE BUILDING,                            67
+
+CHAPTER   IV. POWER PLANT FROM COAL PILE TO SHAFTS OF
+              ENGINES AND TURBINES,                            77
+
+CHAPTER    V. SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLY,                     91
+
+CHAPTER   VI. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS,                   117
+
+CHAPTER  VII. LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER STATIONS
+              AND TUNNEL,                                     121
+
+CHAPTER VIII. ROLLING STOCK--CARS, TRUCKS, ETC.,              125
+
+CHAPTER   IX. SIGNAL SYSTEM,                                  135
+
+CHAPTER    X. SUBWAY DRAINAGE,                                145
+
+CHAPTER   XI. REPAIR AND INSPECTION SHED,                     147
+
+CHAPTER  XII. SUB-CONTRACTORS,                                151
+
+
+
+
+INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY
+
+
+_Directors_
+
+August Belmont
+E. P. Bryan
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Gardiner M. Lane
+John B. McDonald
+Walter G. Oakman
+John Peirce
+Morton F. Plant
+William A. Read
+Alfred Skitt
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+George W. Young
+
+_Executive Committee_
+
+August Belmont
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Walter G. Oakman
+William A. Read
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+
+_Officers_
+
+August Belmont, President
+E. P. Bryan, Vice-president
+H. M. Fisher, Secretary
+D. W. McWilliams, Treasurer
+E. F. J. Gaynor, Auditor
+Frank Hedley, General Superintendent
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer
+George W. Wickersham, General Counsel
+Chas. A. Gardiner, General Attorney
+DeLancey Nicoll, Associate Counsel
+Alfred A. Gardner, Associate Counsel
+
+
+_Engineering Staff_
+
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.
+
+
+_Electrical Equipment_
+
+L. B. Stillwell, Electrical Director.
+H. N. Latey, Principal Assistant.
+Frederick R. Slater, Assistant Engineer in charge of Third Rail
+ Construction.
+Albert F. Parks, Assistant Engineer in charge of Lighting.
+George G. Raymond, Assistant Engineer in charge of Conduits and Cables.
+William B. Flynn, Assistant Engineer in charge of Draughting Room.
+
+
+_Mechanical and Architectural_
+
+J. Van Vleck, Mechanical and Construction Engineer.
+William C. Phelps, Assistant Construction Engineer.
+William N. Stevens, Ass't Mechanical Engineer.
+Paul C. Hunter, Architectural Assistant.
+Geo. E. Thomas, Supervising Engineer in Field.
+
+
+_Cars and Signal System_
+
+George Gibbs, Consulting Engineer.
+Watson T. Thompson, Master Mechanic.
+J. N. Waldron, Signal Engineer.
+
+
+
+
+RAPID TRANSIT SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY
+
+
+_Directors_
+
+August Belmont
+E. P. Bryan
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Gardiner M. Lane
+Walther Luttgen
+John B. McDonald
+Walter G. Oakman
+John Peirce
+Morton F. Plant
+William A. Read
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+George W. Young
+
+
+_Executive Committee_
+
+August Belmont
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Walter G. Oakman
+William A. Read
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+
+
+_Officers_
+
+August Belmont, president
+Walter G. Oakman, vice-president
+John B. McDonald, contractor
+H. M. Fisher, secretary
+John F. Buck, treasurer
+E. F. J. Gaynor, auditor
+S. L. F. Deyo, chief engineer
+George W. Wickersham, general counsel
+Alfred A. Gardner, attorney
+
+
+_Engineering Staff_
+
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.
+H. T. Douglas, Principal Assistant Engineer.
+
+A. Edward Olmsted, Division Engineer, Manhattan-Bronx Lines.
+
+Henry B. Reed, Division Engineer, Brooklyn Extension.
+
+Theodore Paschke, Resident Engineer, First Division, City Hall to 33d
+Street, also Brooklyn Extension, City Hall to Bowling Green; and
+Robert S. Fowler, Assistant.
+
+Ernest C. Moore, Resident Engineer, Second Division, 33d Street to
+104th Street; and Stanley Raymond, Assistant.
+
+William C. Merryman, Resident Engineer, Third Division, Underground
+Work, 104th Street to Fort George West Side and Westchester Avenue
+East Side; and William B. Leonard, W. A. Morton, and William E.
+Morris, Jr., Assistants.
+
+Allan A. Robbins and Justin Burns, Resident Engineers, Fourth
+Division, Viaducts; and George I. Oakley, Assistant.
+
+Frank D. Leffingwell, Resident Engineer, East River Tunnel Division,
+Brooklyn Extension; and C. D. Drew, Assistant.
+
+Percy Litchfield, Resident Engineer, Fifth Division, Brooklyn
+Extension, Borough Hall to Prospect Park; and Edward R. Eichner,
+Assistant.
+
+M. C. Hamilton, Engineer, Maintenance of Way; and Robert E. Brandeis,
+Assistant.
+
+D. L. Turner, Assistant Engineer in charge of Stations.
+
+A. Samuel Berquist, Assistant Engineer in charge of Steel Erection.
+
+William J. Boucher, Assistant Engineer in charge of Draughting Rooms.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: (INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT)]
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The completion of the rapid transit railroad in the boroughs of
+Manhattan and The Bronx, which is popularly known as the "Subway," has
+demonstrated that underground railroads can be built beneath the
+congested streets of the city, and has made possible in the near
+future a comprehensive system of subsurface transportation extending
+throughout the wide territory of Greater New York.
+
+In March, 1900, when the Mayor with appropriate ceremonies broke
+ground at the Borough Hall, in Manhattan, for the new road, there were
+many well-informed people, including prominent financiers and
+experienced engineers, who freely prophesied failure for the
+enterprise, although the contract had been taken by a most capable
+contractor, and one of the best known banking houses in America had
+committed itself to finance the undertaking.
+
+In looking at the finished road as a completed work, one is apt to
+wonder why it ever seemed impossible and to forget the difficulties
+which confronted the builders at the start.
+
+The railway was to be owned by the city, and built and operated under
+legislation unique in the history of municipal governments,
+complicated, and minute in provisions for the occupation of the city
+streets, payment of moneys by the city, and city supervision over
+construction and operation. Questions as to the interpretation of
+these provisions might have to be passed upon by the courts, with
+delays, how serious none could foretell, especially in New York where
+the crowded calendars retard speedy decisions. The experience of the
+elevated railroad corporations in building their lines had shown the
+uncertainty of depending upon legal precedents. It was not, at that
+time, supposed that the abutting property owners would have any legal
+ground for complaint against the elevated structures, but the courts
+found new laws for new conditions and spelled out new property rights
+of light, air, and access, which were made the basis for a volume of
+litigation unprecedented in the courts of any country.
+
+An underground railroad was a new condition. None could say that the
+abutting property owners might not find rights substantial enough, at
+least, to entitle them to their day in court, a day which, in this
+State, might stretch into many months, or even several years. Owing to
+the magnitude of the work, delay might easily result in failure. An
+eminent judge of the New York Supreme Court had emphasized the
+uncertainties of the situation in the following language: "Just what
+are the rights of the owners of property abutting upon a street or
+avenue, the fee in and to the soil underneath the surface of which has
+been acquired by the city of New York, so far as the same is not
+required for the ordinary city uses of gas or water pipes, or others
+of a like character, has never been finally determined. We have now
+the example of the elevated railroad, constructed and operated in the
+city of New York under legislative and municipal authority for nearly
+twenty years, which has been compelled to pay many millions of dollars
+to abutting property owners for the easement in the public streets
+appropriated by the construction and maintenance of the road, and
+still the amount that the road will have to pay is not ascertained.
+What liabilities will be imposed upon the city under this contract;
+what injury the construction and operation of this road will cause to
+abutting property, and what easements and rights will have to be
+acquired before the road can be legally constructed and operated, it
+is impossible now to ascertain."
+
+It is true, that the city undertook "to secure to the contractor the
+right to construct and operate, free from all rights, claims, or other
+interference, whether by injunction, suit for damages, or otherwise on
+the part of any abutting owner or other person." But another eminent
+judge of the same court had characterized this as "a condition
+absolutely impossible of fulfillment," and had said: "How is the city
+to prevent interference with the work by injunction? That question
+lies with the courts; and not with the courts of this State alone, for
+there are cases without doubt in which the courts of the United States
+would have jurisdiction to act, and when such jurisdiction exists they
+have not hitherto shown much reluctance in acting.... That legal
+proceedings will be undertaken which will, to some extent at least,
+interfere with the progress of this work seems to be inevitable...."
+
+Another difficulty was that the Constitution of the State of New York
+limited the debt-incurring power of the city. The capacity of the city
+to undertake the work had been much discussed in the courts, and the
+Supreme Court of the State had disposed of that phase of the situation
+by suggesting that it did not make much difference to the municipality
+whether or not the debt limit permitted a contract for the work,
+because if the limit should be exceeded, "no liability could possibly
+be imposed upon the city," a view which might comfort the timid
+taxpayers but could hardly be expected to give confidence to the
+capitalists who might undertake the execution of the contract.
+
+Various corporations, organized during the thirty odd years of
+unsuccessful attempts by the city to secure underground rapid transit,
+claimed that their franchises gave them vested rights in the streets
+to the exclusion of the new enterprise, and they were prepared to
+assert their rights in the courts. (The Underground Railroad Company
+of the City of New York sought to enjoin the building of the road and
+carried their contest to the Supreme Court of the United States which
+did not finally decide the questions raised until March, 1904, when
+the subway was practically complete.)
+
+Rival transportation companies stood ready to obstruct the work and
+encourage whomever might find objection to the building of the road.
+
+New York has biennial elections. The road could not be completed in
+two years, and the attitude of one administration might not be the
+attitude of its successors.
+
+The engineering difficulties were well-nigh appalling. Towering
+buildings along the streets had to be considered, and the streets
+themselves were already occupied with a complicated network of
+subsurface structures, such as sewers, water and gas mains, electric
+cable conduits, electric surface railway conduits, telegraph and
+power conduits, and many vaults extending out under the streets,
+occupied by the abutting property owners. On the surface were street
+railway lines carrying a very heavy traffic night and day, and all the
+thoroughfares in the lower part of the city were congested with
+vehicular traffic.
+
+Finally, the city was unwilling to take any risk, and demanded
+millions of dollars of security to insure the completion of the road
+according to the contract, the terms of which were most exacting down
+to the smallest detail.
+
+The builders of the road did not underestimate the magnitude of the
+task before them. They retained the most experienced experts for every
+part of the work and, perfecting an organization in an incredibly
+short time, proceeded to surmount and sweep aside difficulties. The
+result is one of which every citizen of New York may feel proud. Upon
+the completion of the road the city will own the best constructed and
+best equipped intraurban rapid transit railroad in the world. The
+efforts of the builders have not been limited by the strict terms of
+the contract. They have striven, not to equal the best devices, but to
+improve upon the best devices used in modern electrical railroading,
+to secure for the traveling public safety, comfort, and speedy
+transportation.
+
+The road is off the surface and escapes the delays incident to
+congested city streets, but near the surface and accessible, light,
+dry, clean, and well ventilated. The stations and approaches are
+commodious, and the stations themselves furnish conveniences to
+passengers heretofore not heard of on intraurban lines. There is a
+separate express service, with its own tracks, and the stations are so
+arranged that passengers may pass from local trains to express trains,
+and vice versa, without delay and without payment of additional fare.
+Special precautions have been taken and devices adopted to prevent a
+failure of the electric power and the consequent delays of traffic. An
+electro pneumatic block signal system has been devised, which excels
+any system heretofore used and is unique in its mechanism. The third
+rail for conveying the electric current is covered, so as to prevent
+injury to passengers and employees from contact. Special emergency and
+fire alarm signal systems are installed throughout the length of the
+road. At a few stations, where the road is not near the surface,
+improved escalators and elevators are provided. The cars have been
+designed to prevent danger from fire, and improved types of motors
+have been adopted, capable of supplying great speed combined with
+complete control. Strength, utility, and convenience have not alone
+been considered, but all parts of the railroad structures and
+equipment, stations, power house, and electrical sub-stations have
+been designed and constructed with a view to the beauty of their
+appearance, as well as to their efficiency.
+
+The completion of the subway marks the solution of a problem which for
+over thirty years baffled the people of New York City, in spite of the
+best efforts of many of its foremost citizens. An extended account of
+Rapid Transit Legislation would be out of place here, but a brief
+glance at the history of the Act under the authority of which the
+subway has been built is necessary to a clear understanding of the
+work which has been accomplished. From 1850 to 1865 the street surface
+horse railways were sufficient for the requirements of the traveling
+public. As the city grew rapidly, the congestion spreading northward,
+to and beyond the Harlem River, the service of surface roads became
+entirely inadequate. As early as 1868, forty-two well known business
+men of the city became, by special legislative Act, incorporators of
+the New York City Central Underground Railway Company, to build a line
+from the City Hall to the Harlem River. The names of the incorporators
+evidenced the seriousness of the attempt, but nothing came of it. In
+1872, also by special Act, Cornelius Vanderbilt and others were
+incorporated as The New York City Rapid Transit Company, to build an
+underground road from the City Hall to connect with the New York &
+Harlem Road at 59th Street, with a branch to the tracks of the New
+York Central Road. The enterprise was soon abandoned. Numerous
+companies were incorporated in the succeeding years under the general
+railroad laws, to build underground roads, but without results; among
+them the Central Tunnel Railway Company in 1881, The New York & New
+Jersey Tunnel Railway Company in 1883, The Terminal Underground
+Railway Company in 1886, The Underground Railroad Company of the City
+of New York (a consolidation of the last two companies) in 1896, and
+The Rapid Transit Underground Railroad Company in 1897.
+
+All attempts to build a road under the early special charter and later
+under the general laws having failed, the city secured in 1891 the
+passage of the Rapid Transit Act under which, as amended, the subway
+has been built. As originally passed it did not provide for municipal
+ownership. It provided that a board of five rapid transit railroad
+commissioners might adopt routes and general plans for a railroad,
+obtain the consents of the local authorities and abutting property
+owners, or in lieu of the consents of the property owners the approval
+of the Supreme Court; and then, having adopted detail plans for the
+construction and operation, might sell at public sale the right to
+build and operate the road to a corporation, whose powers and duties
+were defined in the Act, for such period of time and on such terms as
+they could. The Commissioners prepared plans and obtained the consents
+of the local authorities. The property owners refused their consent;
+the Supreme Court gave its approval in lieu thereof, but upon inviting
+bids the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners found no
+responsible bidder.
+
+The late Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, as early as 1884, when legislation for
+underground roads was under discussion, had urged municipal ownership.
+Speaking in 1901, he said of his efforts in 1884:
+
+     "It was evident to me that underground rapid transit could
+     not be secured by the investment of private capital, but in
+     some way or other its construction was dependent upon the
+     use of the credit of the City of New York. It was also
+     apparent to me that if such credit were used, the property
+     must belong to the city. Inasmuch as it would not be safe
+     for the city to undertake the construction itself, the
+     intervention of a contracting company appeared
+     indispensable. To secure the city against loss, this company
+     must necessarily be required to give a sufficient bond for
+     the completion of the work and be willing to enter into a
+     contract for its continued operation under a rental which
+     would pay the interest upon the bonds issued by the city for
+     the construction, and provide a sinking fund sufficient for
+     the payment of the bonds at or before maturity. It also
+     seemed to be indispensable that the leasing company should
+     invest in the rolling stock and in the real estate required
+     for its power houses and other buildings an amount of money
+     sufficiently large to indemnify the city against loss in
+     case the lessees should fail in their undertaking to build
+     and operate the railroad."
+
+Mr. Hewitt became Mayor of the city in 1887, and his views were
+presented in the form of a Bill to the Legislature in the following
+year. The measure found practically no support. Six years later, after
+the Rapid Transit Commissioners had failed under the Act of 1891, as
+originally drawn, to obtain bidders for the franchise, the New York
+Chamber of Commerce undertook to solve the problem by reverting to Mr.
+Hewitt's idea of municipal ownership. Whether or not municipal
+ownership would meet the approval of the citizens of New York could
+not be determined; therefore, as a preliminary step, it was decided to
+submit the question to a popular vote. An amendment to the Act of 1891
+was drawn (Chapter 752 of the Laws of 1894) which provided that the
+qualified electors of the city were to decide at an annual election,
+by ballot, whether the rapid transit railway or railways should be
+constructed by the city and at the public's expense, and be operated
+under lease from the city, or should be constructed by a private
+corporation under a franchise to be sold in the manner attempted
+unsuccessfully, under the Act of 1891, as originally passed. At the
+fall election of 1894, the electors of the city, by a very large vote,
+declared against the sale of a franchise to a private corporation and
+in favor of ownership by the city. Several other amendments, the
+necessity for which developed as plans for the railway were worked
+out, were made up to and including the session of the Legislature of
+1900, but the general scheme for rapid transit may be said to have
+become fixed when the electors declared in favor of municipal
+ownership. The main provisions of the legislation which stood upon the
+statute books as the Rapid Transit Act, when the contract was finally
+executed, February 21, 1900, may be briefly summarized as follows:
+
+(_a_) The Act was general in terms, applying to all cities in the
+State having a population of over one million; it was special in
+effect because New York was the only city having such a population. It
+did not limit the Rapid Transit Commissioners to the building of a
+single road, but authorized the laying out of successive roads or
+extensions.
+
+(_b_) A Board was created consisting of the Mayor, Comptroller, or
+other chief financial officer of the city; the president of the
+Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, by virtue of his office,
+and five members named in the Act: William Steinway, Seth Low, John
+Claflin, Alexander E. Orr, and John H. Starin, men distinguished for
+their business experience, high integrity, and civic pride. Vacancies
+in the Board were to be filled by the Board itself, a guaranty of a
+continued uniform policy.
+
+(_c_) The Board was to prepare general routes and plans and submit the
+question of municipal ownership to the electors of the city.
+
+(_d_) The city was authorized, in the event that the electors decided
+for city ownership, to issue bonds not to exceed $50,000,000 for the
+construction of the road or roads and $5,000,000 additional, if
+necessary, for acquiring property rights for the route. The interest
+on the bonds was not to exceed 3-1/2 per cent.
+
+(_e_) The Commissioners were given the broad power to enter into a
+contract (in the case of more than one road, successive contracts) on
+behalf of the city for the construction of the road with the person,
+firm, or corporation which in the opinion of the Board should be best
+qualified to carry out the contract, and to determine the amount of
+the bond to be given by the contractor to secure its performance. The
+essential features of the contract were, however, prescribed by the
+Act. The contractor in and by the contract for building the road was
+to agree to fully equip it at his own expense, and the equipment was
+to include all power houses. He was also to operate the road, as
+lessee of the city, for a term not to exceed fifty years, upon terms
+to be included in the contract for construction, which might include
+provision for renewals of the lease upon such terms as the Board
+should from time to time determine. The rental was to be at least
+equal to the amount of interest on the bonds which the city might
+issue for construction and one per cent. additional. The one per cent.
+additional might, in the discretion of the Board, be made contingent
+in part for the first ten years of the lease upon the earnings of the
+road. The rental was to be applied by the city to the interest on the
+bonds and the balance was to be paid into the city's general sinking
+fund for payment of the city's debt or into a sinking fund for the
+redemption at maturity of the bonds issued for the construction of the
+rapid transit road, or roads. In addition to the security which might
+be required by the Board of the contractor for construction and
+operation, the Act provided that the city should have a first lien
+upon the equipment of the road to be furnished by the contractor, and
+at the termination of the lease the city had the privilege of
+purchasing such equipment from the contractor.
+
+(_f_) The city was to furnish the right of way to the contractor free
+from all claims of abutting property owners. The road was to be the
+absolute property of the city and to be deemed a part of the public
+streets and highways. The equipment of the road was to be exempt from
+taxation.
+
+(_g_) The Board was authorized to include in the contract for
+construction provisions in detail for the supervision of the city,
+through the Board, over the operation of the road under the lease.
+
+One of the most attractive--and, in fact, indispensable features of
+the scheme--was that the work of construction, instead of being
+subject to the conflicting control of various departments of the City
+Government, with their frequent changes in personnel, was under the
+exclusive supervision and control of the Rapid Transit Board, a
+conservative and continuous body composed of the two principal
+officers of the City Government, and five merchants of the very
+highest standing in the community.
+
+Provided capitalists could be found to undertake such an extensive
+work under the exacting provisions, the scheme was an admirable one
+from the taxpayers' point of view. The road would cost the city
+practically nothing and the obligation of the contractor to equip and
+operate being combined with the agreement to construct furnished a
+safeguard against waste of the public funds and insured the prompt
+completion of the road. The interest of the contractor in the
+successful operation, after construction, furnished a strong incentive
+to see that as the construction progressed the details were consistent
+with successful operation and to suggest and consent to such
+modifications of the contract plans as might appear necessary from an
+operating point of view, from time to time. The rental being based
+upon the cost encouraged low bids, and the lien of the city upon the
+equipment secured the city against all risk, once the road was in
+operation.
+
+Immediately after the vote of the electors upon the question of
+municipal ownership, the Rapid Transit Commissioners adopted routes
+and plans which they had been studying and perfecting since the
+failure to find bidders for the franchise under the original Act of
+1891. The local authorities approved them, and again the property
+owners refused their consent, making an application to the Supreme
+Court necessary. The Court refused its approval upon the ground that
+the city, owing to a provision of the constitution of the State
+limiting the city's power to incur debt, would be unable to raise the
+necessary money. This decision appeared to nullify all the efforts of
+the public spirited citizens composing the Board of Rapid Transit
+Commissioners and to practically prohibit further attempts on their
+part. They persevered, however, and in January, 1897, adopted new
+general routes and plans. The consolidation of a large territory into
+the Greater New York, and increased land values, warranted the hope
+that the city's debt limit would no longer be an objection, especially
+as the new route changed the line so as to reduce the estimated cost.
+The demands for rapid transit had become more and more imperative as
+the years went by, and it was fair to assume that neither the courts
+nor the municipal authorities would be overzealous to find a narrow
+construction of the laws. Incidentally, the constitutionality of the
+rapid transit legislation, in its fundamental features, had been
+upheld in the Supreme Court in a decision which was affirmed by the
+highest court of the State a few weeks after the Board had adopted its
+new plans. The local authorities gave their consent to the new route;
+the property owners, as on the two previous occasions, refused their
+consent; the Supreme Court gave its approval in lieu thereof; and the
+Board was prepared to undertake the preliminaries for letting a
+contract. These successive steps and the preparation of the terms of
+the contract all took time; but, finally, on November 15, 1899, a form
+of contract was adopted and an invitation issued by the Board to
+contractors to bid for the construction and operation of the railroad.
+There were two bidders, one of whom was John B. McDonald, whose terms
+submitted under the invitation were accepted on January 15, 1900; and,
+for the first time, it seemed as if a beginning might be made in the
+actual construction of the rapid transit road. The letter of
+invitation to contractors required that every proposal should be
+accompanied by a certified check upon a National or State Bank,
+payable to the order of the Comptroller, for $150,000, and that within
+ten days after acceptance, or within such further period as might be
+prescribed by the Board, the contract should be duly executed and
+delivered. The amount to be paid by the city for the construction was
+$35,000,000 and an additional sum not to exceed $2,750,000 for
+terminals, station sites, and other purposes. The construction was to
+be completed in four years and a half, and the term of the lease from
+the city to the contractor was fixed at fifty years, with a renewal,
+at the option of the contractor, for twenty-five years at a rental to
+be agreed upon by the city, not less than the average rental for the
+then preceding ten years. The rental for the fifty-year term was fixed
+at an amount equal to the annual interest upon the bonds issued by the
+city for construction and 1 per cent. additional, such 1 per cent.
+during the first ten years to be contingent in part upon the earnings
+of the road. To secure the performance of the contract by Mr. McDonald
+the city required him to deposit $1,000,000 in cash as security for
+construction, to furnish a bond with surety for $5,000,000 as security
+for construction and equipment, and to furnish another bond of
+$1,000,000 as continuing security for the performance of the contract.
+The city in addition to this security had, under the provisions of the
+Rapid Transit Act, a first lien on the equipment, and it should be
+mentioned that at the expiration of the lease and renewals (if any)
+the equipment is to be turned over to the city, pending an agreement
+or arbitration upon the question of the price to be paid for it by the
+city. The contract (which covered about 200 printed pages) was minute
+in detail as to the work to be done, and sweeping powers of
+supervision were given the city through the Chief Engineer of the
+Board, who by the contract was made arbiter of all questions that
+might arise as to the interpretation of the plans and specifications.
+The city had been fortunate in securing for the preparation of plans
+the services of Mr. William Barclay Parsons, one of the foremost
+engineers of the country. For years as Chief Engineer of the Board he
+had studied and developed the various plans and it was he who was to
+superintend on behalf of the city the completion of the work.
+
+During the thirty-two years of rapid transit discussion between 1868,
+when the New York City Central Underground Company was incorporated,
+up to 1900, when the invitations for bids were issued by the city,
+every scheme for rapid transit had failed because responsible
+capitalists could not be found willing to undertake the task of
+building a road. Each year had increased the difficulties attending
+such an enterprise and the scheme finally evolved had put all of the
+risk upon the capitalists who might attempt to finance the work, and
+left none upon the city. Without detracting from the credit due the
+public-spirited citizens who had evolved the plan of municipal
+ownership, it may be safely asserted that the success of the
+undertaking depended almost entirely upon the financial backing of the
+contractor. When the bid was accepted by the city no arrangements had
+been made for the capital necessary to carry out the contract. After
+its acceptance, Mr. McDonald not only found little encouragement in
+his efforts to secure the capital, but discovered that the surety
+companies were unwilling to furnish the security required of him,
+except on terms impossible for him to fulfill.
+
+The crucial point in the whole problem of rapid transit with which the
+citizens of New York had struggled for so many years had been reached,
+and failure seemed inevitable. The requirements of the Rapid Transit
+Act were rigid and forbade any solution of the problem which committed
+the city to share in the risks of the undertaking. Engineers might
+make routes and plans, lawyers might draw legislative acts, the city
+might prepare contracts, the question was and always had been, Can
+anybody build the road who will agree to do it and hold the city safe
+from loss?
+
+It was obvious when the surety companies declined the issue that the
+whole rapid transit problem was thrown open, or rather that it always
+had been open. The final analysis had not been made. After all, the
+attitude of the surety companies was only a reflection of the general
+feeling of practical business and railroad men towards the whole
+venture. To the companies the proposition had come as a concrete
+business proffer and they had rejected it.
+
+At this critical point, Mr. McDonald sought the assistance of Mr.
+August Belmont. It was left to Mr. Belmont to make the final analysis,
+and avert the failure which impended. There was no time for indecision
+or delay. Whatever was to be done must be done immediately. The
+necessary capital must be procured, the required security must be
+given, and an organization for building and operating the road must be
+anticipated. Mr. Belmont looking through and beyond the intricacies of
+the Rapid Transit Act, and the complications of the contract, saw that
+he who undertook to surmount the difficulties presented by the
+attitude of the surety companies must solve the whole problem. It was
+not the ordinary question of financing a railroad contract. He saw
+that the responsibility for the entire rapid transit undertaking must
+be centered, and that a compact and effective organization must be
+planned which could deal with every phase of the situation.
+
+Mr. Belmont without delay took the matter up directly with the Board
+of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners, and presented a plan for the
+incorporation of a company to procure the security required for the
+performance of the contract, to furnish the capital necessary to carry
+on the work, and to assume supervision over the whole undertaking.
+Application was to be made to the Supreme Court to modify the
+requirements with respect to the sureties by striking out a provision
+requiring the justification of the sureties in double the amount of
+liabilities assumed by each and reducing the minimum amount permitted
+to be taken by each surety from $500,000 to $250,000. The new
+corporation was to execute as surety a bond for $4,000,000, the
+additional amount of $1,000,000 to be furnished by other sureties. A
+beneficial interest in the bonds required from the sub-contractors was
+to be assigned to the city and, finally, the additional amount of
+$1,000,000, in cash or securities, was to be deposited with the city
+as further security for the performance of the contract. The plan was
+approved by the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners, and
+pursuant to the plan, the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
+was organized. The Supreme Court granted the application to modify the
+requirements as to the justification of sureties and the contract was
+executed February 21, 1900.
+
+As president and active executive head of the Rapid Transit Subway
+Construction Company, Mr. Belmont perfected its organization,
+collected the staff of engineers under whose direction the work of
+building the road was to be done, supervised the letting of
+sub-contracts, and completed the financial arrangements for carrying
+on the work.
+
+The equipment of the road included, under the terms of the contract,
+the rolling stock, all machinery and mechanisms for generating
+electricity for motive power, lighting, and signaling, and also the
+power house, sub-stations, and the real estate upon which they were to
+be erected. The magnitude of the task of providing the equipment was
+not generally appreciated until Mr. Belmont took the rapid transit
+problem in hand. He foresaw from the beginning the importance of that
+branch of the work, and early in 1900, immediately after the signing
+of the contract, turned his attention to selecting the best engineers
+and operating experts, and planned the organization of an operating
+company. As early as May, 1900, he secured the services of Mr. E. P.
+Bryan, who came to New York from St. Louis, resigning as
+vice-president and general manager of the Terminal Railroad
+Association, and began a study of the construction work and plans for
+equipment, to the end that the problems of operation might be
+anticipated as the building and equipment of the road progressed. Upon
+the incorporation of the operating company, Mr. Bryan became
+vice-president.
+
+In the spring of 1902, the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the
+operating railroad corporation was formed by the interests represented
+by Mr. Belmont, he becoming president and active executive head of
+this company also, and soon thereafter Mr. McDonald assigned to it the
+lease or operating part of his contract with the city, that company
+thereby becoming directly responsible to the city for the equipment
+and operation of the road, Mr. McDonald remaining as contractor for
+its construction. In the summer of the same year, the Board of Rapid
+Transit Railroad Commissioners having adopted a route and plans for an
+extension of the subway under the East River to the Borough of
+Brooklyn, the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company entered into a
+contract with the city, similar in form to Mr. McDonald's contract, to
+build, equip, and operate the extension. Mr. McDonald, as contractor
+of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company, assumed the general
+supervision of the work of constructing the Brooklyn extension; and
+the construction work of both the original subway and the extension
+has been carried on under his direction. The work of construction has
+been greatly facilitated by the broad minded and liberal policy of the
+Rapid Transit Board and its Chief Engineer and Counsel, and by the
+coöperation of all the other departments of the City Government, and
+also by the generous attitude of the Metropolitan Street Railway
+Company and its lessee, the New York City Railroad Company, in
+extending privileges which have been of great assistance in the
+prosecution of the work. In January, 1903, the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company acquired the elevated railway system by lease for 999
+years from the Manhattan Railway Company, thus assuring harmonious
+operation of the elevated roads and the subway system, including the
+Brooklyn extension.
+
+The incorporators of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company were
+William H. Baldwin, Jr., Charles T. Barney, August Belmont, E. P.
+Bryan, Andrew Freedman, James Jourdan, Gardiner M. Lane, John B.
+McDonald, DeLancey Nicoll, Walter G. Oakman, John Peirce, Wm. A. Read,
+Cornelius Vanderbilt, George W. Wickersham, and George W. Young.
+
+The incorporators of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
+were Charles T. Barney, August Belmont, John B. McDonald, Walter G.
+Oakman, and William A. Read.
+
+[Illustration: (wings)]
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR VIEW OF POWER HOUSE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE ROUTE OF THE ROAD--PASSENGER STATIONS AND TRACKS
+
+
+The selection of route for the Subway was governed largely by the
+amount which the city was authorized by the Rapid Transit Act to
+spend. The main object of the road was to carry to and from their
+homes in the upper portions of Manhattan Island the great army of
+workers who spend the business day in the offices, shops, and
+warehouses of the lower portions, and it was therefore obvious that
+the general direction of the routes must be north and south, and that
+the line must extend as nearly as possible from one end of the island
+to the other.
+
+The routes proposed by the Rapid Transit Board in 1895, after
+municipal ownership had been approved by the voters at the fall
+election of 1894, contemplated the occupation of Broadway below 34th
+Street to the Battery, and extended only to 185th Street on the west
+side and 146th Street on the east side of the city. As has been told
+in the introductory chapter, this plan was rejected by the Supreme
+Court because of the probable cost of going under Broadway. It was
+also intimated by the Court, in rejecting the routes, that the road
+should extend further north.
+
+It had been clear from the beginning that no routes could be laid out
+to which abutting property owners would consent, and that the consent
+of the Court as an alternative would be necessary to any routes
+chosen. To conform as nearly as possible to the views of the Court,
+the Commission proposed, in 1897, the so called "Elm Street route,"
+the plan finally adopted, which reached from the territory near the
+General Post-office, the City Hall, and Brooklyn Bridge Terminal to
+Kingsbridge and the station of the New York & Putnam Railroad on the
+upper west side, and to Bronx Park on the upper east side of the city,
+touching the Grand Central Depot at 42d Street.
+
+Subsequently, by the adoption of the Brooklyn Extension, the line was
+extended down Broadway to the southern extremity of Manhattan Island,
+thence under the East River to Brooklyn.
+
+The routes in detail are as follows:
+
+[Sidenote:
+_Manhattan-Bronx
+Route_]
+
+Beginning near the intersection of Broadway and Park Row, one of the
+routes of the railroad extends under Park Row, Center Street, New Elm
+Street, Elm Street, Lafayette Place, Fourth Avenue (beginning at Astor
+Place), Park Avenue, 42d Street, and Broadway to 125th Street, where
+it passes over Broadway by viaduct to 133d Street, thence under
+Broadway again to and under Eleventh Avenue to Fort George, where it
+comes to the surface again at Dyckman Street and continues by viaduct
+over Naegle Avenue, Amsterdam Avenue, and Broadway to Bailey Avenue,
+at the Kingsbridge station of the New York & Putnam Railroad, crossing
+the Harlem Ship Canal on a double-deck drawbridge. The length of this
+route is 13.50 miles, of which about 2 miles are on viaduct.
+
+Another route begins at Broadway near 103d Street and extends under
+104th Street and the upper part of Central Park to and under Lenox
+Avenue to 142d Street, thence curving to the east to and under the
+Harlem River at about 145th Street, thence from the river to and
+under East 149th Street to a point near Third Avenue, thence by
+viaduct beginning at Brook Avenue over Westchester Avenue, the
+Southern Boulevard and the Boston Road to Bronx Park. The length of
+this route is about 6.97 miles, of which about 3 miles are on viaduct.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE LINES OF THE INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT
+CO. 1904]
+
+At the City Hall there is a loop under the Park. From 142d Street
+there is a spur north under Lenox Avenue to 148th Street. There is a
+spur at Westchester and Third Avenues connecting by viaduct the
+Manhattan Elevated Railway Division of Interborough Rapid Transit
+Company with the viaduct of the subway at or near St. Ann's Avenue.
+
+[Sidenote: _Brooklyn Route_]
+
+The route of the Brooklyn Extension connects near Broadway and Park
+Row with the Manhattan Bronx Route and extends under Broadway, Bowling
+Green, State Street, Battery Park, Whitehall Street, and South Street
+to and under the East River to Brooklyn at the foot of Joralemon
+Street, thence under Joralemon Street, Fulton Street, and Flatbush
+Avenue to Atlantic Avenue, connecting with the Brooklyn tunnel of the
+Long Island Railroad at that point. There is a loop under Battery Park
+beginning at Bridge Street. The length of this route is about 3 miles.
+
+The routes in Manhattan and The Bronx may therefore be said to roughly
+resemble the letter Y with the base at the southern extremity of
+Manhattan Island, the fork at 103d Street and Broadway, the terminus
+of the westerly or Fort George branch of the fork just beyond Spuyten
+Duyvil Creek, the terminus of the easterly or Bronx Park branch at
+Bronx Park.
+
+[Sidenote: _Location
+of Stations_]
+
+The stations beginning at the base of the Y and following the route up
+to the fork are located at the following points:
+
+South Ferry, Bowling Green and Battery Place, Rector Street and
+Broadway, Fulton Street and Broadway, City Hall, Manhattan; Brooklyn
+Bridge Entrance, Manhattan; Worth and Elm Streets, Canal and Elm
+Streets, Spring and Elm Streets, Bleecker and Elm Streets, Astor Place
+and Fourth Avenue, 14th Street and Fourth Avenue, 18th Street and
+Fourth Avenue, 23d Street and Fourth Avenue, 28th Street and Fourth
+Avenue, 33d Street and Fourth Avenue, 42d Street and Madison Avenue
+(Grand Central Station), 42d Street and Broadway, 50th Street and
+Broadway, 60th Street and Broadway (Columbus Circle), 66th Street and
+Broadway, 72d Street and Broadway, 79th Street and Broadway, 86th
+Street and Broadway, 91st Street and Broadway, 96th Street and
+Broadway.
+
+[Illustration: 34TH STREET AND PARK AVENUE, LOOKING SOUTH]
+
+The stations of the Fort George or westerly branch are located at the
+following points:
+
+One Hundred and Third Street and Broadway, 110th Street and Broadway
+(Cathedral Parkway), 116th Street and Broadway (Columbia University),
+Manhattan Street (near 128th Street) and Broadway, 137th Street and
+Broadway, 145th Street and Broadway, 157th Street and Broadway, the
+intersection of 168th Street, St. Nicholas Avenue and Broadway, 181st
+Street and Eleventh Avenue, Dyckman Street and Naegle Avenue (beyond
+Fort George), 207th Street and Amsterdam Avenue, 215th Street and
+Amsterdam Avenue, Muscoota Street and Broadway, Bailey Avenue, at
+Kingsbridge near the New York & Putnam Railroad station.
+
+The stations on the Bronx Park or easterly branch are located at the
+following points:
+
+One Hundred and Tenth Street and Lenox Avenue, 116th Street and Lenox
+Avenue, 125th Street and Lenox Avenue, 135th Street and Lenox Avenue,
+145th Street and Lenox Avenue (spur), Mott Avenue and 149th Street,
+the intersection of 149th Street, Melrose and Third Avenues, Jackson
+and Westchester Avenues, Prospect and Westchester Avenues, Westchester
+Avenue near Southern Boulevard (Fox Street), Freeman Street and the
+Southern Boulevard, intersection of 174th Street, Southern Boulevard
+and Boston Road, 177th Street and Boston Road (near Bronx Park).
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF RAPID TRANSIT RAILROAD MANHATTAN AND
+BRONX LINES.]
+
+The stations in the Borough of Brooklyn on the Brooklyn Extension are
+located as follows:
+
+Joralemon Street near Court (Brooklyn Borough Hall), intersection of
+Fulton, Bridge, and Hoyt Streets; Flatbush Avenue near Nevins Street,
+Atlantic Avenue and Flatbush Avenue (Brooklyn terminal of the Long
+Island Railroad).
+
+From the Borough Hall, Manhattan, to the 96th Street station, the line
+is four-track. On the Fort George branch (including 103d Street
+station) there are three tracks to 145th Street and then two tracks to
+Dyckman Street, then three tracks again to the terminus at Bailey
+Avenue. On the Bronx Park branch there are two tracks to Brook Avenue
+and from that point to Bronx Park there are three tracks. On the Lenox
+Avenue spur to 148th Street there are two tracks, on the City Hall
+loop one track, on the Battery Park loop two tracks. The Brooklyn
+Extension is a two-track line.
+
+There is a storage yard under Broadway between 137th Street and 145th
+Street on the Fort George branch, another on the surface at the end of
+the Lenox Avenue spur, Lenox Avenue and 148th Street, and a third on
+an elevated structure at the Boston Road and 178th Street. There is a
+repair shop and inspection shed on the surface adjoining the Lenox
+Avenue spur at the Harlem River and 148-150th Streets, and an
+inspection shed at the storage yard at Boston Road and 178th Street.
+
+[Sidenote: _Length of
+Line._]
+
+The total length of the line from the City Hall to the Kingsbridge
+terminal is 13.50 miles, with 47.11 miles of single track and sidings.
+The eastern or Bronx Park branch is 6.97 miles long, with 17.50 miles
+of single track.
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF BROOKLYN EXTENSION.]
+
+[Sidenote: _Grades and
+Curves._]
+
+The total length of the Brooklyn Extension is 3.1 miles, with about 8
+miles of single track.
+
+The grades and curvature along the main line may be summarized as
+follows:
+
+The total curvature is equal in length to 23 per cent. of the straight
+line, and the least radius of curvature is 147 feet. The greatest
+grade is 3 per cent., and occurs on either side of the tunnel under
+the Harlem River. At each station there is a down grade of 2.1 per
+cent., to assist in the acceleration of the cars when they start. In
+order to make time on roads running trains at frequent intervals, it
+is necessary to bring the trains to their full speed very soon after
+starting. The electrical equipment of the Rapid Transit Railroad will
+enable this to be done in a better manner than is possible with steam
+locomotives, while these short acceleration grades at each station, on
+both up and down tracks, will be of material assistance in making the
+starts smooth.
+
+Photograph on page 26 shows an interesting feature at a local
+station, where, in order to obtain the quick acceleration in grade for
+local trains, and at the same time maintain a level grade for the
+express service, the tracks are constructed at a different level. This
+occurs at many local stations.
+
+On the Brooklyn Extension the maximum grade is 3.1 per cent.
+descending from the ends to the center of the East River tunnel. The
+minimum radius of curve is 1,200 feet.
+
+[Illustration: STANDARD STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN TUNNEL--THIRD RAIL
+PROTECTION NOT SHOWN]
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION AND CITY HALL LOOP]
+
+[Sidenote: _Track_]
+
+The track is of the usual standard construction with broken stone
+ballast, timber cross ties, and 100-pound rails of the American
+Society of Civil Engineers' section. The cross ties are selected hard
+pine. All ties are fitted with tie plates. All curves are supplied
+with steel inside guard rails. The frogs and switches are of the best
+design and quality to be had, and a special design has been used on
+all curves. At the Battery loop, at Westchester Avenue, at 96th
+Street, and at City Hall loop, where it has been necessary for the
+regular passenger tracks to cross, grade crossings have been avoided;
+one track or set of tracks passing under the other at the intersecting
+points. (See plan on this page.)
+
+The contract for the building of the road contains the following
+somewhat unusual provision: "The railway and its equipment as
+contemplated by the contract constitute a great public work. All parts
+of the structure where exposed to public sight shall therefore be
+designed, constructed, and maintained with a view to the beauty of
+their appearance, as well as to their efficiency."
+
+It may be said with exact truthfulness that the builders have spared
+no effort or expense to live up to the spirit of this provision, and
+that all parts of the road and equipment display dignified and
+consistent artistic effects of the highest order. These are noticeable
+in the power house and the electrical sub-stations and particularly in
+the passenger stations. It might readily have been supposed that the
+limited space and comparative uniformity of the underground stations
+would afford but little opportunity for architectural and decorative
+effects. The result has shown the fallacy of such a supposition.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF 28TH ST. & 4TH AVENUE STATION.]
+
+Of the forty-eight stations, thirty-three are underground, eleven are
+on the viaduct portions of the road, and three are partly on the
+surface and partly underground, and one is partly on the surface and
+partly on the viaduct.
+
+[Sidenote: _Space Occupied_]
+
+The underground stations are at the street intersections, and, except
+in a few instances, occupy space under the cross streets. The station
+plans are necessarily varied to suit the conditions of the different
+locations, the most important factor in planning them having been the
+amount of available space. The platforms are from 200 to 350 feet in
+length, and about 16 feet in width, narrowing at the ends, while the
+center space is larger or smaller, according to local conditions. As a
+rule the body of the station extends back about 50 feet from the edge
+of the platform.
+
+At all local stations (except at 110th Street and Lenox Avenue) the
+platforms are outside of the tracks. (Plan and photograph on pages
+30 and 31.) At Lenox Avenue and 110th Street there is a single island
+platform for uptown and downtown passengers.
+
+[Illustration: 28TH STREET STATION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Island
+Platforms_]
+
+At express stations there are two island platforms between the express
+and local tracks, one for uptown and one for downtown traffic. In
+addition, there are the usual local platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, 14th
+Street (photograph on page 34) and 96th Street. At the remaining
+express stations, 42d Street and Madison Avenue and 72d Street, there
+are no local platforms outside of the tracks, local and through
+traffic using the island platforms.
+
+The island platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, 14th Street, and 42d Street
+and Madison Avenue are reached by mezzanine footways from the local
+platforms, it having been impossible to place entrances in the streets
+immediately over the platforms. At 96th Street there is an underground
+passage connecting the local and island platforms, and at 72d Street
+there are entrances to the island platforms directly from the street
+because there is a park area in the middle of the street. Local
+passengers can transfer from express trains and express passengers
+from local trains without payment of additional fare by stepping
+across the island platforms.
+
+At 72d Street, at 103d Street, and at 116th Street and Broadway the
+station platforms are below the surface, but the ticket booths and
+toilet rooms are on the surface; this arrangement being possible also
+because of the park area available in the streets. At Manhattan Street
+the platforms are on the viaduct, but the ticket booths and toilet
+rooms are on the surface. The viaduct at this point is about 68 feet
+above the surface, and escalators are provided. At many of the
+stations entrances have been arranged from the adjacent buildings, in
+addition to the entrances originally planned from the street.
+
+[Sidenote: Kiosks]
+
+The entrances to the underground stations are enclosed at the street
+by kiosks of cast iron and wire glass (photograph on page 33), and
+vary in number from two to eight at a station. The stairways are of
+concrete, reinforced by twisted steel rods. At 168th Street, at 181st
+Street, and at Mott Avenue, where the platforms are from 90 to 100
+feet below the surface, elevators are provided.
+
+[Illustration: WEST SIDE OF 23D STREET STATION]
+
+At twenty of the underground stations it has been possible to use
+vault lights to such an extent that very little artificial light is
+needed. (Photograph on page 35.) Such artificial light as is
+required is supplied by incandescent lamps sunk in the ceilings.
+Provision has been made for using the track circuit for lighting in
+emergency if the regular lighting circuit should temporarily fail.
+
+[Illustration: KIOSKS AT COLUMBUS CIRCLE]
+
+The station floors are of concrete, marked off in squares. At the
+junction of the floors and side walls a cement sanitary cove is
+placed. The floors drain to catch-basins, and hose bibs are provided
+for washing the floors.
+
+[Illustration: BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION]
+
+Two types of ceiling are used, one flat, which covers the steel and
+concrete of the roof, and the other arched between the roof beams and
+girders, the lower flanges of which are exposed. Both types have an
+air space between ceiling and roof, which, together with the air
+space behind the inner side walls, permits air to circulate and
+minimizes condensation on the surface of the ceiling and walls.
+
+[Illustration: PLAQUE SHOWING BEAVER AT ASTOR PLACE STATION]
+
+The ceilings are separated into panels by wide ornamental mouldings,
+and the panels are decorated with narrower mouldings and rosettes. The
+bases of the walls are buff Norman brick. Above this is glass tile or
+glazed tile, and above the tile is a faience or terra-cotta cornice.
+Ceramic mosaic is used for decorative panels, friezes, pilasters, and
+name-tablets. A different decorative treatment is used at each
+station, including a distinctive color scheme. At some stations the
+number of the intersecting street or initial letter of the street name
+is shown on conspicuous plaques, at other stations the number or
+letter is in the panel. At some stations artistic emblems have been
+used in the scheme of decoration, as at Astor Place, the beaver (see
+photograph on this page); at Columbus Circle, the great
+navigator's Caravel; at 116th Street, the seal of Columbia University.
+The walls above the cornice and the ceilings are finished in white
+Keene cement.
+
+[Illustration: EXPRESS STATION AT 14TH STREET, SHOWING ISLAND AND
+MEZZANINE PLATFORMS AND STAIRS CONNECTING THEM]
+
+[Illustration: WEST SIDE OF COLUMBUS CIRCLE STATION (60TH
+STREET)--ILLUMINATED BY DAYLIGHT COMING THROUGH VAULT LIGHTS]
+
+[Illustration: CARAVEL AND WALL DECORATION]
+
+The ticket booths are of oak with bronze window grills and fittings.
+There are toilet rooms in every station, except at the City Hall loop.
+Each toilet room has a free closet or closets, and a pay closet which
+is furnished with a basin, mirror, soap dish, and towel rack. The
+fixtures are porcelain, finished in dull nickel. The soil, vent and
+water pipes are run in wall spaces, so as to be accessible. The rooms
+are ventilated through the hollow columns of the kiosks, and each is
+provided with an electric fan. They are heated by electric heaters.
+The woodwork of the rooms is oak; the walls are red slate wainscot and
+Keene cement.
+
+Passengers may enter the body of the station without paying fare. The
+train platforms are separated from the body of the station by
+railings. At the more important stations, separate sets of entrances
+are provided for incoming and outgoing passengers, the stairs at the
+back of the station being used for entrances and those nearer the
+track being used for exits.
+
+[Illustration: CITY HALL STATION]
+
+An example of the care used to obtain artistic effects can be seen at
+the City Hall station. The road at this point is through an arched
+tunnel. In order to secure consistency in treatment the roof of the
+station is continued by a larger arch of special design. (See
+photograph on this page.) At 168th Street, and at 181st Street,
+and at Mott Avenue stations, where the road is far beneath the
+surface, it has been possible to build massive arches over the
+stations and tracks, with spans of 50 feet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TYPES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+
+Five types of construction have been employed in building the road:
+(1) the typical subway near the surface with flat roof and "I" beams
+for the roof and sides, supported between tracks with steel bulb-angle
+columns used on about 10.6 miles or 52.2 per cent. of the road; (2)
+flat roof typical subway of reënforced concrete construction supported
+between the tracks by steel bulb-angle columns, used for a short
+distance on Lenox Avenue and on the Brooklyn portion of the Brooklyn
+Extension, also on the Battery Park loop; (3) concrete lined tunnel
+used on about 4.6 miles or 23 per cent. of the road, of which 4.2 per
+cent. was concrete lined open cut work, and the remainder was rock
+tunnel work; (4) elevated road on steel viaduct used on about 5 miles
+or 24.6 per cent. of the road; (5) cast-iron tubes used under the
+Harlem and East Rivers.
+
+[Sidenote: _Typical
+Subway_]
+
+The general character of the flat roof "I" beam construction is shown
+in photograph on page 28 and drawing on this page. The bottom
+is of concrete. The side walls have "I" beam columns five feet apart,
+between which are vertical concrete arches, the steel acting as a
+support for the masonry and allowing the thickness of the walls to be
+materially reduced from that necessary were nothing but concrete used.
+The tops of the wall columns are connected by roof beams which are
+supported by rows of steel columns between the tracks, built on
+concrete and cut stone bases forming part of the floor system.
+Concrete arches between the roof beams complete the top of the subway.
+Such a structure is not impervious, and hence, there has been laid
+behind the side walls, under the floor and over the roof a course of
+two to eight thicknesses of felt, each washed with hot asphalt as
+laid. In addition to this precaution against dampness, in three
+sections of the subway (viz.: on Elm Street between Pearl and Grand
+Streets, and on the approaches to the Harlem River tunnel, and on the
+Battery Park Loop) the felt waterproofing has been made more effective
+by one or two courses of hard-burned brick laid in hot asphalt, after
+the manner sometimes employed in constructing the linings of
+reservoirs of waterworks.
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL SECTION OF FOUR TRACK SUBWAY]
+
+[Illustration: FOUR-TRACK SUBWAY--SHOWING CROSS-OVER SOUTH OF 18TH
+STREET STATION]
+
+In front of the waterproofing, immediately behind the steel columns,
+are the systems of terra-cotta ducts in which the electric cables are
+placed. The cables can be reached by means of manholes every 200 to
+450 feet, which open into the subway and also into the street. The
+number of these ducts ranges from 128 down to 32, and they are
+connected with the main power station at 58th and 59th Streets and the
+Hudson River by a 128-duct subway under the former street.
+
+[Sidenote: _Reinforced
+Concrete
+Construction_]
+
+The reinforced concrete construction substitutes for the steel roof
+beams, steel rods, approximating 1-1/4 inches square, laid in varying
+distances according to the different roof loads, from six to ten
+inches apart. Rods 1-1/8 inches in diameter tie the side walls,
+passing through angle columns in the walls and the bulb-angle columns
+in the center. Layers of concrete are laid over the roof rods to a
+thickness of from eighteen to thirty inches, and carried two inches
+below the rods, imbedding them. For the sides similar square rods and
+concrete are used and angle columns five feet apart. The concrete of
+the side walls is from fifteen to eighteen inches thick. This type is
+shown by photographs on page 41. The rods used are of both square
+and twisted form.
+
+[Illustration: LAYING SHEET WATERPROOFING IN BOTTOM]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL BRICK AND ASPHALT WATERPROOFING]
+
+[Sidenote: _Methods of
+Construction
+Typical
+Subway_]
+
+The construction of the typical subway has been carried on by a great
+variety of methods, partly adopted on account of the conditions under
+which the work had to be prosecuted and partly due to the personal
+views of the different sub-contractors. The work was all done by open
+excavation, the so-called "cut and cover" system, but the conditions
+varied widely along different parts of the line, and different means
+were adopted to overcome local difficulties. The distance of the rock
+surface below the street level had a marked influence on the manner in
+which the excavation of the open trenches could be made. In some
+places this rock rose nearly to the pavement, as between 14th and 18th
+Streets. At other places the subway is located in water-bearing loam
+and sand, as in the stretch between Pearl and Grand Streets, where it
+was necessary to employ a special design for the bottom, which is
+illustrated by drawing on page 42.
+
+This part of the route includes the former site of the ancient Collect
+Pond, familiar in the early history of New York, and the excavation
+was through made ground, the pond having been filled in for building
+purposes after it was abandoned for supplying water to the city. The
+excavations through Canal Street, adjacent, were also through made
+ground, that street having been at one time, as its name implies, a
+canal.
+
+From the City Hall to 9th Street was sand, presenting no particular
+difficulties except through the territory just described.
+
+At Union Square rock was encountered on the west side of Fourth Avenue
+from the surface down. On the east side of the street, however, at the
+surface was sand, which extended 15 feet down to a sloping rock
+surface. The tendency of the sand to a slide off into the rock
+excavation required great care. The work was done, however, without
+interference with the street traffic, which is particularly heavy at
+that point.
+
+[Illustration: DUCTS IN SIDE WALLS--EIGHT ONLY OF THE SIXTEEN LAYERS
+ARE SHOWN]
+
+[Illustration: REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: ROOF SHOWING CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION--LENOX AVENUE
+AND 140TH-141ST STREETS]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF SUBWAY AT PEARL STREET
+This construction was made necessary by encountering a layer of Peat
+resting on Clay]
+
+[Illustration: SURFACE RAILWAY TRACKS SUPPORTED OVER EXCAVATION ON
+UPPER BROADWAY]
+
+[Illustration: SUBDIVISION OF 36" AND 30" GAS MAINS OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY--66TH STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+The natural difficulties of the route were increased by the network of
+sewers, water and gas mains, steam pipes, pneumatic tubes, electric
+conduits and their accessories, which filled the streets; and by the
+surface railways and their conduits. In some places the columns of the
+elevated railway had to be shored up temporarily, and in other places
+the subway passes close to the foundations of lofty buildings, where
+the construction needed to insure the safety of both subway and
+buildings was quite intricate. As the subway is close to the surface
+along a considerable part of its route, its construction involved the
+reconstruction of all the underground pipes and ducts in many places,
+as well as the removal of projecting vaults and buildings, and, in
+some cases, the underpinning of their walls. A description in detail
+of the methods of construction followed all along the line would make
+an interesting book of itself. Space will only permit, however, an
+account of how some of the more serious difficulties were overcome.
+
+On Fourth Avenue, north of Union Square to 33d Street, there were two
+electric conduit railway tracks in the center of the roadway and a
+horse car track near each curb part of the distance. The two electric
+car tracks were used for traffic which could not be interrupted,
+although the horse car tracks could be removed without inconvenience.
+These conditions rendered it impracticable to disturb the center of
+the roadway, while permitting excavation near the curb. Well-timbered
+shafts about 8 x 10 feet, in plan, were sunk along one curb line and
+tunnels driven from them toward the other side of the street, stopping
+about 3-1/2 feet beyond its center line. A bed of concrete was laid on
+the bottom of each tunnel, and, when it had set, a heavy vertical
+trestle was built on it. In this way trestles were built half across
+the street, strong enough to carry all the street cars and traffic on
+that half of the roadway. Cableways to handle the dirt were erected
+near the curb line, spanning a number of these trestles, and then the
+earth between them was excavated from the curb to within a few feet of
+the nearest electric car track. The horse car tracks were removed.
+Between the electric tracks a trench was dug until its bottom was
+level with the tops of the trestles, about three feet below the
+surface as a rule. A pair of heavy steel beams was then laid in this
+trench on the trestles. Between these beams and the curb line a second
+pair of beams were placed. In this way the equivalent of a bridge was
+put up, the trestles acting as piers and the beams as girders. The
+central portion of the roadway was then undermined and supported by
+timbering suspended from the steel beams. The various gas and water
+pipes were hung from timbers at the surface of the ground. About four
+sections, or 150 feet, of the subway were built at a time in this
+manner. When the work was completed along one side of the street it
+was repeated in the same manner on the other side. This method of
+construction was subsequently modified so as to permit work on both
+sides of the street simultaneously. The manner in which the central
+part of the roadway was supported remained the same and all of the
+traffic was diverted to this strip.
+
+[Illustration: SUPPORT OF ELEVATED RAILWAY STATION AT 42D STREET AND
+SIXTH AVENUE]
+
+Between 14th and 17th Streets, because of the proximity of the rock to
+the surface, it was necessary to move the tracks of the electric
+surface railway from the center of the street some twenty feet to the
+east curb, without interrupting traffic, which was very heavy at all
+times, the line being one of the main arteries of the Metropolitan
+system. Four 12 x 12-inch timbers were laid upon the surface. Standard
+cast-iron yokes were placed upon the timbers at the usual distance
+apart. Upon this structure the regular track and slot rails were
+placed. The space between the rails was floored over. Wooden boxes
+were temporarily laid for the electric cables. The usual hand holes
+and other accessories were built and the road operated on this timber
+roadbed. The removal of the tracks was made necessary because the rock
+beneath them and the concrete around the yokes was so closely united
+as to be practically monolithic, precluding the use of explosives.
+Attempts to remove the rock from under the track demonstrated that it
+could not be done without destroying the yokes of the surface railway.
+
+[Illustration: SUPPORTING ELEVATED RAILROAD BY EXTENSION GIRDER--64TH
+STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+The method of undermining the tracks on Broadway from 60th to 104th
+Streets was entirely different, for the conditions were not the same.
+The street is a wide one with a 22-foot parkway in the center, an
+electric conduit railway on either side, and outside each track a wide
+roadway. The subway excavation extended about 10 feet outside each
+track, leaving between it and the curb ample room for vehicles. The
+construction problem, therefore, was to care for the car tracks with a
+minimum interference with the excavation. This was accomplished by
+temporary bridges for each track, each bridge consisting of a pair of
+timber trusses about 55 feet long, braced together overhead high
+enough to let a car pass below the bracing. These trusses were set up
+on crib-work supports at each end, and the track hung from the lower
+chords. (See photograph on page 42.) The excavation then proceeded
+until the trench was finished and posts could be put into place
+between its bottom and the track. When the track was securely
+supported in this way, the trusses were lifted on flat cars and moved
+ahead 50 feet.
+
+At 66th Street station the subway roof was about 2 feet from the
+electric railway yokes and structures of the street surface line. In
+order to build at this point it was necessary to remove two large gas
+mains, one 30 inches and the other 36 inches in diameter, and
+substitute for them, in troughs built between the roof beams of the
+subway, five smaller gas mains, each 24 inches in diameter. This was
+done without interrupting the use of the mains.
+
+[Illustration: MOVING BRICK AND CONCRETE RETAINING WALL TO MAKE ROOM
+FOR THIRD TRACK--BROADWAY AND 134TH STREET]
+
+At the station on 42d Street, between Park and Madison Avenues, where
+there are five subway tracks, and along 42d Street to Broadway, a
+special method of construction was employed which was not followed
+elsewhere. The excavation here was about 35 feet deep and extended 10
+to 15 feet into rock. A trench 30 feet wide was first sunk on the
+south side of the street and the subway built in it for a width of two
+tracks. Then, at intervals of 50 feet, tunnels were driven toward the
+north side of the street. Their tops were about 4 feet above the roof
+of the subway and their bottoms were on the roof. When they had been
+driven just beyond the line of the fourth track, their ends were
+connected by a tunnel parallel with the axis of the subway. The rock
+in the bottom of all these tunnels was then excavated to its final
+depth. In the small tunnel parallel with the subway axis, a bed of
+concrete was placed and the third row of steel columns was erected
+ready to carry the steel and concrete roof. When this work was
+completed, the earth between the traverse tunnels was excavated, the
+material above being supported on poling boards and struts. The roof
+of the subway was then extended sidewise over the rock below from the
+second to the third row of columns, and it was not until the roof was
+finished that the rock beneath was excavated. In this way the subway
+was finished for a width of four tracks. For the fifth track the earth
+was removed by tunneling to the limits of the subway, and then the
+rock below was blasted out.
+
+[Illustration: MOVING WEST SIDE WALL TO WIDEN SUBWAY FOR THIRD
+TRACK--135TH STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+[Illustration: SUBWAY THROUGH NEW "TIMES" BUILDING, SHOWING
+INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION--THE WORKMEN STAND ON FLOOR GIRDERS OF
+SUBWAY]
+
+[Illustration: COLUMNS OF HOTEL BELMONT, PASSING THROUGH SUBWAY AT 42D
+STREET AND PARK AVENUE]
+
+In a number of places it was necessary to underpin the columns of the
+elevated railways, and a variety of methods were adopted for the work.
+A typical example of the difficulties involved was afforded at the
+Manhattan Railway Elevated Station at Sixth Avenue and 42d Street. The
+stairways of this station were directly over the open excavation for
+the subway in the latter thoroughfare and were used by a large number
+of people. The work was done in the same manner at each of the four
+corners. Two narrow pits about 40 feet apart, were first sunk and
+their bottoms covered with concrete at the elevation of the floor of
+the subway. A trestle was built in each pit, and on these were placed
+a pair of 3-foot plate girders, one on each side of the elevated
+column, which was midway between the trestles. The column was then
+riveted to the girders and was thus held independent of its original
+foundations. Other pits were then sunk under the stairway and trestles
+built in them to support it. When this work was completed it was
+possible to carry out the remaining excavation without interfering
+with the elevated railway traffic.
+
+At 64th Street and Broadway, also, the whole elevated railway had to
+be supported during construction. A temporary wooden bent was used to
+carry the elevated structure. The elevated columns were removed until
+the subway structure was completed at that point. (See photograph on
+page 45.)
+
+[Illustration: SMALL WATER MAINS BETWEEN STREET SURFACE AND SUBWAY
+ROOF, SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE LARGE MAIN--125TH STREET AND LENOX AVE.]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION OF 6-1/2-FOOT SEWER, UNDER CHATHAM
+SQUARE]
+
+A feature of the construction which attracted considerable public
+attention while it was in progress, was the underpinning of a part of
+the Columbus Monument near the southwest entrance to Central Park.
+This handsome memorial column has a stone shaft rising about 75 feet
+above the street level and weighs about 700 tons. The rubble masonry
+foundation is 45 feet square and rests on a 2-foot course of concrete.
+The subway passes under its east side within 3 feet of its center,
+thus cutting out about three-tenths of the original support. At this
+place the footing was on dry sand of considerable depth, but on the
+other side of the monument rock rose within 3 feet of the surface. The
+steep slope of the rock surface toward the subway necessitated
+particular care in underpinning the footings. The work was done by
+first driving a tunnel 6 feet wide and 7 feet high under the monument
+just outside the wall line of the subway. The tunnel was given a
+2-foot bottom of concrete as a support for a row of wood posts a foot
+square, which were put in every 5 feet to carry the footing above.
+When these posts were securely wedged in place the tunnel was filled
+with rubble masonry. This wall was strong enough to carry the weight
+of the portion of the monument over the subway, but the monument had
+to be supported to prevent its breaking off when undermined. To
+support it thus a small tunnel was driven through the rubble masonry
+foundation just below the street level and a pair of plate girders run
+through it. A trestle bent was then built under each end of the
+girders in the finished excavation for the subway. The girders were
+wedged up against the top of the tunnel in the masonry and the
+excavation was carried out under the monument without any injury to
+that structure.
+
+[Illustration: THREE PIPES SUBSTITUTED FOR LARGE BRICK SEWER AT 110TH
+STREET AND LENOX AVENUE]
+
+[Illustration: SEWER SIPHON AT 149TH STREET AND RAILROAD AVENUE]
+
+[Illustration: CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF ELECTRIC DUCT MANHOLE--BROADWAY
+AND 58TH STREET]
+
+At 134th Street and Broadway a two-track structure of the steel beam
+type about 200 feet long was completed. Approaching it from the south,
+leading from Manhattan Valley Viaduct, was an open cut with retaining
+walls 300 feet long and from 3 to 13 feet in height. After all this
+work was finished (and it happened to be the first finished on the
+subway), it was decided to widen the road to three tracks, and a
+unique piece of work was successfully accomplished. The retaining
+walls were moved bodily on slides, by means of jacks, to a line 6-1/4
+feet on each side, widening the roadbed 12-1/2 feet, without a break
+in either wall. The method of widening the steel-beam typical subway
+portion was equally novel. The west wall was moved bodily by jacks
+the necessary distance to bring it in line with the new position of
+the west retaining wall. The remainder of the structure was then moved
+bodily, also by jacks, 6-1/4 feet to the east. The new roof of the
+usual type was then added over 12-1/2 feet of additional opening. (See
+photographs on pages 46 and 47.)
+
+[Illustration: CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF SIDE WALL, BROADWAY AND 56TH
+STREET]
+
+[Illustration: LARGE GAS AND WATER PIPES, RELAID BEHIND EACH SIDE WALL
+ON ELM STREET]
+
+Provision had to be made, not only for buildings along the route that
+towered far above the street surface, but also for some which
+burrowed far below the subway. Photograph on page 47 shows an
+interesting example at 42d Street and Broadway, where the pressroom of
+the new building of the "New York Times" is beneath the subway, the
+first floor is above it, and the first basement is alongside of it.
+Incidentally it should be noted that the steel structure of the
+building and the subway are independent, the columns of the building
+passing through the subway station.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFICULT PIPE WORK--BROADWAY AND 70TH STREET]
+
+At 42d Street and Park Avenue the road passes under the Hotel Belmont,
+which necessitated the use of extra heavy steel girders and
+foundations for the support of the hotel and reinforced subway
+station. (See photograph on page 48.)
+
+Along the east side of Park Row the ascending line of the "loop" was
+built through the pressroom of the "New York Times" (the older
+downtown building), and as the excavation was considerably below the
+bottom of the foundation of the building, great care was necessary to
+avoid any settlement. Instead of wood sheathing, steel channels were
+driven and thoroughly braced, and construction proceeded without
+disturbance of the building, which is very tall.
+
+At 125th Street and Lenox Avenue one of the most complicated network
+of subsurface structures was encountered. Street surface electric
+lines with their conduits intersect. On the south side of 125th Street
+were a 48-inch water main and a 6-inch water main, a 12-inch and two
+10-inch gas pipes and a bank of electric light and power ducts. On the
+north side were a 20-inch water main, one 6-inch, one 10-inch, and one
+12-inch gas pipe and two banks of electric ducts. The headroom between
+the subway roof and the surface of the street was 4.75 feet. It was
+necessary to relocate the yokes of the street railway tracks on Lenox
+Avenue so as to bring them directly over the tunnel roof-beams.
+Between the lower flanges of the roof-beams, for four bents, were laid
+heavy steel plates well stiffened, and in these troughs were laid four
+20-inch pipes, which carried the water of the 48-inch main. (See
+photograph on page 49.) Special castings were necessary to make
+the connections at each end. The smaller pipes and ducts were
+rearranged and carried over the roof or laid in troughs composed of
+3-inch I-beams laid on the lower flanges of the roof-beams. In
+addition to all the transverse pipes, there were numerous pipes and
+duct lines to be relaid and rebuilt parallel to the subway and around
+the station. The change was accomplished without stopping or delaying
+the street cars. The water mains were shut off for only a few hours.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL RIVETED RECTANGULAR WATER PIPE, OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY AT 126TH STREET AND LENOX AVENUE]
+
+As has been said, the typical subway near the surface was used for
+about one-half of the road. Since the sewers were at such a depth as
+to interfere with the construction of the subway, it meant that the
+sewers along that half had to be reconstructed. This indicates but
+very partially the magnitude of the sewer work, however, because
+nearly as many main sewers had to be reconstructed off the route of
+the subway as on the route; 7.21 miles of main sewers along the route
+were reconstructed and 5.13 miles of main sewers off the route. The
+reason why so many main sewers on streets away from the subway had to
+be rebuilt, was that, from 42d Street, south, there is a natural
+ridge, and before the construction of the subway sewers drained to the
+East River and to the North River from the ridge. The route of the
+subway was so near to the dividing line that the only way to care for
+the sewers was, in many instances, to build entirely new outfall
+sewers.
+
+[Illustration: THREE-TRACK CONCRETE ARCH--117TH STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+A notable example of sewer diversion was at Canal Street, where the
+flow of the sewer was carried into the East River instead of into the
+Hudson River, permitting the sewer to be bulkheaded on the west side
+and continued in use. On the east side a new main sewer was
+constructed to empty into the East River. The new east-side sewer was
+built off the route of the subway for over a mile. An interesting
+feature in the construction was the work at Chatham Square, where a
+6-1/2-foot circular brick conduit was built. The conjunction at this
+point of numerous electric surface car lines, elevated railroad
+pillars, and enormous vehicular street traffic, made it imperative
+that the surface of the street should not be disturbed, and the sewer
+was built by tunneling. This tunneling was through very fine running
+sand and the section to be excavated was small. To meet these
+conditions a novel method of construction was used. Interlocked
+poling boards were employed to support the roof and were driven by
+lever jacks, somewhat as a shield is driven in the shield system of
+tunneling. The forward ends of the poling boards were supported by a
+cantilever beam. The sides and front of the excavation were supported
+by lagging boards laid flat against and over strips of canvas, which
+were rolled down as the excavation progressed. The sewer was completed
+and lined in lengths of from 1 foot to 4-1/2 feet, and at the maximum
+rate of work about 12 feet of sewer were finished per week.
+
+[Illustration: CONSTRUCTION OF FORT GEORGE TUNNEL]
+
+At 110th Street and Lenox Avenue a 6-1/2-foot circular brick sewer
+intersected the line of the subway at a level which necessitated its
+removal or subdivision. The latter expedient was adopted, and three
+42-inch cast-iron pipes were passed under the subway. (See photograph
+on page 50.) At 149th Street and Railroad Avenue a sewer had to be
+lowered below tide level in order to cross under the subway. To do
+this two permanent inverted siphons were built of 48-inch cast-iron
+pipe. Two were built in order that one might be used, while the other
+could be shut off for cleaning, and they have proved very
+satisfactory. This was the only instance where siphons were used. In
+this connection it is worthy of note that the general changes referred
+to gave to the city much better sewers as substitutes for the old
+ones.
+
+A number of interesting methods of providing for subsurface structures
+are shown in photographs pages 51 to 54. From the General
+Post-office at Park Row to 28th Street, just below the surface, there
+is a system of pneumatic mail tubes for postal delivery. Of course,
+absolutely no change in alignment could be permitted while these tubes
+were in use carrying mail. It was necessary, therefore, to support
+them very carefully. The slightest deviation in alignment would have
+stopped the service.
+
+[Illustration: TWO COLUMN BENT VIADUCT]
+
+[Illustration: TRAVELER FOR ERECTING FORMS, CENTRAL PARK TUNNEL--(IN
+THIS TUNNEL DUCTS ARE BUILT IN THE SIDEWALLS)]
+
+[Sidenote: _Concrete-lined
+Tunnel_]
+
+Between 33d Street and 42d Street under Park Avenue, between 116th
+Street and 120th Street under Broadway, between 157th Street and Fort
+George under Broadway and Eleventh Avenue (the second longest
+double-track rock tunnel in the United States, the Hoosac tunnel being
+the only one of greater length), and between 104th Street and Broadway
+under Central Park to Lenox Avenue, the road is in rock tunnel lined
+with concrete. From 116th Street to 120th Street the tunnel is 37-1/2
+feet wide, one of the widest concrete arches in the world. On the
+section from Broadway and 103d Street to Lenox Avenue and 110th Street
+under Central Park, a two-track subway was driven through micaceous
+rock by taking out top headings and then two full-width benches. The
+work was done from two shafts and one portal. All drilling for the
+headings was done by an eight-hour night shift, using percussion
+drills. The blasting was done early in the morning and the day gang
+removed the spoil, which was hauled to the shafts and the portal in
+cars drawn by mules. A large part of the rock was crushed for
+concrete. The concrete floor was the first part of the lining to be
+put in place. Rails were laid on it for a traveler having moulds
+attached to its sides, against which the walls were built. A similar
+traveler followed with the centering for the arch roof, a length of
+about 50 feet being completed at one operation.
+
+[Illustration: FOUR COLUMN (TOWER) VIADUCT CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT, LOOKING NORTH]
+
+[Illustration: ERECTION OF ARCH, MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT]
+
+On the Park Avenue section from 34th Street to 41st Street two
+separate double-track tunnels were driven below a double-track
+electric railway tunnel, one on each side. The work was done from four
+shafts, one at each end of each tunnel. At first, top headings were
+employed at the north ends of both tunnels and at the south end of the
+west tunnel; at the south end of the east tunnel a bottom heading was
+used. Later, a bottom heading was also used at the south end of the
+west tunnel. The rock was very irregular and treacherous in character,
+and the strata inclined so as to make the danger of slips a serious
+one. The two headings of the west tunnel met in February and those of
+the east tunnel in March, 1902, and the widening of the tunnels to the
+full section was immediately begun. Despite the adoption of every
+precaution suggested by experience in such work, some disturbance of
+the surface above the east tunnel resulted, and several house fronts
+were damaged. The portion of the tunnel affected was bulkheaded at
+each end, packed with rubble and grouted with Portland cement mortar
+injected under pressure through pipes sunk from the street surface
+above. When the interior was firm, the tunnel was redriven, using much
+the same methods that are employed for tunnels through earth when the
+arch lining is built before the central core, or dumpling of earth, is
+removed. The work had to be done very slowly to prevent any further
+settlement of the ground, and the completion of the widening of the
+other parts of the tunnels also proceeded very slowly, because as soon
+as the slip occurred a large amount of timbering was introduced, which
+interfered seriously with the operations. After the lining was
+completed, Portland cement grout was again injected under pressure,
+through holes left in the roof, until further movement of the fill
+overhead was absolutely prevented.
+
+[Illustration: COMPLETED ARCH AT MANHATTAN STREET]
+
+As has been said, the tunnel between 157th Street and Fort George is
+the second longest two-track tunnel in the United States. It was built
+in a remarkably short time, considering the fact that the work was
+prosecuted from two portal headings and from two shafts. One shaft was
+at 168th Street and the other at 181st Street, the work proceeding
+both north and south from each shaft. The method employed for the work
+(Photograph on page 56) was similar to that used under Central
+Park. The shafts at 168th Street and at 181st Street were located at
+those points so that they might be used for the permanent elevator
+equipment for the stations at these streets. These stations each have
+an arch span of about 50 feet, lined with brick.
+
+[Sidenote: _Steel Viaduct_]
+
+The elevated viaduct construction extends from 125th Street to 133d
+Street and from Dyckman Street to Bailey Avenue on the western branch,
+and from Brook and Westchester Avenues to Bronx Park on the eastern, a
+total distance of about 5 miles. The three-track viaducts are carried
+on two column bents where the rail is not more than 29 feet above the
+ground level, and on four-column towers for higher structures. In the
+latter case, the posts of a tower are 29 feet apart transversely and
+20 or 25 feet longitudinally, as a rule, and the towers are from 70 to
+90 feet apart on centers. The tops of the towers have X-bracing and
+the connecting spans have two panels of intermediate vertical sway
+bracing between the three pairs of longitudinal girders. In the low
+viaducts, where there are no towers, every fourth panel has zigzag
+lateral bracing in the two panels between the pairs of longitudinal
+girders.
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL AND APPROACHES]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL DURING CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: ASSEMBLING IRON WORK ON PONTOON--HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL]
+
+The towers have columns consisting as a rule of a 16 x 7/16-inch web
+plate and four 6 x 4 x 5/8-inch bulb angles. The horizontal struts in
+their cross-bracing are made of four 4 x 3-inch angles, latticed to
+form an I-shaped cross-section. The X-bracing consists of single 5 x
+3-1/2-inch angles. The tops of the columns have horizontal cap angles
+on which are riveted the lower flanges of the transverse girders; the
+end angles of the girder and the top of the column are also connected
+by a riveted splice plate. The six longitudinal girders are
+web-riveted to the transverse girders. The outside longitudinal girder
+on each side of the viaduct has the same depth across the tower as in
+the connecting span, but the four intermediate lines are not so deep
+across the towers. In the single trestle bents the columns are the
+same as those just described, but the diagonal bracing is replaced by
+plate knee-braces.
+
+The Manhattan Valley Viaduct on the West Side line, has a total length
+of 2,174 feet. Its most important feature is a two-hinged arch of
+168-1/2 feet span, which carries platforms shaded by canopies, but no
+station buildings. The station is on the ground between the surface
+railway tracks. Access to the platforms is obtained by means of
+escalators. It has three lattice-girder two-hinge ribs 24-1/2 feet
+apart on centers, the center line of each rib being a parabola. Each
+half rib supports six spandrel posts carrying the roadway, the posts
+being seated directly over vertical web members of the rib. The chords
+of the ribs are 6 feet apart and of an H-section, having four 6 x
+6-inch angles and six 15-inch flange and web plates for the center rib
+and lighter sections for the outside ribs. The arch was erected
+without false work.
+
+[Illustration: SHOWING CONCRETE OVER IRON WORK--HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL]
+
+The viaduct spans of either approach to the arch are 46 to 72 feet
+long. All transverse girders are 31 feet 4 inches long, and have a 70
+x 3/8-inch web plate and four 6 x 4-inch angles. The two outside
+longitudinal girders of deck spans are 72 inches deep and the other 36
+inches. All are 3/8-inch thick and their four flange angles vary in
+size from 5 x 3-1/2 to 6 x 6 inches, and on the longest spans there
+are flange plates. At each end of the viaduct there is a through span
+with 90-inch web longitudinal girders.
+
+Each track was proportioned for a dead load of 330 pounds per lineal
+foot and a live load of 25,000 pounds per axle. The axle spacing in
+the truck was 5 feet and the pairs of axles were alternately 27 and 9
+feet apart. The traction load was taken at 20 per cent. of the live
+load, and a wind pressure of 500 pounds per lineal foot was assumed
+over the whole structure.
+
+[Sidenote: _Tubes under
+Harlem River_]
+
+One of the most interesting sections of the work is that which
+approaches and passes under the Harlem River, carrying the two tracks
+of the East Side line. The War Department required a minimum depth of
+20 feet in the river at low tide, which fixed the elevation of the
+roof of the submerged part of the tunnel. This part of the line, 641
+feet long, consists of twin single-track cast-iron cylinders 16 feet
+in diameter enveloped in a large mass of concrete and lined with the
+same material. The approach on either side is a double-track concrete
+arched structure. The total length of the section is 1,500 feet.
+
+The methods of construction employed were novel in subaqueous
+tunneling and are partly shown on photographs on pages 62 and 63.
+The bed of the Harlem River at the point of tunneling consists of mud,
+silt, and sand, much of which was so nearly in a fluid condition that
+it was removed by means of a jet. The maximum depth of excavation was
+about 50 feet. Instead of employing the usual method of a shield and
+compressed air at high pressure, a much speedier device was contrived.
+
+The river crossing has been built in two sections. The west section
+was first built, the War Department having forbidden the closing of
+more than half the river at one time. A trench was dredged over the
+line of the tunnel about 50 feet wide and 39 feet below low water.
+This depth was about 10 feet above the sub-grade of the tunnel. Three
+rows of piles were next driven on each side of the trench from the
+west bank to the middle of the river and on them working platforms
+were built, forming two wharves 38 feet apart in the clear. Piles were
+then driven over the area to be covered by the subway, 6 feet 4 inches
+apart laterally and 8 feet longitudinally. They were cut off about 11
+feet above the center line of each tube and capped with timbers 12
+inches square. A thoroughly-trussed framework was then floated over
+the piles and sunk on them. The trusses were spaced so as to come
+between each transverse row of piles and were connected by eight
+longitudinal sticks or stringers, two at the top and two at the bottom
+on each side. The four at each side were just far enough apart to
+allow a special tongue and grooved 12-inch sheet piling to be driven
+between them. This sheathing was driven to a depth of 10 to 15 feet
+below the bottom of the finished tunnel.
+
+A well-calked roof of three courses of 12-inch timbers, separated by
+2-inch plank, was then floated over the piles and sunk. It had three
+timber shafts 7 x 17 feet in plan, and when it was in place and
+covered with earth it formed the top of a caisson with the sheet
+piling on the sides and ends, the latter being driven after the roof
+was in place. The excavation below this caisson was made under air
+pressure, part of the material being blown out by water jets and the
+remainder removed through the airlocks in the shafts. When the
+excavation was completed, the piles were temporarily braced and the
+concrete and cast-iron lining put in place, the piles being cut off as
+the concrete bed was laid up to them.
+
+The second or eastern section of this crossing was carried on by a
+modification of the plan just mentioned. Instead of using a temporary
+timber roof on the side walls, the permanent iron and concrete upper
+half of the tunnels was employed as a roof for the caisson. The trench
+was dredged nearly to sub-grade and its sides provided with wharves as
+before, running out to the completed half of the work. The permanent
+foundation piles were then driven and a timber frame sunk over them to
+serve as a guide for the 12-inch sheet piling around the site. Steel
+pilot piles with water jets were driven in advance of the wood-sheet
+piles, and if they struck any boulders the latter were drilled and
+blasted. The steel piles were withdrawn by a six-part tackle and
+hoisting engine, and then the wooden piles driven in their place.
+
+When the piling was finished, a pontoon 35 feet wide, 106 feet long,
+and 12 feet deep was built between the wharves, and upon a separate
+platform or deck on it the upper half of the cast-iron shells were
+assembled, their ends closed by steel-plate diaphragms and the whole
+covered with concrete. The pontoon was then submerged several feet,
+parted at its center, and each half drawn out endwise from beneath the
+floating top of the tunnel. The latter was then loaded and carefully
+sunk into place, the connection with the shore section being made by
+a diver, who entered the roof through a special opening. When it was
+finally in place, men entered through the shore section and cut away
+the wood bottom, thus completing the caisson so that work could
+proceed below it as before. Three of these caissons were required to
+complete the east end of the crossing.
+
+[Illustration: LOOKING UP BROADWAY FROM TRINITY CHURCH--SHOWING
+WORKING PLATFORM AND GAS MAINS TEMPORARILY SUPPORTED OVERHEAD]
+
+The construction of the approaches to the tunnel was carried out
+between heavy sheet piling. The excavation was over 40 feet deep in
+places and very wet, and the success of the work was largely due to
+the care taken in driving the 12-inch sheet piling.
+
+[Sidenote: _Methods of
+Construction
+Brooklyn
+Extension_]
+
+A number of interesting features should be noted in the methods of
+construction adopted on the Brooklyn Extension.
+
+The types of construction on the Brooklyn Extension have already been
+spoken of. They are (1) typical flat-roof steel beam subway from the
+Post-office, Manhattan, to Bowling Green; (2) reinforced concrete
+typical subway in Battery Park, Manhattan, and from Clinton Street to
+the terminus, in Brooklyn; (3) two single track cast-iron-lined
+tubular tunnels from Battery Park, under the East River, and under
+Joralemon Street to Clinton Street, Brooklyn.
+
+Under Broadway, Manhattan, the work is through sand, the vehicular
+and electric street car traffic, the network of subsurface structures,
+and the high buildings making this one of the most difficult portions
+of the road to build. The street traffic is so great that it was
+decided that during the daytime the surface of the street should be
+maintained in a condition suitable for ordinary traffic. This was
+accomplished by making openings in the sidewalk near the curb, at two
+points, and erecting temporary working platforms over the street 16
+feet from the surface. The excavations are made by the ordinary drift
+and tunnel method. The excavated material is hoisted from the openings
+to the platforms and passed through chutes to wagons. On the street
+surface, over and in advance of the excavations, temporary plank decks
+are placed and maintained during the drifting and tunneling
+operations, and after the permanent subway structure has been erected
+up to the time when the street surface is permanently restored. The
+roof of the subway is about 5 feet from the surface of the street,
+which has made it necessary to care for the gas and water mains. This
+has been done by carrying the mains on temporary trestle structures
+over the sidewalks. The mains will be restored to their former
+position when the subway structure is complete.
+
+From Bowling Green, south along Broadway, State Street and in Battery
+Park, where the subway is of reinforced concrete construction, the
+"open cut and cover" method is employed, the elevated and surface
+railroad structures being temporarily supported by wooden and steel
+trusses and finally supported by permanent foundations resting on the
+subway roof. From Battery Place, south along the loop work, the
+greater portion of the excavation is made below mean high-water level,
+and necessitates the use of heavy tongue and grooved sheeting and the
+operation of two centrifugal pumps, day and night.
+
+The tubes under the East River, including the approaches, are each
+6,544 feet in length. The tunnel consists of two cast-iron tubes
+15-1/2 feet diameter inside, the lining being constructed of cast-iron
+plates, circular in shape, bolted together and reinforced by grouting
+outside of the plates and beton filling on the inside to the depth of
+the flanges. The tubes are being constructed under air pressure
+through solid rock from the Manhattan side to the middle of the East
+River by the ordinary rock tunnel drift method, and on the Brooklyn
+side through sand and silt by the use of hydraulic shields. Four
+shields have been installed, weighing 51 tons each. They are driven by
+hydraulic pressure of about 2,000 tons. The two shields drifting to
+the center of the river from Garden Place are in water-bearing sand
+and are operated under air pressure. The river tubes are on a 3.1 per
+cent. grade and in the center of the river will reach the deepest
+point, about 94 feet below mean high-water level.
+
+The typical subway of reinforced concrete from Clinton Street to the
+Flatbush Avenue terminus is being constructed by the method commonly
+used on the Manhattan-Bronx route. From Borough Hall to the terminus
+the route of the subway is directly below an elevated railway
+structure, which is temporarily supported by timber bracing, having
+its bearing on the street surface and the tunnel timbers. The
+permanent support will be masonry piers built upon the roof of the
+subway structure. Along this portion of the route are street surface
+electric roads, but they are operated by overhead trolley and the
+tracks are laid on ordinary ties. It has, therefore, been much less
+difficult to care for them during the construction of the subway. Work
+is being prosecuted on the Brooklyn Extension day and night, and in
+Brooklyn the excavation is made much more rapidly by employing the
+street surface trolley roads to remove the excavated material. Spur
+tracks have been built and flat cars are used, much of the removal
+being done at night.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+POWER HOUSE BUILDING
+
+
+The power house is situated adjacent to the North River on the block
+bounded by West 58th Street, West 59th Street, Eleventh Avenue, and
+Twelfth Avenue. The plans were adopted after a thorough study by the
+engineers of Interborough Rapid Transit Company of all the large power
+houses already completed and of the designs of the large power houses
+in process of construction in America and abroad. The building is
+large, and when fully equipped it will be capable of producing more
+power than any electrical plant ever built, and the study of the
+designs of other power houses throughout the world was pursued with
+the principal object of reducing to a minimum the possibility of
+interruption of service in a plant producing the great power required.
+
+The type of power house adopted provides for a single row of large
+engines and electric generators, contained within an operating room
+placed beside a boiler house, with a capacity of producing,
+approximately, not less than 100,000 horse power when the machinery is
+being operated at normal rating.
+
+[Sidenote: _Location
+and General
+Plan of
+Power House_]
+
+The work of preparing the detailed plans of the power house structure
+was, in the main, completed early in 1902, and resulted in the present
+plan, which may briefly be described as follows: The structure is
+divided into two main parts--an operating room and a boiler house,
+with a partition wall between the two sections. The face of the
+structure on Eleventh Avenue is 200 feet wide, of which width the
+boiler house takes 83 feet and the operating section 117 feet. The
+operating room occupies the northerly side of the structure and the
+boiler house the southerly side. The designers were enabled to employ
+a contour of roof and wall section for the northerly side that was
+identical with the roof and wall contour of the southerly side, so
+that the building, when viewed from either end, presents a symmetrical
+appearance with both sides of the building alike in form and design.
+The operating room section is practically symmetrical in its
+structure, with respect to its center; it consists of a central area,
+with a truss roof over same along with galleries at both sides. The
+galleries along the northerly side are primarily for the electrical
+apparatus, while those along the southerly side are given up chiefly
+to the steam-pipe equipment. The boiler room section is also
+practically symmetrical with respect to its center.
+
+A sectional scheme of the power house arrangement was determined on,
+by which the structure was to consist of five generating sections,
+each similar to the others in all its mechanical details; but, at a
+later date, a sixth section was added, with space on the lot for a
+seventh section. Each section embraces one chimney along with the
+following generating equipment:--twelve boilers, two engines, each
+direct connected to a 5,000 kilowatt alternator; two condensing
+equipments, two boiler-feed pumps, two smoke-flue systems, and detail
+apparatus necessary to make each section complete in itself. The only
+variation is the turbine plant hereafter referred to. In addition to
+the space occupied by the sections, an area was set aside, at the
+Eleventh Avenue end of the structure, for the passage of the railway
+spur from the New York Central tracks. The total length of the
+original five-section power house was 585 feet 9-1/2 inches, but the
+additional section afterwards added makes the over all length of the
+structure 693 feet 9-3/4 inches. In the fourth section it was decided
+to omit a regular engine with its 5,000 kilowatt generator, and in its
+place substitute a 5,000 kilowatt lighting and exciter outfit.
+Arrangements were made, however, so that this outfit can afterward be
+replaced by a regular 5,000 kilowatt traction generator.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF POWER HOUSE IN PERSPECTIVE]
+
+The plan of the power station included a method of supporting the
+chimneys on steel columns, instead of erecting them through the
+building, which modification allowed for the disposal of boilers in
+spaces which would otherwise be occupied by the chimney bases. By this
+arrangement it was possible to place all the boilers on one floor
+level. The economizers were placed above the boilers, instead of
+behind them, which made a material saving in the width of the boiler
+room. This saving permitted the setting aside of the aforementioned
+gallery at the side of the operating room, closed off from both boiler
+and engine rooms, for the reception of the main-pipe systems and for a
+pumping equipment below it.
+
+The advantages of the plan can be enumerated briefly as follows: The
+main engines, combined with their alternators, lie in a single row
+along the center line of the operating room with the steam or
+operating end of each engine facing the boiler house and the opposite
+end toward the electrical switching and controlling apparatus arranged
+along the outside wall. Within the area between the boiler house and
+operating room there is placed, for each engine, its respective
+complement of pumping apparatus, all controlled by and under the
+operating jurisdiction of the engineer for that engine. Each engineer
+has thus full control of the pumping machinery required for his unit.
+Symmetrically arranged with respect to the center line of each engine
+are the six boilers in the boiler room, and the piping from these six
+boilers forms a short connection between the nozzles on the boilers
+and the throttles on the engine. The arrangement of piping is alike
+for each engine, which results in a piping system of maximum
+simplicity that can be controlled, in the event of difficulty, with a
+degree of certainty not possible with a more complicated system. The
+main parts of the steam-pipe system can be controlled from outside
+this area.
+
+The single tier of boilers makes it possible to secure a high and well
+ventilated boiler room with ventilation into a story constructed above
+it, aside from that afforded by the windows themselves. The boiler
+room will therefore be cool in warm weather and light, and all
+difficulties from escaping steam will be minimized. In this respect
+the boiler room will be superior to corresponding rooms in plants of
+older construction, where they are low, dark, and often very hot
+during the summer season. The placing of the economizers, with their
+auxiliary smoke flue connections, in the economizer room, all
+symmetrically arranged with respect to each chimney, removes from the
+boiler room an element of disturbance and makes it possible to pass
+directly from the boiler house to the operating room at convenient
+points along the length of the power house structure. The location of
+each chimney in the center of the boiler house between sets of six
+boilers divides the coal bunker construction into separate pockets by
+which trouble from spontaneous combustion can be localized, and, as
+described later, the divided coal bunkers can provide for the storage
+of different grades of coal. The unit basis on which the economizer
+and flue system is constructed will allow making repairs to any one
+section without shutting off the portions not connected directly to
+the section needing repair.
+
+The floor of the power house between the column bases is a continuous
+mass of concrete nowhere less than two feet thick. The massive
+concrete foundations for the reciprocating engines contain each 1,400
+yards of concrete above mean high water level, and in some cases have
+twice as much below that point. The total amount of concrete in the
+foundations of the finished power house is about 80,000 yards.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF POWER HOUSE]
+
+Water for condensing purposes is drawn from the river and discharged
+into it through two monolithic concrete tunnels parallel to the axis
+of the building. The intake conduit has an oval interior, 10 x 8-1/2
+feet in size, and a rectangular exterior cross-section; the outflow
+tunnel has a horseshoe-shape cross-section and is built on top of the
+intake tunnel. These tunnels were built throughout in open trench,
+which, at the shore end, was excavated in solid rock. At the river end
+the excavation was, at some places, almost entirely through the fill
+and mud and was made in a cofferdam composed chiefly of sheet piles.
+As it was impossible to drive these piles across the old timber crib
+which formed the old dock front, the latter was cut through by a
+pneumatic caisson of wooden-stave construction, which formed part of
+one side of the cofferdam. At the river end of the cofferdam the rock
+was so deep that the concrete could not be carried down to its
+surface, and the tunnel section was built on a foundation of piles
+driven to the rock and cut off by a steam saw 19-1/2 feet below mean
+hightide. This section of the tunnel was built in a 65 x 48-foot
+floating caisson 24 feet deep. The concrete was rammed in it around
+the moulds and the sides were braced as it sunk. After the tunnel
+sections were completed, the caisson was sunk, by water ballast, to a
+bearing on the pile foundation.
+
+Adjacent to the condensing water conduits is the 10 x 15-foot
+rectangular concrete tunnel, through which the underground coal
+conveyor is installed between the shore end of the pier and the power
+house.
+
+[Sidenote: _Steel Work_]
+
+The steel structure of the power house is independent of the walls,
+the latter being self-supporting and used as bearing walls only for a
+few of the beams in the first floor. Although structurally a single
+building, in arrangement it is essentially two, lying side by side and
+separated by a brick division wall.
+
+There are 58 transverse and 9 longitudinal rows of main columns, the
+longitudinal spacing being 18 feet and 36 feet for different rows,
+with special bracing in the boiler house to accommodate the
+arrangement of boilers. The columns are mainly of box section, made up
+of rolled or built channels and cover plates. They are supported by
+cast-iron bases, resting on the granite capstones of the concrete
+foundation piers.
+
+Both the boiler house and the engine house have five tiers of floor
+framing below the flat portion of the roof, the three upper tiers of
+the engine house forming galleries on each side of the operating room,
+which is clear for the full height of the building.
+
+The boiler house floors are, in general, framed with transverse plate
+girders and longitudinal rolled beams, arranged to suit the particular
+requirements of the imposed loads of the boilers, economizers, coal,
+etc., while the engine-room floors and pipe and switchboard galleries
+are in general framed with longitudinal plate girders and transverse
+beams.
+
+There are seven coal bunkers in the boiler house, of which five are 77
+feet and two 41 feet in length by 60 feet in width at the top, the
+combined maximum capacity being 18,000 tons. The bunkers are separated
+from each other by the six chimneys spaced along the center line of
+the boiler house. The bottom of the bunkers are at the fifth floor, at
+an elevation of about 66 feet above the basement. The bunkers are
+constructed with double, transverse, plate girder frames at each line
+of columns, combined with struts and ties, which balance the outward
+thrust of the coal against the sides. The frames form the outline of
+the bunkers with slides sloping at 45 degrees, and carry longitudinal
+I-beams, between which are built concrete arches, reinforced with
+expanded metal, the whole surface being filled with concrete over the
+tops of the beams and given a two-inch granolithic finish.
+
+[Illustration: 58TH ST. POWER HOUSE--GENERAL PLAN OF COAL BUNKERS AND
+ECONOMIZERS.]
+
+[Illustration: 58TH ST. POWER HOUSE--GENERAL PLAN OF MAIN OPERATING
+FLOOR.]
+
+The six chimneys, spaced 108 feet apart, and occupying the space
+between the ends of the adjacent coal bunkers, are supported on
+plate-girder platforms in the fifth floor, leaving the space below
+clear for a symmetrical arrangement of the boilers and economizers
+from end to end of the building. The platforms are framed of
+single-web girders 8 feet deep, thoroughly braced and carrying on
+their top flanges a grillage of 20-inch I-beam. A system of bracing
+for both the chimney platforms and coal bunkers is carried down to the
+foundations in traverse planes about 30 feet apart.
+
+The sixth tier of beams constitute a flat roof over a portion of the
+building at the center and sides. In the engine room, at this level,
+which is 64 feet above the engine-room floor, are provided the two
+longitudinal lines of crane runway girders upon which are operated the
+engine-room cranes. Runways for 10-ton hand cranes are also provided
+for the full length of the boiler room, and for nearly the full length
+of the north panel in the engine room.
+
+Some of the loads carried by the steel structure are as follows: In
+the engine house, operating on the longitudinal runways as mentioned,
+are one 60-ton and one 25-ton electric traveling crane of 75 feet
+span. The imposed loads of the steam-pipe galleries on the south side
+and the switchboard galleries on the north side are somewhat
+irregularly distributed, but are equivalent to uniform loads of 250 to
+400 pounds per square foot. In the boiler house the weight of coal
+carried is about 45 tons per longitudinal foot of the building; the
+weight of the brick chimneys is 1,200 tons each; economizers, with
+brick setting, about 4-1/2 tons per longitudinal foot; suspended
+weight of the boilers 96 tons each, and the weight of the boiler
+setting, carried on the first floor framing, 160 tons each. The weight
+of structural steel used in the completed building is about 11,000
+tons.
+
+[Sidenote: _Power House
+Superstructure_]
+
+The design of the facework of the power house received the personal
+attention of the directors of the company, and its character and the
+class of materials to be employed were carefully considered. The
+influence of the design on the future value of the property and the
+condition of the environment in general were studied, together with
+the factors relating to the future ownership of the plant by the city.
+Several plans were taken up looking to the construction of a power
+house of massive and simple design, but it was finally decided to
+adopt an ornate style of treatment by which the structure would be
+rendered architecturally attractive and in harmony with the recent
+tendencies of municipal and city improvements from an architectural
+standpoint. At the initial stage of the power house design Mr.
+Stanford White, of the firm of McKim, Mead & White, of New York,
+volunteered his services to the company as an adviser on the matter of
+the design of the facework, and, as his offer was accepted, his
+connection with the work has resulted in the development of the
+present exterior design and the selection of the materials used.
+
+The Eleventh Avenue façade is the most elaborately treated, but the
+scheme of the main façade is carried along both the 58th and 59th
+Street fronts. The westerly end of the structure, facing the river,
+may ultimately be removed in case the power house is extended to the
+Twelfth Avenue building line for the reception of fourteen generating
+equipments; and for this reason this wall is designed plainly of less
+costly material.
+
+The general style of the facework is what may be called French
+Renaissance, and the color scheme has, therefore, been made rather
+light in character. The base of the exterior walls has been finished
+with cut granite up to the water table, above which they have been
+laid up with a light colored buff pressed brick. This brick has been
+enriched by the use of similarly colored terra-cotta, which appears in
+the pilasters, about the windows, in the several entablatures, and in
+the cornice and parapet work. The Eleventh Avenue façade is further
+enriched by marble medallions, framed with terra-cotta, and by a title
+panel directly over the front of the structure.
+
+The main entrance to the structure is situated at its northeast
+corner, and, as the railroad track passes along just inside the
+building, the entrance proper is the doorway immediately beyond the
+track, and opens into the entrance lobby. The doorway is trimmed with
+cut granite and the lobby is finished with a marble wainscoting.
+
+The interior of the operating room is faced with a light,
+cream-colored pressed brick with an enameled brick wainscoting, eight
+feet high, extending around the entire operating area; the wainscoting
+is white except for a brown border and base. The offices, the toilets
+and locker rooms are finished and fitted with materials in harmony
+with the high-class character of the building. The masonry-floor
+construction consists of concrete reinforced with expanded metal, and
+except where iron or other floor plates are used, or where tile or
+special flooring is laid, the floor is covered with a hard cement
+granolithic finish.
+
+In the design of the interior arrangements, the value of a generous
+supply of stairways was appreciated, in order that all parts of the
+structure might be made readily accessible, especially in the boiler
+house section. In the boiler house and machinery portion of the plant
+the stairways, railings, and accessories are plainly but strongly
+constructed. The main stairways are, however, of somewhat ornate
+design, with marble and other trim work, and the railings of the main
+gallery construction are likewise of ornate treatment. All exterior
+doors and trim are of metal and all interior carpenter work is done
+with Kalomein iron protection, so that the building, in its strictest
+sense, will contain no combustible material.
+
+[Sidenote: _Chimneys_]
+
+The complete 12-unit power house will have six chimneys, spaced 108
+feet apart on the longitudinal center line of the boiler room, each
+chimney being 15 feet in inside diameter at the top, which is 225 feet
+above the grate bars. Each will serve the twelve boilers included in
+the section of which it is the center, these boilers having an
+aggregate of 72,000 square feet of heating surface. By these
+dimensions each chimney has a fair surplus capacity, and it is
+calculated that, with economizers in the path of the furnace gases,
+there will be sufficient draft to meet a demand slightly above the
+normal rating of the boilers. To provide for overload capacity, as may
+be demanded by future conditions, a forced draft system will be
+supplied, as described later.
+
+As previously stated, the chimneys are all supported upon the steel
+structure of the building at an elevation of 76 feet above the
+basement floor and 63 feet above the grates. The supporting platforms
+are, in each case, carried on six of the building columns (the three
+front columns of two groups of boilers on opposite sides of the center
+aisle of the boiler room), and each platform is composed of single-web
+plate girders, well braced and surmounted by a grillage of 20-inch
+I-beams. The grillage is filled solidly with concrete and flushed
+smooth on top to receive the brickwork of the chimney.
+
+Each chimney is 162 feet in total height of brickwork above the top of
+the supporting platform, and each chimney is 23 feet square in the
+outside dimension at the base, changing to an octagonal form at a
+point 14 feet 3 inches above the base. This octagonal form is carried
+to a height of 32 feet 6 inches above the base, at which point the
+circular section of radial brick begins.
+
+The octagonal base of the chimney is of hard-burned red brick three
+feet in thickness between the side of the octagon and the interior
+circular section. The brick work is started from the top of the
+grillage platform with a steel channel curb, three feet in depth,
+through which two lines of steel rods are run in each direction, thus
+binding together the first three feet of brickwork, and designed to
+prevent any flaking at the outside. At a level of three feet above the
+bottom of the brickwork, a layer of water-proofing is placed over the
+interior area and covered with two courses of brick, upon which are
+built diagonal brick walls, 4 inches thick, 12 inches apart, and about
+18 inches in height. These walls are themselves perforated at
+intervals, and the whole is covered with hand-burned terra-cotta
+blocks, thus forming a cellular air space, which communicates with the
+exterior air and serves as an insulation against heat for the
+steelwork beneath. A single layer of firebrick completes the flooring
+of the interior area, which is also flush with the bottom of the flue
+openings.
+
+There are two flue openings, diametrically opposite, and 6 feet wide
+by 17 feet high to the crown of the arched top. They are lined with
+fire brick, which joins the fire-brick lining of the interior of the
+shaft, this latter being bonded to the red-brick walls to a point 6
+feet below the top of the octagon, and extended above for a height of
+14 feet within the circular shaft, as an inner shell. The usual baffle
+wall is provided of fire brick, 13 inches thick, extending diagonally
+across the chimney, and 4 feet above the tops of the flue openings.
+
+Where the chimney passes through the roof of the boiler house, a steel
+plate and angle curb, which clears the chimney by 6 inches at all
+points, is provided in connection with the roof framing. This is
+covered by a hood flashed into the brickwork, so that the roof has no
+connection with or bearing upon the chimney.
+
+At a point 4 feet 6 inches below the cap of the chimney the brickwork
+is corbeled out for several courses, forming a ledge, around the
+outside of which is placed a wrought-iron railing, thus forming a
+walkway around the circumference of the chimney top. The cap is of
+cast iron, surmounted by eight 3 x 1-inch wrought-iron ribs, bent over
+the outlet and with pointed ends gathered together at the center. The
+lightning conductors are carried down the outside of the shaft to the
+roof and thence to the ground outside of the building. Galvanized iron
+ladder rungs were built in the brickwork, for ladders both inside and
+outside the shaft.
+
+The chimneys, except for the octagonal red-brick base, are constructed
+of the radial perforated bricks. The lightning rods are tipped with
+pointed platinum points about 18 inches long.
+
+[Sidenote: _North River
+Pier_]
+
+Exceptional facilities have been provided for the unloading of coal
+from vessels, or barges, which can be brought to the northerly side of
+the recently constructed pier at the foot of West 58th Street. The
+pier was specially built by the Department of Docks and Ferries and is
+700 feet long and 60 feet wide.
+
+The pier construction includes a special river wall across 58th Street
+at the bulkhead line through which the condensing water will be taken
+from and returned to the river. Immediately outside the river wall and
+beneath the deck of the pier, there is a system of screens through
+which the intake water is passed. On each side where the water enters
+the screen chamber, is a heavy steel grillage; inside this is a system
+of fine screens arranged so that the several screens can be raised, by
+a special machine, for the purpose of cleaning. The advantages of a
+well-designed screening outfit has been appreciated, and considerable
+care has been exercised to make it as reliable and effective as
+possible.
+
+At each side of the center of the pier, just below the deck, there are
+two discharge water conduits constructed of heavy timber, to conduct
+the warm water from the condensers away from the cold water intakes at
+the screens. Two water conduits are employed, in order that one may be
+repaired or renewed while using the other; in fact, the entire pier is
+constructed with the view of renewal without interference in the
+operation for which it was provided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+POWER PLANT FROM COAL PILE TO SHAFTS OF ENGINES AND TURBINES
+
+
+From the minute and specific description in Chapter III, a clear idea
+will have been obtained of the power house building and its adjuncts,
+as well as of the features which not only go to make it an
+architectural landmark, but which adapt it specifically for the vital
+function that it is called upon to perform. We now come to a review
+and detailed description of the power plant equipment in its general
+relation to the building, and "follow the power through" from the coal
+pile to the shafts of the engines or steam turbines attached to the
+dynamos which generate current for power and for light.
+
+[Sidenote: _Coal and Ash
+Handling
+Equipment_]
+
+The elements of the coal handling equipment comprise a movable
+electric hoisting tower with crushing and weighing apparatus--a system
+of horizontal belt conveyors, with 30-inch belts, to carry the crushed
+and weighed coal along the dock and thence by tunnel underground to
+the southwest corner of the power house; a system of 30-inch belt
+conveyors to elevate the coal a distance of 110 feet to the top of the
+boiler house, at the rate of 250 tons per hour or more, if so desired,
+and a system of 20-inch belt conveyors to distribute it horizontally
+over the coal bunkers. These conveyors have automatic self reversing
+trippers, which distribute the coal evenly in the bunkers. For
+handling different grades of coal, distributing conveyors are arranged
+underneath the bunkers for delivering the coal from a particular
+bunker through gates to the downtake hoppers in front of the boilers,
+as hereafter described.
+
+The equipment for removing ashes from the boiler room basement and for
+storing and delivering the ashes to barges, comprises the following
+elements: A system of tracks, 24 inches gauge, extending under the
+ash-hopper gates in the boiler-house cellar and extending to an
+elevated storage bunker at the water front. The rolling stock consists
+of 24 steel cars of 2 tons capacity, having gable bottoms and side
+dumping doors. Each car has two four-wheel pivoted trucks with
+springs. Motive power is supplied by an electric storage battery
+locomotive. The cars deliver the ashes to an elevating belt conveyor,
+which fills the ash bunker. This will contain 1,000 tons, and is built
+of steel with a suspension bottom lined with concrete. For delivering
+stored ashes to barges, a collecting belt extends longitudinally under
+the pocket, being fed by eight gates. It delivers ashes to a loading
+belt conveyor, the outboard end of which is hinged so as to vary the
+height of delivery and to fold up inside the wharf line when not in
+use.
+
+The coal handling system in question was adopted because any serious
+interruption of service would be of short duration, as any belt, or
+part of the belt mechanism, could quickly be repaired or replaced. The
+system also possessed advantages with respect to the automatic even
+distribution of coal in the bunkers, by means of the self reversing
+trippers. These derive their power from the conveying belts. Each
+conveyor has a rotary cleaning brush to cleanse the belt before it
+reaches the driving pulley and they are all driven by induction
+motors.
+
+The tower frame and boom are steel. The tower rolls on two rails along
+the dock and is self-propelling. The lift is unusually short; for the
+reason that the weighing apparatus is removed horizontally to one side
+in a separate house, instead of lying vertically below the crusher.
+This arrangement reduces by 40 per cent. the lift of the bucket, which
+is of the clam-shell type of forty-four cubic feet capacity. The
+motive power for operating the bucket is perhaps the most massive and
+powerful ever installed for such service. The main hoist is directly
+connected to a 200 horse-power motor with a special system of control.
+The trolley engine for hauling the bucket along the boom is also
+direct coupled to a multipolar motor.
+
+The receiving hopper has a large throat, and a steel grizzly in it
+which sorts out coal small enough for the stokers and bypasses it
+around the crusher. The crusher is of the two-roll type, with
+relieving springs, and is operated by a motor, which is also used for
+propelling the tower. The coal is weighed in duplex two-ton hoppers.
+
+Special attention has been given to providing for the comfort and
+safety of the operators. The cabs have baywindow fronts, to enable the
+men to have an unobstructed view of the bucket at all times without
+peering through slots in the floor. Walks and hand lines are provided
+on both sides of the boom for safe inspection. The running ropes pass
+through hardwood slides, which cover the slots in the engine house
+roof to exclude rain and snow.
+
+This type of motive power was selected in preference to trolley
+locomotives for moving the ash cars, owing to the rapid destruction of
+overhead lines and rail bonds by the action of ashes and water. The
+locomotive consists of two units, each of which has four driving
+wheels, and carries its own motor and battery. The use of two units
+allows the locomotive to round curves with very small overhangs, as
+compared with a single-body locomotive. Curves of 12 feet radius can
+be turned with ease. The gross weight of the locomotive is about five
+tons, all of which is available for traction.
+
+[Sidenote: _Coal
+Downtakes_]
+
+The coal from the coal bunkers is allowed to flow down into the boiler
+room through two rows of downtakes, one on each side of the central
+gangway or firing place. Each bunker has eight cast-iron outlets, four
+on each side, and to these outlets are bolted gate valves for shutting
+off the coal from the corresponding downtakes. From these gates the
+downtakes lead to hoppers which are on the economizer floor, and from
+these hoppers the lower sets of downtakes extend down to the boilers.
+
+Just above the hoppers on the economizer floor the coal downtakes are
+provided with valves and chutes to feed the coal, either into the
+hopper or into the distributing flight conveyor alongside of it. These
+distributing conveyors, one corresponding with each row of downtakes,
+permits the feeding of coal from any bunker or bunkers to all the
+boilers when desired. They are the ordinary type of flight conveyor,
+capable of running in either direction and provided with gates in the
+bottom of the trough for feeding into the several above mentioned
+hoppers. In order to eliminate the stresses that would develop in a
+conveyor of the full length of the building, the conveyors are of half
+the entire length, with electric driving engines in the center of each
+continuous line. The installation of this conveyor system, in
+connection with the coal downtakes, makes it possible to carry a
+high-grade coal in some of the bunkers for use during periods of heavy
+load and a cheaper grade in other bunkers for the periods of light
+load.
+
+To provide means for shutting off the coal supply to each boiler, a
+small hopper is placed just over each boiler, and the downtake feeding
+into it is provided with a gate at its lower end. Two vertical
+downtakes extend down from the boiler hopper to the boiler room floor
+or to the stokers, as the case may be, and they are hinged just below
+the boiler hopper to allow their being drawn up out of the way when
+necessary to inspect the boiler tubes.
+
+[Illustration: WEST END POWER HOUSE IN COURSE OF ERECTION]
+
+Wherever the direction of flow of the coal is changed, poke holes are
+provided in the downtakes to enable the firemen to break any arching
+tendency of the coal in the downtakes. All parts of the downtakes are
+of cast iron, except the vertical parts in front of the boilers, which
+are of wrought-iron pipe. These vertical downtakes are 10 inches in
+inside diameter, while all others are 14 inches in inside diameter.
+
+[Sidenote: _Main Boiler
+Room_]
+
+The main boiler room is designed to receive ultimately seventy-two
+safety water tube three drum boilers, each having 6,008 square feet of
+effective heating surface, by which the aggregate heating surface of
+the boiler room will be 432,576 square feet.
+
+There are fifty-two boilers erected in pairs, or batteries, and
+between each battery is a passageway five feet wide. The boilers are
+designed for a working steam pressure of 225 pounds per square inch
+and for a hydraulic test pressure of 300 pounds per square inch. Each
+boiler is provided with twenty-one vertical water tube sections, and
+each section is fourteen tubes high. The tubes are of lap welded,
+charcoal iron, 4 inches in diameter and 18 feet long. The drums are 42
+inches in diameter and 23 feet and 10 inches long. All parts are of
+open-hearth steel; the shell plates are 9/16 of an inch thick and the
+drum head plates 11/16 inch, and in this respect the thickness of
+material employed is slightly in excess of standard practice. Another
+advance on standard practice is in the riveting of the circular seams,
+these being lap-jointed and double riveted. All longitudinal seams are
+butt-strapped, inside and outside, and secured by six rows of rivets.
+Manholes are only provided for the front heads, and each front head is
+provided with a special heavy bronze pad, for making connection to the
+stop and check feed water valve.
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING ROOM SHOWING CONDENSERS--POWER HOUSE]
+
+The setting of the boiler embodies several special features which are
+new in boiler erection. The boilers are set higher up from the floor
+than in standard practice, the center of the drums being 19 feet above
+the floor line. This feature provides a higher combustion chamber, for
+either hand-fired grates or automatic stokers; and for inclined grate
+stokers the fire is carried well up above the supporting girders under
+the side walls, so that these girders will not be heated by proximity
+to the fire.
+
+As regards the masonry setting, practically the entire inside surface
+exposed to the hot gases is lined with a high grade of fire brick. The
+back of the setting, where the rear cleaning is done, is provided with
+a sliding floor plate, which is used when the upper tubes are being
+cleaned. There is also a door at the floor line and another at a
+higher level for light and ventilation when cleaning. Over the tubes
+arrangements have been made for the reception of superheating
+apparatus without changing the brickwork. Where the brick walls are
+constructed, at each side of the building columns at the front,
+cast-iron plates are erected to a height of 8 feet on each side of the
+column. An air space is provided between each cast-iron plate and the
+column, which is accessible for cleaning from the boiler front; the
+object of the plates and air space being to prevent the transmission
+of heat to the steel columns.
+
+An additional feature of the boiler setting consists in the employment
+of a soot hopper, back of each bridge wall, by which the soot can be
+discharged into ash cars in the basement. The main ash hoppers are
+constructed of 1/2-inch steel plate, the design being a double
+inverted pyramid with an ash gate at each inverted apex. The hoppers
+are well provided with stiffening angles and tees, and the capacity of
+each is about 80 cubic feet.
+
+In front of all the boilers is a continuous platform of open-work
+cast-iron plates, laid on steel beams, the level of the platform being
+8 feet above the main floor. The platform connects across the firing
+area, opposite the walk between the batteries, and at these points
+this platform is carried between the boiler settings. At the rear of
+the northerly row of boilers the platform runs along the partition
+wall, between the boiler house and operating room and at intervals
+doorways are provided which open into the pump area. The level of the
+platform is even with that of the main operating room floor, so that
+it may be freely used by the water tenders and by the operating
+engineers without being obstructed by the firemen or their tools. The
+platform in front of the boilers will also be used for cleaning
+purposes, and, in this respect, it will do away with the unsightly and
+objectionable scaffolds usually employed for this work. The water
+tenders will also be brought nearer to the water columns than when
+operating on the main floor. The feed-water valves will be regulated
+from the platform, as well as the speed of the boiler-feed pumps.
+
+Following European practice, each boiler is provided with two water
+columns, one on each outside drum, and each boiler will have one steam
+gauge above the platform for the water tenders and one below the
+platform for the firemen. The stop and check valves on each boiler
+drum have been made specially heavy for the requirements of this power
+house, and this special increase of weight has been applied to all the
+several minor boiler fittings.
+
+Hand-fired grates of the shaking pattern have been furnished for
+thirty-six boilers, and for each of these grates a special lower front
+has been constructed. These fronts are of sheet steel, and the coal
+passes down to the floor through two steel buckstays which have been
+enlarged for the purpose. There are three firing doors and the sill of
+each door is 36 inches above the floor. The gate area of the
+hand-fired grates is 100 square feet, being 8 feet deep by 12 feet 6
+inches wide.
+
+The twelve boilers, which will receive coal from the coal bunker
+located between the fourth and fifth chimneys, have been furnished
+with automatic stokers.
+
+It is proposed to employ superheaters to the entire boiler plant.
+
+The boiler-room ceiling has been made especially high, and in this
+respect the room differs from most power houses of similar
+construction. The distance from the floor to the ceiling is 35 feet,
+and from the floor plates over the boilers to the ceiling is 13 feet.
+Over each boiler is an opening to the economizer floor above, covered
+with an iron grating. The height of the room, as well as the feature
+of these openings, and the stairway wells and with the large extent of
+window opening in the south wall, will make the room light and
+especially well ventilated. Under these conditions the intense heat
+usually encountered over boilers will largely be obviated.
+
+In addition to making provisions for the air to escape from the upper
+part of the boiler room, arrangements have been provided for allowing
+the air to enter at the bottom. This inflow of air will take place
+through the southerly row of basement windows, which extend above the
+boiler room floor, and through the wrought-iron open-work floor
+construction extending along in the rear of the northerly row of
+boilers.
+
+A noteworthy feature of the boiler room is the 10-ton hand-power
+crane, which travels along in the central aisle through the entire
+length of the structure. This crane is used for erection and for heavy
+repair, and its use has greatly assisted the speedy assembling of the
+boiler plant.
+
+[Sidenote: _Blowers and
+Air Ducts_]
+
+In order to burn the finer grades of anthracite coal in sufficient
+quantities to obtain boiler rating with the hand-fired grates, and in
+order to secure a large excess over boiler rating with other coals, a
+system of blowers and air ducts has been provided in the basement
+under the boilers. One blower is selected for every three boilers,
+with arrangements for supplying all six boilers from one blower.
+
+The blowers are 11 feet high above the floor and 5 feet 6 inches wide
+at the floor line. Each blower is direct-connected to a two crank
+7-1/2 x 13 x 6-1/2-inch upright, automatic, compound, steam engine of
+the self-enclosed type, and is to provide a sufficient amount of air
+to burn 10,000 pounds of combustible per hour with 2 inches of water
+pressure in the ash pits.
+
+[Sidenote: _Smoke Flues
+and
+Economizers_]
+
+The smoke flue and economizer construction throughout the building is
+of uniform design, or, in other words, the smoke flue and economizer
+system for one chimney is identical with that for every other chimney.
+In each case, the system is symmetrically arranged about its
+respective chimney, as can be seen by reference to the plans.
+
+The twelve boilers for each chimney are each provided with two round
+smoke uptakes, which carry the products of combustion upward to the
+main smoke flue system on the economizer floor. A main smoke flue is
+provided for each group of three boilers, and each pair of main smoke
+flues join together on the center line of the chimney, where in each
+case one common flue carries the gases into the side of the chimney.
+The two common flues last mentioned enter at opposite sides of the
+chimney. The main flues are arranged and fitted with dampers, so that
+the gases can pass directly to the chimney, or else they can be
+diverted through the economizers and thence reach the chimney.
+
+The uptakes from each boiler are constructed of 3/8-inch plate and
+each is lined with radial hollow brick 4 inches thick. Each is
+provided with a damper which operates on a shaft turning in roller
+bearings. The uptakes rest on iron beams at the bottom, and at the
+top, where they join the main flue, means are provided to take up
+expansion and contraction.
+
+The main flue, which rests on the economizer floor, is what might be
+called a steel box, constructed of 3/8-inch plate, 6 feet 4 inches
+wide and 13 feet high. The bottom is lined with brick laid flat and
+the sides with brick walls 8 inches thick, and the top is formed of
+brick arches sprung between.
+
+[Sidenote: _Steam Piping_]
+
+The sectional plan adopted for the power house has made a uniform and
+simple arrangement of steam piping possible, with the piping for each
+section, except that of the turbine bay, identical with that for every
+other section. Starting with the six boilers for one main engine, the
+steam piping may be described as follows: A cross-over pipe is erected
+on each boiler, by means of which and a combination of valves and
+fittings the steam may be passed through the superheater. In the
+delivery from each boiler there is a quick-closing 9-inch valve, which
+can be closed from the boiler room floor by hand or from a distant
+point individually or in groups of six. Risers with 9-inch
+wrought-iron goose necks connect each boiler to the steam main, where
+9-inch angle valves are inserted in each boiler connection. These
+valves can be closed from the platform over the boilers, and are
+grouped three over one set of three boilers and three over the
+opposite set.
+
+The main from the six boilers is carried directly across the boiler
+house in a straight line to a point in the pipe area where it rises to
+connect to the two 14-inch steam downtakes to the engine throttles. At
+this point the steam can also be led downward to a manifold to which
+the compensating tie lines are connected. These compensating lines are
+run lengthwise through the power house for the purpose of joining the
+systems together, as desired. The two downtakes to the engine
+throttles drop to the basement, where each, through a goose neck,
+delivers into a receiver and separating tank and from the tank through
+a second goose neck into the corresponding throttle.
+
+A quick-closing valve appears at the point where the 17-inch pipe
+divides into the two 14-inch downtakes and a similar valve is provided
+at the point where the main connects to the manifold. The first valve
+will close the steam to the engine and the second will control the
+flow of steam to and from the manifold. These valves can be operated
+by hand from a platform located on the wall inside the engine room, or
+they can be closed from a distant point by hydraulic apparatus. In the
+event of accident the piping to any engine can be quickly cut out or
+that system of piping can quickly be disconnected from the
+compensating system.
+
+The pipe area containing, as mentioned, the various valves described,
+together with the manifolds and compensating pipes, is divided by
+means of cross-walls into sections corresponding to each pair of main
+engines. Each section is thus separated from those adjoining, so that
+any escape of steam in one section can be localized and, by means of
+the quick-closing valves, the piping for the corresponding pair of
+main engines can be disconnected from the rest of the power house.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW FROM TOP OF CHIMNEY SHOWING WATER FRONTAGE--POWER
+HOUSE]
+
+All cast iron used in the fittings is called air-furnace iron, which
+is a semi-steel and tougher than ordinary iron. All line and bent pipe
+is of wrought iron, and the flanges are loose and made of wrought
+steel. The shell of the pipe is bent over the face of the flange. All
+the joints in the main steam line, above 2-1/2 inches in size, are
+ground joints, metal to metal, no gaskets being used.
+
+Unlike the flanges ordinarily used in this country, special extra
+strong proportions have been adopted, and it may be said that all
+flanges and bolts used are 50 per cent. heavier than the so-called
+extra heavy proportions used in this country.
+
+[Sidenote: _Water Piping_]
+
+The feed water will enter the building at three points, the largest
+water service being 12 inches in diameter, which enters the structure
+at its southeast corner. The water first passes through fish traps
+and thence through meters, and from them to the main reservoir tanks,
+arranged along the center of the boiler house basement. The water is
+allowed to flow into each tank by means of an automatic float valve.
+The water will be partly heated in these reservoir tanks by means of
+hot water discharged from high-pressure steam traps. In this way the
+heat contained in the drainage from the high-pressure steam is, for
+the most part, returned to the boilers. From the reservoir tanks the
+water is conducted to the feed-water pumps, by which it is discharged
+through feed-water heaters where it is further heated by the exhaust
+steam from the condensing and feed-water pumps. From the feed-water
+heaters the water will be carried direct to the boilers; or through
+the economizer system to be further heated by the waste gases from the
+boilers.
+
+[Illustration: PORTION OF MAIN STEAM PIPING IN PIPE AREA]
+
+Like the steam-pipe system, the feed-water piping is laid out on the
+sectional plan, the piping for the several sections being identical,
+except for the connections from the street service to the reservoir
+tanks. The feed-water piping is constructed wholly of cast iron,
+except the piping above the floor line to the boilers, which is of
+extra heavy semi-annealed brass with extra heavy cast-iron fittings.
+
+[Sidenote: _Engine and
+Turbine
+Equipment_]
+
+The engine and turbine equipment under contract embraces nine 8,000 to
+11,000 horse power main engines, direct-connected to 5,000 kilowatt
+generators, three steam turbines, direct-connected to 1,875 kilowatt
+lighting generators and two 400 horse power engines, direct-connected
+to 250 kilowatt exciter generators.
+
+[Sidenote: _Main Engines_]
+
+The main engines are similar in type to those installed in the 74th
+Street power house of the Manhattan Division of the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company, i. e., each consists of two component compound
+engines, both connected to a common shaft, with the generator placed
+between the two component engines. The type of engine is now well
+known and will not be described in detail, but as a comparison of
+various dimensions and features of the Manhattan and Rapid Transit
+engines may be of interest, the accompanying tabulation is submitted:
+
+                                               Manhattan.   Rapid Transit.
+
+Diameter of high-pressure cylinders, inches,       44            42
+Diameter of low-pressure cylinders, inches,        88            86
+Stroke, inches,                                    60            60
+Speed, revolutions per minute,                     75            75
+Steam pressure at throttle, pounds,               150           175
+Indicated horse power at best efficiency,       7,500         7,500
+Diameter of low-pressure piston rods, inches,       8            10
+Diameter of high-pressure piston rods, inches,      8            10
+Diameter of crank pin, inches,                     18            20
+Length of crank pin, inches,                       18            18
+
+                                            Double Ported   Single Ported
+Type of Low-Pressure Valves.                   Corliss         Corliss
+Type of High-Pressure Valves.                  Corliss       Poppet Type
+
+Diameter of shaft in journals, inches,             34            34
+Length of journals, inches,                        60            60
+Diameter of shaft in hub of revolving
+  element, inches                                  37-1/16       37-1/16
+
+The guarantees under which the main engines are being furnished, and
+which will govern their acceptance by the purchaser, are in substance
+as follows: First. The engine will be capable of operating
+continuously when indicating 11,000 horse power with 175 lbs. of steam
+pressure, a speed of 75 revolutions and a 26-inch vacuum without
+normal wear, jar, noise, or other objectionable results. Second. It
+will be suitably proportioned to withstand in a serviceable manner all
+sudden fluctuations of load as are usual and incidental to the
+generation of electrical energy for railway purposes. Third. It will
+be capable of operating with an atmospheric exhaust with two pounds
+back pressure at the low pressure cylinders, and when so operating,
+will fulfill all the operating requirements, except as to economy and
+capacity. Fourth. It will be proportioned so that when occasion shall
+require it can be operated with a steam pressure at the throttles of
+200 pounds above atmospheric pressure under the before mentioned
+conditions of the speed and vacuum. Fifth. It will be proportioned so
+that it can be operated with steam pressure at the throttle of 200
+pounds above atmospheric pressure under the before mentioned condition
+as to speed when exhausting in the atmosphere. Sixth. The engine will
+operate successfully with a steam pressure at the throttle of 175
+pounds above atmosphere, should the temperature of the steam be
+maintained at the throttle at from 450 to 500 degrees Fahr. Seventh.
+It will not require more than 12-1/4 pounds of dry steam per indicated
+horse power per hour, when indicating 7,500 horse power at 75
+revolutions per minute, when the vacuum of 26 inches at the low
+pressure cylinders, with a steam pressure at the throttle of 175
+pounds and with saturated steam at the normal temperature due to its
+pressure. The guarantee includes all of the steam used by the engine
+or by the jackets or reheater.
+
+The new features contained within the engine construction are
+principally: First, the novel construction of the high-pressure
+cylinders, by which only a small strain is transmitted through the
+valve chamber between the cylinder and the slide-surface casting.
+This is accomplished by employing heavy bolts, which bolt the shell of
+the cylinder casting to the slide-surface casting, said bolts being
+carried past and outside the valve chamber. Second, the use of poppet
+valves, which are operated in a very simple manner from a wrist plate
+on the side of the cylinder, the connections from the valves to the
+wrist plate and the connections from the wrist plate to the eccentric
+being similar to the parts usually employed for the operation of
+Corliss valves.
+
+Unlike the Manhattan engines, the main steam pipes are carried to the
+high-pressure cylinders under the floor and not above it. Another
+modification consists in the use of an adjustable strap for the
+crank-pin boxes instead of the marine style of construction at the
+crank-pin end of the connecting rod.
+
+The weight of the revolving field is about 335,000 pounds, which gives
+a flywheel effect of about 350,000 pounds at a radius of gyration of
+11 feet, and with this flywheel inertia the engine is designed so that
+any point on the revolving element shall not, in operation, lag behind
+nor forge ahead of the position that it would have if the speed were
+absolutely uniform, by an amount greater than one-eighth of a natural
+degree.
+
+[Sidenote: _Turbo-Generators_]
+
+Arrangements have been made for the erection of four turbo generators,
+but only three have been ordered. They are of the multiple expansion
+parallel flow type, consisting of two turbines arranged tandem
+compound. When operating at full load each of the two turbines,
+comprising one unit, will develop approximately equal power for direct
+connection to an alternator giving 7,200 alternations per minute at
+11,000 volts and at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. Each unit
+will have a normal output of 1,700 electrical horse power with a steam
+pressure of 175 pounds at the throttle and a vacuum in the exhaust
+pipe of 27 inches, measured by a mercury column and referred to a
+barometric pressure of 30 inches. The turbine is guaranteed to operate
+satisfactorily with steam superheated to 450 degrees Fahrenheit. The
+economy guaranteed under the foregoing conditions as to initial and
+terminal pressure and speed is as follows: Full load of 1,250
+kilowatts, 15.7 pounds of steam per electrical horse-power hour;
+three-quarter load, 937-1/2 kilowatts, 16.6 pounds per electrical
+horse-power hour; one-half load, 625 kilowatts, 18.3 pounds; and
+one-quarter load, 312-1/2 kilowatts, 23.2 pounds. When operating under
+the conditions of speed and steam pressure mentioned, but with a
+pressure in the exhaust pipe of 27 inches vacuum by mercury column
+(referred to 30 inches barometer), and with steam at the throttle
+superheated 75 degrees Fahrenheit above the temperature of saturated
+steam at that pressure, the guaranteed steam consumption is as
+follows: Full load, 1,250 kilowatts, 13.8 pounds per electrical
+horse-power hour; three-quarter load, 937-1/2 kilowatts, 14.6 pounds;
+one-half load, 625 kilowatts, 16.2 pounds; and one-quarter load,
+312-1/2 kilowatts, 20.8 pounds.
+
+[Sidenote: _Exciter
+Engines_]
+
+The two exciter engines are each direct connected to a 250 kilowatt
+direct current generator. Each engine is a vertical quarter-crank
+compound engine with a 17-inch high pressure cylinder and a 27-inch
+low-pressure cylinder with a common 24-inch stroke. The engines will
+be non-condensing, for the reason that extreme reliability is desired
+at the expense of some economy. They will operate at best efficiency
+when indicating 400 horse power at a speed of 150 revolutions per
+minute with a steam pressure of 175 pounds at the throttle. Each
+engine will have a maximum of 600 indicated horse power.
+
+[Sidenote: _Condensing
+Equipment_]
+
+Each engine unit is supplied with its own condenser equipment,
+consisting of two barometric condensing chambers, each attached as
+closely as possible to its respective low-pressure cylinder. For each
+engine also is provided a vertical circulating pump along with a
+vacuum pump and, for the sake of flexibility, the pumps are cross
+connected with those of other engines and can be used interchangeably.
+
+The circulating pumps are vertical, cross compound pumping engines
+with outside packed plungers. Their foundations are upon the basement
+floor level and the steam cylinders extend above the engine-room
+floor; the starting valves and control of speed is therefore entirely
+under the supervision of the engineer. Each pump has a normal capacity
+of 10,000,000 gallons of water per day, so that the total pumping
+capacity of all the pumps is 120,000,000 gallons per day. While the
+head against which these pumps will be required to work, when assisted
+by the vacuum in the condenser, is much less than the total lift from
+low tide water to the entrance into the condensing chambers, they are
+so designed as to be ready to deliver the full quantity the full
+height, if for any reason the assistance of the vacuum should be lost
+or not available at times of starting up. A temporary overload can but
+reduce the vacuum only for a short time and the fluctuations of the
+tide, or even a complete loss of vacuum cannot interfere with the
+constant supply of water, the governor simply admitting to the
+cylinders the proper amount of steam to do the work. The high-pressure
+steam cylinder is 10 inches in diameter and the low-pressure is 20
+inches; the two double-acting water plungers are each 20 inches in
+diameter, and the stroke is 30 inches for all. The water ends are
+composition fitted for salt water and have valve decks and plungers
+entirely of that material.
+
+[Illustration: COAL UNLOADING TOWER ON WEST 58TH STREET PIER]
+
+The dry vacuum pumps are of the vertical form, and each is located
+alongside of the corresponding circulating pump. The steam cylinders
+also project above the engine-room floor. The vacuum cylinder is
+immediately below the steam cylinder and has a valve that is
+mechanically operated by an eccentric on the shaft. These pumps are of
+the close-clearance type, and, while controlled by a governor, can be
+changed in speed while running to any determined rate.
+
+[Sidenote: _Exhaust
+Piping_]
+
+From each atmospheric exhaust valve, which is direct-connected to the
+condensing chamber at each low-pressure cylinder, is run downward a
+30-inch riveted-steel exhaust pipe. At a point just under the
+engine-room floor the exhaust pipe is carried horizontally around the
+engine foundations, the two from each pair of engines uniting in a
+40-inch riser to the roof. This riser is between the pair of engines
+and back of the high-pressure cylinder, thus passing through the
+so-called pipe area, where it also receives exhaust steam from the
+pump auxiliaries. At the roof the 40-inch riser is run into a 48-inch
+stand pipe. This is capped with an exhaust head, the top of which is
+35 feet above the roof.
+
+All the exhaust piping 30 inches in diameter and over is
+longitudinally riveted steel with cast-iron flanges riveted on to it.
+Expansion joints are provided where necessary to relieve the piping
+from the strains due to expansion and contraction, and where the
+joints are located near the engine and generator they are of
+corrugated copper. The expansion joints in the 40-inch risers above
+the pipe area are ordinarily packed slip joints.
+
+The exhaust piping from the auxiliaries is carried directly up into
+the pipe area, where it is connected with a feed-water heater, with
+means for by-passing the latter. Beyond the heater it joins the
+40-inch riser to the roof. The feed-water heaters are three-pass,
+vertical, water-tube heaters, designed for a working water pressure of
+225 pounds per square inch.
+
+The design of the atmospheric relief valve received special
+consideration. A lever is provided to assist the valve to close, while
+a dash pot prevents a too quick action in either direction.
+
+[Sidenote: _Compressed
+Air_]
+
+The power house will be provided with a system for supplying
+compressed air to various points about the structure for cleaning
+electrical machinery and for such other purposes as may arise. It will
+also be used for operating whistles employed for signaling. The air is
+supplied to reservoir tanks by two vertical, two-stage,
+electric-driven air compressors.
+
+[Sidenote: _Oil System_]
+
+For the lubrication of the engines an extensive oil distributing and
+filtering system is provided. Filtered oil will be supplied under
+pressure from elevated storage tanks, with a piping system leading to
+all the various journals. The piping to the engines is constructed on
+a duplicate, or crib, system, by which the supply of oil cannot be
+interrupted by a break in any one pipe. The oil on leaving the engines
+is conducted to the filtering tanks. A pumping equipment then
+redelivers the oil to the elevated storage tanks.
+
+All piping carrying filtered oil is of brass and fittings are inserted
+at proper pipes to facilitate cleaning. The immediate installation
+includes two oil filtering tanks at the easterly end of the power
+house, but the completed plant contemplates the addition of two extra
+filtering tanks at the westerly end of the structure.
+
+[Sidenote: _Cranes, Shops,
+Etc._]
+
+The power house is provided with the following traveling cranes: For
+the operating room: One 60-ton electric traveling crane and one 25-ton
+electric traveling crane. For the area over the oil switches: one
+10-ton hand-operated crane. For the center aisle of the boiler room:
+one 10-ton hand-operated crane. The span of both of the electric
+cranes is 74 feet 4 inches and both cranes operate over the entire
+length of the structure.
+
+The 60-ton crane has two trolleys, each with a lifting capacity, for
+regular load, of 50 tons. Each trolley is also provided with an
+auxiliary hoist of 10 tons capacity. When loaded, the crane can
+operate at the following speeds: Bridge, 200 feet per minute;
+trolley, 100 feet per minute; main hoist, 10 feet per minute; and
+auxiliary hoist, 30 feet per minute. The 25-ton crane is provided with
+one trolley, having a lifting capacity, for regular load, of 25 tons,
+together with auxiliary hoist of 5 tons. When loaded, the crane can
+operate at the following speeds: bridge, 250 feet per minute; trolley,
+100 feet per minute; main hoist, 12 feet per minute; and auxiliary
+hoist, 28 feet per minute.
+
+The power house is provided with an extensive tool equipment for a
+repair and machine shop, which is located on the main gallery at the
+northerly side of the operating room.
+
+[Illustration: 5,000 K. W. ALTERNATOR--MAIN POWER HOUSE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLY
+
+
+[Sidenote: _Energy from
+Engine Shaft
+to Third Rail_]
+
+The system of electrical supply chosen for the subway comprises
+alternating current generation and distribution, and direct current
+operation of car motors. Four years ago, when the engineering plans
+were under consideration, the single-phase alternating current railway
+motor was not even in an embryonic state, and notwithstanding the
+marked progress recently made in its development, it can scarcely yet
+be considered to have reached a stage that would warrant any
+modifications in the plans adopted, even were such modifications
+easily possible at the present time. The comparatively limited
+headroom available in the subway prohibited the use of an overhead
+system of conductors, and this limitation, in conjunction with the
+obvious desirability of providing a system permitting interchangeable
+operation with the lines of the Manhattan Railway system practically
+excluded tri-phase traction systems and led directly to the adoption
+of the third-rail direct current system.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE AND END ELEVATIONS OF ALTERNATOR.]
+
+[Illustration: SIDE ELEVATION AND CROSS SECTION OF ALTERNATOR WITH
+PART CUT AWAY TO SHOW CONSTRUCTION.]
+
+It being considered impracticable to predict with entire certainty the
+ultimate traffic conditions to be met, the generator plant has been
+designed to take care of all probable traffic demands expected to
+arise within a year or two of the beginning of operation of the
+system, while the plans permit convenient and symmetrical increase to
+meet the requirements of additional demand which may develop. Each
+express train will comprise five motor cars and three trail cars, and
+each local train will comprise three motor cars and two trail cars.
+The weight of each motor car with maximum live load is 88,000 pounds,
+and the weight of each trailer car 66,000 pounds.
+
+The plans adopted provide electric equipment at the outstart capable
+of operating express trains at an average speed approximating
+twenty-five miles per hour, while the control system and motor units
+have been so chosen that higher speeds up to a limit of about thirty
+miles per hour can be attained by increasing the number of motor cars
+providing experience in operation demonstrates that such higher speeds
+can be obtained with safety.
+
+The speed of local trains between City Hall and 96th Street will
+average about 15 miles an hour, while north of 96th Street on both the
+West side and East side branches their speed will average about 18
+miles an hour, owing to the greater average distance between local
+stations.
+
+As the result of careful consideration of various plans, the company's
+engineers recommended that all the power required for the operation of
+the system be generated in a single power house in the form of
+three-phase alternating current at 11,000 volts, this current to be
+generated at a frequency of 25 cycles per second, and to be delivered
+through three-conductor cables to transformers and converters in
+sub-stations suitably located with reference to the track system, the
+current there to be transformed and converted to direct current for
+delivery to the third-rail conductor at a potential of 625 volts.
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING GALLERY IN SUB-STATION]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DIAGRAM OF 11,000 VOLT CIRCUITS IN MAIN POWER
+STATION]
+
+Calculations based upon contemplated schedules require for traction
+purposes and for heating and lighting cars, a maximum delivery of
+about 45,000 kilowatts at the third rail. Allowing for losses in the
+distributing cables, in transformers and converters, this implies a
+total generating capacity of approximately 50,000 kilowatts, and
+having in view the possibility of future extensions of the system it
+was decided to design and construct the power house building for the
+ultimate reception of eleven 5,000-kilowatt units for traction current
+in addition to the lighting sets. Each 5,000-kilowatt unit is capable
+of delivering during rush hours an output of 7,500 kilowatts or
+approximately 10,000 electrical horse power and, setting aside one
+unit as a reserve, the contemplated ultimate maximum output of the
+power plant, therefore, is 75,000 kilowatts, or approximately 100,000
+electrical horse power.
+
+[Sidenote: _Power
+House_]
+
+The power house is fully described elsewhere in this publication, but
+it is not inappropriate to refer briefly in this place to certain
+considerations governing the selection of the generating unit, and the
+use of engines rather than steam turbines.
+
+[Illustration: OIL SWITCHES--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+The 5,000-kilowatt generating unit was chosen because it is
+practically as large a unit of the direct-connected type as can be
+constructed by the engine builders unless more than two bearings be
+used--an alternative deemed inadvisable by the engineers of the
+company. The adoption of a smaller unit would be less economical of
+floor space and would tend to produce extreme complication in so large
+an installation, and, in view of the rapid changes in load which in
+urban railway service of this character occur in the morning and again
+late in the afternoon, would be extremely difficult to operate.
+
+The experience of the Manhattan plant has shown, as was anticipated in
+the installation of less output than this, the alternators must be put
+in service at intervals of twenty minutes to meet the load upon the
+station while it is rising to the maximum attained during rush hours.
+
+After careful consideration of the possible use of steam turbines as
+prime-movers to drive the alternators, the company's engineers decided
+in favor of reciprocating engines. This decision was made three years
+ago and, while the steam turbine since that time has made material
+progress, those responsible for the decision are confirmed in their
+opinion that it was wise.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Alternators_]
+
+The alternators closely resemble those installed by the Manhattan
+Railway Company (now the Manhattan division of the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company) in its plant on the East River, between 74th Street
+and 75th Street. They differ, however, in having the stationary
+armature divided into seven castings instead of six, and in respect to
+details of the armature winding. They are three-phase machines,
+delivering twenty-five cycle alternating currents at an effective
+potential of 11,000 volts. They are 42 feet in height, the diameter
+of the revolving part is 32 feet, its weight, 332,000 pounds, and the
+aggregate weight of the machine, 889,000 pounds. The design of the
+engine dynamo unit eliminates the auxiliary fly wheel generally used
+in the construction of large direct-connected units prior to the
+erection of the Manhattan plant, the weight and dimensions of the
+revolving alternator field being such with reference to the turning
+moment of the engine as to secure close uniformity of rotation, while
+at the same time this construction results in narrowing the engine and
+reducing the engine shafts between bearings.
+
+[Illustration: REAR VIEW OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+[Illustration: DUCT LINE ACROSS 58TH STREET 32 DUCTS]
+
+Construction of the revolving parts of the alternators is such as to
+secure very great strength and consequent ability to resist the
+tendency to burst and fly apart in case of temporary abnormal speed
+through accident of any kind. The hub of the revolving field is of
+cast steel, and the rim is carried not by the usual spokes but by two
+wedges of rolled steel. The construction of the revolving field is
+illustrated on pages 91 and 92. The angular velocity of the
+revolving field is remarkably uniform. This result is due primarily to
+the fact that the turning movement of the four-cylinder engine is far
+more uniform than is the case, for example, with an ordinary
+two-cylinder engine. The large fly-wheel capacity of the rotating
+element of the machine also contributes materially to secure
+uniformity of rotation.
+
+[Illustration: MAIN CONTROLLING BOARD IN POWER STATION]
+
+[Illustration: CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT BOARD--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+The alternators have forty field poles and operates at seventy-five
+revolutions per minute. The field magnets constitute the periphery of
+the revolving field, the poles and rim of the field being built up by
+steel plates which are dovetailed to the driving spider. The heavy
+steel end plates are bolted together, the laminations breaking joints
+in the middle of the pole. The field coils are secured by copper
+wedges, which are subjected to shearing strains only. In the body of
+the poles, at intervals of approximately three inches, ventilating
+spaces are provided, these spaces registering with corresponding air
+ducts in the external armature. The field winding consists of copper
+strap on edge, one layer deep, with fibrous material cemented in place
+between turns, the edges of the strap being exposed.
+
+[Illustration: DUCTS UNDER PASSENGER STATION PLATFORM
+64 DUCTS]
+
+The armature is stationary and exterior to the field. It consists of a
+laminated ring with slots on its inner surface and supported by a
+massive external cast-iron frame. The armature, as has been noted,
+comprises seven segments, the topmost segment being in the form of a
+small keystone. This may be removed readily, affording access to any
+field coil, which in this way may be easily removed and replaced. The
+armature winding consists of U-shaped copper bars in partially closed
+slots. There are four bars per slot and three slots per phase per
+pole. The bars in any slot may be removed from the armature without
+removing the frame. The alternators, of course, are separately
+excited, the potential of the exciting current used being 250 volts.
+
+As regards regulation, the manufacturer's guarantee is that at 100 per
+cent. power factor if full rated load be thrown off the e. m. f. will
+rise 6 per cent. with constant speed and constant excitation. The
+guarantee as to efficiency is as follows: On non-inductive load, the
+alternators will have an efficiency of not less than 90.5 per cent. at
+one-quarter load; 94.75 per cent. at one-half load; 96.25 per cent. at
+three-quarters load; 97 per cent. at full load, and 97.25 per cent. at
+one and one-quarter load. These figures refer, of course, to
+electrical efficiency, and do not include windage and bearing
+friction. The machines are designed to operate under their rated full
+load with rise of temperature not exceeding 35 degrees C. after
+twenty-four hours.
+
+[Illustration: THREE-CONDUCTOR NO. 000 CABLE FOR 11,000 VOLT
+DISTRIBUTION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Exciters_]
+
+To supply exciting current for the fields of the alternators and to
+operate motors driving auxiliary apparatus, five 250-kilowatt direct
+current dynamos are provided. These deliver their current at a
+potential of 250 volts. Two of them are driven by 400 horse-power
+engines of the marine type, to which they are direct-connected, while
+the remaining three units are direct-connected to 365 horse-power
+tri-phase induction motors operating at 400 volts. A storage battery
+capable of furnishing 3,000 amperes for one hour is used in
+co-operation with the dynamos provided to excite the alternators. The
+five direct-current dynamos are connected to the organization of
+switching apparatus in such a way that each unit may be connected at
+will either to the exciting circuits or to the circuits through which
+auxiliary motors are supplied.
+
+The alternators for which the new Interborough Power House are
+designed will deliver to the bus bars 100,000 electrical horse power.
+The current delivered by these alternators reverses its direction
+fifty times per second and in connecting dynamos just coming into
+service with those already in operation the allowable difference in
+phase relation at the instant the circuit is completed is, of course,
+but a fraction of the fiftieth of a second. Where the power to be
+controlled is so great, the potential so high, and the speed
+requirements in respect to synchronous operation so exacting, it is
+obvious that the perfection of control attained in some of our modern
+plants is not their least characteristic.
+
+[Sidenote: _Switching
+Apparatus_]
+
+The switch used for the 11,000 volt circuits is so constructed that
+the circuits are made and broken under oil, the switch being
+electrically operated. Two complete and independent sets of bus bars
+are used, and the connections are such that each alternator and each
+feeder may be connected to either of these sets of bus bars at the
+will of the operator. From alternators to bus bars the current passes,
+first, through the alternator switch, and then alternatively through
+one or the other of two selector switches which are connected,
+respectively, to the two sets of bus bars.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE WALL OF TUNNEL SHOWING 64 DUCTS]
+
+Provision is made for an ultimate total of twelve sub-stations, to
+each of which as many as eight feeders may be installed if the
+development of the company's business should require that number. But
+eight sub-stations are required at present, and to some of these not
+more than three feeders each are necessary. The aggregate number of
+feeders installed for the initial operation of the subway system is
+thirty-four.
+
+Each feeder circuit is provided with a type H-oil switch arranged to
+be open and closed at will by the operator, and also to open
+automatically in the case of abnormal flow of current through the
+feeder. The feeders are arranged in groups, each group being supplied
+from a set of auxiliary bus bars, which in turn receives its supply
+from one or the other of the two sets of main bus bars; means for
+selection being provided as in the case of the alternator circuits by
+a pair of selector switches, in this case designated as group
+switches. The diagram on page 93 illustrates the essential
+features of the organization and connections of the 11,000 volt
+circuits in the power house.
+
+[Illustration: MANHOLES IN SIDE WALL OF SUBWAY]
+
+Any and every switch can be opened or closed at will by the operator
+standing at the control board described. The alternator switches are
+provided also with automatic overload and reversed current relays, and
+the feeder switches, as above mentioned, are provided with automatic
+overload relays. These overload relays have a time attachment which
+can be set to open the switch at the expiration of a predetermined
+time ranging from .3 of a second to 5 seconds.
+
+[Illustration: CONVERTER FLOOR PLAN
+SUB-STATION NO. 14]
+
+The type H-oil switch is operated by an electric motor through the
+intervention of a mechanism comprising powerful springs which open and
+close the switch with great speed. This switch when opened introduces
+in each of the three sides of the circuit two breaks which are in
+series with each other. Each side of the circuit is separated from the
+others by its location in an enclosed compartment, the walls of which
+are brick and soapstone. The general construction of the switch is
+illustrated by the photograph on page 94.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11]
+
+[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14]
+
+Like all current-carrying parts of the switches, the bus bars are
+enclosed in separate compartments. These are constructed of brick,
+small doors for inspection and maintenance being provided opposite all
+points where the bus bars are supported upon insulators. The
+photographs on pages 95 and 96 are views of a part of the bus bar
+and switch compartments.
+
+[Illustration: TWO GROUPS OF TRANSFORMERS]
+
+The oil switches and group bus bars are located upon the main floor
+and extend along the 59th Street wall of the engine room a distance of
+about 600 feet. The main bus bars are arranged in two lines of brick
+compartments, which are placed below the engine-room floor. These bus
+bars are arranged vertically and are placed directly beneath the rows
+of oil switches located upon the main floor of the power house. Above
+these rows of oil switches and the group bus bars, galleries are
+constructed which extend the entire length of the power house, and
+upon the first of these galleries at a point opposite the middle of
+the power house are located the control board and instrument board, by
+means of which the operator in charge regulates and directs the entire
+output of the plant, maintaining a supply of power at all times
+adequate to the demands of the transportation service.
+
+[Illustration: MOTOR-GENERATORS AND BATTERY BOARD FOR CONTROL
+CIRCUITS--SUB-STATION]
+
+[Illustration: 1,500 K. W. ROTARY CONVERTER]
+
+[Sidenote: _The Control
+Board_]
+
+The control board is shown in the photograph on page 97. Every
+alternator switch, every selector switch, every group switch, and
+every feeder switch upon the main floor is here represented by a small
+switch. The small switch is connected into a control circuit which
+receives its supply of energy at 110 volts from a small motor
+generator set and storage battery. The motors which actuate the large
+oil switches upon the main floor are driven by this 110 volt control
+current, and thus in the hands of the operator the control switches
+make or break the relatively feeble control currents, which, in turn,
+close or open the switches in the main power circuits. The control
+switches are systematically assembled upon the control bench board in
+conjunction with dummy bus bars and other apparent (but not real)
+metallic connections, the whole constituting at all times a correct
+diagram of the existing connections of the main power circuits. Every
+time the operator changes a connection by opening or closing one of
+the main switches, he necessarily changes his diagram so that it
+represents the new conditions established by opening or closing the
+main switch. In connection with each control switch two small
+bull's-eye lamps are used, one red, to indicate that the corresponding
+main switch is closed, the other green, to indicate that it is open.
+These lamps are lighted when the moving part of the main switch
+reaches approximately the end of its travel. If for any reason,
+therefore, the movement of the control switch should fail to actuate
+the main switch, the indicator lamp will not be lighted.
+
+[Illustration: MOTOR-GENERATOR SET SUPPLYING ALTERNATING CURRENT FOR
+BLOCK SIGNALS AND MOTOR-GENERATOR STARTING SET]
+
+The control board is divided into two parts--one for the connections
+of the alternators to the bus bars and the other for the connection
+of feeders to bus bars. The drawing on page 97 shows in plain view
+the essential features of the control boards.
+
+[Sidenote: _The
+Instrument
+Board_]
+
+A front view of the Instrument Board is shown on page 97. This
+board contains all indicating instruments for alternators and feeders.
+It also carries standardizing instruments and a clock. In the
+illustration the alternator panels are shown at the left and the
+feeder panels at the right. For the alternator panels, instruments of
+the vertical edgewise type are used. Each vertical row comprises the
+measuring instruments for an alternator. Beginning at the top and
+enumerating them in order these instruments are: Three ammeters, one
+for each phase, a volumeter, an indicating wattmeter, a power factor
+indicator and a field ammeter. The round dial instrument shown at the
+bottom of each row of instruments is a three-phase recording
+wattmeter.
+
+A panel located near the center of the board between alternator panels
+and feeder panels carries standard instruments used for convenient
+calibration of the alternator and feeder instruments. Provision is
+made on the back of the board for convenient connection of the
+standard instruments in series with the instruments to be compared.
+The panel which carries the standard instruments also carries ammeters
+used to measure current to auxiliary circuits in the power house.
+
+For the feeder board, instruments of the round dial pattern are used,
+and for each feeder a single instrument is provided, viz., an ammeter.
+Each vertical row comprises the ammeters belonging to the feeders
+which supply a given sub-station, and from left to right these are in
+order sub-stations Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18; blank
+spaces are left for four additional sub-stations. Each horizontal row
+comprises the ammeter belonging to feeders which are supplied through
+a given group switch.
+
+This arrangement in vertical and horizontal lines, indicating
+respectively feeders to given sub-stations and feeders connected to
+the several group switches, is intended to facilitate the work of the
+operator. A glance down a vertical row without stopping to reach the
+scales of the instruments will tell him whether the feeders are
+dividing with approximate equality the load to a given sub-station.
+Feeders to different sub-stations usually carry different loads and,
+generally speaking, a glance along a horizontal row will convey no
+information of especial importance. If, however, for any reason the
+operator should desire to know the approximate aggregate load upon a
+group of feeders this systematic arrangement of the instruments is of
+use.
+
+[Illustration: SWITCHBOARD FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT BLOCK SIGNAL
+CIRCUITS--IN SUB-STATION]
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 18]
+
+[Sidenote: _Alternating
+Current
+Distribution
+to Sub-Stations
+Power House
+Ducts and
+Cables_]
+
+From alternators to alternator switches the 11,000 volt alternating
+currents are conveyed through single conductor cables, insulated by
+oil cambric, the thickness of the wall being 12/32 of an inch. These
+conductors are installed in vitrified clay ducts. From dynamo switches
+to bus bars and from bus bars to group and feeder switches, vulcanized
+rubber insulation containing 30 per cent. pure Para rubber is
+employed. The thickness of insulating wall is 9/32 of an inch and the
+conductors are supported upon porcelain insulators.
+
+[Sidenote: _Conduit
+System for
+Distribution_]
+
+From the power house to the subway at 58th Street and Broadway two
+lines of conduit, each comprising thirty-two ducts, have been
+constructed. These conduits are located on opposite sides of the
+street. The arrangement of ducts is 8 x 4, as shown in the section on
+page 96.
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11]
+
+The location and arrangement of ducts along the line of the subway are
+illustrated in photographs on pages 98 and 99, which show
+respectively a section of ducts on one side of the subway, between
+passenger stations, and a section of ducts and one side of the subway,
+beneath the platform of a passenger station. From City Hall to 96th
+Street (except through the Park Avenue Tunnel) sixty-four ducts are
+provided on each side of the subway. North of 96th Street sixty-four
+ducts are provided for the West-side lines and an equal number for the
+East-side lines. Between passenger stations these ducts help to form
+the side walls of the subway, and are arranged thirty-two ducts high
+and two ducts wide. Beneath the platform of passenger stations the
+arrangement is somewhat varied because of local obstructions, such as
+pipes, sewers, etc., of which it was necessary to take account in the
+construction of the stations. The plan shown on page 98, however,
+is typical.
+
+The necessity of passing the cables from the 32 x 2 arrangement of
+ducts along the side of the tunnel to 8 x 8 and 16 x 4 arrangements of
+ducts beneath the passenger platforms involves serious difficulties in
+the proper support and protection of cables in manholes at the ends of
+the station platforms. In order to minimize the risk of interruption
+of service due to possible damage to a considerable number of cables
+in one of these manholes, resulting from short circuit in a single
+cable, all cables except at the joints are covered with two layers of
+asbestos aggregating a full 1/4-inch in thickness. This asbestos is
+specially prepared and is applied by wrapping the cable with two
+strips each 3 inches in width, the outer strip covering the line of
+junction between adjacent spirals of the inner strip, the whole when
+in place being impregnated with a solution of silicate of soda. The
+joints themselves are covered with two layers of asbestos held in
+place by steel tape applied spirally. To distribute the strains upon
+the cables in manholes, radical supports of various curvatures, and
+made of malleable cast iron, are used. The photograph on page 100
+illustrates the arrangement of cables in one of these manholes.
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING BOARD--SUB-STATION NO. 11]
+
+In order to further diminish the risk of interruption of the service
+due to failure of power supply, each sub-station south of 96th Street
+receives its alternating current from the power house through cables
+carried on opposite sides of the subway. To protect the lead sheaths
+of the cables against damage by electrolysis, rubber insulating pieces
+1/6 of an inch in thickness are placed between the sheaths and the
+iron bracket supports in the manholes.
+
+[Sidenote: _Cable
+Conveying
+Energy from
+Power House to
+Sub-Stations_]
+
+The cables used for conveying energy from the power house to the
+several sub-stations aggregate approximately 150 miles in length. The
+cable used for this purpose comprises three stranded copper conductors
+each of which contains nineteen wires, and the diameter of the
+stranded conductor thus formed is 2/5 of an inch. Paper insulation is
+employed and the triple cable is enclosed in a lead sheath 9/64 of an
+inch thick. Each conductor is separated from its neighbors and from
+the lead sheath by insulation of treated paper 7/16 of an inch in
+thickness. The outside diameter of the cables is 2-5/8 inches, and the
+weight 8-1/2 pounds per lineal foot. In the factories the cable as
+manufactured was cut into lengths corresponding to the distance
+between manholes, and each length subjected to severe tests including
+application to the insulation of an alternating current potential of
+30,000 volts for a period of thirty minutes. These cables were
+installed under the supervision of the Interborough Company's
+engineers, and after jointing, each complete cable from power house to
+sub-station was tested by applying an alternating potential of 30,000
+volts for thirty minutes between each conductor and its neighbors, and
+between each conductor and the lead sheath. The photographs on
+page 98 illustrates the construction of this cable.
+
+[Sidenote: _Sub-Station_]
+
+The tri-phase alternating current generated at the power house is
+conveyed through the high potential cable system to eight sub-stations
+containing the necessary transforming and converting machinery. These
+sub-stations are designed and located as follows:
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAMS OF DIRECT CURRENT FEEDER AND RETURN CIRCUITS]
+
+    Sub-station No. 11--29-33 City Hall Place.
+
+    Sub-station No. 12--108-110 East 19th Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 13--225-227 West 53d Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 14--264-266 West 96th Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 15--606-608 West 143d Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 16--73-77 West 132d Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 17--Hillside Avenue, 301 feet West of
+    Eleventh Avenue.
+
+    Sub-station No. 18--South side of Fox Street (Simpson
+    Street), 60 feet north of Westchester Avenue.
+
+[Illustration: SWITCH CONNECTING FEEDER TO CONTACT RAIL]
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAIL JOINT WITH FISH PLATE]
+
+The converter unit selected to receive the alternating current and
+deliver direct current to the track, etc., has an output of 1,500
+kilowatts with ability to carry 50 per cent. overload for three hours.
+The average area of a city lot is 25 x 100 feet, and a sub-station
+site comprising two adjacent lots of this approximate size permits the
+installation of a maximum of eight 1,500 kilowatts converters with
+necessary transformers, switchboard and other auxiliary apparatus. In
+designing the sub-stations, a type of building with a central air-well
+was selected. The typical organization of apparatus is illustrated in
+the ground plan and vertical section on pages 101, 102 and 103 and
+provides, as shown, for two lines of converters, the three
+transformers which supply each converter being located between it and
+the adjacent side wall. The switchboard is located at the rear of the
+station. The central shaft affords excellent light and ventilation for
+the operating room. The steel work of the sub-stations is designed
+with a view to the addition of two storage battery floors, should it
+be decided at some future time that the addition of such an auxiliary
+is advisable.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAIL BANDS]
+
+The necessary equipment of the sub-stations implies sites
+approximately 50 x 100 feet in dimensions; and sub-stations Nos. 14,
+15, 17, and 18 are practically all this size. Sub-stations Nos. 11 and
+16 are 100 feet in length, but the lots acquired in these instances
+being of unusual width, these sub-stations are approximately 60 feet
+wide. Sub-station No. 12, on account of limited ground space, is but
+48 feet wide and 92 feet long. In each of the sub-stations, except No.
+13, foundations are provided for eight converters; sub-station No. 13
+contains foundations for the ultimate installation of ten converters.
+
+[Illustration: DIRECT CURRENT FEEDERS FROM MANHOLE TO CONTACT RAIL]
+
+The function of the electrical apparatus in sub-stations, as has been
+stated, is the conversion of the high potential alternating current
+energy delivered from the power house through the tri-phase cables
+into direct current adapted to operate the motors with which the
+rolling stock is equipped. This apparatus comprises transformers,
+converters, and certain minor auxiliaries. The transformers, which are
+arranged in groups of three, receive the tri-phase alternating current
+at a potential approximating 10,500 volts, and deliver equivalent
+energy (less the loss of about 2 per cent. in the transformation) to
+the converters at a potential of about 390 volts. The converters
+receiving this energy from their respective groups of transformers in
+turn deliver it (less a loss approximating 4 per cent. at full load)
+in the form of direct current at a potential of 625 volts to the bus
+bars of the direct current switchboards, from which it is conveyed by
+insulated cables to the contact rails. The photograph on page 102
+is a general view of the interior of one of the sub-stations. The
+exterior of sub-stations Nos. 11 and 18 are shown on page 107.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAILS, SHOWING END INCLINES]
+
+The illustration on page 108 is from a photograph taken on one of
+the switchboard galleries. In the sub-stations, as in the power house,
+the high potential alternating current circuits are opened and closed
+by oil switches, which are electrically operated by motors, these in
+turn being controlled by 110 volt direct current circuits. Diagramatic
+bench boards are used, as at the power house, but in the sub-stations
+they are of course relatively small and free from complication.
+
+The instrument board is supported by iron columns and is carried at a
+sufficient height above the bench board to enable the operator, while
+facing the bench board and the instruments, to look out over the floor
+of the sub-station without turning his head. The switches of the
+direct current circuits are hand-operated and are located upon boards
+at the right and left of the control board.
+
+A novel and important feature introduced (it is believed for the first
+time) in these sub-stations, is the location in separate brick
+compartments of the automatic circuit breakers in the direct current
+feeder circuits. These circuit breaker compartments are shown in the
+photograph on page 93, and are in a line facing the boards which
+carry the direct feeder switches, each circuit breaker being located
+in a compartment directly opposite the panel which carries the switch
+belonging to the corresponding circuit. This plan will effectually
+prevent damage to other parts of the switchboard equipment when
+circuit-breakers open automatically under conditions of short-circuit.
+It also tends to eliminate risk to the operator, and, therefore, to
+increase his confidence and accuracy in manipulating the hand-operated
+switches.
+
+[Illustration: ASSEMBLY OF CONTACT RAIL AND PROTECTION]
+
+The three conductor cables which convey tri-phase currents from the
+power house are carried through tile ducts from the manholes located
+in the street directly in front of each sub-station to the back of the
+station where the end of the cable is connected directly beneath its
+oil switch. The three conductors, now well separated, extend
+vertically to the fixed terminals of the switch. In each sub-station
+but one set of high-potential alternating current bus bars is
+installed and between each incoming cable and these bus bars is
+connected an oil switch. In like manner, between each converter unit
+and the bus bars an oil switch is connected into the high potential
+circuit. The bus bars are so arranged that they may be divided into
+any number of sections not exceeding the number of converter units, by
+means of movable links which, in their normal condition, constitute a
+part of the bus bars.
+
+Each of the oil switches between incoming circuits and bus bars is
+arranged for automatic operation and is equipped with a reversed
+current relay, which, in the case of a short-circuit in its
+alternating current feeder cable opens the switch and so disconnects
+the cable from the sub-station without interference with the operation
+of the other cables or the converting machinery.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAIL INSULATOR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Direct Current
+Distribution
+from
+Sub-Stations_]
+
+The organization of electrical conductors provided to convey direct
+current from the sub-stations to the moving trains can be described
+most conveniently by beginning with the contact, or so-called third
+rail. South of 96th Street the average distance between sub-stations
+approximates 12,000 feet, and north of 96th Street the average
+distance is about 15,000 feet. Each track, of course, is provided with
+a contact rail. There are four tracks and consequently four contact
+rails from City Hall to 96th Street, three from 96th Street to 145th
+Street on the West Side, two from 145th Street to Dyckman Street, and
+three from Dyckman Street to the northern terminal of the West Side
+extension of the system. From 96th Street, the East Side has two
+tracks and two contact rails to Mott Avenue, and from that point to
+the terminal at 182d Street three tracks and three contact rails.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT SHOE AND FUSE]
+
+Contact rails south of Reade Street are supplied from sub-station No.
+11; from Reade Street to 19th Street they are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 11 and 12; from 19th Street they are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 12 and 13; from the point last named to 96th Street
+they are supplied from sub-stations Nos. 13 and 14; from 96th Street
+to 143d Street, on the West Side, they are supplied from sub-stations
+Nos. 14 and 15; from 143d Street to Dyckman Street they are supplied
+from sub-stations Nos. 15 and 17; and from that point to the terminal
+they are supplied from sub-station No. 17. On the East Side branch
+contact rails from 96th Street to 132d Street are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 14 and 16; from 132d to 165th Street they are
+supplied from sub-stations Nos. 16 and 18; and from 165th Street to
+182d Street they are supplied from sub-station No. 18.
+
+Each contact rail is insulated from all contact rails belonging to
+adjacent tracks. This is done in order that in case of derailment or
+other accident necessitating interruption of service on a given track,
+trains may be operated upon the other tracks having their separate and
+independent channels of electrical supply. To make this clear, we may
+consider that section of the subway which lies between Reade Street
+and 19th Street. This section is equipped with four tracks, and the
+contact rail for each track, together with the direct current feeders
+which supply it from sub-stations Nos. 11 and 12, are electrically
+insulated from all other circuits. Of each pair of track rails one is
+used for the automatic block signaling system, and, therefore, is not
+used as a part of the negative or return side of the direct current
+system. The other four track rails, however, are bonded, and together
+with the negative feeders constitute the track return or negative side
+of the direct current system.
+
+The diagram on page 109 illustrates the connections of the contact
+rails, track rails and the positive and negative feeders. All negative
+as well as positive feeders are cables of 2,000,000 c. m. section and
+lead sheathed. In emergency, as, for example, in the case of the
+destruction of a number of the cables in a manhole, they are,
+therefore, interchangeable. The connections are such as to minimize
+"track drop," as will be evident upon examination of the diagram. The
+electrical separation of the several contact rails and the positive
+feeders connected thereto secures a further important advantage in
+permitting the use at sub-stations of direct-current circuit-breakers
+of moderate size and capacity, which can be set to open automatically
+at much lower currents than would be practicable were all contact
+rails electrically connected, thus reducing the limiting current and
+consequently the intensity of the arcs which might occur in the subway
+in case of short-circuit between contact rail and earth.
+
+The contact rail itself is of special soft steel, to secure high
+conductivity. Its composition, as shown by tests, is as follows:
+Carbon, .08 to .15; silicon, .05; phosphorus, .10; manganese, .50 to
+.70; and sulphur, .05. Its resistance is not more than eight times the
+resistance of pure copper of equal cross-section. The section chosen
+weighs 75 pounds per yard. The length used in general is 60 feet, but
+in some cases 40 feet lengths are substituted. The contact rails are
+bounded by four bonds, aggregating 1,200,000 c. m. section. The bonds
+are of flexible copper and their terminals are riveted to the steel by
+hydraulic presses, producing a pressure of 35 tons. The bonds when in
+use are covered by special malleable iron fish-plates which insure
+alignment of rail. Each length of rail is anchored at its middle point
+and a small clearance is allowed between ends of adjacent rails for
+expansion and contraction, which in the subway, owing to the
+relatively small change of temperature, will be reduced to a minimum.
+The photographs on pages 110 and 111 illustrate the method of
+bonding the rail, and show the bonded joint completed by the addition
+of the fish-plates.
+
+The contact rail is carried upon block insulators supported upon
+malleable iron castings. Castings of the same material are used to
+secure the contact rail in position upon the insulators. A photograph
+of the insulator with its castings is shown on page 113.
+
+[Sidenote: _Track
+Bonding_]
+
+The track rails are 33 feet long, of Standard American Society Civil
+Engineers' section, weighing 100 pounds a yard. As has been stated,
+one rail in each track is used for signal purposes and the other is
+utilized as a part of the negative return of the power system.
+Adjacent rails to be used for the latter purpose are bonded with two
+copper bonds having an aggregate section of 400,000 c. m. These bonds
+are firmly riveted into the web of the rail by screw bonding presses.
+They are covered by splice bars, designed to leave sufficient
+clearance for the bond.
+
+The return rails are cross-sectioned at frequent intervals for the
+purpose of equalizing currents which traverse them.
+
+[Sidenote: _Contact Rail
+Guard and
+Collector Shoe_]
+
+The Interborough Company has provided a guard in the form of a plank
+8-1/2 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches thick, which is supported in a
+horizontal position directly above the rail, as shown in the
+illustration on page 113. This guard is carried by the contact
+rail to which it is secured by supports, the construction of which is
+sufficiently shown in the illustration. This type of guard has been in
+successful use upon the Wilkesbarre and Hazleton Railway for nearly
+two years. It practically eliminates the danger from the third rail,
+even should passengers leave the trains and walk through a section of
+the tunnel while the rails are charged.
+
+Its adoption necessitates the use of a collecting shoe differing
+radically from that used upon the Manhattan division and upon the
+elevated railways employing the third rail system in Chicago, Boston,
+Brooklyn, and elsewhere. The shoe is shown in the photograph on
+page 114. The shoe is held in contact with the third rail by
+gravity reinforced by pressure from two spiral springs. The support
+for the shoe includes provision for vertical adjustment to compensate
+for wear of car wheels, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS
+
+
+In determining the electrical equipment of the trains, the company has
+aimed to secure an organization of motors and control apparatus easily
+adequate to operate trains in both local and express service at the
+highest speeds compatible with safety to the traveling public. For
+each of the two classes of service the limiting safe speed is fixed by
+the distance between stations at which the trains stop, by curves, and
+by grades. Except in a few places, for example where the East Side
+branch passes under the Harlem River, the tracks are so nearly level
+that the consideration of grade does not materially affect
+determination of the limiting speed. While the majority of the curves
+are of large radius, the safe limiting speed, particularly for the
+express service, is necessarily considerably less than it would be on
+straight tracks.
+
+The average speed of express trains between City Hall and 145th Street
+on the West Side will approximate 25 miles an hour, including stops.
+The maximum speed of trains will be 45 miles per hour. The average
+speed of local and express trains will exceed the speed made by the
+trains on any elevated railroad.
+
+To attain these speeds without exceeding maximum safe limiting speeds
+between stops, the equipment provided will accelerate trains carrying
+maximum load at a rate of 1.25 miles per hour per second in starting
+from stations on level track. To obtain the same acceleration by
+locomotives, a draw-bar pull of 44,000 pounds would be necessary--a
+pull equivalent to the maximum effect of six steam locomotives such as
+were used recently upon the Manhattan Elevated Railway in New York,
+and equivalent to the pull which can be exerted by two passenger
+locomotives of the latest Pennsylvania Railroad type. Two of these
+latter would weigh about 250 net tons. By the use of the multiple unit
+system of electrical control, equivalent results in respect to rate of
+acceleration and speed are attained, the total addition to train
+weight aggregating but 55 net tons.
+
+If the locomotive principle of train operation were adopted,
+therefore, it is obvious that it would be necessary to employ a lower
+rate of acceleration for express trains. This could be attained
+without very material sacrifice of average speed, since the average
+distance between express stations is nearly two miles. In the case of
+local trains, however, which average nearly three stops per mile, no
+considerable reduction in the acceleration is possible without a
+material reduction in average speed. The weight of a local train
+exceeds the weight of five trail cars, similarly loaded, by 33 net
+tons, and equivalent adhesion and acceleration would require
+locomotives having not less than 80 net tons effective upon drivers.
+
+[Sidenote: _Switching_]
+
+The multiple unit system adopted possesses material advantages over a
+locomotive system in respect to switching at terminals. Some of the
+express trains in rush hours will comprise eight cars, but at certain
+times during the day and night when the number of people requiring
+transportation is less than during the morning and evening, and were
+locomotives used an enormous amount of switching, coupling and
+uncoupling would be involved by the comparative frequent changes of
+train lengths. In an eight-car multiple-unit express train, the first,
+third, fifth, sixth, and eighth cars will be motor cars, while the
+second, fourth, and seventh will be trail cars. An eight-car train can
+be reduced, therefore, to a six-car train by uncoupling two cars from
+either end, to a five-car train by uncoupling three cars from the rear
+end, or to a three-car train by uncoupling five cars from either end.
+In each case a motor car will remain at each end of the reduced train.
+In like manner, a five-car local train may be reduced to three cars,
+still leaving a motor car at each end by uncoupling two cars from
+either end, since in the normal five-car local train the first, third,
+and fifth cars will be motor cars.
+
+[Illustration: 200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Motors_]
+
+The motors are of the direct current series type and are rated 200
+horse power each. They have been especially designed for the subway
+service in line with specifications prepared by engineers of the
+Interborough Company, and will operate at an average effective
+potential of 570 volts. They are supplied by two manufacturers and
+differ in respect to important features of design and construction,
+but both are believed to be thoroughly adequate for the intended
+service.
+
+[Illustration: 200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR]
+
+The photographs on this page illustrate motors of each make. The
+weight of one make complete, with gear and gear case, is 5,900 pounds.
+The corresponding weight of the other is 5,750 pounds. The ratio of
+gear reduction used with one motor is 19 to 63, and with the other
+motor 20 to 63.
+
+[Illustration: 200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Motor
+Control_]
+
+By the system of motor control adopted for the trains, the power
+delivered to the various motors throughout the train is simultaneously
+controlled and regulated by the motorman at the head of the train.
+This is accomplished by means of a system of electric circuits
+comprising essentially a small drum controller and an organization of
+actuating circuits conveying small currents which energize electric
+magnets placed beneath the cars, and so open and close the main power
+circuits which supply energy to the motors. A controller is mounted
+upon the platform at each end of each motor car, and the entire train
+may be operated from any one of the points, the motorman normally
+taking his post on the front platform of the first car. The switches
+which open and close the power circuits through motors and rheostats
+are called contactors, each comprising a magnetic blow-out switch and
+the electro magnet which controls the movements of the switch. By
+these contactors the usual series-multiple control of direct-current
+motors is effected. The primary or control circuits regulate the
+movement, not only of the contactors but also of the reverser, by
+means of which the direction of the current supplied to motors may be
+reversed at the will of the motorman.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS UNDER COMPOSITE MOTOR CAR]
+
+The photograph on this page shows the complete control wiring and
+motor equipment of a motor car as seen beneath the car. In wiring the
+cars unusual precautions have been adopted to guard against risk of
+fire. As elsewhere described in this publication, the floors of all
+motor cars are protected by sheet steel and a material composed of
+asbestos and silicate of soda, which possesses great heat-resisting
+properties. In addition to this, all of the important power wires
+beneath the car are placed in conduits of fireproof material, of which
+asbestos is the principal constituent. Furthermore, the vulcanized
+rubber insulation of the wires themselves is covered with a special
+braid of asbestos, and in order to diminish the amount of combustible
+insulating material, the highest grade of vulcanized rubber has been
+used, and the thickness of the insulation correspondingly reduced. It
+is confidently believed that the woodwork of the car body proper
+cannot be seriously endangered by an accident to the electric
+apparatus beneath the car. Insulation is necessarily combustible, and
+in burning evolves much smoke; occasional accidents to the apparatus,
+notwithstanding every possible precaution, will sometimes happen; and
+in the subway the flash even of an absolutely insignificant fuse may
+be clearly visible and cause alarm. The public traveling in the subway
+should remember that even very severe short-circuits and extremely
+bright flashes beneath the car involve absolutely no danger to
+passengers who remain inside the car.
+
+The photograph on page 120 illustrates the control wiring of the
+new steel motorcars. The method of assembling the apparatus differs
+materially from that adopted in wiring the outfit of cars first
+ordered, and, as the result of greater compactness which has been
+attained, the aggregate length of the wiring has been reduced
+one-third.
+
+The quality and thickness of the insulation is the same as in the case
+of the earlier cars, but the use of asbestos conduits is abandoned
+and iron pipe substituted. In every respect it is believed that the
+design and workmanship employed in mounting and wiring the motors and
+control equipments under these steel cars is unequaled elsewhere in
+similar work up to the present time.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS UNDER STEEL MOTOR CAR]
+
+The motors and car wiring are protected by a carefully planned system
+of fuses, the function of which is to melt and open the circuits, so
+cutting off power in case of failure of insulation.
+
+Express trains and local trains alike are provided with a bus line,
+which interconnects the electrical supply to all cars and prevents
+interruption of the delivery of current to motors in case the
+collector shoes attached to any given car should momentarily fail to
+make contact with the third rail. At certain cross-overs this operates
+to prevent extinguishing the lamps in successive cars as the train
+passes from one track to another. The controller is so constructed
+that when the train is in motion the motorman is compelled to keep his
+hand upon it, otherwise the power is automatically cut off and the
+brakes are applied. This important safety device, which, in case a
+motorman be suddenly incapacitated at his post, will promptly stop the
+train, is a recent invention and is first introduced in practical
+service upon trains of the Interborough Company.
+
+[Sidenote: _Heating
+and
+Lighting_]
+
+All cars are heated and lighted by electricity. The heaters are placed
+beneath the seats, and special precautions have been taken to insure
+uniform distribution of the heat. The wiring for heaters and lights
+has been practically safe-guarded to avoid, so far as possible, all
+risk of short-circuit or fire, the wire used for the heater circuits
+being carried upon porcelain insulators from all woodwork by large
+clearances, while the wiring for lights is carried in metallic
+conduit. All lamp sockets are specially designed to prevent
+possibility of fire and are separated from the woodwork of the car by
+air spaces and by asbestos.
+
+[Illustration: (FIRE ALARM)]
+
+The interior of each car is lighted by twenty-six 10-candle power
+lamps, in addition to four lamps provided for platforms and markers.
+The lamps for lighting the interior are carefully located, with a view
+to securing uniform and effective illumination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER STATIONS AND TUNNEL
+
+
+In the initial preparation of plans, and more than a year before the
+accident which occurred in the subway system of Paris in August, 1903,
+the engineers of the Interborough Company realized the importance of
+maintaining lights in the subway independent of any temporary
+interruption of the power used for lighting the cars, and, in
+preparing their plans, they provided for lighting the subway
+throughout its length from a source independent of the main power
+supply. For this purpose three 1,250-kilowatt alternators
+direct-driven by steam turbines are installed in the power house, from
+which point a system of primary cables, transformers and secondary
+conductors convey current to the incandescent lamps used solely to
+light the subway. The alternators are of the three-phase type, making
+1,200 revolutions per minute and delivering current at a frequency of
+60 cycles per second at a potential of 11,000 volts. In the boiler
+plant and system of steam piping installed in connection with these
+turbine-driven units, provision is made for separation of the steam
+supply from the general supply for the 5,000 kilowatt units and for
+furnishing the steam for the turbine units through either of two
+alternative lines of pipe.
+
+The 11,000-volt primary current is conveyed through paper insulated
+lead-sheathed cables to transformers, located in fireproof
+compartments adjacent to the platforms of the passenger stations.
+These transformers deliver current to two separate systems of
+secondary wiring, one of which is supplied at a potential of 120 volts
+and the other at 600 volts.
+
+The general lighting of the passenger station platforms is effected by
+incandescent lamps supplied from the 120-volt secondary wiring
+circuits, while the lighting of the subway sections between adjacent
+stations is accomplished by incandescent lamps connected in series
+groups of five each and connected to the 600-volt lighting circuits.
+Recognizing the fact that in view of the precautions taken it is
+probable that interruptions of the alternating current lighting
+service will be infrequent, the possibility of such interruption is
+nevertheless provided for by installing upon the stairways leading to
+passenger station platforms, at the ticket booths and over the tracks
+in front of the platforms, a number of lamps which are connected to
+the contact rail circuit. This will provide light sufficient to enable
+passengers to see stairways and the edges of the station platforms in
+case of temporary failure of the general lighting system.
+
+The general illumination of the passenger stations is effected by
+means of 32 c. p. incandescent lamps, placed in recessed domes in the
+ceiling. These are reinforced by 14 c. p. and 32 c. p. lamps, carried
+by brackets of ornate design where the construction of the station
+does not conveniently permit the use of ceiling lights. The lamps are
+enclosed in sand-blasted glass globes, and excellent distribution is
+secured by the use of reflectors.
+
+The illustration on page 122 is produced from a photograph of the
+interior of one of the transformer cupboards and shows the transformer
+in place with the end bell of the high potential cable and the primary
+switchboard containing switches and enclosed fuses. The illustration
+on page 123 shows one of the secondary distributing switchboards
+which are located immediately behind the ticket booths, where they are
+under the control of the ticket seller.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSFORMER COMPARTMENT IN PASSENGER STATION]
+
+In lighting the subway between passenger stations, it is desirable, on
+the one hand, to provide sufficient light for track inspection and to
+permit employees passing along the subway to see their way clearly and
+avoid obstructions; but, on the other hand, the lighting must not be
+so brilliant as to interfere with easy sight and recognition of the
+red, yellow, and green signal lamps of the block signal system. It is
+necessary also that the lights for general illumination be so placed
+that their rays shall not fall directly upon the eyes of approaching
+motormen at the head of trains nor annoy passengers who may be reading
+their papers inside the cars. The conditions imposed by these
+considerations are met in the four-track sections of the subway by
+placing a row of incandescent lamps between the north-bound local and
+express tracks and a similar row between the southbound local and
+express tracks. The lamps are carried upon brackets supported upon the
+iron columns of the subway structure, successive lamps in each row
+being 60 feet apart. They are located a few inches above the tops of
+the car windows and with reference to the direction of approaching
+trains the lamps in each row are carried upon the far side of the iron
+columns, by which expedient the eyes of the approaching motormen are
+sufficiently protected against their direct rays.
+
+[Sidenote: _Lighting of
+the Power
+House_]
+
+For the general illumination of the engine room, clusters of Nernst
+lamps are supported from the roof trusses and a row of single lamps
+of the same type is carried on the lower gallery about 25 feet from
+the floor. This is the first power house in America to be illuminated
+by these lamps. The quality of the light is unsurpassed and the
+general effect of the illumination most satisfactory and agreeable to
+the eye. In addition to the Nernst lamps, 16 c. p. incandescent lamps
+are placed upon the engines and along the galleries in places not
+conveniently reached by the general illumination. The basement also is
+lighted by incandescent lamps.
+
+[Illustration: SECONDARY DISTRIBUTING SWITCHBOARD AT PASSENGER
+STATION]
+
+For the boiler room, a row of Nernst lamps in front of the batteries
+of boilers is provided, and, in addition to these, incandescent lamps
+are used in the passageways around the boilers, at gauges and at water
+columns. The basement of the boiler room, the pump room, the
+economizer floor, coal bunkers, and coal conveyers are lighted by
+incandescent lamps, while arc lamps are used around the coal tower and
+dock. The lights on the engines and those at gauge glasses and water
+columns and at the pumps are supplied by direct current from the
+250-volt circuits. All other incandescent lamps and the Nernst lamps
+are supplied through transformers from the 60-cycle lighting system.
+
+[Sidenote: _Emergency
+Signal System
+and Provision
+for Cutting Off
+Power from
+Contact Rail_]
+
+In the booth of each ticket seller and at every manhole along the west
+side of the subway and its branches is placed a glass-covered box of
+the kind generally used in large American cities for fire alarm
+purposes. In case of accident in the subway which may render it
+desirable to cut off power from the contact rails, this result can be
+accomplished by breaking the glass front of the emergency box and
+pulling the hook provided. Special emergency circuits are so arranged
+that pulling the hook will instantly open all the circuit-breakers at
+adjacent sub-stations through which the contact rails in the section
+affected receive their supply of power. It will also instantly report
+the location of the trouble, annunciator gongs being located in the
+sub-stations from which power is supplied to the section, in the train
+dispatchers' offices and in the office of the General Superintendent,
+instantly intimating the number of the box which has been pulled.
+Automatic recording devices in train dispatchers' offices and in the
+office of the General Superintendent also note the number of the box
+pulled.
+
+The photograph on page 120 shows a typical fire alarm box.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+ROLLING STOCK--CARS, TRUCKS, ETC.
+
+
+The determination of the builders of the road to improve upon the best
+devices known in electrical railroading and to provide an equipment
+unequaled on any interurban line is nowhere better illustrated than in
+the careful study given to the types of cars and trucks used on other
+lines before a selection was made of those to be employed on the
+subway.
+
+All of the existing rapid transit railways in this country, and many
+of those abroad, were visited and the different patterns of cars in
+use were considered in this investigation, which included a study of
+the relative advantages of long and short cars, single and multiple
+side entrance cars and end entrance cars, and all of the other
+varieties which have been adopted for rapid transit service abroad and
+at home.
+
+The service requirement of the New York subway introduces a number of
+unprecedented conditions, and required a complete redesign of all the
+existing models. The general considerations to be met included the
+following:
+
+High schedule speeds with frequent stops.
+
+Maximum carrying capacity for the subway, especially at times of rush
+hours, morning and evening.
+
+Maximum strength combined with smallest permissible weight.
+
+Adoption of all precautions calculated to reduce possibility of damage
+from either the electric circuit or from collisions.
+
+The clearance and length of the local station platforms limited the
+length of trains, and tunnel clearances the length and width and
+height of the cars.
+
+The speeds called for by the contract with the city introduced motive
+power requirements which were unprecedented in any existing railway
+service, either steam or electric, and demanded a minimum weight
+consistent with safety. As an example, it may be stated that an
+express train of eight cars in the subway to conform to the schedule
+speed adopted will require a nominal power of motors on the train of
+2,000 horse power, with an average accelerating current at 600 volts
+in starting from a station stop of 325 amperes. This rate of energy
+absorption which corresponds to 2,500 horse power is not far from
+double that taken by the heaviest trains on trunk line railroads when
+starting from stations at the maximum rate of acceleration possible
+with the most powerful modern steam locomotives.
+
+Such exacting schedule conditions as those mentioned necessitated the
+design of cars, trucks, etc., of equivalent strength to that found in
+steam railroad car and locomotive construction, so that while it was
+essential to keep down the weight of the train and individual cars to
+a minimum, owing to the frequent stops, it was equally as essential to
+provide the strongest and most substantial type of car construction
+throughout.
+
+Owing to these two essentials which were embodied in their
+construction it can safely be asserted that the cars used in the
+subway represent the acme of car building art as it exists to-day, and
+that all available appliances for securing strength and durability in
+the cars and immunity from accidents have been introduced.
+
+After having ascertained the general type of cars which would be best
+adapted to the subway service, and before placing the order for car
+equipments, it was decided to build sample cars embodying the approved
+principles of design. From these the management believed that the
+details of construction could be more perfectly determined than in any
+other way. Consequently, in the early part of 1902, two sample cars
+were built and equipped with a variety of appliances and furnishings
+so that the final type could be intelligently selected. From the tests
+conducted on these cars the adopted type of car which is described in
+detail below was evolved.
+
+After the design had been worked out a great deal of difficulty was
+encountered in securing satisfactory contracts for proper deliveries,
+on account of the congested condition of the car building works in the
+country. Contracts were finally closed, however, in December, 1902,
+for 500 cars, and orders were distributed between four car-building
+firms. Of these cars, some 200, as fast as delivered, were placed in
+operation on the Second Avenue line of the Elevated Railway, in order
+that they might be thoroughly tested during the winter of 1903-4.
+
+[Illustration: END VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR]
+
+In view of the peculiar traffic conditions existing in New York City
+and the restricted siding and yard room available in the subway, it
+was decided that one standard type of car for all classes of service
+would introduce the most flexible operating conditions, and for this
+reason would best suit the public demands at different seasons of the
+year and hours of the day. In order further to provide cars, each of
+which would be as safe as the others, it was essential that there
+should be no difference in constructional strength between the motor
+cars and the trail cars. All cars were therefore made of one type and
+can be used interchangeably for either motor or trail-car service.
+
+The motor cars carry both motors on the same truck; that is, they have
+a motor truck at one end carrying two motors, one geared to each
+axle; the truck at the other end of the car is a "trailer" and carries
+no motive power.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR]
+
+Some leading distinctive features of the cars may be enumerated as
+follows:
+
+    (1.) The length is 51 feet and provides seating capacity for
+    52 passengers. This length is about 4 feet more than those of
+    the existing Manhattan Elevated Railroad cars.
+
+    (2.) The enclosed vestibule platforms with sliding doors
+    instead of the usual gates. The enclosed platforms will
+    contribute greatly to the comfort and safety of passengers
+    under subway conditions.
+
+    (3.) The anti-telescoping car bulkheads and platform posts.
+    This construction is similar to that in use on Pullman cars,
+    and has been demonstrated in steam railroad service to be an
+    important safety appliance.
+
+    (4.) The steel underframing of the car, which provides a
+    rigid and durable bed structure for transmitting the heavy
+    motive power stresses.
+
+    (5.) The numerous protective devices against defects in the
+    electrical apparatus.
+
+    (6.) Window arrangement, permitting circulation without
+    draughts.
+
+    (7.) Emergency brake valve on truck operated by track trip.
+
+    (8.) Emergency brake valve in connection with
+    master-controller.
+
+The table on page 133 shows the main dimensions of the car, and
+also the corresponding dimensions of the standard car in use on the
+Manhattan Elevated Railway.
+
+The general arrangement of the floor framing is well shown in the
+photograph on page 132. The side sills are of 6-inch channels,
+which are reinforced inside and out by white oak timbers. The center
+sills are 5-inch I-beams, faced on both sides with Southern pine. The
+end sills are also of steel shapes, securely attached to the side
+sills by steel castings and forgings. The car body end-sill channel is
+faced with a white-oak filler, mortised to receive the car body
+end-posts and braced at each end by gusset plates. The body bolster is
+made up of two rolled steel plates bolted together at their ends and
+supported by a steel draw casting, the ends of which form a support
+for the center sills. The cross-bridging and needle-beams of 5-inch
+I-beams are unusually substantial. The flooring inside the car is
+double and of maple, with asbestos fire-felt between the layers, and
+is protected below by steel plates and "transite" (asbestos board).
+
+The side framing of the car is of white ash, doubly braced and heavily
+trussed. There are seven composite wrought-iron carlines forged in
+shape for the roof, each sandwiched between two white ash carlines,
+and with white ash intermediate carlines. The platform posts are of
+compound construction with anti-telescoping posts of steel bar
+sandwiched between white ash posts at corners and centers of
+vestibuled platforms. These posts are securely bolted to the steel
+longitudinal sills, the steel anti-telescoping plate below the floor,
+and to the hood of the bow which serves to reinforce it. This bow is a
+heavy steel angle in one piece, reaching from plate to plate and
+extending back into the car 6 feet on each side. By this construction
+it is believed that the car framing is practically indestructible. In
+case of accident, if one platform should ride over another, eight
+square inches of metal would have to be sheared off the posts before
+the main body of the car would be reached, which would afford an
+effective means of protection.
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR VIEW--STEEL CAR FRAMING]
+
+The floor is completely covered on the underside with 1/4-inch
+asbestos transite board, while all parts of the car framing, flooring,
+and sheathing are covered with fire-proofing compound. In addition,
+all spaces above the motor truck in the floor framing, between sills
+and bridging, are protected by plates of No. 8 steel and 1/4-inch roll
+fire-felt extending from the platform end sill to the bolster.
+
+[Sidenote: _Car Wiring_]
+
+The precautions to secure safety from fire consists generally in the
+perfected arrangement and installation of the electrical apparatus and
+the wiring. For the lighting circuits a flexible steel conduit is
+used, and a special junction box. On the side and upper roofs, over
+these conduits for the lighting circuits, a strip of sheet iron is
+securely nailed to the roof boards before the canvas is applied. The
+wires under the floor are carried in ducts moulded into suitable forms
+of asbestos compound. Special precautions have been taken with the
+insulation of the wires, the specifications calling for, first, a
+layer of paper, next, a layer of rubber, and then a layer of cotton
+saturated with a weather-proof compound, and outside of this a layer
+of asbestos. The hangers supporting the rheostats under the car body
+are insulated with wooden blocks, treated by a special process, being
+dried out in an oven and then soaked in an insulating compound, and
+covered with 1/4-inch "transite" board. The rheostat boxes themselves
+are also insulated from the angle iron supporting them. Where the
+wires pass through the flooring they are hermetically sealed to
+prevent the admission of dust and dirt.
+
+At the forward end of what is known as the No. 1 end of the car all
+the wires are carried to a slate switchboard in the motorman's cab.
+This board is 44 x 27 inches, and is mounted directly back of the
+motorman. The window space occupied by this board is ceiled up and the
+space back of the panels is boxed in and provided with a door of steel
+plate, forming a box, the cover, top, bottom, and sides of which are
+lined with electrobestos 1/2-inch thick. All of the switches and
+fuses, except the main trolley fuse and bus-line fuse, which are
+encased and placed under the car, are carried on this switchboard.
+Where the wires are carried through the floor or any partition, a
+steel chute, lined with electrobestos, is used to protect the wires
+against mechanical injury. It will be noted from the above that no
+power wiring, switches, or fuses are placed in the car itself, all
+such devices being outside in a special steel insulated compartment.
+
+A novel feature in the construction of these cars is the motorman's
+compartment and vestibule, which differs essentially from that used
+heretofore, and the patents are owned by the Interborough Company. The
+cab is located on the platform, so that no space within the car is
+required; at the same time the entire platform space is available for
+ingress and egress except that on the front platform of the first car,
+on which the passengers would not be allowed in any case. The side of
+the cab is formed by a door which can be placed in three positions.
+When in its mid-position it encloses a part of the platform, so as to
+furnish a cab for the motorman, but when swung parallel to the end
+sills it encloses the end of the platform, and this would be its
+position on the rear platform of the rear car. The third position is
+when it is swung around to an arc of 180 degrees, when it can be
+locked in position against the corner vestibule post enclosing the
+master controller. This would be its position on all platforms except
+on the front of the front car or the rear of the rear car of the
+train.
+
+The platforms themselves are not equipped with side gates, but with
+doors arranged to slide into pockets in the side framing, thereby
+giving up the entire platform to the passengers. These doors are
+closed by an overhead lever system. The sliding door on the front
+platform of the first car may be partly opened and secured in this
+position by a bar, and thus serve as an arm-rest for the motorman. The
+doors close against an air-cushion stop, making it impossible to
+clutch the clothing or limbs of passengers in closing.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW--SKELETON FRAMING OF STEEL CAR]
+
+Pantagraph safety gates for coupling between cars are provided. They
+are constructed so as to adjust themselves to suit the various
+positions of adjoining cars while passing in, around, and out of
+curves of 90 feet radius.
+
+On the door leading from the vestibule to the body of the car is a
+curtain that can be automatically raised and lowered as the door is
+opened or closed to shut the light away from the motorman. Another
+attachment is the peculiar handle on the sliding door. This door is
+made to latch so that it cannot slide open with the swaying of the
+car, but the handle is so constructed that when pressure is applied
+upon it to open the door, the same movement will unlatch it.
+
+Entering the car, the observer is at once impressed by the amount of
+room available for passengers. The seating arrangements are similar to
+the elevated cars, but the subway coaches are longer and wider than
+the Manhattan, and there are two additional seats on each end. The
+seats are all finished in rattan. Stationary crosswise seats are
+provided after the Manhattan pattern, at the center of the car. The
+longitudinal seats are 17-3/4 inches deep. The space between the
+longitudinal seats is 4 feet 5 inches.
+
+The windows have two sashes, the lower one being stationary, while the
+upper one is a drop sash. This arrangement reverses the ordinary
+practice, and is desirable in subway operation and to insure safety
+and comfort to the passengers. The side windows in the body of the
+car, also the end windows and end doors, are provided with roll shades
+with pinch-handle fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR]
+
+The floors are covered with hard maple strips, securely fastened to
+the floor with ovalhead brass screws, thus providing a clean, dry
+floor for all conditions of weather.
+
+Six single incandescent lamps are placed on the upper deck ceiling,
+and a row of ten on each side deck ceiling is provided. There are two
+lamps placed in a white porcelain dome over each platform, and the
+pressure gauge is also provided with a miniature lamp.
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR VIEW--PROTECTED WOODEN CAR, SHOWING COPPER
+SIDES]
+
+The head linings are of composite board. The interior finish is of
+mahogany of light color. A mahogany handrail extends the full length
+of the clerestory on each side of the car, supported in brass sockets
+at the ends and by heavy brass brackets on each side. The handrail on
+each side of the car carries thirty-eight leather straps.
+
+Each ventilator sash is secured on the inside to a brass operating
+arm, manipulated by means of rods running along each side of the
+clerestory, and each rod is operated by means of a brass lever, having
+a fulcrum secured to the inside of the clerestory.
+
+All hardware is of bronze, of best quality and heavy pattern,
+including locks, pulls, handles, sash fittings, window guards, railing
+brackets and sockets, bell cord thimbles, chafing strips, hinges, and
+all other trimmings. The upright panels between the windows and the
+corner of the car are of plain mahogany, as are also the single post
+pilasters, all of which are decorated with marquetry inlaid. The end
+finish is of mahogany, forming a casing for the end door.
+
+[Illustration: FRAMING OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Steel Cars_]
+
+At the time of placing the first contract for the rolling stock of the
+subway, the question of using an all-steel car was carefully
+considered by the management. Such a type of car, in many respects,
+presented desirable features for subway work as representing the
+ultimate of absolute incombustibility. Certain practical reasons,
+however, prevented the adoption of an all-steel car in the spring of
+1902 when it became necessary to place the orders mentioned above for
+the first 500 cars. Principal among these reasons was the fact that no
+cars of this kind had ever been constructed, and as the car building
+works of the country were in a very congested condition all of the
+larger companies declined to consider any standard specifications even
+for a short-time delivery, while for cars involving the extensive use
+of metal the question was impossible of immediate solution. Again,
+there were a number of very serious mechanical difficulties to be
+studied and overcome in the construction of such a car, such as
+avoidance of excessive weight, a serious element in a rapid transit
+service, insulation from the extremes of heat and cold, and the
+prevention of undue noise in operation. It was decided, therefore, to
+bend all energies to the production of a wooden car with sufficient
+metal for strength and protection from accident, i. e., a stronger,
+safer, and better constructed car than had heretofore been put in use
+on any electric railway in the world. These properties it is believed
+are embodied in the car which has just been described.
+
+[Illustration: METAL UNDERFRAME OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR]
+
+The plan of an all-metal car, however, was not abandoned, and
+although none was in use in passenger service anywhere, steps were
+immediately taken to design a car of this type and conduct the
+necessary tests to determine whether it would be suitable for railway
+service. None of the car-building companies was willing to undertake
+the work, but the courteous coöperation of the Pennsylvania Railroad
+Company was secured in placing its manufacturing facilities at Altoona
+at the disposal of the Interborough Rapid Transit Railway Company.
+Plans were prepared for an all-metal car, and after about fourteen
+months of work a sample type was completed in December, 1903, which
+was in every way creditable as a first attempt.
+
+The sample car naturally embodied some faults which only experience
+could correct, the principal one being that the car was not only too
+heavy for use on the elevated lines of the company, but attained an
+undesirable weight for subway operation. From this original design,
+however, a second design involving very original features has been
+worked out, and a contract has been given by the Interborough Company
+for 200 all-steel cars, which are now being constructed. While the
+expense of producing this new type of car has obviously been great,
+this consideration has not influenced the management of the company in
+developing an equipment which promised the maximum of operating
+safety.
+
+[Illustration: END VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK]
+
+[Sidenote: _The General
+Arrangements_]
+
+The general dimensions of the all-steel car differ only slightly from
+those of the wooden car. The following table gives the dimensions of
+the two cars, and also that of the Manhattan Railway cars:
+
+                                   Wooden       All-Steel     Manhattan
+                                    Cars.         Cars.         Cars.
+
+Length over body corner posts,   42'  7"        41'   1/2"    39' 10"
+
+Length over buffers,             51'  2"        51' 2"        47'  1"
+
+Length over draw-bars,           51'  5"        51' 5"        47'  4"
+
+Width over side sills,            8'  8-3/8"     8' 6-3/4"     8'  6"
+
+Width over sheathing,             8' 10"         8' 7"         8'  7"
+
+Width over window sills,          8' 11-7/8"     9'   1/2"     8'  9"
+
+Width over battens,               8' 10-3/4"     8' 7-1/4"     8'  7-7/8"
+
+Width over eaves,                 8'  8"         8' 8"         8'  9-1/2"
+
+Height from under side of sill
+ to top of plate,                 7'  3-1/8"     7' 1"         7'  3"
+
+Height of body from under side
+ of center sill to top of roof,   8'  9-7/8"     8' 9-7/8"     9'  5-7/8"
+
+Height of truck from rail to
+ top of truck center plate
+ (car light),                     2'  8"         2' 8"         2'  5-3/4"
+
+Height from top of rail to
+ underside of side sill at
+ truck center (car light),        3'  1-1/8"     3' 2-1/8"     3'  3-1/4"
+
+Height from top of rail to
+ top of roof not to exceed
+ (car light),                    12'    3/4"    12' 0"        12' 10-1/2"
+
+The general frame plan of the all-steel car is clearly shown by the
+photograph on page 128. As will be seen, the floor framing is made
+up of two center longitudinal 6-inch I-beams and two longitudinal 5 x
+3-inch steel side angles, extending in one piece from platform-end
+sill to platform-end sill. The end sills are angles and are secured to
+the side and center sills by cast-steel brackets, and in addition by
+steel anti-telescoping plates, which are placed on the under side of
+the sills and riveted thereto. The flooring is of galvanized,
+corrugated sheet iron, laid across the longitudinal sills and secured
+to longitudinal angles by rivets. This corrugated sheet holds the
+fireproof cement flooring called "monolith." On top of this latter are
+attached longitudinal floor strips for a wearing surface. The platform
+flooring is of steel plate covered with rubber matting cemented to the
+same. The side and end frame is composed of single and compound posts
+made of steel angles or T's and the roof framing of wrought-iron
+carlines and purlines. The sides of the cars are double and composed
+of steel plates on the outside, riveted to the side posts and belt
+rails, and lined with electrobestos. The outside roof is of fireproof
+composite board, covered with canvas. The headlinings are of fireproof
+composite, faced with aluminum sheets. The mouldings throughout are of
+aluminum. The wainscoting is of "transite" board and aluminum, and the
+end finish and window panels are of aluminum, lined with asbestos
+felt. The seat frames are of steel throughout, as are also the cushion
+frames. The sash is double, the lower part being stationary and the
+upper part movable. The doors are of mahogany, and are of the sliding
+type and are operated by the door operating device already described.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK]
+
+[Sidenote: _Trucks_]
+
+Two types of trucks are being built, one for the motor end, the other
+for the trailer end of the car. The following are the principal
+dimensions of the trucks:
+
+                                            Motor Truck.    Trailer Truck.
+
+Gauge of track,.............................   4' 8-1/2"         4' 8-1/2"
+Distance between backs of wheel flanges,....   4' 5-3/8"         4' 5-3/8"
+Height of truck center plate above rail,
+  car body loaded with 15,000 pounds,.......         30"               30"
+Height of truck side bearings above rail,
+  car body loaded,..........................         34"               34"
+Wheel base of truck,........................       6' 8"             5' 6"
+Weight on center plate with car body
+  loaded, about............................. 27,000 lbs.
+Side frames, wrought-iron forged,........... 2-1/2" x 4"       1-1/2" x 3"
+Pedestals, wrought-iron forged,.........................
+Center transom, steel channel,..........................
+Truck bolster,.............................. cast steel.    wood and iron.
+Equalizing bars, wrought iron,..........................
+Center plate, cast steel,...............................
+Spring plank, wrought iron,.................     1" x 3"        white oak.
+Bolster springs, elliptic, length, .........         30"               32"
+Equalizing springs, double coil,
+  outside dimensions,................... 4-7/8" x 7-1/2"       3-5/8" x 6"
+Wheels, cast steel spoke center,
+  steel tired, diameter,....................     33-3/4"               30"
+Tires, tread M. C. B. Standard,......... 2-5/8" x 5-1/4"   2-5/8" x 5-1/4"
+Axles, diameter at center,..................      6-1/2"            4-3/4"
+Axles, diameter at gear seat,...............    7-13/16"
+Axles, diameter at wheel seat,..............      7-3/4"            5-3/4"
+Journals,...................................     5" x 9"       4-1/4" x 8"
+Journal boxes, malleable iron,
+  M. C. B. Standard,....................................
+
+Both the motor and the trailer trucks have been designed with the
+greatest care for severe service, and their details are the outcome of
+years of practical experience.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SIGNAL SYSTEM
+
+
+Early in the development of the plans for the subway system in New
+York City, it was foreseen that the efficiency of operation of a road
+with so heavy a traffic as is being provided for would depend largely
+upon the completeness of the block signaling and interlocking systems
+adopted for spacing and directing trains. On account of the importance
+of this consideration, not only for safety of passengers, but also for
+conducting operation under exacting schedules, it was decided to
+install the most complete and effective signaling system procurable.
+The problem involved the prime consideration of:
+
+     Safety and reliability.
+
+     Greatest capacity of the lines consistent with the above.
+
+     Facility of operation under necessarily restricted yard and
+     track conditions.
+
+In order to obtain the above desiderata it was decided to install a
+complete automatic block signal system for the high-speed routes,
+block protection for all obscure points on the low-speed routes, and
+to operate all switches both for line movements and in yards by power
+from central points. This necessarily involved the interconnection of
+the block and switch movements at many locations and made the adoption
+of the most flexible and compact appliances essential.
+
+Of the various signal systems in use it was found that the one
+promising entirely satisfactory results was the electro-pneumatic
+block and interlocking system, by which power in any quantity could be
+readily conducted in small pipes any distance and utilized in compact
+apparatus in the most restricted spaces. The movements could be made
+with the greatest promptness and certainty and interconnected for the
+most complicated situations for safety. Moreover, all essential
+details of the system had been worked out in years of practical
+operation on important trunk lines of railway, so that its reliability
+and efficiency were beyond question.
+
+The application of such a system to the New York subway involved an
+elaboration of detail not before attempted upon a railway line of
+similar length, and the contract for its installation is believed to
+be the largest single order ever given to a signal manufacturing
+company.
+
+In the application of an automatic block system to an electric railway
+where the rails are used for the return circuit of the propulsion
+current, it is necessary to modify the system as usually applied to a
+steam railway and introduce a track circuit control that will not be
+injuriously influenced by the propulsion current. This had been
+successfully accomplished for moderately heavy electric railway
+traffic in the Boston elevated installation, which was the first
+electric railway to adopt a complete automatic block signal system
+with track circuit control.
+
+The New York subway operation, however, contemplated traffic of
+unprecedented density and consequent magnitude of the electric
+currents employed, and experience with existing track circuit control
+systems led to the conclusion that some modification in apparatus was
+essential to prevent occasional traffic delays.
+
+The proposed operation contemplates a possible maximum of two tracks
+loaded with local trains at one minute intervals, and two tracks with
+eight car express trains at two minute intervals, the latter class of
+trains requiring at times as much as 2,000 horse power for each train
+in motion. It is readily seen, then, that combinations of trains in
+motion may at certain times occur which will throw enormous demands
+for power upon a given section of the road. The electricity conveying
+this power flows back through the track rails to the power station and
+in so doing is subject to a "drop" or loss in the rails which varies
+in amount according to the power demands. This causes disturbances in
+the signal-track circuit in proportion to the amount of "drop," and it
+was believed that under the extreme condition above mentioned the
+ordinary form of track circuit might prove unreliable and cause delay
+to traffic. A solution of the difficulty was suggested, consisting in
+the employment of a current in the signal track circuit which would
+have such characteristic differences from that used to propel the
+trains as would operate selectively upon an apparatus which would in
+turn control the signal. Alternating current supplied this want on
+account of its inductive properties, and was adopted, after a
+demonstration of its practicability under similar conditions
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING LIGHTS,
+INDICATORS AND TRACK STOP]
+
+After a decision was reached as to the system to be employed, the
+arrangement of the block sections was considered from the standpoint
+of maximum safety and maximum traffic capacity, as it was realized
+that the rapidly increasing traffic of Greater New York would almost
+at once tax the capacity of the line to its utmost.
+
+The usual method of installing automatic block signals in the United
+States is to provide home and distant signals with the block sections
+extending from home signal to home signal; that is, the block sections
+end at the home signals and do not overlap each other. This is also
+the arrangement of block sections where the telegraph block or
+controlled manual systems are in use. The English block systems,
+however, all employ overlaps. Without the overlap, a train in passing
+from one block section to the other will clear the home signals for
+the section in the rear, as soon as the rear of the train has passed
+the home signal of the block in which it is moving. It is thus
+possible for a train to stop within the block and within a few feet of
+this home signal. If, then, a following train should for any reason
+overrun this home signal, a collision would result. With the overlap
+system, however, a train may stop at any point in a block section and
+still have the home signal at a safe stopping distance in the rear of
+the train.
+
+Conservative signaling is all in favor of the overlap, on account of
+the safety factor, in case the signal is accidentally overrun. Another
+consideration was the use of automatic train stops. These stops are
+placed at the home signals, and it is thus essential that a stopping
+distance should be afforded in advance of the home signal to provide
+for stopping the train to which the brake had been applied by the
+automatic stop.
+
+Ordinarily, the arrangement of overlap sections increases the length
+of block sections by the length of the overlap, and as the length of
+the section fixed the minimum spacing of trains, it was imperative to
+make the blocks as short as consistent with safety, in order not to
+cut down the carrying capacity of the railway. This led to a study of
+the special problem presented by subway signaling and a development of
+a blocking system upon lines which it is believed are distinctly in
+advance of anything heretofore done in this direction.
+
+[Illustration: REAR VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING TRANSFORMER AND
+INSTRUMENT CASES WITH DOORS OPEN]
+
+Block section lengths are governed by speed and interval between
+trains. Overlap lengths are determined by the distance in which a
+train can be stopped at a maximum speed. Usually the block section
+length is the distance between signals, plus the overlap; but where
+maximum traffic capacity is desired the block section length can be
+reduced to the length of two overlaps, and this was the system adopted
+for the Interborough. The three systems of blocking trains, with and
+without overlaps, is shown diagramatically on page 143, where two
+successive trains are shown at the minimum distances apart for
+"clear" running for an assumed stopping distance of 800 feet. The
+system adopted for the subway is shown in line "C," giving the least
+headway of the three methods.
+
+[Illustration: PNEUMATIC TRACK STOP, SHOWING STOP TRIGGER IN UPRIGHT
+POSITION]
+
+The length of the overlap was given very careful consideration by the
+Interborough Rapid Transit Company, who instituted a series of tests
+of braking power of trains; from these and others made by the
+Pennsylvania Railroad Company, curves were computed so as to determine
+the distance in which trains could be stopped at various rates of
+speed on a level track, with corrections for rising and falling to
+grades up to 2 per cent. Speed curves were then plotted for the trains
+on the entire line, showing at each point the maximum possible speed,
+with the gear ratio of the motors adopted. A joint consideration of
+the speeds, braking efforts, and profile of the road were then used to
+determine at each and every point on the line the minimum allowable
+distance between trains, so that the train in the rear could be
+stopped by the automatic application of the brakes before reaching a
+train which might be standing at a signal in advance; in other words,
+the length of the overlap section was determined by the local
+conditions at each point.
+
+In order to provide for adverse conditions the actual braking
+distances was increased by 50 per cent.; for example, the braking
+distance of a train moving 35 miles an hour is 465 feet, this would be
+increased 50 per cent. and the overlap made not less than 697 feet.
+With this length of overlap the home signals could be located 697 feet
+apart, and the block section length would be double this or 1394 feet.
+The average length of overlaps, as laid out, is about 800 feet, and
+the length of block sections double this, or 1,600 feet.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW UNDER CAR, SHOWING TRIGGER ON TRUCK IN POSITION TO
+ENGAGE WITH TRACK STOP]
+
+The protection provided by this unique arrangement of signals is
+illustrated on page 143. Three positions of train are shown:
+
+    "A." MINIMUM distance between trains: The first train has
+    just passed the home signal, the second train is stopped by
+    the home signal in the rear; if this train had failed to stop
+    at this point, the automatic stop would have applied the air
+    brake and the train would have had the overlap distance in
+    which to stop before it could reach the rear of the train in
+    advance; therefore, under the worst conditions, no train can
+    get closer to the train in advance than the length of the
+    overlap, and this is always a safe stopping distance.
+
+    "B." CAUTION distance between train: The first train in same
+    position as in "A," the second train at the third home signal
+    in the rear; this signal can be passed under caution, and
+    this distance between trains is the caution distance, and is
+    always equal to the length of the block section, or two
+    overlaps.
+
+    "C." CLEAR distance between trains: First train in same
+    position as in "A," second train at the fourth home signal in
+    the rear; at this point both the home and distant signals are
+    clear, and the distance between the trains is now the clear
+    running distance; that is, when the trains are one block
+    section plus an overlap apart they can move under clear
+    signal, and this distance is used in determining the running
+    schedule. It will be noted in "C" that the first train has
+    the following protection: Home signals 1 and 2 in stop
+    position, together with the automatic stop at signal 2 in
+    position to stop a train, distant signal 1, 2, and 3 all at
+    caution, or, in other words, a train that has stopped is
+    always protected by two home signals in its rear, and by
+    three caution signals, in addition to this an automatic stop
+    placed at a safe stopping distance in the rear of the train.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC INTERLOCKING MACHINE ON STATION
+PLATFORM]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL INTERLOCKING SIGNAL CABIN SOUTH OF BROOKLYN
+BRIDGE STATION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Description
+of Block
+Signaling
+System_]
+
+The block signaling system as installed consists of automatic
+overlapping system above described applied to the two express tracks
+between City Hall and 96th Street, a distance of six and one-half
+miles, or thirteen miles of track; and to the third track between 96th
+and 145th Streets on the West Side branch, a distance of two and
+one-half miles. This third track is placed between the two local
+tracks, and will be used for express traffic in both directions,
+trains moving toward the City Hall in the morning and in the opposite
+direction at night; also the two tracks from 145th Street to Dyckman
+Street, a distance of two and one-half miles, or five miles of track.
+The total length of track protected by signals is twenty-four and
+one-half miles.
+
+The small amount of available space in the subway made it necessary to
+design a special form of the signal itself. Clearances would not
+permit of a "position" signal indication, and, further, a position
+signal purely was not suitable for the lighting conditions of the
+subway. A color signal was therefore adopted conforming to the adopted
+rules of the American Railway Association. It consists of an iron case
+fitted with two white lenses, the upper being the home signal and the
+lower the distant. Suitable colored glasses are mounted in slides
+which are operated by pneumatic cylinders placed in the base of the
+case. Home and dwarf signals show a red light for the danger or "stop"
+indication. Distant signals show a yellow light for the "caution"
+indication. All signals show a green light for the "proceed" or clear
+position. Signals in the subway are constantly lighted by two
+electric lights placed back of each white lens, so that the lighting
+will be at all times reliable.
+
+On the elevated structure, semaphore signals of the usual type are
+used. The signal lighting is supplied by a special alternating current
+circuit independent of the power and general lighting circuits.
+
+A train stop or automatic stop of the Kinsman system is used at all
+block signals, and at many interlocking signals. This is a device for
+automatically applying the air brakes to the train if it should pass a
+signal in the stop position. This is an additional safeguard only to
+be brought into action when the danger indication has for any reason
+been disregarded, and insures the maintenance of the minimum distance
+between trains as provided by the overlaps established.
+
+Great care has been given to the design, construction, and
+installation of the signal apparatus, so as to insure reliability of
+operation under the most adverse conditions, and to provide for
+accessibility to all the parts for convenience in maintenance. The
+system for furnishing power to operate and control the signals
+consists of the following:
+
+Two 500-volt alternating current feed mains run the entire length of
+the signal system. These mains are fed by seven direct-current
+motor-driven generators operated in multiple located in the various
+sub-power stations. Any four of these machines are sufficient to
+supply the necessary current for operating the system. Across these
+alternating mains are connected the primary coils of track
+transformers located at each signal, the secondaries of which supply
+current of about 10 volts to the rails of the track sections. Across
+the rails at the opposite end of the section is connected the track
+relay, the moving element of which operates a contact. This contact
+controls a local direct-current circuit operating, by compressed air,
+the signal and automatic train stop.
+
+Direct current is furnished by two mains extending the length of the
+system, which are fed by eight sets of 16-volt storage batteries in
+duplicate. These batteries are located in the subway at the various
+interlocking towers, and are charged by motor generators, one of which
+is placed at each set of batteries. These motor generators are driven
+by direct current from the third rail and deliver direct current of 25
+volts.
+
+The compressed air is supplied by six air compressors, one located at
+each of the following sub-stations: Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, and 17.
+Three of these are reserve compressors. They are motor-driven by
+direct-current motors, taking current from the direct-current buss
+bars at sub-stations at from 400 to 700 volts. The capacity of each
+compressor is 230 cubic feet.
+
+[Illustration: MAIN LINE, PIPING AND WIRING FOR BLOCK AND INTERLOCKING
+SYSTEM, SHOWING JUNCTION BOX ON COLUMN]
+
+The motor-driven air compressors are controlled by a governor which
+responds to a variation of air pressure of five pounds or less. When
+the pressure has reached a predetermined point the machine is stopped
+and the supply of cooling water shut off. When the pressure has fallen
+a given amount, the machine is started light, and when at full speed
+the load is thrown on and the cooling water circulation reëstablished.
+Oiling of cylinders and bearings is automatic, being supplied only
+while the machines are running.
+
+Two novel safety devices having to do especially with the signaling
+may be here described. The first is an emergency train stop. It is
+designed to place in the hands of station attendants, or others, the
+emergency control of signals. The protection afforded is similar in
+principle to the emergency brake handle found in all passenger cars,
+but operates to warn all trains of an extraneous danger condition. It
+has been shown in electric railroading that an accident to apparatus,
+perhaps of slight moment, may cause an unreasoning panic, on account
+of which passengers may wander on adjoining tracks in face of
+approaching trains. To provide as perfectly as practicable for such
+conditions, it has been arranged to loop the control of signals into
+an emergency box set in a conspicuous position in each station
+platform. The pushing of a button on this box, similar to that of the
+fire-alarm signal, will set all signals immediately adjacent to
+stations in the face of trains approaching, so that all traffic may be
+stopped until the danger condition is removed.
+
+The second safety appliance is the "section break" protection. This
+consists of a special emergency signal placed in advance of each
+separate section of the third rail; that is, at points where trains
+move from a section fed by one sub-station to that fed by another.
+Under such conditions the contact shoes of the train temporarily span
+the break in the third rail. In case of a serious overload or ground
+on one section, the train-wiring would momentarily act as a feeder for
+the section, and thus possibly blow the train fuses and cause delay.
+In order, therefore, to prevent trains passing into a dangerously
+overloaded section, an overload relay has been installed at each
+section break to set a "stop" signal in the face of an approaching
+train, which holds the train until the abnormal condition is removed.
+
+[Illustration: THREE METHODS OF BLOCK SIGNALING]
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF OVERLAPPING BLOCK SIGNAL SYSTEM
+ILLUSTRATING POSSIBLE POSITIONS OF TRAINS RUNNING UNDER SAME]
+
+[Sidenote: _Interlocking
+System_]
+
+The to-and-fro movement of a dense traffic on a four-track railway
+requires a large amount of switching, especially when each movement is
+complicated by junctions of two or more lines. Practically every
+problem of trunk line train movement, including two, three, and
+four-track operation, had to be provided for in the switching plants
+of the subway. Further, the problem was complicated by the restricted
+clearances and vision attendant upon tunnel construction. It was
+estimated that the utmost flexibility of operation should be provided
+for, and also that every movement be certain, quick, and safe.
+
+All of the above, which are referred to in the briefest terms only,
+demanded that all switching movements should be made through the
+medium of power-operated interlocking plants. These plants in the
+subway portions of the line are in all cases electro-pneumatic, while
+in the elevated portions of the line mechanical interlocking has been,
+in some cases, provided.
+
+A list of the separate plants installed will be interesting, and is
+given below:
+
+Location.                            Interlocking       Working
+                                       Machines.        Levers.
+MAIN LINE.
+
+City Hall,                                 3               32
+Spring Street,                             2               10
+14th Street,                               2               16
+18th Street,                               1                4
+42d Street,                                2               15
+72d Street                                 2               15
+96th Street                                2               19
+
+WEST SIDE BRANCH.
+
+100th Street,                              1                6
+103d Street,                               1                6
+110th Street,                              2               12
+116th Street,                              2               12
+Manhattan Viaduct,                         1               12
+137th Street,                              2               17
+145th Street,                              2               19
+Dyckman Street,                            1               12
+216th Street,                              1               14
+
+EAST SIDE BRANCH.
+
+135th Street,                              2                6
+Lenox Junction,                            1                7
+145th Street,                              1                9
+Lenox Avenue Yard,                         1               35
+Third and Westchester Avenue Junction,     1               13
+St. Anna Avenue,                           1               24
+Freeman Street,                            1               12
+176th Street,                              2               66
+                                        ----             ----
+     Total,                               37              393
+
+The total number of signals, both block and interlocking, is as follows:
+
+Home signals,                                                354
+Dwarf signals,                                               150
+Distant signals,                                             187
+                                                            ----
+     Total,                                                  691
+     Total number of switches,                               224
+
+It will be noted that in the case of the City Hall Station three
+separate plants are required, all of considerable size, and intended
+for constant use for a multiplicity of movements. It is, perhaps,
+unnecessary to state that all the mechanism of these important
+interlocking plants is of the most substantial character and provided
+with all the necessary safety appliances and means for rapidly setting
+up the various combinations. The interlocking machines are housed in
+steel concrete "towers," so that the operators may be properly
+protected and isolated in the performance of their duties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SUBWAY DRAINAGE
+
+
+The employment of water-proofing to the exterior surfaces of the
+masonry shell of the tunnel, which is applied to the masonry, almost
+without a break along the entire subway construction, has made it
+unnecessary to provide an extensive system of drains, or sump pits, of
+any magnitude, for the collection and removal of water from the
+interior of the tunnel.
+
+On the other hand, however, at each depression or point where water
+could collect from any cause, such as by leakage through a cable
+manhole cover or by the breaking of an adjacent water pipe, or the
+like, a sump pit or drain has been provided for carrying the water
+away from the interior of the tunnel.
+
+For all locations, where such drains, or sump pits, are located above
+the line of the adjacent sewer, the carrying of the water away has
+been easy to accomplish by employing a drain pipe in connection with
+suitable traps and valves.
+
+In other cases, however, where it is necessary to elevate the water,
+the problem has been of a different character. In such cases, where
+possible, at each depression where water is liable to collect, a well,
+or sump pit, has been constructed just outside the shell of the
+tunnel. The bottom of the well has been placed lower than the floor of
+the tunnel, so that the water can flow into the well through a drain
+connecting to the tunnel.
+
+Each well is then provided with a pumping outfit; but in the case of
+these wells and in other locations where it is necessary to maintain
+pumping devices, it has not been possible to employ a uniform design
+of pumping equipment, as the various locations offer different
+conditions, each employing apparatus best suited to the requirements.
+
+In no case, except two, is an electric pump employed, as the
+employment of compressed air was considered more reliable.
+
+The several depressions at which it is necessary to maintain a pumping
+plant are enumerated as follows:
+
+     No. 1--Sump at the lowest point on City Hall Loop.
+
+     No. 2--Sump at intersection of Elm and White Streets.
+
+     No. 3--Sump at 38th Street in the Murray Hill Tunnel.
+
+     No. 4--Sump at intersection of 46th Street and Broadway.
+
+     No. 5--Sump at intersection of 116th Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+     No. 6--Sump at intersection of 142d Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+     No. 7--Sump at intersection of 147th Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+     No. 8--Sump at about 144th Street in Harlem River approach.
+
+     No. 9--Sump at the center of the Harlem River Tunnel.
+
+     No. 10--Sump at intersection of Gerard Avenue and 149th Street.
+
+In addition to the above mentioned sumps, where pumping plants are
+maintained, it is necessary to maintain pumping plants at the
+following points:
+
+     Location No. 1--At the cable tunnel constructed under the
+     Subway at 23d Street and Fourth Avenue.
+
+     Location No. 2--At the sub-subway at 42d Street and Broadway.
+
+     Location No. 3--At the portal of the Lenox Avenue extension
+     at 148th Street.
+
+     Location No. 4--At the southerly end of the Harlem River tube.
+
+     Location No. 5--At the northerly end of the Harlem River tube.
+
+     Location No. 6--At the portal at Bergen Avenue and 149th Street.
+
+In the case of the No. 1 sump a direct-connected electric
+triple-plunger pump is employed, situated in a pump room about 40 feet
+distant from the sump pit. In the case of Nos. 2, 4, and 7 sumps,
+automatic air lifts are employed. This apparatus is placed in those
+sump wells which are not easily accessible, and the air lift was
+selected for the reason that no moving parts are conveyed in the
+air-lift construction other than the movable ball float and valve
+which control the device. The air lift consists of concentric piping
+extending several feet into the ground below the bottom of the well,
+and the water is elevated by the air producing a rising column of
+water of less specific weight than the descending column of water
+which is in the pipe extending below the bottom of the sump well.
+
+In the case of Nos. 3 and 5 sumps, and for Location No. 1, automatic
+air-operated ejectors have been employed, for the reason that the
+conditions did not warrant the employment of air lifts or electric or
+air-operated pumps.
+
+In the case of Nos. 6, 8, 9, and 10 sumps and for Locations Nos. 2, 4,
+and 5, air-operated reciprocating pumps will be employed. These pumps
+will be placed in readily accessible locations, where air lifts could
+not be used, and this type of pump was selected as being the most
+reliable device to employ.
+
+In the case of Location No. 3, where provision has to be made to
+prevent a large amount of yard drainage, during a storm, from entering
+the tunnel where it descends from the portal, it was considered best
+to employ large submerged centrifugal pumps, operated by reciprocating
+air engines. Also for the portal, at Location No. 6, similar
+centrifugal pumps will be employed, but as compressed air is not
+available at this point, these pumps will be operated by electric
+motors.
+
+The air supply to the air-operating pumping devices will be
+independent from the compressed air line which supplies air to the
+switch and signal system, but break-down connections will be made
+between the two systems, so that either system can help the other out
+in case of emergency.
+
+A special air-compressor plant is located at the 148th Street repair
+shop, and another plant within the subway at 41st Street, for
+supplying air to the pumps, within the immediate locality of each
+compressor plant. For the more remote pumps, air will be supplied by
+smaller air compressors located within passenger stations. In one
+case, for the No. 2 sump, air will be taken from the switch and signal
+air-compressor plant located at the No. 11 sub-station.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+REPAIR AND INSPECTION SHED
+
+
+While popularly and not inaccurately known as the "Subway System," the
+lines of the Interborough Company comprise also a large amount of
+trackage in the open air, and hence the rolling stock which has
+already been described is devised with the view to satisfying all the
+peculiar and special conditions thus involved. A necessary corollary
+is the requirement of adequate inspection and repair shops, so that
+all the rolling stock may at all times be in the highest state of
+efficiency; and in this respect the provision made by the company has
+been lavish and liberal to a degree.
+
+The repair and inspection shop of the Interborough Rapid Transit
+Company adjoins the car yards of the company and occupies the entire
+block between Seventh Avenue on the west, Lenox Avenue and the Harlem
+River on the east, 148th Street on the south, and 149th Street on the
+north. The electric subway trains will enter the shops and car yard by
+means of the Lenox Avenue extension, which runs directly north from
+the junction at 142d Street and Lenox Avenue of the East Side main
+line. The branch leaves the main line at 142d Street, gradually
+approaches the surface, and emerges at about 147th Street.
+
+[Sidenote: _General
+Arrangement_]
+
+The inspection shed is at the southern end of the property and
+occupies an area of approximately 336 feet by 240 feet. It is divided
+into three bays, of which the north bay is equipped with four tracks
+running its entire length, and the middle bay with five tracks. The
+south bay contains the machine-tool equipment, and consists of
+eighteen electrically driven machines, locker and wash rooms, heating
+boilers, etc., and has only one track extending through it.
+
+[Sidenote: _Construction_]
+
+The construction of the inspection shops is that which is ordinarily
+known as "reinforced concrete," and no wood is employed in the walls
+or roof. The building is a steel structure made up of four rows of
+center columns, which consist of twenty-one bays of 16 feet each,
+supporting the roof trusses. The foundations for these center columns
+are concrete piers mounted on piles. After the erection of the steel
+skeleton, the sides of the building and the interior walls are
+constructed by the use of 3/4-inch furring channels, located 16 inches
+apart, on which are fastened a series of expanded metal laths. The
+concrete is then applied to these laths in six coats, three on each
+side, and termed respectively the scratch coat, the rough coat, and
+the fining coat. In the later, the concrete is made with white sand,
+to give a finished appearance to the building.
+
+The roof is composed of concrete slabs, reinforced with expanded metal
+laths and finished with cement and mortar. It is then water-proofed
+with vulcanite water-proofing and gravel.
+
+In this connection it might be said that, although this system of
+construction has been employed before, the building under
+consideration is the largest example of this kind of work yet done in
+the neighborhood of New York City. It was adopted instead of
+corrugated iron, as it is much more substantial, and it was considered
+preferable to brick, as the later would have required much more
+extensive foundations.
+
+The doors at each of the bays of the building are of rolling steel
+shutter type, and are composed of rolled-steel strips which interloop
+with each other, so that while the entire door is of steel, it can
+easily be raised and lowered.
+
+[Sidenote: _Capacity and
+Pit Room_]
+
+All of the tracks in the north and middle bays are supplied with pits
+for inspecting purposes, and as each track has a length sufficient to
+hold six cars, the capacity of these two bays is fifty-four cars.
+
+The inspection pits are heated by steam and lighted by electric light,
+for which latter purpose frequent sockets are provided, and are also
+equipped with gas pipes, so that gas torches can be used instead of
+gasoline.
+
+[Sidenote: _Trolley
+Connection_]
+
+As usual in shops of this kind, the third rail is not carried into the
+shops, but the cars will be moved about by means of a special trolley.
+In the middle bay this trolley consists of a four-wheeled light-frame
+carriage, which will run on a conductor located in the pit. The
+carriage has attached to it a flexible wire which can be connected to
+the shoe-hanger of the truck or to the end plug of the car, so that
+the cars can be moved around in the shops by means of their own
+motors. In the north bay, where the pits are very shallow, the
+conductor is carried overhead and consists of an 8-pound T-rail
+supported from the roof girders.
+
+The middle bay is provided with a 50-ton electric crane, which spans
+all of the tracks in this shop and is so arranged that it can serve
+any one of the thirty cars on the five tracks, and can deliver the
+trucks, wheels, motors, and other repair parts at either end of the
+shops, where they can be transferred to the telpherage hoist.
+
+[Sidenote: _The
+Telpherage
+System_]
+
+One of the most interesting features of the shops is the electric
+telpherage system. This system runs the entire length of the north and
+south bays crossing the middle bay or erection shop at each end, so
+that the telpherage hoist can pick up in the main room any wheels,
+trucks, or other apparatus which may be required, and can take them
+either into the north bay for painting, or into the south bay or
+machine shop for machine-tool work. The telpherage system extends
+across the transfer table pit at the west end of the shops and into
+the storehouse and blacksmith shop at the Seventh Avenue end of the
+grounds.
+
+The traveling telpherage hoist has a capacity of 6,000 pounds. The
+girders upon which it runs consist of 12-inch I-beams, which are hung
+from the roof trusses. The car has a weight of one ton and is
+supported by and runs on the I-beam girders by means of four 9-inch
+diameter wheels, one on each side. The hoist is equipped with two
+motors. The driving motor of two horse power is geared by double
+reduction gearing to the driving wheels at one end of the hoist. The
+hoist motor is of eight horse power, and is connected by worm gearing
+and then by triple reduction gearing to the hoist drum. The motors are
+controlled by rheostatic controllers, one for each motor. The hoist
+motor is also fitted with an electric brake by which, when the power
+is cut off, a band brake is applied to the hoisting drum. There is
+also an automatic cut-out, consisting of a lever operated by a nut,
+which travels on the threaded extension of the hoisting drum shaft,
+and by which the current on the motor is cut off and the brake applied
+if the chain hook is wound up too close to the hoist.
+
+[Sidenote: _Heating and
+Lighting_]
+
+The buildings are heated throughout with steam, with vacuum system of
+return. The steam is supplied by two 100 horse power return tubular
+boilers, located at the southeastern corner of the building and
+provided with a 28-inch stack 60 feet high. The heat is distributed at
+15 pounds pressure throughout the three bays by means of coil
+radiators, which are placed vertically against the side walls of the
+shop and storeroom. In addition, heating pipes are carried through the
+pits as already described. The shops are well lighted by large windows
+and skylights, and at night by enclosed arc lights.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF 148TH STREET REPAIR SHOPS]
+
+[Sidenote: _Fire
+Protection_]
+
+The shops and yards are equipped throughout with fire hydrants and
+fire plugs, hose and fire extinguishers. The water supply taps the
+city main at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 148th Street, and pipes
+are carried along the side of the north and south shops, with three
+reel connections on each line. A fire line is also carried through the
+yards, where there are four hydrants, also into the general storeroom.
+
+[Sidenote: _General
+Store Room_]
+
+The general storeroom, oil room, and blacksmith shop occupy a building
+199 feet by 22 feet in the southwestern corner of the property. This
+building is of the same general construction as that of the inspection
+shops. The general storeroom, which is that fronting on 148th Street,
+is below the street grade, so that supplies can be loaded directly
+onto the telpherage hoist at the time of their receipt, and can be
+carried to any part of the works, or transferred to the proper
+compartments in the storeroom. Adjoining the general room is the oil
+and paint storeroom, which is separated from the rest of the building
+by fire walls. This room is fitted with a set of eight tanks, each
+with a capacity of 200 gallons. As the barrels filled with oil and
+other combustible material are brought into this room by the
+telpherage system they are deposited on elevated platforms, from which
+their contents can be tapped directly into the tank.
+
+[Sidenote: _Blacksmith
+Shop_]
+
+The final division of the west shops is that in the northeastern
+corner, which is devoted to a blacksmith shop. This shop contains six
+down-draught forges and one drop-hammer, and is also served by the
+telpherage system.
+
+[Sidenote: _Transfer
+Table_]
+
+Connecting the main shops with the storeroom and blacksmith or west
+shops is a rotary transfer table 46 feet 16-13/16 inches long and with
+a run of 219 feet. The transfer table is driven by a large electric
+motor the current being supplied through a conductor rail and sliding
+contact shoe. The transfer table runs on two tracks and is mounted on
+33-inch standard car wheels.
+
+[Sidenote: _Employees_]
+
+The south side of the shop is fitted with offices for the Master
+Mechanic and his department.
+
+The working force will comprise about 250 in the shops, and their
+lockers, lavatories, etc., are located in the south bay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SUB-CONTRACTORS
+
+
+The scope of this book does not permit an enumeration of all the
+sub-contractors who have done work on the Rapid Transit Railroad. The
+following list, however, includes the sub-contractors for all the more
+important parts of the construction and equipment of the road.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_General Construction, Sub-section Contracts, Track and Track
+Material, Station Finish, and Miscellaneous Contracts_
+
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.
+
+
+_Sub-sections_
+
+For construction purposes the road was divided into sub-sections, and
+sub-contracts were let which included excavation, construction and
+re-construction of sub-surface structures, support of surface railway
+tracks and abutting buildings, erection of steel (underground and
+viaduct), masonry work and tunnel work under the rivers; also the
+plastering and painting of the inside of tunnel walls and restoration
+of street surface.
+
+Bradley, William, Sub-sections 6A and 6B, 60th Street to 104th Street.
+
+Degnon-McLean Contracting Company (Degnon Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 1, 2 and 5A, Post-office to Great Jones Street and 41st
+Street and Park Avenue to 47th Street and Broadway.
+
+Farrell, E. J., Sub-section, Lenox Avenue Extension, 142d Street to
+148th Street.
+
+Farrell & Hopper (Farrell, Hopper & Company), Sub-sections 7 and 8,
+103d Street and Broadway to 135th Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+Holbrook, Cabot & Daly (Holbrook, Cabot & Daly Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 3, Great Jones Street to 33d Street.
+
+McCabe & Brother, L. B. (R. C. Hunt, Superintendent), Sub-sections 13
+and 14, 133d Street to Hillside Avenue.
+
+McMullen & McBean, Sub-section 9A, 135th Street and Lenox Avenue to
+Gerard Avenue and 149th Street.
+
+Naughton & Company (Naughton Company), Sub-section 5B, 47th Street to
+60th Street.
+
+Roberts, E. P., Sub-sections 10, 12, and 15, Foundations (Viaducts),
+Brook Avenue to Bronx Park, 125th Street to 133d Street, and Hillside
+Avenue to Bailey Avenue.
+
+Rodgers, John C., Sub-section 9B, Gerard Avenue to Brook Avenue.
+
+Shaler, Ira A. (Estate of Ira A. Shaler), Sub-section 4, 33d Street to
+41st Street.
+
+Shields, John, Sub-section 11, 104th Street to 125th Street.
+
+Terry & Tench Construction Company (Terry & Tench Company),
+Sub-sections 10, 12, and 15, Steel Erection (Viaducts), Brook Avenue
+to Bronx Park, 125th Street to 133d Street, and Hillside Avenue to
+Bailey Avenue.
+
+
+BROOKLYN EXTENSION.
+
+Cranford & McNamee, Sub-section 3, Clinton Street to Flatbush and
+Atlantic Avenues, Brooklyn.
+
+Degnon-McLean Contracting Company (Degnon Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 1, Park Row to Bridge Street, Manhattan.
+
+Onderdonk, Andrew (New York Tunnel Company), Sub-sections 2 and 2A,
+Bridge Street, Manhattan, to Clinton and Joralemon Streets, Brooklyn.
+
+
+TRACK AND TRACK MATERIAL
+
+American Iron & Steel Manufacturing Company, Track Bolts.
+
+Baxter & Company, G. S., Ties.
+
+Connecticut Trap Rock Quarries, Ballast.
+
+Dilworth, Porter & Company, Spikes.
+
+Holbrook, Cabot & Rollins (Holbrook, Cabot & Rollins Corporation),
+Track Laying, City Hall to Broadway and 42d Street.
+
+Long Clove Trap Rock Company, Ballast.
+
+Malleable Iron Fittings Company, Cup Washers.
+
+Naughton Company, Track Laying, Underground Portion of Road north of
+42d Street and Broadway.
+
+Pennsylvania Steel Company, Running Rails, Angle Bars, Tie Plates and
+Guard Rails.
+
+Ramapo Iron Works, Frogs and Switches, Filler Blocks and Washers.
+
+Sizer & Company, Robert R., Ties.
+
+Terry & Tench Construction Company (Terry & Tench Company), Timber
+Decks for Viaduct Portions, and Laying and Surfacing Track on Viaduct
+Portions.
+
+Weber Railway Joint Manufacturing Company, Weber Rail Joints.
+
+
+STATION FINISH
+
+American Mason Safety Tread Company, Safety Treads.
+
+Atlantic Terra Cotta Company, Terra Cotta.
+
+Boote Company, Alfred, Glazed Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Byrne & Murphy, Plumbing, 86th Street Station.
+
+Dowd & Maslen, Brick Work for City Hall and other Stations and
+Superstructures for 72d Street, 103d Street and Columbia University
+Stations.
+
+Empire City Marble Company, Marble.
+
+Grueby Faience Company, Faience.
+
+Guastavino Company, Guastavino Arch, City Hall Station.
+
+Hecla Iron Works, Kiosks and Eight Stations on Elevated Structure.
+
+Herring-Hall-Marvin Safe Company, Safes.
+
+Holbrook, Cabot & Rollins Corporation, Painting Stations.
+
+Howden Tile Company, Glazed Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Laheny Company, J. E., Painting Kiosks.
+
+Manhattan Glass Tile Company, Glass Tile, and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Parry, John H., Glass Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Pulsifer & Larson Company, Illuminated Station Signs.
+
+Rookwood Pottery Company, Faience
+
+Russell & Irwin Manufacturing Company, Hardware
+
+Simmons Company, John, Railings and Gates.
+
+Tracy Plumbing Company, Plumbing.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Strap Anchors for Kiosks.
+
+Turner Construction Company, Stairways, Platforms, and Platform
+Overhangs.
+
+Vulcanite Paving Company, Granolithic Floors.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+American Vitrified Conduit Company, Ducts.
+
+Blanchite Process Paint Company, Plaster Work and Blanchite Enamel
+Finish on Tunnel Side Walls.
+
+Brown Hoisting Machinery Company, Signal Houses at Four Stations.
+
+Camp Company, H. B., Ducts.
+
+Cunningham & Kearns, Sewer Construction, Mulberry Street, East 10th
+Street, and East 22d Street Sewers.
+
+Fox & Company, John, Cast Iron.
+
+McRoy Clay Works, Ducts.
+
+Norton & Dalton, Sewer Construction, 142d Street Sewer.
+
+Onondaga Vitrified Brick Company, Ducts.
+
+Pilkington, James, Sewer Construction, Canal Street and Bleecker
+Street Sewers.
+
+Simmons Company, John, Iron Railings, Viaduct Sections.
+
+Sicilian Asphalt Paving Company, Waterproofing.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Vault Lights.
+
+United Building Material Company, Cement.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Electrical Department_
+
+L. B. Stillwell, Electrical Director.
+
+
+Electric plant for generation, transmission, conversion, and
+distribution of power, third rail construction, electrical car
+equipment, lighting system, fire and emergency alarm systems:
+
+American Steel & Wire Company, Cable.
+
+Bajohr, Carl, Lightning Rods.
+
+Broderick & Company, Contact Shoes.
+
+Cambria Steel Company, Contact Rail.
+
+Columbia Machine Works & Malleable Iron Company, Contact Shoes.
+
+Consolidated Car Heating Company, Car Heaters.
+
+D. & W. Fuse Company, Fuse Boxes and Fuses.
+
+Electric Storage Battery Company, Storage Battery Plant.
+
+Gamewell Fire Alarm Telegraph Company, Fire and Emergency Alarm
+Systems.
+
+General Electric Company, Motors, Power House and Sub-station
+Switchboards, Control Apparatus, Cable.
+
+General Incandescent Arc Light Company, Passenger Station
+Switchboards.
+
+India Rubber & Gutta Percha Insulating Company, Cables.
+
+Keasby & Mattison Company, Asbestos.
+
+Malleable Iron Fittings Company, Third Rail and other Castings.
+
+Mayer & Englund Company, Rail Bonds.
+
+Mitchell Vance Company, Passenger Station Electric Light Fixtures.
+
+National Conduit & Cable Company, Cables.
+
+National Electric Company, Air Compressors.
+
+Nernst Lamp Company, Power Station Lighting.
+
+Okonite Company, Cables.
+
+Prometheus Electric Company, Passenger Station Heaters.
+
+Roebling's Sons Company, J. A., Cables.
+
+Reconstructed Granite Company, Third Rail Insulators.
+
+Standard Underground Cable Company, Cables.
+
+Tucker Electrical Construction Company, Wiring for Tunnel and
+Passenger Station Lights.
+
+Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, Alternators, Exciters,
+Transformers, Motors, Converters, Blower Outfits.
+
+Westinghouse Machine Company, Turbo Alternators.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Mechanical and Architectural Department_
+
+John Van Vleck, Mechanical and Construction Engineer.
+
+
+Power house and sub-station, steam plant, repair shop, tunnel
+drainage, elevators.
+
+
+POWER HOUSE
+
+Alberger Condenser Company, Condensing Equipment.
+
+Allis-Chalmers Company, Nine 8,000-11,000 H. P. Engines.
+
+Alphons Custodis Chimney Construction Company, Chimneys.
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+Babcock & Wilcox Company, Fifty-two 600 H. P. Boilers and Six
+Superheaters.
+
+Burhorn, Edwin, Castings.
+
+Gibson Iron Works, Thirty-six Hand-fired Grates.
+
+Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Electric Traveling Cranes and Machine Tools.
+
+Milliken Brothers, Ornamental Chimney Caps.
+
+Otis Elevator Company, Freight Elevator.
+
+Peirce, John, Power House Superstructure.
+
+Power Specialty Company, Four Superheaters.
+
+Ryan & Parker, Foundation Work and Condensing Water Tunnels, etc.
+
+Robins Conveying Belt Company, Coal and Ash Handling Apparatus.
+
+Reese, Jr., Company, Thomas, Coal Downtake Apparatus, Oil Tanks, etc.
+
+Riter-Conley Manufacturing Company, Smoke Flue System.
+
+Sturtevant Company, B. F., Blower Sets.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Concrete Hot Wells.
+
+Treadwell & Company, M. H., Furnace Castings, etc.
+
+Walworth Manufacturing Company, Steam, Water, and Drip Piping.
+
+Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Company, Three Turbo Generator Sets and
+Two Exciter Engines.
+
+Westinghouse Machine Company, Stokers.
+
+Wheeler Condenser Company, Feed Water Heaters.
+
+Worthington, Henry R., Boiler Feed Pumps.
+
+
+SUB-STATIONS
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+Carlin & Company, P. J., Foundation and Superstructure, Sub-station
+No. 15 (143d Street).
+
+Cleveland Crane & Car Company, Hand Power Traveling Cranes.
+
+Crow, W. L., Foundation and Superstructure Sub-stations Nos. 17 and 18
+(Fox Street, Hillside Avenue).
+
+Parker Company, John H., Foundation and Superstructure Sub-stations
+Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16 (City Hall Place, E. 19th Street, W. 53d
+Street, W. 96th Street, W. 132d Street).
+
+
+INSPECTION SHED
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+Beggs & Company, James, Heating Boilers.
+
+Elektron Manufacturing Company, Freight Elevator.
+
+Farrell, E. J., Drainage System.
+
+Hiscox & Company, W. T., Steam Heating System.
+
+Leary & Curtis, Transformer House.
+
+Milliken Brothers, Structural Steel and Iron for Storehouse.
+
+Northern Engineering Works, Electric Telpherage System.
+
+O'Rourke, John F., Foundation Work.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Superstructure of Reinforced Concrete.
+
+Tracy Plumbing Company, Plumbing.
+
+Weber, Hugh L., Superstructure of Storehouse, etc.
+
+
+SIGNAL TOWERS
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Reinforced Concrete Walls for Eight Signal Towers.
+
+
+PASSENGER ELEVATORS
+
+Otis Elevator Company, Electric Passenger Elevators for 167th Street,
+181st Street, and Mott Avenue Stations, and Escalator for Manhattan
+Street Station.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Rolling Stock and Signal Department_
+
+George Gibbs, Consulting Engineer.
+
+
+Cars, Automatic Signal System.
+
+American Car & Foundry Company, Steel Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.
+
+Buffalo Forge Company, Blacksmith Shop Equipment.
+
+Burnham, Williams & Company (Baldwin Locomotive Works), Motor Trucks.
+
+Cambria Steel Company, Trailer Truck Axles.
+
+Christensen Engineering Company, Compressors, Governors, and Pump
+Cages on Cars.
+
+Curtain Supply Company, Car Window and Door Curtains.
+
+Dressel Railway Lamp Works, Signal Lamps.
+
+Hale & Kilburn Manufacturing Company, Car Seats and Backs.
+
+Jewett Car Company, Wooden Car Bodies.
+
+Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Machinery and Machine Tools for Inspection
+Shed.
+
+Metal Plated Car & Lumber Company, Copper Sheathing for Cars.
+
+Pitt Car Gate Company, Vestibule Door Operating Device for Cars.
+
+Pneumatic Signal Company, Three Mechanical Interlocking Plants.
+
+Standard Steel Works, Axles and Driving Wheels for Motor and Trailer
+Trucks.
+
+St. Louis Car Company, Wooden Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.
+
+Stephenson Company, John, Wooden Car Bodies.
+
+Taylor Iron & Steel Company, Trailer Truck Wheels.
+
+Union Switch & Signal Company, Block Signal System and Interlocking
+Switch and Signal Plants.
+
+Van Dorn Company, W. T., Car Couplings.
+
+Wason Manufacturing Company, Wooden Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.
+
+Westinghouse Air Brake Company, Air Brakes.
+
+Westinghouse Traction Brake Company, Air Brakes.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW YORK SUBWAY***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 17569-8.txt or 17569-8.zip *******
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diff --git a/17569-8.zip b/17569-8.zip
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The New York Subway, by Anonymous</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The New York Subway, by Anonymous</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The New York Subway</p>
+<p>       Its Construction and Equipment</p>
+<p>Author: Anonymous</p>
+<p>Release Date: January 21, 2006  [eBook #17569]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW YORK SUBWAY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Ronald Holder, Diane Monico,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net/)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>THE NEW YORK<br />
+SUBWAY</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 519px;">
+<img src="images/image007.jpg" width="519" height="375" alt="OPERATING ROOM OF POWER HOUSE" title="OPERATING ROOM OF POWER HOUSE" />
+<span class="caption">OPERATING ROOM OF POWER HOUSE</span>
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h1>INTERBOROUGH<br />
+RAPID TRANSIT</h1>
+
+<h1><i>The New York Subway</i></h1>
+
+<h3>ITS CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT</h3>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 195px;">
+<img src="images/image008.png" width="195" height="185" alt="(I.R.T. symbol)" title="" />
+<br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>NEW YORK</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>ANN<sup>O</sup>. DOM<sup>I</sup>. MCMIV</b></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1904, by</span><br />
+INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT CO.<br />
+<span class="smcap">New York</span><br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><small>Planned and Executed by the<br />
+McGraw Publishing Co.</small></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/image009.png" width="100" height="103" alt="(McGraw Publishing Company New York)" title="" />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="2" summary="TOC">
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td style="text-align: right"><span class="smcap">Page<br /> No.</span><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><b>INTRODUCTION</b></a>,</td><td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><b>CHAPTER I. <span class="smcap">The Route of the Road&mdash;Passenger Stations and Tracks</span>,</b></a></td>     <td style="text-align: right"> <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><b>CHAPTER II. <span class="smcap">Types and Methods of Construction</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><b>CHAPTER III. <span class="smcap">Power House Building</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><b>CHAPTER IV. <span class="smcap">Power Plant from Coal Pile To Shafts of Engines and Turbines</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><b>CHAPTER V. <span class="smcap">System of Electrical Supply</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><b>CHAPTER VI. <span class="smcap">Electrical Equipment of Cars</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><b>CHAPTER VII. <span class="smcap">Lighting System for Passenger Stations and Tunnel</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><b>CHAPTER VIII. <span class="smcap">Rolling Stock&mdash;Cars, Trucks, Etc.</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_125"><b>125</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><b>CHAPTER IX. <span class="smcap">Signal System</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><b>CHAPTER X. <span class="smcap">Subway Drainage</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><b>CHAPTER XI. <span class="smcap">Repair and Inspection Shed</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><b>CHAPTER XII. <span class="smcap">Sub-contractors</span>,</b></a></td>      <td style="text-align: right"><a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a><br /></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><big><b>INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY</b></big><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Directors</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">August Belmont</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">E. P. Bryan</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Andrew Freedman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">James Jourdan</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Gardiner M. Lane</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John B. McDonald</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walter G. Oakman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John Peirce</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Morton F. Plant</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">William A. Read</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Alfred Skitt</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cornelius Vanderbilt</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">George W. Young</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><big><b><i>Executive Committee</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">August Belmont</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Andrew Freedman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">James Jourdan</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walter G. Oakman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">William A. Read</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cornelius Vanderbilt</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><big><b><i>Officers</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">August Belmont, president</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">E. P. Bryan, vice-president</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">H. M. Fisher, secretary</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">D. W. McWilliams, treasurer</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">E. F. J. Gaynor, auditor</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Frank Hedley, general superintendent</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">S. L. F. Deyo, chief engineer</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">George W. Wickersham, general counsel</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Chas. A. Gardiner, general attorney</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">DeLancey Nicoll, associate counsel</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Alfred A. Gardner, associate counsel</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Engineering Staff</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p><big><i>Electrical Equipment</i></big></p>
+
+<p>
+L. B. Stillwell, Electrical Director.<br />
+H. N. Latey, Principal Assistant.<br />
+Frederick R. Slater, Assistant Engineer in charge of Third Rail Construction.<br />
+Albert F. Parks, Assistant Engineer in charge of Lighting.<br />
+George G. Raymond, Assistant Engineer in charge of Conduits and Cables.<br />
+William B. Flynn, Assistant Engineer in charge of Draughting Room.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><big><i>Mechanical and Architectural</i></big></p>
+
+<p>
+J. Van Vleck, Mechanical and Construction Engineer.<br />
+William C. Phelps, Assistant Construction Engineer.<br />
+William N. Stevens, Ass't Mechanical Engineer.<br />
+Paul C. Hunter, Architectural Assistant.<br />
+Geo. E. Thomas, Supervising Engineer in Field.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><big><i>Cars and Signal System</i></big></p>
+
+<p>
+George Gibbs, Consulting Engineer.<br />
+Watson T. Thompson, Master Mechanic.<br />
+J. N. Waldron, Signal Engineer.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><big><b>RAPID TRANSIT SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY</b></big><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Directors</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">August Belmont</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">E. P. Bryan</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Andrew Freedman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">James Jourdan</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Gardiner M. Lane</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walther Luttgen</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John B. McDonald</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walter G. Oakman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John Peirce</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Morton F. Plant</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">William A. Read</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cornelius Vanderbilt</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">George W. Young</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Executive Committee</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">August Belmont</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Andrew Freedman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">James Jourdan</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walter G. Oakman</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">William A. Read</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cornelius Vanderbilt</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Officers</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">August Belmont, president</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walter G. Oakman, vice-president</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John B. McDonald, contractor</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">H. M. Fisher, secretary</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John F. Buck, treasurer</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">E. F. J. Gaynor, auditor</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">S. L. F. Deyo, chief engineer</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">George W. Wickersham, general counsel</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Alfred A. Gardner, attorney</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Engineering Staff</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.<br />
+H. T. Douglas, Principal Assistant Engineer.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>A. Edward Olmsted, Division Engineer, Manhattan-Bronx Lines.</p>
+
+<p>Henry B. Reed, Division Engineer, Brooklyn Extension.</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Paschke, Resident Engineer, First Division, City Hall to 33d
+Street, also Brooklyn Extension, City Hall to Bowling Green; and
+Robert S. Fowler, Assistant.</p>
+
+<p>Ernest C. Moore, Resident Engineer, Second Division, 33d Street to
+104th Street; and Stanley Raymond, Assistant.</p>
+
+<p>William C. Merryman, Resident Engineer, Third Division, Underground
+Work, 104th Street to Fort George West Side and Westchester Avenue
+East Side; and William B. Leonard, W. A. Morton, and William E.
+Morris, Jr., Assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Allan A. Robbins and Justin Burns, Resident Engineers, Fourth
+Division, Viaducts; and George I. Oakley, Assistant.</p>
+
+<p>Frank D. Leffingwell, Resident Engineer, East River Tunnel Division,
+Brooklyn Extension; and C. D. Drew, Assistant.</p>
+
+<p>Percy Litchfield, Resident Engineer, Fifth Division, Brooklyn
+Extension, Borough Hall to Prospect Park; and Edward R. Eichner,
+Assistant.</p>
+
+<p>M. C. Hamilton, Engineer, Maintenance of Way; and Robert E. Brandeis,
+Assistant.</p>
+
+<p>D. L. Turner, Assistant Engineer in charge of Stations.</p>
+
+<p>A. Samuel Berquist, Assistant Engineer in charge of Steel Erection.</p>
+
+<p>William J. Boucher, Assistant Engineer in charge of Draughting Rooms.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image013.png" width="600" height="323" alt="(INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT)" title="" />
+</p>
+
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The completion of the rapid transit railroad in the boroughs of
+Manhattan and The Bronx, which is popularly known as the "Subway," has
+demonstrated that underground railroads can be built beneath the
+congested streets of the city, and has made possible in the near
+future a comprehensive system of subsurface transportation extending
+throughout the wide territory of Greater New York.</p>
+
+<p>In March, 1900, when the Mayor with appropriate ceremonies broke
+ground at the Borough Hall, in Manhattan, for the new road, there were
+many well-informed people, including prominent financiers and
+experienced engineers, who freely prophesied failure for the
+enterprise, although the contract had been taken by a most capable
+contractor, and one of the best known banking houses in America had
+committed itself to finance the undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>In looking at the finished road as a completed work, one is apt to
+wonder why it ever seemed impossible and to forget the difficulties
+which confronted the builders at the start.</p>
+
+<p>The railway was to be owned by the city, and built and operated under
+legislation unique in the history of municipal governments,
+complicated, and minute in provisions for the occupation of the city
+streets, payment of moneys by the city, and city supervision over
+construction and operation. Questions as to the interpretation of
+these provisions might have to be passed upon by the courts, with
+delays, how serious none could foretell, especially in New York where
+the crowded calendars retard speedy decisions. The experience of the
+elevated railroad corporations in building their lines had shown the
+uncertainty of depending upon legal precedents. It was not, at that
+time, supposed that the abutting property owners would have any legal
+ground for complaint against the elevated structures, but the courts
+found new laws for new conditions and spelled out new property rights
+of light, air, and access, which were made the basis for a volume of
+litigation unprecedented in the courts of any country.</p>
+
+<p>An underground railroad was a new condition. None could say that the
+abutting property owners might not find rights substantial enough, at
+least, to entitle them to their day in court, a day which, in this
+State, might stretch into many months, or even several years. Owing to
+the magnitude of the work, delay might easily result in failure. An
+eminent judge of the New York Supreme Court had emphasized <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>the
+uncertainties of the situation in the following language: "Just what
+are the rights of the owners of property abutting upon a street or
+avenue, the fee in and to the soil underneath the surface of which has
+been acquired by the city of New York, so far as the same is not
+required for the ordinary city uses of gas or water pipes, or others
+of a like character, has never been finally determined. We have now
+the example of the elevated railroad, constructed and operated in the
+city of New York under legislative and municipal authority for nearly
+twenty years, which has been compelled to pay many millions of dollars
+to abutting property owners for the easement in the public streets
+appropriated by the construction and maintenance of the road, and
+still the amount that the road will have to pay is not ascertained.
+What liabilities will be imposed upon the city under this contract;
+what injury the construction and operation of this road will cause to
+abutting property, and what easements and rights will have to be
+acquired before the road can be legally constructed and operated, it
+is impossible now to ascertain."</p>
+
+<p>It is true, that the city undertook "to secure to the contractor the
+right to construct and operate, free from all rights, claims, or other
+interference, whether by injunction, suit for damages, or otherwise on
+the part of any abutting owner or other person." But another eminent
+judge of the same court had characterized this as "a condition
+absolutely impossible of fulfillment," and had said: "How is the city
+to prevent interference with the work by injunction? That question
+lies with the courts; and not with the courts of this State alone, for
+there are cases without doubt in which the courts of the United States
+would have jurisdiction to act, and when such jurisdiction exists they
+have not hitherto shown much reluctance in acting.... That legal
+proceedings will be undertaken which will, to some extent at least,
+interfere with the progress of this work seems to be inevitable...."</p>
+
+<p>Another difficulty was that the Constitution of the State of New York
+limited the debt-incurring power of the city. The capacity of the city
+to undertake the work had been much discussed in the courts, and the
+Supreme Court of the State had disposed of that phase of the situation
+by suggesting that it did not make much difference to the municipality
+whether or not the debt limit permitted a contract for the work,
+because if the limit should be exceeded, "no liability could possibly
+be imposed upon the city," a view which might comfort the timid
+taxpayers but could hardly be expected to give confidence to the
+capitalists who might undertake the execution of the contract.</p>
+
+<p>Various corporations, organized during the thirty odd years of
+unsuccessful attempts by the city to secure underground rapid transit,
+claimed that their franchises gave them vested rights in the streets
+to the exclusion of the new enterprise, and they were prepared to
+assert their rights in the courts. (The Underground Railroad Company
+of the City of New York sought to enjoin the building of the road and
+carried their contest to the Supreme Court of the United States which
+did not finally decide the questions raised until March, 1904, when
+the subway was practically complete.)</p>
+
+<p>Rival transportation companies stood ready to obstruct the work and
+encourage whomever might find objection to the building of the road.</p>
+
+<p>New York has biennial elections. The road could not be completed in
+two years, and the attitude of one administration might not be the
+attitude of its successors.</p>
+
+<p>The engineering difficulties were well-nigh appalling. Towering
+buildings along the streets had to be considered, and the streets
+themselves were already occupied with a complicated network of
+subsurface structures, such as sewers, water and gas mains, electric
+cable conduits, electric surface railway conduits, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>telegraph and
+power conduits, and many vaults extending out under the streets,
+occupied by the abutting property owners. On the surface were street
+railway lines carrying a very heavy traffic night and day, and all the
+thoroughfares in the lower part of the city were congested with
+vehicular traffic.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the city was unwilling to take any risk, and demanded
+millions of dollars of security to insure the completion of the road
+according to the contract, the terms of which were most exacting down
+to the smallest detail.</p>
+
+<p>The builders of the road did not underestimate the magnitude of the
+task before them. They retained the most experienced experts for every
+part of the work and, perfecting an organization in an incredibly
+short time, proceeded to surmount and sweep aside difficulties. The
+result is one of which every citizen of New York may feel proud. Upon
+the completion of the road the city will own the best constructed and
+best equipped intraurban rapid transit railroad in the world. The
+efforts of the builders have not been limited by the strict terms of
+the contract. They have striven, not to equal the best devices, but to
+improve upon the best devices used in modern electrical railroading,
+to secure for the traveling public safety, comfort, and speedy
+transportation.</p>
+
+<p>The road is off the surface and escapes the delays incident to
+congested city streets, but near the surface and accessible, light,
+dry, clean, and well ventilated. The stations and approaches are
+commodious, and the stations themselves furnish conveniences to
+passengers heretofore not heard of on intraurban lines. There is a
+separate express service, with its own tracks, and the stations are so
+arranged that passengers may pass from local trains to express trains,
+and vice versa, without delay and without payment of additional fare.
+Special precautions have been taken and devices adopted to prevent a
+failure of the electric power and the consequent delays of traffic. An
+electro pneumatic block signal system has been devised, which excels
+any system heretofore used and is unique in its mechanism. The third
+rail for conveying the electric current is covered, so as to prevent
+injury to passengers and employees from contact. Special emergency and
+fire alarm signal systems are installed throughout the length of the
+road. At a few stations, where the road is not near the surface,
+improved escalators and elevators are provided. The cars have been
+designed to prevent danger from fire, and improved types of motors
+have been adopted, capable of supplying great speed combined with
+complete control. Strength, utility, and convenience have not alone
+been considered, but all parts of the railroad structures and
+equipment, stations, power house, and electrical sub-stations have
+been designed and constructed with a view to the beauty of their
+appearance, as well as to their efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The completion of the subway marks the solution of a problem which for
+over thirty years baffled the people of New York City, in spite of the
+best efforts of many of its foremost citizens. An extended account of
+Rapid Transit Legislation would be out of place here, but a brief
+glance at the history of the Act under the authority of which the
+subway has been built is necessary to a clear understanding of the
+work which has been accomplished. From 1850 to 1865 the street surface
+horse railways were sufficient for the requirements of the traveling
+public. As the city grew rapidly, the congestion spreading northward,
+to and beyond the Harlem River, the service of surface roads became
+entirely inadequate. As early as 1868, forty-two well known business
+men of the city became, by special legislative Act, incorporators of
+the New York City Central Underground Railway Company, to build a line
+from the City Hall to the Harlem River. The names of the incorporators
+evidenced the seriousness of the attempt, but nothing came of it. In
+1872, also by special Act, Cornelius Vanderbilt and others were
+incorporated as The New York City Rapid Tran<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>sit Company, to build an
+underground road from the City Hall to connect with the New York &amp;
+Harlem Road at 59th Street, with a branch to the tracks of the New
+York Central Road. The enterprise was soon abandoned. Numerous
+companies were incorporated in the succeeding years under the general
+railroad laws, to build underground roads, but without results; among
+them the Central Tunnel Railway Company in 1881, The New York &amp; New
+Jersey Tunnel Railway Company in 1883, The Terminal Underground
+Railway Company in 1886, The Underground Railroad Company of the City
+of New York (a consolidation of the last two companies) in 1896, and
+The Rapid Transit Underground Railroad Company in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>All attempts to build a road under the early special charter and later
+under the general laws having failed, the city secured in 1891 the
+passage of the Rapid Transit Act under which, as amended, the subway
+has been built. As originally passed it did not provide for municipal
+ownership. It provided that a board of five rapid transit railroad
+commissioners might adopt routes and general plans for a railroad,
+obtain the consents of the local authorities and abutting property
+owners, or in lieu of the consents of the property owners the approval
+of the Supreme Court; and then, having adopted detail plans for the
+construction and operation, might sell at public sale the right to
+build and operate the road to a corporation, whose powers and duties
+were defined in the Act, for such period of time and on such terms as
+they could. The Commissioners prepared plans and obtained the consents
+of the local authorities. The property owners refused their consent;
+the Supreme Court gave its approval in lieu thereof, but upon inviting
+bids the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners found no
+responsible bidder.</p>
+
+<p>The late Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, as early as 1884, when legislation for
+underground roads was under discussion, had urged municipal ownership.
+Speaking in 1901, he said of his efforts in 1884:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It was evident to me that underground rapid transit could
+not be secured by the investment of private capital, but in
+some way or other its construction was dependent upon the
+use of the credit of the City of New York. It was also
+apparent to me that if such credit were used, the property
+must belong to the city. Inasmuch as it would not be safe
+for the city to undertake the construction itself, the
+intervention of a contracting company appeared
+indispensable. To secure the city against loss, this company
+must necessarily be required to give a sufficient bond for
+the completion of the work and be willing to enter into a
+contract for its continued operation under a rental which
+would pay the interest upon the bonds issued by the city for
+the construction, and provide a sinking fund sufficient for
+the payment of the bonds at or before maturity. It also
+seemed to be indispensable that the leasing company should
+invest in the rolling stock and in the real estate required
+for its power houses and other buildings an amount of money
+sufficiently large to indemnify the city against loss in
+case the lessees should fail in their undertaking to build
+and operate the railroad."</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Hewitt became Mayor of the city in 1887, and his views were
+presented in the form of a Bill to the Legislature in the following
+year. The measure found practically no support. Six years later, after
+the Rapid Transit Commissioners had failed under the Act of 1891, as
+originally drawn, to obtain bidders for the franchise, the New York
+Chamber of Commerce undertook to solve the problem by reverting to Mr.
+Hewitt's idea of municipal ownership. Whether or not municipal
+ownership would meet the approval of the citizens of New York could
+not be determined; therefore, as a preliminary step, it was decided to
+submit the question to a popular vote. An amendment to the Act of 1891
+was drawn (Chapter 752 of the Laws of 1894) which provided that the
+qualified electors of the city were to decide at an annual election,
+by ballot, whether the rapid transit railway or railways should be
+constructed by the city and at the public's expense, and be operated
+under lease from the city, or should be constructed by a private
+corporation under a franchise to be sold in the manner attempted
+unsuccessfully, under the Act of 1891, as originally passed. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>At the
+fall election of 1894, the electors of the city, by a very large vote,
+declared against the sale of a franchise to a private corporation and
+in favor of ownership by the city. Several other amendments, the
+necessity for which developed as plans for the railway were worked
+out, were made up to and including the session of the Legislature of
+1900, but the general scheme for rapid transit may be said to have
+become fixed when the electors declared in favor of municipal
+ownership. The main provisions of the legislation which stood upon the
+statute books as the Rapid Transit Act, when the contract was finally
+executed, February 21, 1900, may be briefly summarized as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The Act was general in terms, applying to all cities in the
+State having a population of over one million; it was special in
+effect because New York was the only city having such a population. It
+did not limit the Rapid Transit Commissioners to the building of a
+single road, but authorized the laying out of successive roads or
+extensions.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) A Board was created consisting of the Mayor, Comptroller, or
+other chief financial officer of the city; the president of the
+Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, by virtue of his office,
+and five members named in the Act: William Steinway, Seth Low, John
+Claflin, Alexander E. Orr, and John H. Starin, men distinguished for
+their business experience, high integrity, and civic pride. Vacancies
+in the Board were to be filled by the Board itself, a guaranty of a
+continued uniform policy.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The Board was to prepare general routes and plans and submit the
+question of municipal ownership to the electors of the city.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The city was authorized, in the event that the electors decided
+for city ownership, to issue bonds not to exceed $50,000,000 for the
+construction of the road or roads and $5,000,000 additional, if
+necessary, for acquiring property rights for the route. The interest
+on the bonds was not to exceed 3-1/2 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) The Commissioners were given the broad power to enter into a
+contract (in the case of more than one road, successive contracts) on
+behalf of the city for the construction of the road with the person,
+firm, or corporation which in the opinion of the Board should be best
+qualified to carry out the contract, and to determine the amount of
+the bond to be given by the contractor to secure its performance. The
+essential features of the contract were, however, prescribed by the
+Act. The contractor in and by the contract for building the road was
+to agree to fully equip it at his own expense, and the equipment was
+to include all power houses. He was also to operate the road, as
+lessee of the city, for a term not to exceed fifty years, upon terms
+to be included in the contract for construction, which might include
+provision for renewals of the lease upon such terms as the Board
+should from time to time determine. The rental was to be at least
+equal to the amount of interest on the bonds which the city might
+issue for construction and one per cent. additional. The one per cent.
+additional might, in the discretion of the Board, be made contingent
+in part for the first ten years of the lease upon the earnings of the
+road. The rental was to be applied by the city to the interest on the
+bonds and the balance was to be paid into the city's general sinking
+fund for payment of the city's debt or into a sinking fund for the
+redemption at maturity of the bonds issued for the construction of the
+rapid transit road, or roads. In addition to the security which might
+be required by the Board of the contractor for construction and
+operation, the Act provided that the city should have a first lien
+upon the equipment of the road to be furnished by the contractor, and
+at the termination of the lease the city had the privilege of
+purchasing such equipment from the contractor.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p><p>(<i>f</i>) The city was to furnish the right of way to the contractor free
+from all claims of abutting property owners. The road was to be the
+absolute property of the city and to be deemed a part of the public
+streets and highways. The equipment of the road was to be exempt from
+taxation.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>g</i>) The Board was authorized to include in the contract for
+construction provisions in detail for the supervision of the city,
+through the Board, over the operation of the road under the lease.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most attractive&mdash;and, in fact, indispensable features of
+the scheme&mdash;was that the work of construction, instead of being
+subject to the conflicting control of various departments of the City
+Government, with their frequent changes in personnel, was under the
+exclusive supervision and control of the Rapid Transit Board, a
+conservative and continuous body composed of the two principal
+officers of the City Government, and five merchants of the very
+highest standing in the community.</p>
+
+<p>Provided capitalists could be found to undertake such an extensive
+work under the exacting provisions, the scheme was an admirable one
+from the taxpayers' point of view. The road would cost the city
+practically nothing and the obligation of the contractor to equip and
+operate being combined with the agreement to construct furnished a
+safeguard against waste of the public funds and insured the prompt
+completion of the road. The interest of the contractor in the
+successful operation, after construction, furnished a strong incentive
+to see that as the construction progressed the details were consistent
+with successful operation and to suggest and consent to such
+modifications of the contract plans as might appear necessary from an
+operating point of view, from time to time. The rental being based
+upon the cost encouraged low bids, and the lien of the city upon the
+equipment secured the city against all risk, once the road was in
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the vote of the electors upon the question of
+municipal ownership, the Rapid Transit Commissioners adopted routes
+and plans which they had been studying and perfecting since the
+failure to find bidders for the franchise under the original Act of
+1891. The local authorities approved them, and again the property
+owners refused their consent, making an application to the Supreme
+Court necessary. The Court refused its approval upon the ground that
+the city, owing to a provision of the constitution of the State
+limiting the city's power to incur debt, would be unable to raise the
+necessary money. This decision appeared to nullify all the efforts of
+the public spirited citizens composing the Board of Rapid Transit
+Commissioners and to practically prohibit further attempts on their
+part. They persevered, however, and in January, 1897, adopted new
+general routes and plans. The consolidation of a large territory into
+the Greater New York, and increased land values, warranted the hope
+that the city's debt limit would no longer be an objection, especially
+as the new route changed the line so as to reduce the estimated cost.
+The demands for rapid transit had become more and more imperative as
+the years went by, and it was fair to assume that neither the courts
+nor the municipal authorities would be overzealous to find a narrow
+construction of the laws. Incidentally, the constitutionality of the
+rapid transit legislation, in its fundamental features, had been
+upheld in the Supreme Court in a decision which was affirmed by the
+highest court of the State a few weeks after the Board had adopted its
+new plans. The local authorities gave their consent to the new route;
+the property owners, as on the two previous occasions, refused their
+consent; the Supreme Court gave its approval in lieu thereof; and the
+Board was prepared to undertake the preliminaries for letting a
+contract. These successive steps and the preparation of the terms of
+the contract all took time; but, finally, on November 15, 1899, a form
+of contract was adopted and an invitation issued by the Board to
+contractors to bid for the construction and operation of the railroad.
+There were two bidders, one of whom was John <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>B. McDonald, whose terms
+submitted under the invitation were accepted on January 15, 1900; and,
+for the first time, it seemed as if a beginning might be made in the
+actual construction of the rapid transit road. The letter of
+invitation to contractors required that every proposal should be
+accompanied by a certified check upon a National or State Bank,
+payable to the order of the Comptroller, for $150,000, and that within
+ten days after acceptance, or within such further period as might be
+prescribed by the Board, the contract should be duly executed and
+delivered. The amount to be paid by the city for the construction was
+$35,000,000 and an additional sum not to exceed $2,750,000 for
+terminals, station sites, and other purposes. The construction was to
+be completed in four years and a half, and the term of the lease from
+the city to the contractor was fixed at fifty years, with a renewal,
+at the option of the contractor, for twenty-five years at a rental to
+be agreed upon by the city, not less than the average rental for the
+then preceding ten years. The rental for the fifty-year term was fixed
+at an amount equal to the annual interest upon the bonds issued by the
+city for construction and 1 per cent. additional, such 1 per cent.
+during the first ten years to be contingent in part upon the earnings
+of the road. To secure the performance of the contract by Mr. McDonald
+the city required him to deposit $1,000,000 in cash as security for
+construction, to furnish a bond with surety for $5,000,000 as security
+for construction and equipment, and to furnish another bond of
+$1,000,000 as continuing security for the performance of the contract.
+The city in addition to this security had, under the provisions of the
+Rapid Transit Act, a first lien on the equipment, and it should be
+mentioned that at the expiration of the lease and renewals (if any)
+the equipment is to be turned over to the city, pending an agreement
+or arbitration upon the question of the price to be paid for it by the
+city. The contract (which covered about 200 printed pages) was minute
+in detail as to the work to be done, and sweeping powers of
+supervision were given the city through the Chief Engineer of the
+Board, who by the contract was made arbiter of all questions that
+might arise as to the interpretation of the plans and specifications.
+The city had been fortunate in securing for the preparation of plans
+the services of Mr. William Barclay Parsons, one of the foremost
+engineers of the country. For years as Chief Engineer of the Board he
+had studied and developed the various plans and it was he who was to
+superintend on behalf of the city the completion of the work.</p>
+
+<p>During the thirty-two years of rapid transit discussion between 1868,
+when the New York City Central Underground Company was incorporated,
+up to 1900, when the invitations for bids were issued by the city,
+every scheme for rapid transit had failed because responsible
+capitalists could not be found willing to undertake the task of
+building a road. Each year had increased the difficulties attending
+such an enterprise and the scheme finally evolved had put all of the
+risk upon the capitalists who might attempt to finance the work, and
+left none upon the city. Without detracting from the credit due the
+public-spirited citizens who had evolved the plan of municipal
+ownership, it may be safely asserted that the success of the
+undertaking depended almost entirely upon the financial backing of the
+contractor. When the bid was accepted by the city no arrangements had
+been made for the capital necessary to carry out the contract. After
+its acceptance, Mr. McDonald not only found little encouragement in
+his efforts to secure the capital, but discovered that the surety
+companies were unwilling to furnish the security required of him,
+except on terms impossible for him to fulfill.</p>
+
+<p>The crucial point in the whole problem of rapid transit with which the
+citizens of New York had struggled for so many years had been reached,
+and failure seemed inevitable. The requirements of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>Rapid Transit
+Act were rigid and forbade any solution of the problem which committed
+the city to share in the risks of the undertaking. Engineers might
+make routes and plans, lawyers might draw legislative acts, the city
+might prepare contracts, the question was and always had been, Can
+anybody build the road who will agree to do it and hold the city safe
+from loss?</p>
+
+<p>It was obvious when the surety companies declined the issue that the
+whole rapid transit problem was thrown open, or rather that it always
+had been open. The final analysis had not been made. After all, the
+attitude of the surety companies was only a reflection of the general
+feeling of practical business and railroad men towards the whole
+venture. To the companies the proposition had come as a concrete
+business proffer and they had rejected it.</p>
+
+<p>At this critical point, Mr. McDonald sought the assistance of Mr.
+August Belmont. It was left to Mr. Belmont to make the final analysis,
+and avert the failure which impended. There was no time for indecision
+or delay. Whatever was to be done must be done immediately. The
+necessary capital must be procured, the required security must be
+given, and an organization for building and operating the road must be
+anticipated. Mr. Belmont looking through and beyond the intricacies of
+the Rapid Transit Act, and the complications of the contract, saw that
+he who undertook to surmount the difficulties presented by the
+attitude of the surety companies must solve the whole problem. It was
+not the ordinary question of financing a railroad contract. He saw
+that the responsibility for the entire rapid transit undertaking must
+be centered, and that a compact and effective organization must be
+planned which could deal with every phase of the situation.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Belmont without delay took the matter up directly with the Board
+of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners, and presented a plan for the
+incorporation of a company to procure the security required for the
+performance of the contract, to furnish the capital necessary to carry
+on the work, and to assume supervision over the whole undertaking.
+Application was to be made to the Supreme Court to modify the
+requirements with respect to the sureties by striking out a provision
+requiring the justification of the sureties in double the amount of
+liabilities assumed by each and reducing the minimum amount permitted
+to be taken by each surety from $500,000 to $250,000. The new
+corporation was to execute as surety a bond for $4,000,000, the
+additional amount of $1,000,000 to be furnished by other sureties. A
+beneficial interest in the bonds required from the sub-contractors was
+to be assigned to the city and, finally, the additional amount of
+$1,000,000, in cash or securities, was to be deposited with the city
+as further security for the performance of the contract. The plan was
+approved by the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners, and
+pursuant to the plan, the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
+was organized. The Supreme Court granted the application to modify the
+requirements as to the justification of sureties and the contract was
+executed February 21, 1900.</p>
+
+<p>As president and active executive head of the Rapid Transit Subway
+Construction Company, Mr. Belmont perfected its organization,
+collected the staff of engineers under whose direction the work of
+building the road was to be done, supervised the letting of
+sub-contracts, and completed the financial arrangements for carrying
+on the work.</p>
+
+<p>The equipment of the road included, under the terms of the contract,
+the rolling stock, all machinery and mechanisms for generating
+electricity for motive power, lighting, and signaling, and also the
+power house, sub-stations, and the real estate upon which they were to
+be erected. The magnitude of the task of providing the equipment was
+not generally appreciated until Mr. Belmont took the rapid transit
+problem in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>hand. He foresaw from the beginning the importance of that
+branch of the work, and early in 1900, immediately after the signing
+of the contract, turned his attention to selecting the best engineers
+and operating experts, and planned the organization of an operating
+company. As early as May, 1900, he secured the services of Mr. E. P.
+Bryan, who came to New York from St. Louis, resigning as
+vice-president and general manager of the Terminal Railroad
+Association, and began a study of the construction work and plans for
+equipment, to the end that the problems of operation might be
+anticipated as the building and equipment of the road progressed. Upon
+the incorporation of the operating company, Mr. Bryan became
+vice-president.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1902, the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the
+operating railroad corporation was formed by the interests represented
+by Mr. Belmont, he becoming president and active executive head of
+this company also, and soon thereafter Mr. McDonald assigned to it the
+lease or operating part of his contract with the city, that company
+thereby becoming directly responsible to the city for the equipment
+and operation of the road, Mr. McDonald remaining as contractor for
+its construction. In the summer of the same year, the Board of Rapid
+Transit Railroad Commissioners having adopted a route and plans for an
+extension of the subway under the East River to the Borough of
+Brooklyn, the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company entered into a
+contract with the city, similar in form to Mr. McDonald's contract, to
+build, equip, and operate the extension. Mr. McDonald, as contractor
+of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company, assumed the general
+supervision of the work of constructing the Brooklyn extension; and
+the construction work of both the original subway and the extension
+has been carried on under his direction. The work of construction has
+been greatly facilitated by the broad minded and liberal policy of the
+Rapid Transit Board and its Chief Engineer and Counsel, and by the
+co&ouml;peration of all the other departments of the City Government, and
+also by the generous attitude of the Metropolitan Street Railway
+Company and its lessee, the New York City Railroad Company, in
+extending privileges which have been of great assistance in the
+prosecution of the work. In January, 1903, the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company acquired the elevated railway system by lease for 999
+years from the Manhattan Railway Company, thus assuring harmonious
+operation of the elevated roads and the subway system, including the
+Brooklyn extension.</p>
+
+<p>The incorporators of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company were
+William H. Baldwin, Jr., Charles T. Barney, August Belmont, E. P.
+Bryan, Andrew Freedman, James Jourdan, Gardiner M. Lane, John B.
+McDonald, DeLancey Nicoll, Walter G. Oakman, John Peirce, Wm. A. Read,
+Cornelius Vanderbilt, George W. Wickersham, and George W. Young.</p>
+
+<p>The incorporators of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
+were Charles T. Barney, August Belmont, John B. McDonald, Walter G.
+Oakman, and William A. Read.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/image021.png" width="200" height="106" alt="(wings)" title="" />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 520px;">
+<img src="images/image022.jpg" width="520" height="378" alt="EXTERIOR VIEW OF POWER HOUSE" title="EXTERIOR VIEW OF POWER HOUSE" />
+<span class="caption">EXTERIOR VIEW OF POWER HOUSE</span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ROUTE OF THE ROAD&mdash;PASSENGER STATIONS AND TRACKS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The selection of route for the Subway was governed largely by the
+amount which the city was authorized by the Rapid Transit Act to
+spend. The main object of the road was to carry to and from their
+homes in the upper portions of Manhattan Island the great army of
+workers who spend the business day in the offices, shops, and
+warehouses of the lower portions, and it was therefore obvious that
+the general direction of the routes must be north and south, and that
+the line must extend as nearly as possible from one end of the island
+to the other.</p>
+
+<p>The routes proposed by the Rapid Transit Board in 1895, after
+municipal ownership had been approved by the voters at the fall
+election of 1894, contemplated the occupation of Broadway below 34th
+Street to the Battery, and extended only to 185th Street on the west
+side and 146th Street on the east side of the city. As has been told
+in the introductory chapter, this plan was rejected by the Supreme
+Court because of the probable cost of going under Broadway. It was
+also intimated by the Court, in rejecting the routes, that the road
+should extend further north.</p>
+
+<p>It had been clear from the beginning that no routes could be laid out
+to which abutting property owners would consent, and that the consent
+of the Court as an alternative would be necessary to any routes
+chosen. To conform as nearly as possible to the views of the Court,
+the Commission proposed, in 1897, the so called "Elm Street route,"
+the plan finally adopted, which reached from the territory near the
+General Post-office, the City Hall, and Brooklyn Bridge Terminal to
+Kingsbridge and the station of the New York &amp; Putnam Railroad on the
+upper west side, and to Bronx Park on the upper east side of the city,
+touching the Grand Central Depot at 42d Street.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently, by the adoption of the Brooklyn Extension, the line was
+extended down Broadway to the southern extremity of Manhattan Island,
+thence under the East River to Brooklyn.</p>
+
+<p>The routes in detail are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+<i>Manhattan-Bronx
+Route</i></div>
+
+<p>Beginning near the intersection of Broadway and Park Row, one of the
+routes of the railroad extends under Park Row, Center Street, New Elm
+Street, Elm Street, Lafayette Place, Fourth Avenue (beginning at Astor
+Place), Park Avenue, 42d Street, and Broadway to 125th Street, where
+it passes over Broadway by viaduct to 133d Street, thence under
+Broadway again to and under Eleventh Avenue to Fort George, where it
+comes to the surface again at Dyckman Street and continues by viaduct
+over Naegle Avenue, Amsterdam Avenue, and Broadway to Bailey Avenue,
+at the Kingsbridge station of the New York &amp; Putnam Railroad, crossing
+the Harlem Ship Canal on a double-deck drawbridge. The length of this
+route is 13.50 miles, of which about 2 miles are on viaduct.</p>
+
+<p>Another route begins at Broadway near 103d Street and extends under
+104th Street and the upper part of Central Park to and under Lenox
+Avenue to 142d Street, thence curving to the east to and under the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>Harlem River at about 145th Street, thence from the river to and
+under East 149th Street to a point near Third Avenue, thence by
+viaduct beginning at Brook Avenue over Westchester Avenue, the
+Southern Boulevard and the Boston Road to Bronx Park. The length of
+this route is about 6.97 miles, of which about 3 miles are on viaduct.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image024.png"><img src="images/image024_th.png" width="600" height="256" alt="MAP SHOWING THE LINES OF THE INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT CO. 1904" title="MAP SHOWING THE LINES OF THE INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT CO. 1904" /></a>
+<span class="caption">MAP SHOWING THE LINES OF THE INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT CO. 1904</span>
+<br /></p>
+
+
+<p>At the City Hall there is a loop under the Park. From 142d Street
+there is a spur north under Lenox Avenue to 148th Street. There is a
+spur at Westchester and Third Avenues connecting by viaduct the
+Manhattan Elevated Railway Division of Interborough Rapid Transit
+Company with the viaduct of the subway at or near St. Ann's Avenue.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Brooklyn Route</i></div>
+
+<p>The route of the Brooklyn Extension connects near Broadway and Park
+Row with the Manhattan Bronx Route and extends under Broadway, Bowling
+Green, State Street, Battery Park, Whitehall Street, and South Street
+to and under the East River to Brooklyn at the foot of Joralemon
+Street, thence under Joralemon Street, Fulton Street, and Flatbush
+Avenue to Atlantic Avenue, connecting with the Brooklyn <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>tunnel of the
+Long Island Railroad at that point. There is a loop under Battery Park
+beginning at Bridge Street. The length of this route is about 3 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The routes in Manhattan and The Bronx may therefore be said to roughly
+resemble the letter Y with the base at the southern extremity of
+Manhattan Island, the fork at 103d Street and Broadway, the terminus
+of the westerly or Fort George branch of the fork just beyond Spuyten
+Duyvil Creek, the terminus of the easterly or Bronx Park branch at
+Bronx Park.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Location
+of Stations</i></div>
+
+<p>The stations beginning at the base of the Y and following the route up
+to the fork are located at the following points:</p>
+
+<p>South Ferry, Bowling Green and Battery Place, Rector Street and
+Broadway, Fulton Street and Broadway, City Hall, Manhattan; Brooklyn
+Bridge Entrance, Manhattan; Worth and Elm Streets, Canal and Elm
+Streets, Spring and Elm Streets, Bleecker and Elm Streets, Astor Place
+and Fourth Avenue, 14th Street and Fourth Avenue, 18th Street and
+Fourth Avenue, 23d Street and Fourth Avenue, 28th Street <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>and Fourth
+Avenue, 33d Street and Fourth Avenue, 42d Street and Madison Avenue
+(Grand Central Station), 42d Street and Broadway, 50th Street and
+Broadway, 60th Street and Broadway (Columbus Circle), 66th Street and
+Broadway, 72d Street and Broadway, 79th Street and Broadway, 86th
+Street and Broadway, 91st Street and Broadway, 96th Street and
+Broadway.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="a34TH_STREET_AND_PARK_AVENUE_LOOKING_SOUTH" id="a34TH_STREET_AND_PARK_AVENUE_LOOKING_SOUTH"></a>
+<img src="images/image026.jpg" width="500" height="379" alt="34TH STREET AND PARK AVENUE, LOOKING SOUTH" title="34TH STREET AND PARK AVENUE, LOOKING SOUTH" />
+<span class="caption">34TH STREET AND PARK AVENUE, LOOKING SOUTH</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The stations of the Fort George or westerly branch are located at the
+following points:</p>
+
+<p>One Hundred and Third Street and Broadway, 110th Street and Broadway
+(Cathedral Parkway), 116th Street and Broadway (Columbia University),
+Manhattan Street (near 128th Street) and Broadway, 137th Street and
+Broadway, 145th Street and Broadway, 157th Street and Broadway, the
+intersection of 168th Street, St. Nicholas Avenue and Broadway, 181st
+Street and Eleventh Avenue, Dyckman Street and Naegle Avenue (beyond
+Fort George), 207th Street and Amsterdam Avenue, 215th Street and
+Amsterdam Avenue, Muscoota Street and Broadway, Bailey Avenue, at
+Kingsbridge near the New York &amp; Putnam Railroad station.</p>
+
+<p>The stations on the Bronx Park or easterly branch are located at the
+following points:</p>
+
+<p>One Hundred and Tenth Street and Lenox Avenue, 116th Street and Lenox
+Avenue, 125th Street and Lenox Avenue, 135th Street and Lenox Avenue,
+145th Street and Lenox Avenue (spur), Mott Avenue and 149th Street,
+the intersection of 149th Street, Melrose and Third Avenues, Jackson
+and Westchester Avenues, Prospect and Westchester Avenues, Westchester
+Avenue near Southern Boulevard (Fox Street), <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>Freeman Street and the
+Southern Boulevard, intersection of 174th Street, Southern Boulevard
+and Boston Road, 177th Street and Boston Road (near Bronx Park).<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image027a.png"><img src="images/image027a_th.png" width="600" height="221" alt="PROFILE OF RAPID TRANSIT RAILROAD MANHATTAN AND BRONX LINES." title="PROFILE OF RAPID TRANSIT RAILROAD MANHATTAN AND BRONX LINES." /></a>
+<span class="caption">PROFILE OF RAPID TRANSIT RAILROAD <br />
+MANHATTAN AND BRONX LINES.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The stations in the Borough of Brooklyn on the Brooklyn Extension are
+located as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Joralemon Street near Court (Brooklyn Borough Hall), intersection of
+Fulton, Bridge, and Hoyt Streets; Flatbush Avenue near Nevins Street,
+Atlantic Avenue and Flatbush Avenue (Brooklyn terminal of the Long
+Island Railroad).</p>
+
+<p>From the Borough Hall, Manhattan, to the 96th Street station, the line
+is four-track. On the Fort George branch (including 103d Street
+station) there are three tracks to 145th Street and then two tracks to
+Dyckman Street, then three tracks again to the terminus at Bailey
+Avenue. On the Bronx Park branch there are two tracks to Brook Avenue
+and from that point to Bronx Park there are three tracks. On the Lenox
+Avenue spur to 148th Street there are two tracks, on the City Hall
+loop one track, on the Battery Park loop two tracks. The Brooklyn
+Extension is a two-track line.</p>
+
+<p>There is a storage yard under Broadway between 137th Street and 145th
+Street on the Fort George branch, another on the surface at the end of
+the Lenox Avenue spur, Lenox Avenue and 148th Street, and a third on
+an elevated structure at the Boston Road and 178th Street. There is a
+repair shop and inspection shed on the surface adjoining the Lenox
+Avenue spur at the Harlem River and 148-150th Streets, and an
+inspection shed at the storage yard at Boston Road and 178th Street.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Length of
+Line.</i></div>
+
+<p>The total length of the line from the City Hall to the Kingsbridge
+terminal is 13.50 miles, with 47.11 miles of single track and sidings.
+The eastern or Bronx Park branch is 6.97 miles long, with 17.50 miles
+of single track.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image027b.png"><img src="images/image027b_th.png" width="600" height="166" alt="PROFILE OF BROOKLYN EXTENSION." title="PROFILE OF BROOKLYN EXTENSION." /></a>
+<span class="caption">PROFILE OF BROOKLYN EXTENSION.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote"><i>Grades and
+Curves.</i></div>
+
+<p>The total length of the Brooklyn Extension is 3.1 miles, with about 8
+miles of single track.</p>
+
+<p>The grades and curvature along the main line may be summarized as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>The total curvature is equal in length to 23 per cent. of the straight
+line, and the least radius of curvature is 147 feet. The greatest
+grade is 3 per cent., and occurs on either side of the tunnel under
+the Harlem River. At each station there is a down grade of 2.1 per
+cent., to assist in the acceleration of the cars when they start. In
+order to make time on roads running trains at frequent intervals, it
+is necessary to bring the trains to their full speed very soon after
+starting. The electrical equipment of the Rapid Transit Railroad will
+enable this to be done in a better manner than is possible with steam
+locomotives, while these short acceleration grades at each station, on
+both up and down tracks, will be of material assistance in making the
+starts smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Photograph on <a href="#a34TH_STREET_AND_PARK_AVENUE_LOOKING_SOUTH">page 26</a> shows an interesting feature at a local
+station, where, in order to obtain the quick acceleration in grade for
+local trains, and at the same time maintain a level grade for the
+express service, the tracks are constructed at a different level. This
+occurs at many local stations.</p>
+
+<p>On the Brooklyn Extension the maximum grade is 3.1 per cent.
+descending from the ends to the center of the East River tunnel. The
+minimum radius of curve is 1,200 feet.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="STANDARD_STEEL_CONSTRUCTION_IN_TUNNELmdashTHIRD_RAIL_PROTECTION_NOT_SHOWN" id="STANDARD_STEEL_CONSTRUCTION_IN_TUNNELmdashTHIRD_RAIL_PROTECTION_NOT_SHOWN"></a>
+<img src="images/image028.jpg" width="500" height="379" alt="STANDARD STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN TUNNEL&mdash;THIRD RAIL PROTECTION NOT SHOWN" title="STANDARD STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN TUNNEL&mdash;THIRD RAIL PROTECTION NOT SHOWN" />
+<span class="caption">STANDARD STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN TUNNEL&mdash;THIRD RAIL PROTECTION NOT SHOWN</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLAN_OF_BROOKLYN_BRIDGE_STATION_AND_CITY_HALL_LOOP" id="PLAN_OF_BROOKLYN_BRIDGE_STATION_AND_CITY_HALL_LOOP"></a>
+<a href="images/image029.png"><img src="images/image029_th.png" width="600" height="420" alt="PLAN OF BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION AND CITY HALL LOOP" title="PLAN OF BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION AND CITY HALL LOOP" /></a>
+<span class="caption">PLAN OF BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION AND CITY HALL LOOP</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Track</i></div>
+
+<p>The track is of the usual standard construction with broken stone
+ballast, timber cross ties, and 100-pound rails of the American
+Society of Civil Engineers' section. The cross ties are selected hard
+pine. All ties are fitted with tie plates. All curves are supplied
+with steel inside guard rails. The frogs and switches are of the best
+design and quality to be had, and a special design has been used on
+all curves. At the Battery loop, at Westchester Avenue, at 96th
+Street, and at City Hall loop, where it has been necessary for the
+regular passenger tracks to cross, grade crossings have been avoided;
+one track or set of tracks passing under the other at the intersecting
+points. (See <a href="#PLAN_OF_BROOKLYN_BRIDGE_STATION_AND_CITY_HALL_LOOP">plan</a> on this page.)</p>
+
+<p>The contract for the building of the road contains the following
+somewhat unusual provision: "The railway and its equipment as
+contemplated by the contract constitute a great public work. All parts
+of the structure where exposed to public sight shall therefore be
+designed, constructed, and maintained with a view to the beauty of
+their appearance, as well as to their efficiency."</p>
+
+<p>It may be said with exact truthfulness that the builders have spared
+no effort or expense to live up to the spirit of this provision, and
+that all parts of the road and equipment display dignified and
+consistent artistic effects of the highest order. These are noticeable
+in the power house and the electrical sub-stations and particularly in
+the passenger stations. It might readily have been supposed that the
+limited space and comparative uniformity of the underground stations
+would afford but little opportunity for architectural and decorative
+effects. The result has shown the fallacy of such a supposition.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PLAN_OF_28TH_ST_amp_4TH_AVENUE_STATION" id="PLAN_OF_28TH_ST_amp_4TH_AVENUE_STATION"></a>
+<a href="images/image030.png"><img src="images/image030_th.png" width="600" height="531" alt="PLAN OF 28TH ST. &amp; 4TH AVENUE STATION." title="PLAN OF 28TH ST. &amp; 4TH AVENUE STATION." /></a>
+<span class="caption">PLAN OF 28TH ST. &amp; 4TH AVENUE STATION.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Of the forty-eight stations, thirty-three are underground, eleven are
+on the viaduct portions of the road, and three are partly on the
+surface and partly underground, and one is partly on the surface and
+partly on the viaduct.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Space Occupied</i></div>
+
+<p>The underground stations are at the street intersections, and, except
+in a few instances, occupy space under the cross streets. The station
+plans are necessarily varied to suit the conditions of the different
+locations, the most important factor in planning them having been the
+amount of available space. The platforms are from 200 to 350 feet in
+length, and about 16 feet in width, narrowing at the ends, while the
+center space is larger or smaller, according to local conditions. As a
+rule the body of the station extends back about 50 feet from the edge
+of the platform.</p>
+
+<p>At all local stations (except at 110th Street and Lenox Avenue)
+platforms are outside of the tracks. (Plan and photograph on pages
+<a href="#PLAN_OF_28TH_ST_amp_4TH_AVENUE_STATION">30</a> and <a href="#a28TH_STREET_STATION">31</a>.) At Lenox Avenue and 110th Street there is a single island
+platform for uptown and downtown passengers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Island
+Platforms</i></div>
+
+<p>At express stations there are two island platforms between the express
+and local tracks, one for uptown and one for downtown traffic. In
+addition, there are the usual local platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, 14th
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>Street (photograph on <a href="#EXPRESS_STATION_AT_14TH_STREET_SHOWING_ISLAND_AND_MEZZANINE_PLATFORMS_AND_STAIRS_CONNECTING_THEM">page 34</a>) and 96th Street. At the remaining
+express stations, 42d Street and Madison Avenue and 72d Street, there
+are no local platforms outside of the tracks, local and through
+traffic using the island platforms.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 412px;"><a name="a28TH_STREET_STATION" id="a28TH_STREET_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image031.jpg" width="412" height="500" alt="28TH STREET STATION" title="28TH STREET STATION" />
+<span class="caption">28TH STREET STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The island platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, 14th Street, and 42d Street
+and Madison Avenue are reached by mezzanine footways from the local
+platforms, it having been impossible to place entrances in the streets
+immediately over the platforms. At 96th Street there is an underground
+passage connecting the local and island platforms, and at 72d Street
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>there are entrances to the island platforms directly from the street
+because there is a park area in the middle of the street. Local
+passengers can transfer from express trains and express passengers
+from local trains without payment of additional fare by stepping
+across the island platforms.</p>
+
+<p>At 72d Street, at 103d Street, and at 116th Street and Broadway the
+station platforms are below the surface, but the ticket booths and
+toilet rooms are on the surface; this arrangement being possible also
+because of the park area available in the streets. At Manhattan Street
+the platforms are on the viaduct, but the ticket booths and toilet
+rooms are on the surface. The viaduct at this point is about 68 feet
+above the surface, and escalators are provided. At many of the
+stations entrances have been arranged from the adjacent buildings, in
+addition to the entrances originally planned from the street.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Kiosks</i></div>
+
+<p>The entrances to the underground stations are enclosed at the street
+by kiosks of cast iron and wire glass (photograph on <a href="#KIOSKS_AT_COLUMBUS_CIRCLE">page 33</a>), and
+vary in number from two to eight at a station. The stairways are of
+concrete, reinforced by twisted steel rods. At 168th Street, at 181st
+Street, and at Mott Avenue, where the platforms are from 90 to 100
+feet below the surface, elevators are provided.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image032.jpg" width="500" height="396" alt="WEST SIDE OF 23D STREET STATION" title="WEST SIDE OF 23D STREET STATION" />
+<span class="caption">WEST SIDE OF 23D STREET STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>At twenty of the underground stations it has been possible to use
+vault lights to such an extent that very little artificial light is
+needed. (Photograph on <a href="#WEST_SIDE_OF_COLUMBUS_CIRCLE_STATION_60TH_STREETmdashILLUMINATED_BY_DAYLIGHT_COMING_THROUGH_VAULT_LIGHTS">page 35</a>.) Such artificial light as is
+required is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>supplied by incandescent lamps sunk in the ceilings.
+Provision has been made for using the track circuit for lighting in
+emergency if the regular lighting circuit should temporarily fail.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="KIOSKS_AT_COLUMBUS_CIRCLE" id="KIOSKS_AT_COLUMBUS_CIRCLE"></a>
+<img src="images/image033.jpg" width="500" height="353" alt="KIOSKS AT COLUMBUS CIRCLE" title="KIOSKS AT COLUMBUS CIRCLE" />
+<span class="caption">KIOSKS AT COLUMBUS CIRCLE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The station floors are of concrete, marked off in squares. At the
+junction of the floors and side walls a cement sanitary cove is
+placed. The floors drain to catch-basins, and hose bibs are provided
+for washing the floors.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image033.png"><img src="images/image033_th.png" width="600" height="415" alt="BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION" title="BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION" /></a>
+<span class="caption">BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Two types of ceiling are used, one flat, which covers the steel and
+concrete of the roof, and the other arched between the roof beams and
+girders, the lower flanges of which are exposed. Both types have an
+air <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>space between ceiling and roof, which, together with the air
+space behind the inner side walls, permits air to circulate and
+minimizes condensation on the surface of the ceiling and walls.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="PLAQUE_SHOWING_BEAVER_AT_ASTOR_PLACE_STATION" id="PLAQUE_SHOWING_BEAVER_AT_ASTOR_PLACE_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image034a.jpg" width="300" height="273" alt="PLAQUE SHOWING BEAVER AT ASTOR PLACE STATION" title="PLAQUE SHOWING BEAVER AT ASTOR PLACE STATION" />
+<span class="caption">PLAQUE SHOWING BEAVER AT ASTOR PLACE STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The ceilings are separated into panels by wide ornamental mouldings,
+and the panels are decorated with narrower mouldings and rosettes. The
+bases of the walls are buff Norman brick. Above this is glass tile or
+glazed tile, and above the tile is a faience or terra-cotta cornice.
+Ceramic mosaic is used for decorative panels, friezes, pilasters, and
+name-tablets. A different decorative treatment is used at each
+station, including a distinctive color scheme. At some stations the
+number of the intersecting street or initial letter of the street name
+is shown on conspicuous plaques, at other stations the number or
+letter is in the panel. At some stations artistic emblems have been
+used in the scheme of decoration, as at Astor Place, the beaver (see
+photograph on this <a href="#PLAQUE_SHOWING_BEAVER_AT_ASTOR_PLACE_STATION">page</a>); at Columbus Circle, the great
+navigator's Caravel; at 116th Street, the seal of Columbia University.
+The walls above the cornice and the ceilings are finished in white
+Keene cement.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="EXPRESS_STATION_AT_14TH_STREET_SHOWING_ISLAND_AND_MEZZANINE_PLATFORMS_AND_STAIRS_CONNECTING_THEM" id="EXPRESS_STATION_AT_14TH_STREET_SHOWING_ISLAND_AND_MEZZANINE_PLATFORMS_AND_STAIRS_CONNECTING_THEM"></a>
+<img src="images/image034b.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="EXPRESS STATION AT 14TH STREET, SHOWING ISLAND AND
+MEZZANINE PLATFORMS AND STAIRS CONNECTING THEM" title="EXPRESS STATION AT 14TH STREET, SHOWING ISLAND AND
+MEZZANINE PLATFORMS AND STAIRS CONNECTING THEM" />
+<span class="caption">EXPRESS STATION AT 14TH STREET, SHOWING ISLAND AND
+MEZZANINE PLATFORMS AND STAIRS CONNECTING THEM</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="WEST_SIDE_OF_COLUMBUS_CIRCLE_STATION_60TH_STREETmdashILLUMINATED_BY_DAYLIGHT_COMING_THROUGH_VAULT_LIGHTS" id="WEST_SIDE_OF_COLUMBUS_CIRCLE_STATION_60TH_STREETmdashILLUMINATED_BY_DAYLIGHT_COMING_THROUGH_VAULT_LIGHTS"></a>
+<img src="images/image035a.jpg" width="500" height="388" alt="WEST SIDE OF COLUMBUS CIRCLE STATION (60TH
+STREET)&mdash;ILLUMINATED BY DAYLIGHT COMING THROUGH VAULT LIGHTS" title="WEST SIDE OF COLUMBUS CIRCLE STATION (60TH
+STREET)&mdash;ILLUMINATED BY DAYLIGHT COMING THROUGH VAULT LIGHTS" />
+<span class="caption">WEST SIDE OF COLUMBUS CIRCLE STATION (60TH
+STREET)&mdash;ILLUMINATED BY DAYLIGHT COMING THROUGH VAULT LIGHTS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<img src="images/image035b.jpg" width="330" height="450" alt="CARAVEL AND WALL DECORATION" title="CARAVEL AND WALL DECORATION" />
+<span class="caption">CARAVEL AND WALL DECORATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The ticket booths are of oak with bronze window grills and fittings.
+There are toilet rooms in every station, except at the City Hall loop.
+Each toilet room has a free closet or closets, and a pay closet which
+is furnished with a basin, mirror, soap dish, and towel rack. The
+fixtures are porcelain, finished in dull nickel. The soil, vent and
+water pipes are run in wall spaces, so as to be accessible. The rooms
+are ventilated through the hollow columns of the kiosks, and each is
+provided with an electric fan. They are heated by electric heaters.
+The woodwork of the rooms is oak; the walls are red slate wainscot and
+Keene cement.</p>
+
+<p>Passengers may enter the body of the station without paying fare. The
+train platforms are separated from the body of the station by
+railings. At the more important stations, separate sets of entrances
+are provided for incoming and outgoing passengers, the stairs at the
+back of the station being used for entrances and those nearer the
+track being used for exits.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 467px;">
+<a name="CITY_HALL_STATION" id="CITY_HALL_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image036.jpg" width="467" height="600" alt="CITY HALL STATION" title="CITY HALL STATION" />
+<span class="caption">CITY HALL STATION</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>An example of the care used to obtain artistic effects can be seen at
+the City Hall station. The road at this point is through an arched
+tunnel. In order to secure consistency in treatment the roof of the
+station is continued by a larger arch of special design. (See
+photograph on this <a href="#CITY_HALL_STATION">page</a>.) At 168th Street, and at 181st Street,
+and at Mott Avenue stations, where the road is far beneath the
+surface, it has been possible to build massive arches over the
+stations and tracks, with spans of 50 feet.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>TYPES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION</h3>
+
+
+<p>Five types of construction have been employed in building the road:
+(1) the typical subway near the surface with flat roof and "I" beams
+for the roof and sides, supported between tracks with steel bulb-angle
+columns used on about 10.6 miles or 52.2 per cent. of the road; (2)
+flat roof typical subway of re&euml;nforced concrete construction supported
+between the tracks by steel bulb-angle columns, used for a short
+distance on Lenox Avenue and on the Brooklyn portion of the Brooklyn
+Extension, also on the Battery Park loop; (3) concrete lined tunnel
+used on about 4.6 miles or 23 per cent. of the road, of which 4.2 per
+cent. was concrete lined open cut work, and the remainder was rock
+tunnel work; (4) elevated road on steel viaduct used on about 5 miles
+or 24.6 per cent. of the road; (5) cast-iron tubes used under the
+Harlem and East Rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Typical
+Subway</i></div>
+
+<p>The general character of the flat roof "I" beam construction is shown
+in photograph on <a href="#STANDARD_STEEL_CONSTRUCTION_IN_TUNNELmdashTHIRD_RAIL_PROTECTION_NOT_SHOWN">page 28</a> and drawing on this <a href="#TYPICAL_SECTION_OF_FOUR_TRACK_SUBWAY">page</a>]. The bottom
+is of concrete. The side walls have "I" beam columns five feet apart,
+between which are vertical concrete arches, the steel acting as a
+support for the masonry and allowing the thickness of the walls to be
+materially reduced from that necessary were nothing but concrete used.
+The tops of the wall columns are connected by roof beams which are
+supported by rows of steel columns between the tracks, built on
+concrete and cut stone bases forming part of the floor system.
+Concrete arches between the roof beams complete the top of the subway.
+Such a structure is not impervious, and hence, there has been laid
+behind the side walls, under the floor and over the roof a course of
+two to eight thicknesses of felt, each washed with hot asphalt as
+laid. In addition to this precaution against dampness, in three
+sections of the subway (viz.: on Elm Street between Pearl and Grand
+Streets, and on the approaches to the Harlem River tunnel, and on the
+Battery Park Loop) the felt waterproofing has been made more effective
+by one or two courses of hard-burned brick laid in hot asphalt, after
+the manner sometimes employed in constructing the linings of
+reservoirs of waterworks.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="TYPICAL_SECTION_OF_FOUR_TRACK_SUBWAY" id="TYPICAL_SECTION_OF_FOUR_TRACK_SUBWAY"></a>
+<a href="images/image037.png"><img src="images/image037_th.png" width="600" height="254" alt="TYPICAL SECTION OF FOUR TRACK SUBWAY" title="TYPICAL SECTION OF FOUR TRACK SUBWAY" /></a>
+<span class="caption">TYPICAL SECTION OF FOUR TRACK SUBWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image038.jpg" width="500" height="386" alt="FOUR-TRACK SUBWAY&mdash;SHOWING CROSS-OVER SOUTH OF 18TH
+STREET STATION" title="FOUR-TRACK SUBWAY&mdash;SHOWING CROSS-OVER SOUTH OF 18TH
+STREET STATION" />
+<span class="caption">FOUR-TRACK SUBWAY&mdash;SHOWING CROSS-OVER SOUTH OF 18TH
+STREET STATION</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In front of the waterproofing, immediately behind the steel columns,
+are the systems of terra-cotta ducts in which the electric cables are
+placed. The cables can be reached by means of manholes every 200 to
+450 feet, which open into the subway and also into the street. The
+number of these ducts ranges from 128 down to 32, and they are
+connected with the main power station at 58th and 59th Streets and the
+Hudson River by a 128-duct subway under the former street.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Reinforced
+Concrete
+Construction</i></div>
+
+<p>The reinforced concrete construction substitutes for the steel roof
+beams, steel rods, approximating 1-1/4 inches square, laid in varying
+distances according to the different roof loads, from six to ten
+inches apart. Rods 1-1/8 inches in diameter tie the side walls,
+passing through angle columns in the walls and the bulb-angle columns
+in the center. Layers of concrete are laid over the roof rods to a
+thickness of from eighteen to thirty inches, and carried two inches
+below the rods, imbedding them. For the sides similar square rods and
+concrete are used and angle columns five feet apart. The concrete of
+the side walls is from fifteen to eighteen inches thick. This type is
+shown by photographs on <a href="#Page_41">page 41</a>. The rods used are of both square
+and twisted form.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image039a.jpg" width="500" height="317" alt="LAYING SHEET WATERPROOFING IN BOTTOM" title="LAYING SHEET WATERPROOFING IN BOTTOM" />
+<span class="caption">LAYING SHEET WATERPROOFING IN BOTTOM</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image039b.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="SPECIAL BRICK AND ASPHALT WATERPROOFING" title="SPECIAL BRICK AND ASPHALT WATERPROOFING" />
+<span class="caption">SPECIAL BRICK AND ASPHALT WATERPROOFING</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote"><i>Methods of
+Construction
+Typical
+Subway</i></div>
+
+<p>The construction of the typical subway has been carried on by a great
+variety of methods, partly adopted on account of the conditions under
+which the work had to be prosecuted and partly due to the personal
+views of the different sub-contractors. The work was all done by open
+excavation, the so-called "cut and cover" system, but the conditions
+varied widely along different parts of the line, and different means
+were adopted to overcome local difficulties. The distance of the rock
+surface below the street level had a marked influence on the manner in
+which the excavation of the open trenches could be made. In some
+places this rock rose nearly to the pavement, as between 14th and 18th
+Streets. At other places the subway is located in water-bearing loam
+and sand, as in the stretch between Pearl and Grand Streets, where it
+was necessary to employ a special design for the bottom, which is
+illustrated by drawing on <a href="#Page_42">page 42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>This part of the route includes the former site of the ancient Collect
+Pond, familiar in the early history of New York, and the excavation
+was through made ground, the pond having been filled in for building
+purposes after it was abandoned for supplying water to the city. The
+excavations through Canal Street, adjacent, were also through made
+ground, that street having been at one time, as its name implies, a
+canal.</p>
+
+<p>From the City Hall to 9th Street was sand, presenting no particular
+difficulties except through the territory just described.</p>
+
+<p>At Union Square rock was encountered on the west side of Fourth Avenue
+from the surface down. On the east side of the street, however, at the
+surface was sand, which extended 15 feet down to a sloping rock
+surface. The tendency of the sand to a slide off into the rock
+excavation required great care. The work was done, however, without
+interference with the street traffic, which is particularly heavy at
+that point.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image040.jpg" width="500" height="344" alt="DUCTS IN SIDE WALLS&mdash;EIGHT ONLY OF THE SIXTEEN LAYERS
+ARE SHOWN" title="DUCTS IN SIDE WALLS&mdash;EIGHT ONLY OF THE SIXTEEN LAYERS
+ARE SHOWN" />
+<span class="caption">DUCTS IN SIDE WALLS&mdash;EIGHT ONLY OF THE SIXTEEN LAYERS
+ARE SHOWN</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image041a.jpg" width="500" height="304" alt="REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION" title="REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION" />
+<span class="caption">REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image041b.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="ROOF SHOWING CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION&mdash;LENOX AVENUE
+AND 140TH-141ST STREETS" title="ROOF SHOWING CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION&mdash;LENOX AVENUE
+AND 140TH-141ST STREETS" />
+<span class="caption">ROOF SHOWING CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION&mdash;LENOX AVENUE
+AND 140TH-141ST STREETS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image042.png"><img src="images/image042_th.png" width="600" height="310" alt="SECTION OF SUBWAY AT PEARL STREET
+This construction was made necessary by encountering a layer of Peat
+resting on Clay" title="SECTION OF SUBWAY AT PEARL STREET
+This construction was made necessary by encountering a layer of Peat
+resting on Clay" /></a>
+<span class="caption">SECTION OF SUBWAY AT PEARL STREET<br />
+This construction was made necessary by encountering a layer of Peat
+resting on Clay</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="SURFACE_RAILWAY_TRACKS_SUPPORTED_OVER_EXCAVATION_ON_UPPER_BROADWAY" id="SURFACE_RAILWAY_TRACKS_SUPPORTED_OVER_EXCAVATION_ON_UPPER_BROADWAY"></a>
+<img src="images/image042.jpg" width="500" height="338" alt="SURFACE RAILWAY TRACKS SUPPORTED OVER EXCAVATION ON
+UPPER BROADWAY" title="SURFACE RAILWAY TRACKS SUPPORTED OVER EXCAVATION ON
+UPPER BROADWAY" />
+<span class="caption">SURFACE RAILWAY TRACKS SUPPORTED OVER EXCAVATION ON
+UPPER BROADWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image043.jpg" width="500" height="327" alt="SUBDIVISION OF 36&quot; AND 30&quot; GAS MAINS OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY&mdash;66TH STREET AND BROADWAY" title="SUBDIVISION OF 36&quot; AND 30&quot; GAS MAINS OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY&mdash;66TH STREET AND BROADWAY" />
+<span class="caption">SUBDIVISION OF 36&quot; AND 30&quot; GAS MAINS OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY&mdash;66TH STREET AND BROADWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The natural difficulties of the route were increased by the network of
+sewers, water and gas mains, steam pipes, pneumatic tubes, electric
+conduits and their accessories, which filled the streets; and by the
+surface railways and their conduits. In some places the columns of the
+elevated railway had to be shored up temporarily, and in other places
+the subway passes close to the foundations of lofty buildings, where
+the construction needed to insure the safety of both subway and
+buildings was quite intricate. As the subway is close to the surface
+along a considerable part of its route, its construction involved the
+reconstruction of all the underground pipes and ducts in many places,
+as well as the removal of projecting vaults and buildings, and, in
+some cases, the underpinning of their walls. A description in detail
+of the methods of construction followed all along the line would make
+an interesting book of itself. Space will only permit, however, an
+account of how some of the more serious difficulties were overcome.</p>
+
+<p>On Fourth Avenue, north of Union Square to 33d Street, there were two
+electric conduit railway tracks in the center of the roadway and a
+horse car track near each curb part of the distance. The two electric
+car tracks were used for traffic which could not be interrupted,
+although the horse car tracks could be removed without inconvenience.
+These conditions rendered it impracticable to disturb the center of
+the roadway, while permitting excavation near the curb. Well-timbered
+shafts about 8 x 10 feet, in plan, were sunk along one curb line and
+tunnels driven from them toward the other side of the street, stopping
+about 3-1/2 feet beyond its center line. A bed of concrete was laid on
+the bottom of each tunnel, and, when it had set, a heavy vertical
+trestle was built on it. In this way trestles were built half across
+the street, strong <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>enough to carry all the street cars and traffic on
+that half of the roadway. Cableways to handle the dirt were erected
+near the curb line, spanning a number of these trestles, and then the
+earth between them was excavated from the curb to within a few feet of
+the nearest electric car track. The horse car tracks were removed.
+Between the electric tracks a trench was dug until its bottom was
+level with the tops of the trestles, about three feet below the
+surface as a rule. A pair of heavy steel beams was then laid in this
+trench on the trestles. Between these beams and the curb line a second
+pair of beams were placed. In this way the equivalent of a bridge was
+put up, the trestles acting as piers and the beams as girders. The
+central portion of the roadway was then undermined and supported by
+timbering suspended from the steel beams. The various gas and water
+pipes were hung from timbers at the surface of the ground. About four
+sections, or 150 feet, of the subway were built at a time in this
+manner. When the work was completed along one side of the street it
+was repeated in the same manner on the other side. This method of
+construction was subsequently modified so as to permit work on both
+sides of the street simultaneously. The manner in which the central
+part of the roadway was supported remained the same and all of the
+traffic was diverted to this strip.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<img src="images/image044.jpg" width="360" height="277" alt="SUPPORT OF ELEVATED RAILWAY STATION AT 42D STREET AND
+SIXTH AVENUE" title="SUPPORT OF ELEVATED RAILWAY STATION AT 42D STREET AND
+SIXTH AVENUE" />
+<span class="caption">SUPPORT OF ELEVATED RAILWAY STATION AT 42D STREET AND
+SIXTH AVENUE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Between 14th and 17th Streets, because of the proximity of the rock to
+the surface, it was necessary to move the tracks of the electric
+surface railway from the center of the street some twenty feet to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>the
+east curb, without interrupting traffic, which was very heavy at all
+times, the line being one of the main arteries of the Metropolitan
+system. Four 12 x 12-inch timbers were laid upon the surface. Standard
+cast-iron yokes were placed upon the timbers at the usual distance
+apart. Upon this structure the regular track and slot rails were
+placed. The space between the rails was floored over. Wooden boxes
+were temporarily laid for the electric cables. The usual hand holes
+and other accessories were built and the road operated on this timber
+roadbed. The removal of the tracks was made necessary because the rock
+beneath them and the concrete around the yokes was so closely united
+as to be practically monolithic, precluding the use of explosives.
+Attempts to remove the rock from under the track demonstrated that it
+could not be done without destroying the yokes of the surface railway.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="SUPPORTING_ELEVATED_RAILROAD_BY_EXTENSION_GIRDERmdash64TH_STREET_AND_BROADWAY" id="SUPPORTING_ELEVATED_RAILROAD_BY_EXTENSION_GIRDERmdash64TH_STREET_AND_BROADWAY"></a>
+<img src="images/image045.jpg" width="500" height="407" alt="SUPPORTING ELEVATED RAILROAD BY EXTENSION GIRDER&mdash;64TH
+STREET AND BROADWAY" title="SUPPORTING ELEVATED RAILROAD BY EXTENSION GIRDER&mdash;64TH
+STREET AND BROADWAY" />
+<span class="caption">SUPPORTING ELEVATED RAILROAD BY EXTENSION GIRDER&mdash;64TH
+STREET AND BROADWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The method of undermining the tracks on Broadway from 60th to 104th
+Streets was entirely different, for the conditions were not the same.
+The street is a wide one with a 22-foot parkway in the center, an
+electric conduit railway on either side, and outside each track a wide
+roadway. The subway excavation extended about 10 feet outside each
+track, leaving between it and the curb ample room for vehicles. The
+construction problem, therefore, was to care for the car tracks with a
+minimum interference with the excavation. This was accomplished by
+temporary bridges for each track, each bridge consisting of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>a pair of
+timber trusses about 55 feet long, braced together overhead high
+enough to let a car pass below the bracing. These trusses were set up
+on crib-work supports at each end, and the track hung from the lower
+chords. (See photograph on<a href="#SURFACE_RAILWAY_TRACKS_SUPPORTED_OVER_EXCAVATION_ON_UPPER_BROADWAY"> page 42</a>.) The excavation then proceeded
+until the trench was finished and posts could be put into place
+between its bottom and the track. When the track was securely
+supported in this way, the trusses were lifted on flat cars and moved
+ahead 50 feet.</p>
+
+<p>At 66th Street station the subway roof was about 2 feet from the
+electric railway yokes and structures of the street surface line. In
+order to build at this point it was necessary to remove two large gas
+mains, one 30 inches and the other 36 inches in diameter, and
+substitute for them, in troughs built between the roof beams of the
+subway, five smaller gas mains, each 24 inches in diameter. This was
+done without interrupting the use of the mains.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="MOVING_BRICK_AND_CONCRETE_RETAINING_WALL_TO_MAKE_ROOM_FOR_THIRD_TRACKmdashBROADWAY_AND_134TH_STREET" id="MOVING_BRICK_AND_CONCRETE_RETAINING_WALL_TO_MAKE_ROOM_FOR_THIRD_TRACKmdashBROADWAY_AND_134TH_STREET"></a>
+<img src="images/image046.jpg" width="500" height="396" alt="MOVING BRICK AND CONCRETE RETAINING WALL TO MAKE ROOM
+FOR THIRD TRACK&mdash;BROADWAY AND 134TH STREET" title="MOVING BRICK AND CONCRETE RETAINING WALL TO MAKE ROOM
+FOR THIRD TRACK&mdash;BROADWAY AND 134TH STREET" />
+<span class="caption">MOVING BRICK AND CONCRETE RETAINING WALL TO MAKE ROOM
+FOR THIRD TRACK&mdash;BROADWAY AND 134TH STREET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>At the station on 42d Street, between Park and Madison Avenues, where
+there are five subway tracks, and along 42d Street to Broadway, a
+special method of construction was employed which was not followed
+elsewhere. The excavation here was about 35 feet deep and extended 10
+to 15 feet into rock. A trench 30 feet wide was first sunk on the
+south side of the street and the subway built in it for a width of two
+tracks. Then, at intervals of 50 feet, tunnels were driven toward the
+north side of the street. Their tops were about 4 feet above the roof
+of the subway and their bottoms were on the roof. When they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>had been
+driven just beyond the line of the fourth track, their ends were
+connected by a tunnel parallel with the axis of the subway. The rock
+in the bottom of all these tunnels was then excavated to its final
+depth. In the small tunnel parallel with the subway axis, a bed of
+concrete was placed and the third row of steel columns was erected
+ready to carry the steel and concrete roof. When this work was
+completed, the earth between the traverse tunnels was excavated, the
+material above being supported on poling boards and struts. The roof
+of the subway was then extended sidewise over the rock below from the
+second to the third row of columns, and it was not until the roof was
+finished that the rock beneath was excavated. In this way the subway
+was finished for a width of four tracks. For the fifth track the earth
+was removed by tunneling to the limits of the subway, and then the
+rock below was blasted out.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="MOVING_WEST_SIDE_WALL_TO_WIDEN_SUBWAY_FOR_THIRD_TRACKmdash135TH_STREET_AND_BROADWAY" id="MOVING_WEST_SIDE_WALL_TO_WIDEN_SUBWAY_FOR_THIRD_TRACKmdash135TH_STREET_AND_BROADWAY"></a>
+<img src="images/image047a.jpg" width="400" height="404" alt="MOVING WEST SIDE WALL TO WIDEN SUBWAY FOR THIRD
+TRACK&mdash;135TH STREET AND BROADWAY" title="MOVING WEST SIDE WALL TO WIDEN SUBWAY FOR THIRD
+TRACK&mdash;135TH STREET AND BROADWAY" />
+<span class="caption">MOVING WEST SIDE WALL TO WIDEN SUBWAY FOR THIRD
+TRACK&mdash;135TH STREET AND BROADWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="SUBWAY_THROUGH_NEW_quotTIMESquot_BUILDING_SHOWING_INDEPENDENT_CONSTRUCTIONmdashTHE_WORKMEN_STAND_ON_FLOOR_GIRDERS_OF_SUBWAY" id="SUBWAY_THROUGH_NEW_quotTIMESquot_BUILDING_SHOWING_INDEPENDENT_CONSTRUCTIONmdashTHE_WORKMEN_STAND_ON_FLOOR_GIRDERS_OF_SUBWAY"></a>
+<img src="images/image047b.jpg" width="500" height="403" alt="SUBWAY THROUGH NEW &quot;TIMES&quot; BUILDING, SHOWING
+INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION&mdash;THE WORKMEN STAND ON FLOOR GIRDERS OF
+SUBWAY" title="SUBWAY THROUGH NEW &quot;TIMES&quot; BUILDING, SHOWING
+INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION&mdash;THE WORKMEN STAND ON FLOOR GIRDERS OF
+SUBWAY" />
+<span class="caption">SUBWAY THROUGH NEW &quot;TIMES&quot; BUILDING, SHOWING
+INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION&mdash;THE WORKMEN STAND ON FLOOR GIRDERS OF
+SUBWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image048.jpg" width="500" height="355" alt="COLUMNS OF HOTEL BELMONT, PASSING THROUGH SUBWAY AT 42D
+STREET AND PARK AVENUE" title="COLUMNS OF HOTEL BELMONT, PASSING THROUGH SUBWAY AT 42D
+STREET AND PARK AVENUE" />
+<span class="caption">COLUMNS OF HOTEL BELMONT, PASSING THROUGH SUBWAY AT 42D
+STREET AND PARK AVENUE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>In a number of places it was necessary to underpin the columns of the
+elevated railways, and a variety of methods were adopted for the work.
+A typical example of the difficulties involved was afforded at the
+Manhattan Railway Elevated Station at Sixth Avenue and 42d Street. The
+stairways of this station were directly over the open excavation for
+the subway in the latter thoroughfare and were used by a large number
+of people. The work was done in the same manner at each of the four
+corners. Two narrow pits about 40 feet apart, were first sunk and
+their bottoms covered with concrete at the elevation of the floor of
+the subway. A trestle was built in each pit, and on these were placed
+a pair of 3-foot plate girders, one on each side of the elevated
+column, which was midway between the trestles. The column was then
+riveted to the girders and was thus held independent of its original
+foundations. Other pits were then sunk under the stairway and trestles
+built in them to support it. When this work was completed it was
+possible to carry out the remaining excavation without interfering
+with the elevated railway traffic.</p>
+
+<p>At 64th Street and Broadway, also, the whole elevated railway had to
+be supported during construction. A temporary wooden bent was used to
+carry the elevated structure. The elevated columns were removed until
+the subway structure was completed at that point. (See photograph on
+<a href="#SUPPORTING_ELEVATED_RAILROAD_BY_EXTENSION_GIRDERmdash64TH_STREET_AND_BROADWAY">page 45</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image049a.jpg" width="500" height="338" alt="SMALL WATER MAINS BETWEEN STREET SURFACE AND SUBWAY
+ROOF, SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE LARGE MAIN&mdash;125TH STREET AND LENOX AVE." title="SMALL WATER MAINS BETWEEN STREET SURFACE AND SUBWAY
+ROOF, SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE LARGE MAIN&mdash;125TH STREET AND LENOX AVE." />
+<span class="caption">SMALL WATER MAINS BETWEEN STREET SURFACE AND SUBWAY
+ROOF, SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE LARGE MAIN&mdash;125TH STREET AND LENOX AVE.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image049b.jpg" width="300" height="371" alt="SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION OF 6-1/2-FOOT SEWER, UNDER CHATHAM
+SQUARE" title="SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION OF 6-1/2-FOOT SEWER, UNDER CHATHAM
+SQUARE" />
+<span class="caption">SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION OF 6-1/2-FOOT SEWER, UNDER CHATHAM
+SQUARE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>A feature of the construction which attracted considerable public
+attention while it was in progress, was the underpinning of a part of
+the Columbus Monument near the southwest entrance to Central Park.
+This handsome memorial column has a stone shaft rising about 75 feet
+above the street level and weighs about 700 tons. The rubble masonry
+foundation is 45 feet square and rests on a 2-foot course of concrete.
+The subway passes under its east side within 3 feet of its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>center,
+thus cutting out about three-tenths of the original support. At this
+place the footing was on dry sand of considerable depth, but on the
+other side of the monument rock rose within 3 feet of the surface. The
+steep slope of the rock surface toward the subway necessitated
+particular care in underpinning the footings. The work was done by
+first driving a tunnel 6 feet wide and 7 feet high under the monument
+just outside the wall line of the subway. The tunnel was given a
+2-foot bottom of concrete as a support for a row of wood posts a foot
+square, which were put in every 5 feet to carry the footing above.
+When these posts were securely wedged in place the tunnel was filled
+with rubble masonry. This wall was strong enough to carry the weight
+of the portion of the monument over the subway, but the monument had
+to be supported to prevent its breaking off when undermined. To
+support it thus a small tunnel was driven through the rubble masonry
+foundation just below the street level and a pair of plate girders run
+through it. A trestle bent was then built under each end of the
+girders in the finished excavation for the subway. The girders were
+wedged up against the top of the tunnel in the masonry and the
+excavation was carried out under the monument without any injury to
+that structure.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="THREE_PIPES_SUBSTITUTED_FOR_LARGE_BRICK_SEWER_AT_110TH_STREET_AND_LENOX_AVENUE" id="THREE_PIPES_SUBSTITUTED_FOR_LARGE_BRICK_SEWER_AT_110TH_STREET_AND_LENOX_AVENUE"></a>
+<img src="images/image050.jpg" width="500" height="401" alt="THREE PIPES SUBSTITUTED FOR LARGE BRICK SEWER AT 110TH
+STREET AND LENOX AVENUE" title="THREE PIPES SUBSTITUTED FOR LARGE BRICK SEWER AT 110TH
+STREET AND LENOX AVENUE" />
+<span class="caption">THREE PIPES SUBSTITUTED FOR LARGE BRICK SEWER AT 110TH
+STREET AND LENOX AVENUE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image051a.jpg" width="350" height="443" alt="SEWER SIPHON AT 149TH STREET AND RAILROAD AVENUE" title="SEWER SIPHON AT 149TH STREET AND RAILROAD AVENUE" />
+<span class="caption">SEWER SIPHON AT 149TH STREET AND RAILROAD AVENUE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image051b.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF ELECTRIC DUCT MANHOLE&mdash;BROADWAY
+AND 58TH STREET" title="CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF ELECTRIC DUCT MANHOLE&mdash;BROADWAY
+AND 58TH STREET" />
+<span class="caption">CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF ELECTRIC DUCT MANHOLE&mdash;BROADWAY
+AND 58TH STREET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>At 134th Street and Broadway a two-track structure of the steel beam
+type about 200 feet long was completed. Approaching it from the south,
+leading from Manhattan Valley Viaduct, was an open cut with retaining
+walls 300 feet long and from 3 to 13 feet in height. After all this
+work was finished (and it happened to be the first finished on the
+subway), it was decided to widen the road to three tracks, and a
+unique piece of work was successfully accomplished. The retaining
+walls were moved bodily on slides, by means of jacks, to a line 6-1/4
+feet on each side, widening the roadbed 12-1/2 feet, without a break
+in either wall. The method of widening the steel-beam typical subway
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>portion was equally novel. The west wall was moved bodily by jacks
+the necessary distance to bring it in line with the new position of
+the west retaining wall. The remainder of the structure was then moved
+bodily, also by jacks, 6-1/4 feet to the east. The new roof of the
+usual type was then added over 12-1/2 feet of additional opening. (See
+photographs on pages <a href="#MOVING_BRICK_AND_CONCRETE_RETAINING_WALL_TO_MAKE_ROOM_FOR_THIRD_TRACKmdashBROADWAY_AND_134TH_STREET">46</a> and <a href="#MOVING_WEST_SIDE_WALL_TO_WIDEN_SUBWAY_FOR_THIRD_TRACKmdash135TH_STREET_AND_BROADWAY">47</a>.)<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image052a.jpg" width="350" height="385" alt="CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF SIDE WALL, BROADWAY AND 56TH
+STREET" title="CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF SIDE WALL, BROADWAY AND 56TH
+STREET" />
+<span class="caption">CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF SIDE WALL, BROADWAY AND 56TH
+STREET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image052b.jpg" width="500" height="402" alt="LARGE GAS AND WATER PIPES, RELAID BEHIND EACH SIDE WALL
+ON ELM STREET" title="LARGE GAS AND WATER PIPES, RELAID BEHIND EACH SIDE WALL
+ON ELM STREET" />
+<span class="caption">LARGE GAS AND WATER PIPES, RELAID BEHIND EACH SIDE WALL
+ON ELM STREET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Provision had to be made, not only for buildings along the route that
+towered far above the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>street surface, but also for some which
+burrowed far below the subway. Photograph on <a href="#SUBWAY_THROUGH_NEW_quotTIMESquot_BUILDING_SHOWING_INDEPENDENT_CONSTRUCTIONmdashTHE_WORKMEN_STAND_ON_FLOOR_GIRDERS_OF_SUBWAY">page 47</a> shows an
+interesting example at 42d Street and Broadway, where the pressroom of
+the new building of the "New York Times" is beneath the subway, the
+first floor is above it, and the first basement is alongside of it.
+Incidentally it should be noted that the steel structure of the
+building and the subway are independent, the columns of the building
+passing through the subway station.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image053.jpg" width="500" height="406" alt="DIFFICULT PIPE WORK&mdash;BROADWAY AND 70TH STREET" title="DIFFICULT PIPE WORK&mdash;BROADWAY AND 70TH STREET" />
+<span class="caption">DIFFICULT PIPE WORK&mdash;BROADWAY AND 70TH STREET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>At 42d Street and Park Avenue the road passes under the Hotel Belmont,
+which necessitated the use of extra heavy steel girders and
+foundations for the support of the hotel and reinforced subway
+station. (See photograph on <a href="#Page_48">page 48</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Along the east side of Park Row the ascending line of the "loop" was
+built through the pressroom of the "New York Times" (the older
+downtown building), and as the excavation was considerably below the
+bottom of the foundation of the building, great care was necessary to
+avoid any settlement. Instead of wood sheathing, steel channels were
+driven and thoroughly braced, and construction proceeded without
+disturbance of the building, which is very tall.</p>
+
+<p>At 125th Street and Lenox Avenue one of the most complicated network
+of subsurface structures was encountered. Street surface electric
+lines with their conduits intersect. On the south side of 125th Street
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>were a 48-inch water main and a 6-inch water main, a 12-inch and two
+10-inch gas pipes and a bank of electric light and power ducts. On the
+north side were a 20-inch water main, one 6-inch, one 10-inch, and one
+12-inch gas pipe and two banks of electric ducts. The headroom between
+the subway roof and the surface of the street was 4.75 feet. It was
+necessary to relocate the yokes of the street railway tracks on Lenox
+Avenue so as to bring them directly over the tunnel roof-beams.
+Between the lower flanges of the roof-beams, for four bents, were laid
+heavy steel plates well stiffened, and in these troughs were laid four
+20-inch pipes, which carried the water of the 48-inch main. (See
+photograph on <a href="#Page_49">page 49</a>.) Special castings were necessary to make
+the connections at each end. The smaller pipes and ducts were
+rearranged and carried over the roof or laid in troughs composed of
+3-inch I-beams laid on the lower flanges of the roof-beams. In
+addition to all the transverse pipes, there were numerous pipes and
+duct lines to be relaid and rebuilt parallel to the subway and around
+the station. The change was accomplished without stopping or delaying
+the street cars. The water mains were shut off for only a few hours.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image054.jpg" width="500" height="386" alt="SPECIAL RIVETED RECTANGULAR WATER PIPE, OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY AT 126TH STREET AND LENOX AVENUE" title="SPECIAL RIVETED RECTANGULAR WATER PIPE, OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY AT 126TH STREET AND LENOX AVENUE" />
+<span class="caption">SPECIAL RIVETED RECTANGULAR WATER PIPE, OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY AT 126TH STREET AND LENOX AVENUE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>As has been said, the typical subway near the surface was used for
+about one-half of the road. Since the sewers were at such a depth as
+to interfere with the construction of the subway, it meant that the
+sewers along that half had to be reconstructed. This indicates but
+very partially the magnitude of the sewer work, however, because
+nearly as many main sewers had to be reconstructed off the route of
+the subway as on the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>route; 7.21 miles of main sewers along the route
+were reconstructed and 5.13 miles of main sewers off the route. The
+reason why so many main sewers on streets away from the subway had to
+be rebuilt, was that, from 42d Street, south, there is a natural
+ridge, and before the construction of the subway sewers drained to the
+East River and to the North River from the ridge. The route of the
+subway was so near to the dividing line that the only way to care for
+the sewers was, in many instances, to build entirely new outfall
+sewers.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image055.jpg" width="500" height="419" alt="THREE-TRACK CONCRETE ARCH&mdash;117TH STREET AND BROADWAY" title="THREE-TRACK CONCRETE ARCH&mdash;117TH STREET AND BROADWAY" />
+<span class="caption">THREE-TRACK CONCRETE ARCH&mdash;117TH STREET AND BROADWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>A notable example of sewer diversion was at Canal Street, where the
+flow of the sewer was carried into the East River instead of into the
+Hudson River, permitting the sewer to be bulkheaded on the west side
+and continued in use. On the east side a new main sewer was
+constructed to empty into the East River. The new east-side sewer was
+built off the route of the subway for over a mile. An interesting
+feature in the construction was the work at Chatham Square, where a
+6-1/2-foot circular brick conduit was built. The conjunction at this
+point of numerous electric surface car lines, elevated railroad
+pillars, and enormous vehicular street traffic, made it imperative
+that the surface of the street should not be disturbed, and the sewer
+was built by tunneling. This tunneling was through very fine running
+sand and the section to be excavated was small. To meet these
+conditions a novel method of construction was used. Interlocked
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>poling boards were employed to support the roof and were driven by
+lever jacks, somewhat as a shield is driven in the shield system of
+tunneling. The forward ends of the poling boards were supported by a
+cantilever beam. The sides and front of the excavation were supported
+by lagging boards laid flat against and over strips of canvas, which
+were rolled down as the excavation progressed. The sewer was completed
+and lined in lengths of from 1 foot to 4-1/2 feet, and at the maximum
+rate of work about 12 feet of sewer were finished per week.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="CONSTRUCTION_OF_FORT_GEORGE_TUNNEL" id="CONSTRUCTION_OF_FORT_GEORGE_TUNNEL"></a>
+<img src="images/image056.jpg" width="500" height="410" alt="CONSTRUCTION OF FORT GEORGE TUNNEL" title="CONSTRUCTION OF FORT GEORGE TUNNEL" />
+<span class="caption">CONSTRUCTION OF FORT GEORGE TUNNEL</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>At 110th Street and Lenox Avenue a 6-1/2-foot circular brick sewer
+intersected the line of the subway at a level which necessitated its
+removal or subdivision. The latter expedient was adopted, and three
+42-inch cast-iron pipes were passed under the subway. (See photograph
+on<a href="#THREE_PIPES_SUBSTITUTED_FOR_LARGE_BRICK_SEWER_AT_110TH_STREET_AND_LENOX_AVENUE"> page 50</a>.) At 149th Street and Railroad Avenue a sewer had to be
+lowered below tide level in order to cross under the subway. To do
+this two permanent inverted siphons were built of 48-inch cast-iron
+pipe. Two were built in order that one might be used, while the other
+could be shut off for cleaning, and they have proved very
+satisfactory. This was the only instance where siphons were used. In
+this connection it is worthy of note that the general changes referred
+to gave to the city much better sewers as substitutes for the old
+ones.</p>
+
+<p>A number of interesting methods of providing for subsurface structures
+are shown in photographs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>pages <a href="#Page_51">51</a> to <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. From the General
+Post-office at Park Row to 28th Street, just below the surface, there
+is a system of pneumatic mail tubes for postal delivery. Of course,
+absolutely no change in alignment could be permitted while these tubes
+were in use carrying mail. It was necessary, therefore, to support
+them very carefully. The slightest deviation in alignment would have
+stopped the service.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image057a.jpg" width="350" height="352" alt="TWO COLUMN BENT VIADUCT" title="TWO COLUMN BENT VIADUCT" />
+<span class="caption">TWO COLUMN BENT VIADUCT</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image057b.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="TRAVELER FOR ERECTING FORMS, CENTRAL PARK TUNNEL&mdash;(IN
+THIS TUNNEL DUCTS ARE BUILT IN THE SIDEWALLS)" title="TRAVELER FOR ERECTING FORMS, CENTRAL PARK TUNNEL&mdash;(IN
+THIS TUNNEL DUCTS ARE BUILT IN THE SIDEWALLS)" />
+<span class="caption">TRAVELER FOR ERECTING FORMS, CENTRAL PARK TUNNEL&mdash;(IN
+THIS TUNNEL DUCTS ARE BUILT IN THE SIDEWALLS)</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Concrete-lined
+Tunnel</i></div>
+
+<p>Between 33d Street and 42d Street under Park Avenue, between 116th
+Street and 120th Street under Broadway, between 157th Street and Fort
+George <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>under Broadway and Eleventh Avenue (the second longest
+double-track rock tunnel in the United States, the Hoosac tunnel being
+the only one of greater length), and between 104th Street and Broadway
+under Central Park to Lenox Avenue, the road is in rock tunnel lined
+with concrete. From 116th Street to 120th Street the tunnel is 37-1/2
+feet wide, one of the widest concrete arches in the world. On the
+section from Broadway and 103d Street to Lenox Avenue and 110th Street
+under Central Park, a two-track subway was driven through micaceous
+rock by taking out top headings and then two full-width benches. The
+work was done from two shafts and one portal. All drilling for the
+headings was done by an eight-hour night shift, using percussion
+drills. The blasting was done early in the morning and the day gang
+removed the spoil, which was hauled to the shafts and the portal in
+cars drawn by mules. A large part of the rock was crushed for
+concrete. The concrete floor was the first part of the lining to be
+put in place. Rails were laid on it for a traveler having moulds
+attached to its sides, against which the walls were built. A similar
+traveler followed with the centering for the arch roof, a length of
+about 50 feet being completed at one operation.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image058a.jpg" width="350" height="337" alt="FOUR COLUMN (TOWER) VIADUCT CONSTRUCTION" title="FOUR COLUMN (TOWER) VIADUCT CONSTRUCTION" />
+<span class="caption">FOUR COLUMN (TOWER) VIADUCT CONSTRUCTION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image058b.jpg" width="500" height="394" alt="MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT, LOOKING NORTH" title="MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT, LOOKING NORTH" />
+<span class="caption">MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT, LOOKING NORTH</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a><br /><br /></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image059.jpg" width="500" height="413" alt="ERECTION OF ARCH, MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT" title="ERECTION OF ARCH, MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT" />
+<span class="caption">ERECTION OF ARCH, MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>On the Park Avenue section from 34th Street to 41st Street two
+separate double-track tunnels were driven below a double-track
+electric railway tunnel, one on each side. The work was done from four
+shafts, one at each end of each tunnel. At first, top headings were
+employed at the north ends of both tunnels and at the south end of the
+west tunnel; at the south end of the east tunnel a bottom heading was
+used. Later, a bottom heading was also used at the south end of the
+west tunnel. The rock was very irregular and treacherous in character,
+and the strata inclined so as to make the danger of slips a serious
+one. The two headings of the west tunnel met in February and those of
+the east tunnel in March, 1902, and the widening of the tunnels to the
+full section was immediately begun. Despite the adoption of every
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>precaution suggested by experience in such work, some disturbance of
+the surface above the east tunnel resulted, and several house fronts
+were damaged. The portion of the tunnel affected was bulkheaded at
+each end, packed with rubble and grouted with Portland cement mortar
+injected under pressure through pipes sunk from the street surface
+above. When the interior was firm, the tunnel was redriven, using much
+the same methods that are employed for tunnels through earth when the
+arch lining is built before the central core, or dumpling of earth, is
+removed. The work had to be done very slowly to prevent any further
+settlement of the ground, and the completion of the widening of the
+other parts of the tunnels also proceeded very slowly, because as soon
+as the slip occurred a large amount of timbering was introduced, which
+interfered seriously with the operations. After the lining was
+completed, Portland cement grout was again injected under pressure,
+through holes left in the roof, until further movement of the fill
+overhead was absolutely prevented.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image060.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="COMPLETED ARCH AT MANHATTAN STREET" title="COMPLETED ARCH AT MANHATTAN STREET" />
+<span class="caption">COMPLETED ARCH AT MANHATTAN STREET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>As has been said, the tunnel between 157th Street and Fort George is
+the second longest two-track tunnel in the United States. It was built
+in a remarkably short time, considering the fact that the work was
+prosecuted from two portal headings and from two shafts. One shaft was
+at 168th Street and the other at 181st Street, the work proceeding
+both north and south from each shaft. The method employed for the work
+(Photograph on <a href="#CONSTRUCTION_OF_FORT_GEORGE_TUNNEL">page 56</a>) was similar to that used under Central
+Park. The shafts at 168th Street and at 181st Street were located at
+those points so that they might be used for the permanent elevator
+equipment for the stations at these streets. These stations each have
+an arch span of about 50 feet, lined with brick.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Steel Viaduct</i></div>
+
+<p>The elevated viaduct construction extends from 125th Street to 133d
+Street and from Dyckman Street to Bailey Avenue on the western branch,
+and from Brook and Westchester Avenues to Bronx Park on the eastern, a
+total distance of about 5 miles. The three-track viaducts are carried
+on two column bents where <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>the rail is not more than 29 feet above the
+ground level, and on four-column towers for higher structures. In the
+latter case, the posts of a tower are 29 feet apart transversely and
+20 or 25 feet longitudinally, as a rule, and the towers are from 70 to
+90 feet apart on centers. The tops of the towers have X-bracing and
+the connecting spans have two panels of intermediate vertical sway
+bracing between the three pairs of longitudinal girders. In the low
+viaducts, where there are no towers, every fourth panel has zigzag
+lateral bracing in the two panels between the pairs of longitudinal
+girders.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image061.png"><img src="images/image061_th.png" width="600" height="140" alt="PROFILE OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL AND APPROACHES" title="PROFILE OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL AND APPROACHES" /></a>
+<span class="caption">PROFILE OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL AND APPROACHES</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image061.jpg" width="500" height="399" alt="SECTION OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL DURING CONSTRUCTION" title="SECTION OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL DURING CONSTRUCTION" />
+<span class="caption">SECTION OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL DURING CONSTRUCTION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image062.jpg" width="500" height="429" alt="ASSEMBLING IRON WORK ON PONTOON&mdash;HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL" title="ASSEMBLING IRON WORK ON PONTOON&mdash;HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL" />
+<span class="caption">ASSEMBLING IRON WORK ON PONTOON&mdash;HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The towers have columns consisting as a rule of a 16 x 7/16-inch web
+plate and four 6 x 4 x 5/8-inch bulb angles. The horizontal struts in
+their cross-bracing are made of four 4 x 3-inch angles, latticed to
+form an I-shaped cross-section. The X-bracing consists of single 5 x
+3-1/2-inch angles. The tops of the columns have horizontal cap angles
+on which are riveted the lower flanges of the transverse girders; the
+end angles of the girder and the top of the column are also connected
+by a riveted splice plate. The six longitudinal girders are
+web-riveted to the transverse girders. The outside longitudinal girder
+on each side of the viaduct has the same depth across the tower as in
+the connecting span, but the four intermediate lines are not so deep
+across the towers. In the single trestle bents the columns are the
+same as those just described, but the diagonal bracing is replaced by
+plate knee-braces.</p>
+
+<p>The Manhattan Valley Viaduct on the West Side line, has a total length
+of 2,174 feet. Its most important feature is a two-hinged arch of
+168-1/2 feet span, which carries platforms shaded by canopies, but no
+station buildings. The station is on the ground between the surface
+railway tracks. Access to the platforms is obtained by means of
+escalators. It has three lattice-girder two-hinge ribs 24-1/2 feet
+apart on centers, the center line of each rib being a parabola. Each
+half rib supports six spandrel posts carrying the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>roadway, the posts
+being seated directly over vertical web members of the rib. The chords
+of the ribs are 6 feet apart and of an H-section, having four 6 x
+6-inch angles and six 15-inch flange and web plates for the center rib
+and lighter sections for the outside ribs. The arch was erected
+without false work.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image063.jpg" width="500" height="390" alt="SHOWING CONCRETE OVER IRON WORK&mdash;HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL" title="SHOWING CONCRETE OVER IRON WORK&mdash;HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL" />
+<span class="caption">SHOWING CONCRETE OVER IRON WORK&mdash;HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The viaduct spans of either approach to the arch are 46 to 72 feet
+long. All transverse girders are 31 feet 4 inches long, and have a 70
+x 3/8-inch web plate and four 6 x 4-inch angles. The two outside
+longitudinal girders of deck spans are 72 inches deep and the other 36
+inches. All are 3/8-inch thick and their four flange angles vary in
+size from 5 x 3-1/2 to 6 x 6 inches, and on the longest spans there
+are flange plates. At each end of the viaduct there is a through span
+with 90-inch web longitudinal girders.</p>
+
+<p>Each track was proportioned for a dead load of 330 pounds per lineal
+foot and a live load of 25,000 pounds per axle. The axle spacing in
+the truck was 5 feet and the pairs of axles were alternately 27 and 9
+feet apart. The traction load was taken at 20 per cent. of the live
+load, and a wind pressure of 500 pounds per lineal foot was assumed
+over the whole structure.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Tubes under
+Harlem River</i></div>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting sections of the work is that which
+approaches and passes under the Harlem River, carrying the two tracks
+of the East Side line. The War Department required a minimum depth of
+20 feet in the river at low tide, which fixed the elevation of the
+roof of the submerged part of the tunnel. This part of the line, 641
+feet long, consists of twin single-track cast-iron cylinders 16 feet
+in diameter <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>enveloped in a large mass of concrete and lined with the
+same material. The approach on either side is a double-track concrete
+arched structure. The total length of the section is 1,500 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of construction employed were novel in subaqueous
+tunneling and are partly shown on photographs on pages <a href="#Page_62">62</a> and <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.
+The bed of the Harlem River at the point of tunneling consists of mud,
+silt, and sand, much of which was so nearly in a fluid condition that
+it was removed by means of a jet. The maximum depth of excavation was
+about 50 feet. Instead of employing the usual method of a shield and
+compressed air at high pressure, a much speedier device was contrived.</p>
+
+<p>The river crossing has been built in two sections. The west section
+was first built, the War Department having forbidden the closing of
+more than half the river at one time. A trench was dredged over the
+line of the tunnel about 50 feet wide and 39 feet below low water.
+This depth was about 10 feet above the sub-grade of the tunnel. Three
+rows of piles were next driven on each side of the trench from the
+west bank to the middle of the river and on them working platforms
+were built, forming two wharves 38 feet apart in the clear. Piles were
+then driven over the area to be covered by the subway, 6 feet 4 inches
+apart laterally and 8 feet longitudinally. They were cut off about 11
+feet above the center line of each tube and capped with timbers 12
+inches square. A thoroughly-trussed framework was then floated over
+the piles and sunk on them. The trusses were spaced so as to come
+between each transverse row of piles and were connected by eight
+longitudinal sticks or stringers, two at the top and two at the bottom
+on each side. The four at each side were just far enough apart to
+allow a special tongue and grooved 12-inch sheet piling to be driven
+between them. This sheathing was driven to a depth of 10 to 15 feet
+below the bottom of the finished tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>A well-calked roof of three courses of 12-inch timbers, separated by
+2-inch plank, was then floated over the piles and sunk. It had three
+timber shafts 7 x 17 feet in plan, and when it was in place and
+covered with earth it formed the top of a caisson with the sheet
+piling on the sides and ends, the latter being driven after the roof
+was in place. The excavation below this caisson was made under air
+pressure, part of the material being blown out by water jets and the
+remainder removed through the airlocks in the shafts. When the
+excavation was completed, the piles were temporarily braced and the
+concrete and cast-iron lining put in place, the piles being cut off as
+the concrete bed was laid up to them.</p>
+
+<p>The second or eastern section of this crossing was carried on by a
+modification of the plan just mentioned. Instead of using a temporary
+timber roof on the side walls, the permanent iron and concrete upper
+half of the tunnels was employed as a roof for the caisson. The trench
+was dredged nearly to sub-grade and its sides provided with wharves as
+before, running out to the completed half of the work. The permanent
+foundation piles were then driven and a timber frame sunk over them to
+serve as a guide for the 12-inch sheet piling around the site. Steel
+pilot piles with water jets were driven in advance of the wood-sheet
+piles, and if they struck any boulders the latter were drilled and
+blasted. The steel piles were withdrawn by a six-part tackle and
+hoisting engine, and then the wooden piles driven in their place.</p>
+
+<p>When the piling was finished, a pontoon 35 feet wide, 106 feet long,
+and 12 feet deep was built between the wharves, and upon a separate
+platform or deck on it the upper half of the cast-iron shells were
+assembled, their ends closed by steel-plate diaphragms and the whole
+covered with concrete. The pontoon was then submerged several feet,
+parted at its center, and each half drawn out endwise from beneath the
+floating top of the tunnel. The latter was then loaded and carefully
+sunk into place, the connection with the shore section <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>being made by
+a diver, who entered the roof through a special opening. When it was
+finally in place, men entered through the shore section and cut away
+the wood bottom, thus completing the caisson so that work could
+proceed below it as before. Three of these caissons were required to
+complete the east end of the crossing.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image065.jpg" width="500" height="417" alt="LOOKING UP BROADWAY FROM TRINITY CHURCH&mdash;SHOWING
+WORKING PLATFORM AND GAS MAINS TEMPORARILY SUPPORTED OVERHEAD" title="LOOKING UP BROADWAY FROM TRINITY CHURCH&mdash;SHOWING
+WORKING PLATFORM AND GAS MAINS TEMPORARILY SUPPORTED OVERHEAD" />
+<span class="caption">LOOKING UP BROADWAY FROM TRINITY CHURCH&mdash;SHOWING
+WORKING PLATFORM AND GAS MAINS TEMPORARILY SUPPORTED OVERHEAD</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The construction of the approaches to the tunnel was carried out
+between heavy sheet piling. The excavation was over 40 feet deep in
+places and very wet, and the success of the work was largely due to
+the care taken in driving the 12-inch sheet piling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Methods of
+Construction
+Brooklyn
+Extension</i></div>
+
+<p>A number of interesting features should be noted in the methods of
+construction adopted on the Brooklyn Extension.</p>
+
+<p>The types of construction on the Brooklyn Extension have already been
+spoken of. They are (1) typical flat-roof steel beam subway from the
+Post-office, Manhattan, to Bowling Green; (2) reinforced concrete
+typical subway in Battery Park, Manhattan, and from Clinton Street to
+the terminus, in Brooklyn; (3) two single track cast-iron-lined
+tubular tunnels from Battery Park, under the East River, and under
+Joralemon Street to Clinton Street, Brooklyn.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p><p>Under Broadway, Manhattan, the work is through sand, the vehicular
+and electric street car traffic, the network of subsurface structures,
+and the high buildings making this one of the most difficult portions
+of the road to build. The street traffic is so great that it was
+decided that during the daytime the surface of the street should be
+maintained in a condition suitable for ordinary traffic. This was
+accomplished by making openings in the sidewalk near the curb, at two
+points, and erecting temporary working platforms over the street 16
+feet from the surface. The excavations are made by the ordinary drift
+and tunnel method. The excavated material is hoisted from the openings
+to the platforms and passed through chutes to wagons. On the street
+surface, over and in advance of the excavations, temporary plank decks
+are placed and maintained during the drifting and tunneling
+operations, and after the permanent subway structure has been erected
+up to the time when the street surface is permanently restored. The
+roof of the subway is about 5 feet from the surface of the street,
+which has made it necessary to care for the gas and water mains. This
+has been done by carrying the mains on temporary trestle structures
+over the sidewalks. The mains will be restored to their former
+position when the subway structure is complete.</p>
+
+<p>From Bowling Green, south along Broadway, State Street and in Battery
+Park, where the subway is of reinforced concrete construction, the
+"open cut and cover" method is employed, the elevated and surface
+railroad structures being temporarily supported by wooden and steel
+trusses and finally supported by permanent foundations resting on the
+subway roof. From Battery Place, south along the loop work, the
+greater portion of the excavation is made below mean high-water level,
+and necessitates the use of heavy tongue and grooved sheeting and the
+operation of two centrifugal pumps, day and night.</p>
+
+<p>The tubes under the East River, including the approaches, are each
+6,544 feet in length. The tunnel consists of two cast-iron tubes
+15-1/2 feet diameter inside, the lining being constructed of cast-iron
+plates, circular in shape, bolted together and reinforced by grouting
+outside of the plates and beton filling on the inside to the depth of
+the flanges. The tubes are being constructed under air pressure
+through solid rock from the Manhattan side to the middle of the East
+River by the ordinary rock tunnel drift method, and on the Brooklyn
+side through sand and silt by the use of hydraulic shields. Four
+shields have been installed, weighing 51 tons each. They are driven by
+hydraulic pressure of about 2,000 tons. The two shields drifting to
+the center of the river from Garden Place are in water-bearing sand
+and are operated under air pressure. The river tubes are on a 3.1 per
+cent. grade and in the center of the river will reach the deepest
+point, about 94 feet below mean high-water level.</p>
+
+<p>The typical subway of reinforced concrete from Clinton Street to the
+Flatbush Avenue terminus is being constructed by the method commonly
+used on the Manhattan-Bronx route. From Borough Hall to the terminus
+the route of the subway is directly below an elevated railway
+structure, which is temporarily supported by timber bracing, having
+its bearing on the street surface and the tunnel timbers. The
+permanent support will be masonry piers built upon the roof of the
+subway structure. Along this portion of the route are street surface
+electric roads, but they are operated by overhead trolley and the
+tracks are laid on ordinary ties. It has, therefore, been much less
+difficult to care for them during the construction of the subway. Work
+is being prosecuted on the Brooklyn Extension day and night, and in
+Brooklyn the excavation is made much more rapidly by employing the
+street surface trolley roads to remove the excavated material. Spur
+tracks have been built and flat cars are used, much of the removal
+being done at night.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>POWER HOUSE BUILDING</h3>
+
+
+<p>The power house is situated adjacent to the North River on the block
+bounded by West 58th Street, West 59th Street, Eleventh Avenue, and
+Twelfth Avenue. The plans were adopted after a thorough study by the
+engineers of Interborough Rapid Transit Company of all the large power
+houses already completed and of the designs of the large power houses
+in process of construction in America and abroad. The building is
+large, and when fully equipped it will be capable of producing more
+power than any electrical plant ever built, and the study of the
+designs of other power houses throughout the world was pursued with
+the principal object of reducing to a minimum the possibility of
+interruption of service in a plant producing the great power required.</p>
+
+<p>The type of power house adopted provides for a single row of large
+engines and electric generators, contained within an operating room
+placed beside a boiler house, with a capacity of producing,
+approximately, not less than 100,000 horse power when the machinery is
+being operated at normal rating.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Location
+and General
+Plan of
+Power House</i></div>
+
+<p>The work of preparing the detailed plans of the power house structure
+was, in the main, completed early in 1902, and resulted in the present
+plan, which may briefly be described as follows: The structure is
+divided into two main parts&mdash;an operating room and a boiler house,
+with a partition wall between the two sections. The face of the
+structure on Eleventh Avenue is 200 feet wide, of which width the
+boiler house takes 83 feet and the operating section 117 feet. The
+operating room occupies the northerly side of the structure and the
+boiler house the southerly side. The designers were enabled to employ
+a contour of roof and wall section for the northerly side that was
+identical with the roof and wall contour of the southerly side, so
+that the building, when viewed from either end, presents a symmetrical
+appearance with both sides of the building alike in form and design.
+The operating room section is practically symmetrical in its
+structure, with respect to its center; it consists of a central area,
+with a truss roof over same along with galleries at both sides. The
+galleries along the northerly side are primarily for the electrical
+apparatus, while those along the southerly side are given up chiefly
+to the steam-pipe equipment. The boiler room section is also
+practically symmetrical with respect to its center.</p>
+
+<p>A sectional scheme of the power house arrangement was determined on,
+by which the structure was to consist of five generating sections,
+each similar to the others in all its mechanical details; but, at a
+later date, a sixth section was added, with space on the lot for a
+seventh section. Each section embraces one chimney along with the
+following generating equipment:&mdash;twelve boilers, two engines, each
+direct connected to a 5,000 kilowatt alternator; two condensing
+equipments, two boiler-feed pumps, two smoke-flue systems, and detail
+apparatus necessary to make each section complete in itself. The only
+variation is the turbine plant hereafter referred to. In addition to
+the space occupied by the sections, an area was set aside, at the
+Eleventh Avenue end of the structure, for the passage of the railway
+spur from the New York Central tracks. The total length of the
+original five-section power house was 585 feet 9-1/2 inches, but the
+additional section afterwards added makes the over all length of the
+structure 693 feet 9-3/4 inches. In the fourth section it was decided
+to omit a regular engine with its 5,000 kilowatt generator, and in its
+place substitute a 5,000 kilowatt lighting and exciter outfit.
+Arrangements were made, however, so that this outfit can afterward be
+replaced by a regular 5,000 kilowatt traction generator.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;">
+<img src="images/image068.jpg" width="523" height="369" alt="CROSS SECTION OF POWER HOUSE IN PERSPECTIVE" title="CROSS SECTION OF POWER HOUSE IN PERSPECTIVE" />
+<span class="caption">CROSS SECTION OF POWER HOUSE IN PERSPECTIVE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p><p>The plan of the power station included a method of supporting the
+chimneys on steel columns, instead of erecting them through the
+building, which modification allowed for the disposal of boilers in
+spaces which would otherwise be occupied by the chimney bases. By this
+arrangement it was possible to place all the boilers on one floor
+level. The economizers were placed above the boilers, instead of
+behind them, which made a material saving in the width of the boiler
+room. This saving permitted the setting aside of the aforementioned
+gallery at the side of the operating room, closed off from both boiler
+and engine rooms, for the reception of the main-pipe systems and for a
+pumping equipment below it.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the plan can be enumerated briefly as follows: The
+main engines, combined with their alternators, lie in a single row
+along the center line of the operating room with the steam or
+operating end of each engine facing the boiler house and the opposite
+end toward the electrical switching and controlling apparatus arranged
+along the outside wall. Within the area between the boiler house and
+operating room there is placed, for each engine, its respective
+complement of pumping apparatus, all controlled by and under the
+operating jurisdiction of the engineer for that engine. Each engineer
+has thus full control of the pumping machinery required for his unit.
+Symmetrically arranged with respect to the center line of each engine
+are the six boilers in the boiler room, and the piping from these six
+boilers forms a short connection between the nozzles on the boilers
+and the throttles on the engine. The arrangement of piping is alike
+for each engine, which results in a piping system of maximum
+simplicity that can be controlled, in the event of difficulty, with a
+degree of certainty not possible with a more complicated system. The
+main parts of the steam-pipe system can be controlled from outside
+this area.</p>
+
+<p>The single tier of boilers makes it possible to secure a high and well
+ventilated boiler room with ventilation into a story constructed above
+it, aside from that afforded by the windows themselves. The boiler
+room will therefore be cool in warm weather and light, and all
+difficulties from escaping steam will be minimized. In this respect
+the boiler room will be superior to corresponding rooms in plants of
+older construction, where they are low, dark, and often very hot
+during the summer season. The placing of the economizers, with their
+auxiliary smoke flue connections, in the economizer room, all
+symmetrically arranged with respect to each chimney, removes from the
+boiler room an element of disturbance and makes it possible to pass
+directly from the boiler house to the operating room at convenient
+points along the length of the power house structure. The location of
+each chimney in the center of the boiler house between sets of six
+boilers divides the coal bunker construction into separate pockets by
+which trouble from spontaneous combustion can be localized, and, as
+described later, the divided coal bunkers can provide for the storage
+of different grades of coal. The unit basis on which the economizer
+and flue system is constructed will allow making repairs to any one
+section without shutting off the portions not connected directly to
+the section needing repair.</p>
+
+<p>The floor of the power house between the column bases is a continuous
+mass of concrete nowhere less than two feet thick. The massive
+concrete foundations for the reciprocating engines contain each 1,400
+yards of concrete above mean high water level, and in some cases have
+twice as much below that point. The total amount of concrete in the
+foundations of the finished power house is about 80,000 yards.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70-71" id="Page_70-71">[Pg 70-71]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image070.png"><img src="images/image070_th.png" width="600" height="359" alt="CROSS-SECTION OF POWER HOUSE" title="CROSS-SECTION OF POWER HOUSE" /></a>
+<span class="caption">CROSS-SECTION OF POWER HOUSE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p><p>Water for condensing purposes is drawn from the river and discharged
+into it through two monolithic concrete tunnels parallel to the axis
+of the building. The intake conduit has an oval interior, 10 x 8-1/2
+feet in size, and a rectangular exterior cross-section; the outflow
+tunnel has a horseshoe-shape cross-section and is built on top of the
+intake tunnel. These tunnels were built throughout in open trench,
+which, at the shore end, was excavated in solid rock. At the river end
+the excavation was, at some places, almost entirely through the fill
+and mud and was made in a cofferdam composed chiefly of sheet piles.
+As it was impossible to drive these piles across the old timber crib
+which formed the old dock front, the latter was cut through by a
+pneumatic caisson of wooden-stave construction, which formed part of
+one side of the cofferdam. At the river end of the cofferdam the rock
+was so deep that the concrete could not be carried down to its
+surface, and the tunnel section was built on a foundation of piles
+driven to the rock and cut off by a steam saw 19-1/2 feet below mean
+hightide. This section of the tunnel was built in a 65 x 48-foot
+floating caisson 24 feet deep. The concrete was rammed in it around
+the moulds and the sides were braced as it sunk. After the tunnel
+sections were completed, the caisson was sunk, by water ballast, to a
+bearing on the pile foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Adjacent to the condensing water conduits is the 10 x 15-foot
+rectangular concrete tunnel, through which the underground coal
+conveyor is installed between the shore end of the pier and the power
+house.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Steel Work</i></div>
+
+<p>The steel structure of the power house is independent of the walls,
+the latter being self-supporting and used as bearing walls only for a
+few of the beams in the first floor. Although structurally a single
+building, in arrangement it is essentially two, lying side by side and
+separated by a brick division wall.</p>
+
+<p>There are 58 transverse and 9 longitudinal rows of main columns, the
+longitudinal spacing being 18 feet and 36 feet for different rows,
+with special bracing in the boiler house to accommodate the
+arrangement of boilers. The columns are mainly of box section, made up
+of rolled or built channels and cover plates. They are supported by
+cast-iron bases, resting on the granite capstones of the concrete
+foundation piers.</p>
+
+<p>Both the boiler house and the engine house have five tiers of floor
+framing below the flat portion of the roof, the three upper tiers of
+the engine house forming galleries on each side of the operating room,
+which is clear for the full height of the building.</p>
+
+<p>The boiler house floors are, in general, framed with transverse plate
+girders and longitudinal rolled beams, arranged to suit the particular
+requirements of the imposed loads of the boilers, economizers, coal,
+etc., while the engine-room floors and pipe and switchboard galleries
+are in general framed with longitudinal plate girders and transverse
+beams.</p>
+
+<p>There are seven coal bunkers in the boiler house, of which five are 77
+feet and two 41 feet in length by 60 feet in width at the top, the
+combined maximum capacity being 18,000 tons. The bunkers are separated
+from each other by the six chimneys spaced along the center line of
+the boiler house. The bottom of the bunkers are at the fifth floor, at
+an elevation of about 66 feet above the basement. The bunkers are
+constructed with double, transverse, plate girder frames at each line
+of columns, combined with struts and ties, which balance the outward
+thrust of the coal against the sides. The frames form the outline of
+the bunkers with slides sloping at 45 degrees, and carry longitudinal
+I-beams, between which are built concrete arches, reinforced with
+expanded metal, the whole surface being filled with concrete over the
+tops of the beams and given a two-inch granolithic finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image073a.png"><img src="images/image073a_th.png" width="600" height="208" alt="58TH ST. POWER HOUSE&mdash;GENERAL PLAN OF COAL BUNKERS AND
+ECONOMIZERS." title="58TH ST. POWER HOUSE&mdash;GENERAL PLAN OF COAL BUNKERS AND
+ECONOMIZERS." /></a>
+<span class="caption">58TH ST. POWER HOUSE&mdash;GENERAL PLAN OF COAL BUNKERS AND
+ECONOMIZERS.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image073b.png"><img src="images/image073b_th.png" width="600" height="212" alt="58TH ST. POWER HOUSE&mdash;GENERAL PLAN OF MAIN OPERATING
+FLOOR." title="58TH ST. POWER HOUSE&mdash;GENERAL PLAN OF MAIN OPERATING
+FLOOR." /></a>
+<span class="caption">58TH ST. POWER HOUSE&mdash;GENERAL PLAN OF MAIN OPERATING
+FLOOR.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p><p>The six chimneys, spaced 108 feet apart, and occupying the space
+between the ends of the adjacent coal bunkers, are supported on
+plate-girder platforms in the fifth floor, leaving the space below
+clear for a symmetrical arrangement of the boilers and economizers
+from end to end of the building. The platforms are framed of
+single-web girders 8 feet deep, thoroughly braced and carrying on
+their top flanges a grillage of 20-inch I-beam. A system of bracing
+for both the chimney platforms and coal bunkers is carried down to the
+foundations in traverse planes about 30 feet apart.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth tier of beams constitute a flat roof over a portion of the
+building at the center and sides. In the engine room, at this level,
+which is 64 feet above the engine-room floor, are provided the two
+longitudinal lines of crane runway girders upon which are operated the
+engine-room cranes. Runways for 10-ton hand cranes are also provided
+for the full length of the boiler room, and for nearly the full length
+of the north panel in the engine room.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the loads carried by the steel structure are as follows: In
+the engine house, operating on the longitudinal runways as mentioned,
+are one 60-ton and one 25-ton electric traveling crane of 75 feet
+span. The imposed loads of the steam-pipe galleries on the south side
+and the switchboard galleries on the north side are somewhat
+irregularly distributed, but are equivalent to uniform loads of 250 to
+400 pounds per square foot. In the boiler house the weight of coal
+carried is about 45 tons per longitudinal foot of the building; the
+weight of the brick chimneys is 1,200 tons each; economizers, with
+brick setting, about 4-1/2 tons per longitudinal foot; suspended
+weight of the boilers 96 tons each, and the weight of the boiler
+setting, carried on the first floor framing, 160 tons each. The weight
+of structural steel used in the completed building is about 11,000
+tons.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Power House
+Superstructure</i></div>
+
+<p>The design of the facework of the power house received the personal
+attention of the directors of the company, and its character and the
+class of materials to be employed were carefully considered. The
+influence of the design on the future value of the property and the
+condition of the environment in general were studied, together with
+the factors relating to the future ownership of the plant by the city.
+Several plans were taken up looking to the construction of a power
+house of massive and simple design, but it was finally decided to
+adopt an ornate style of treatment by which the structure would be
+rendered architecturally attractive and in harmony with the recent
+tendencies of municipal and city improvements from an architectural
+standpoint. At the initial stage of the power house design Mr.
+Stanford White, of the firm of McKim, Mead &amp; White, of New York,
+volunteered his services to the company as an adviser on the matter of
+the design of the facework, and, as his offer was accepted, his
+connection with the work has resulted in the development of the
+present exterior design and the selection of the materials used.</p>
+
+<p>The Eleventh Avenue fa&ccedil;ade is the most elaborately treated, but the
+scheme of the main fa&ccedil;ade is carried along both the 58th and 59th
+Street fronts. The westerly end of the structure, facing the river,
+may ultimately be removed in case the power house is extended to the
+Twelfth Avenue building line for the reception of fourteen generating
+equipments; and for this reason this wall is designed plainly of less
+costly material.</p>
+
+<p>The general style of the facework is what may be called French
+Renaissance, and the color scheme has, therefore, been made rather
+light in character. The base of the exterior walls has been finished
+with cut granite up to the water table, above which they have been
+laid up with a light colored buff pressed brick. This brick has been
+enriched by the use of similarly colored terra-cotta, which appears in
+the pilasters, about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>the windows, in the several entablatures, and in
+the cornice and parapet work. The Eleventh Avenue fa&ccedil;ade is further
+enriched by marble medallions, framed with terra-cotta, and by a title
+panel directly over the front of the structure.</p>
+
+<p>The main entrance to the structure is situated at its northeast
+corner, and, as the railroad track passes along just inside the
+building, the entrance proper is the doorway immediately beyond the
+track, and opens into the entrance lobby. The doorway is trimmed with
+cut granite and the lobby is finished with a marble wainscoting.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the operating room is faced with a light,
+cream-colored pressed brick with an enameled brick wainscoting, eight
+feet high, extending around the entire operating area; the wainscoting
+is white except for a brown border and base. The offices, the toilets
+and locker rooms are finished and fitted with materials in harmony
+with the high-class character of the building. The masonry-floor
+construction consists of concrete reinforced with expanded metal, and
+except where iron or other floor plates are used, or where tile or
+special flooring is laid, the floor is covered with a hard cement
+granolithic finish.</p>
+
+<p>In the design of the interior arrangements, the value of a generous
+supply of stairways was appreciated, in order that all parts of the
+structure might be made readily accessible, especially in the boiler
+house section. In the boiler house and machinery portion of the plant
+the stairways, railings, and accessories are plainly but strongly
+constructed. The main stairways are, however, of somewhat ornate
+design, with marble and other trim work, and the railings of the main
+gallery construction are likewise of ornate treatment. All exterior
+doors and trim are of metal and all interior carpenter work is done
+with Kalomein iron protection, so that the building, in its strictest
+sense, will contain no combustible material.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Chimneys</i></div>
+
+<p>The complete 12-unit power house will have six chimneys, spaced 108
+feet apart on the longitudinal center line of the boiler room, each
+chimney being 15 feet in inside diameter at the top, which is 225 feet
+above the grate bars. Each will serve the twelve boilers included in
+the section of which it is the center, these boilers having an
+aggregate of 72,000 square feet of heating surface. By these
+dimensions each chimney has a fair surplus capacity, and it is
+calculated that, with economizers in the path of the furnace gases,
+there will be sufficient draft to meet a demand slightly above the
+normal rating of the boilers. To provide for overload capacity, as may
+be demanded by future conditions, a forced draft system will be
+supplied, as described later.</p>
+
+<p>As previously stated, the chimneys are all supported upon the steel
+structure of the building at an elevation of 76 feet above the
+basement floor and 63 feet above the grates. The supporting platforms
+are, in each case, carried on six of the building columns (the three
+front columns of two groups of boilers on opposite sides of the center
+aisle of the boiler room), and each platform is composed of single-web
+plate girders, well braced and surmounted by a grillage of 20-inch
+I-beams. The grillage is filled solidly with concrete and flushed
+smooth on top to receive the brickwork of the chimney.</p>
+
+<p>Each chimney is 162 feet in total height of brickwork above the top of
+the supporting platform, and each chimney is 23 feet square in the
+outside dimension at the base, changing to an octagonal form at a
+point 14 feet 3 inches above the base. This octagonal form is carried
+to a height of 32 feet 6 inches above the base, at which point the
+circular section of radial brick begins.</p>
+
+<p>The octagonal base of the chimney is of hard-burned red brick three
+feet in thickness between the side of the octagon and the interior
+circular section. The brick work is started from the top of the
+grillage platform <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>with a steel channel curb, three feet in depth,
+through which two lines of steel rods are run in each direction, thus
+binding together the first three feet of brickwork, and designed to
+prevent any flaking at the outside. At a level of three feet above the
+bottom of the brickwork, a layer of water-proofing is placed over the
+interior area and covered with two courses of brick, upon which are
+built diagonal brick walls, 4 inches thick, 12 inches apart, and about
+18 inches in height. These walls are themselves perforated at
+intervals, and the whole is covered with hand-burned terra-cotta
+blocks, thus forming a cellular air space, which communicates with the
+exterior air and serves as an insulation against heat for the
+steelwork beneath. A single layer of firebrick completes the flooring
+of the interior area, which is also flush with the bottom of the flue
+openings.</p>
+
+<p>There are two flue openings, diametrically opposite, and 6 feet wide
+by 17 feet high to the crown of the arched top. They are lined with
+fire brick, which joins the fire-brick lining of the interior of the
+shaft, this latter being bonded to the red-brick walls to a point 6
+feet below the top of the octagon, and extended above for a height of
+14 feet within the circular shaft, as an inner shell. The usual baffle
+wall is provided of fire brick, 13 inches thick, extending diagonally
+across the chimney, and 4 feet above the tops of the flue openings.</p>
+
+<p>Where the chimney passes through the roof of the boiler house, a steel
+plate and angle curb, which clears the chimney by 6 inches at all
+points, is provided in connection with the roof framing. This is
+covered by a hood flashed into the brickwork, so that the roof has no
+connection with or bearing upon the chimney.</p>
+
+<p>At a point 4 feet 6 inches below the cap of the chimney the brickwork
+is corbeled out for several courses, forming a ledge, around the
+outside of which is placed a wrought-iron railing, thus forming a
+walkway around the circumference of the chimney top. The cap is of
+cast iron, surmounted by eight 3 x 1-inch wrought-iron ribs, bent over
+the outlet and with pointed ends gathered together at the center. The
+lightning conductors are carried down the outside of the shaft to the
+roof and thence to the ground outside of the building. Galvanized iron
+ladder rungs were built in the brickwork, for ladders both inside and
+outside the shaft.</p>
+
+<p>The chimneys, except for the octagonal red-brick base, are constructed
+of the radial perforated bricks. The lightning rods are tipped with
+pointed platinum points about 18 inches long.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>North River
+Pier</i></div>
+
+<p>Exceptional facilities have been provided for the unloading of coal
+from vessels, or barges, which can be brought to the northerly side of
+the recently constructed pier at the foot of West 58th Street. The
+pier was specially built by the Department of Docks and Ferries and is
+700 feet long and 60 feet wide.</p>
+
+<p>The pier construction includes a special river wall across 58th Street
+at the bulkhead line through which the condensing water will be taken
+from and returned to the river. Immediately outside the river wall and
+beneath the deck of the pier, there is a system of screens through
+which the intake water is passed. On each side where the water enters
+the screen chamber, is a heavy steel grillage; inside this is a system
+of fine screens arranged so that the several screens can be raised, by
+a special machine, for the purpose of cleaning. The advantages of a
+well-designed screening outfit has been appreciated, and considerable
+care has been exercised to make it as reliable and effective as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>At each side of the center of the pier, just below the deck, there are
+two discharge water conduits constructed of heavy timber, to conduct
+the warm water from the condensers away from the cold water intakes at
+the screens. Two water conduits are employed, in order that one may be
+repaired or renewed while using the other; in fact, the entire pier is
+constructed with the view of renewal without interference in the
+operation for which it was provided.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>POWER PLANT FROM COAL PILE TO SHAFTS OF ENGINES AND TURBINES</h3>
+
+
+<p>From the minute and specific description in Chapter III, a clear idea
+will have been obtained of the power house building and its adjuncts,
+as well as of the features which not only go to make it an
+architectural landmark, but which adapt it specifically for the vital
+function that it is called upon to perform. We now come to a review
+and detailed description of the power plant equipment in its general
+relation to the building, and "follow the power through" from the coal
+pile to the shafts of the engines or steam turbines attached to the
+dynamos which generate current for power and for light.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Coal and Ash
+Handling
+Equipment</i></div>
+
+<p>The elements of the coal handling equipment comprise a movable
+electric hoisting tower with crushing and weighing apparatus&mdash;a system
+of horizontal belt conveyors, with 30-inch belts, to carry the crushed
+and weighed coal along the dock and thence by tunnel underground to
+the southwest corner of the power house; a system of 30-inch belt
+conveyors to elevate the coal a distance of 110 feet to the top of the
+boiler house, at the rate of 250 tons per hour or more, if so desired,
+and a system of 20-inch belt conveyors to distribute it horizontally
+over the coal bunkers. These conveyors have automatic self reversing
+trippers, which distribute the coal evenly in the bunkers. For
+handling different grades of coal, distributing conveyors are arranged
+underneath the bunkers for delivering the coal from a particular
+bunker through gates to the downtake hoppers in front of the boilers,
+as hereafter described.</p>
+
+<p>The equipment for removing ashes from the boiler room basement and for
+storing and delivering the ashes to barges, comprises the following
+elements: A system of tracks, 24 inches gauge, extending under the
+ash-hopper gates in the boiler-house cellar and extending to an
+elevated storage bunker at the water front. The rolling stock consists
+of 24 steel cars of 2 tons capacity, having gable bottoms and side
+dumping doors. Each car has two four-wheel pivoted trucks with
+springs. Motive power is supplied by an electric storage battery
+locomotive. The cars deliver the ashes to an elevating belt conveyor,
+which fills the ash bunker. This will contain 1,000 tons, and is built
+of steel with a suspension bottom lined with concrete. For delivering
+stored ashes to barges, a collecting belt extends longitudinally under
+the pocket, being fed by eight gates. It delivers ashes to a loading
+belt conveyor, the outboard end of which is hinged so as to vary the
+height of delivery and to fold up inside the wharf line when not in
+use.</p>
+
+<p>The coal handling system in question was adopted because any serious
+interruption of service would be of short duration, as any belt, or
+part of the belt mechanism, could quickly be repaired or replaced. The
+system also possessed advantages with respect to the automatic even
+distribution of coal in the bunkers, by means of the self reversing
+trippers. These derive their power from the conveying belts. Each
+conveyor has a rotary cleaning brush to cleanse the belt before it
+reaches the driving pulley and they are all driven by induction
+motors.</p>
+
+<p>The tower frame and boom are steel. The tower rolls on two rails along
+the dock and is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>self-propelling. The lift is unusually short; for the
+reason that the weighing apparatus is removed horizontally to one side
+in a separate house, instead of lying vertically below the crusher.
+This arrangement reduces by 40 per cent. the lift of the bucket, which
+is of the clam-shell type of forty-four cubic feet capacity. The
+motive power for operating the bucket is perhaps the most massive and
+powerful ever installed for such service. The main hoist is directly
+connected to a 200 horse-power motor with a special system of control.
+The trolley engine for hauling the bucket along the boom is also
+direct coupled to a multipolar motor.</p>
+
+<p>The receiving hopper has a large throat, and a steel grizzly in it
+which sorts out coal small enough for the stokers and bypasses it
+around the crusher. The crusher is of the two-roll type, with
+relieving springs, and is operated by a motor, which is also used for
+propelling the tower. The coal is weighed in duplex two-ton hoppers.</p>
+
+<p>Special attention has been given to providing for the comfort and
+safety of the operators. The cabs have baywindow fronts, to enable the
+men to have an unobstructed view of the bucket at all times without
+peering through slots in the floor. Walks and hand lines are provided
+on both sides of the boom for safe inspection. The running ropes pass
+through hardwood slides, which cover the slots in the engine house
+roof to exclude rain and snow.</p>
+
+<p>This type of motive power was selected in preference to trolley
+locomotives for moving the ash cars, owing to the rapid destruction of
+overhead lines and rail bonds by the action of ashes and water. The
+locomotive consists of two units, each of which has four driving
+wheels, and carries its own motor and battery. The use of two units
+allows the locomotive to round curves with very small overhangs, as
+compared with a single-body locomotive. Curves of 12 feet radius can
+be turned with ease. The gross weight of the locomotive is about five
+tons, all of which is available for traction.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Coal
+Downtakes</i></div>
+
+<p>The coal from the coal bunkers is allowed to flow down into the boiler
+room through two rows of downtakes, one on each side of the central
+gangway or firing place. Each bunker has eight cast-iron outlets, four
+on each side, and to these outlets are bolted gate valves for shutting
+off the coal from the corresponding downtakes. From these gates the
+downtakes lead to hoppers which are on the economizer floor, and from
+these hoppers the lower sets of downtakes extend down to the boilers.</p>
+
+<p>Just above the hoppers on the economizer floor the coal downtakes are
+provided with valves and chutes to feed the coal, either into the
+hopper or into the distributing flight conveyor alongside of it. These
+distributing conveyors, one corresponding with each row of downtakes,
+permits the feeding of coal from any bunker or bunkers to all the
+boilers when desired. They are the ordinary type of flight conveyor,
+capable of running in either direction and provided with gates in the
+bottom of the trough for feeding into the several above mentioned
+hoppers. In order to eliminate the stresses that would develop in a
+conveyor of the full length of the building, the conveyors are of half
+the entire length, with electric driving engines in the center of each
+continuous line. The installation of this conveyor system, in
+connection with the coal downtakes, makes it possible to carry a
+high-grade coal in some of the bunkers for use during periods of heavy
+load and a cheaper grade in other bunkers for the periods of light
+load.</p>
+
+<p>To provide means for shutting off the coal supply to each boiler, a
+small hopper is placed just over each boiler, and the downtake feeding
+into it is provided with a gate at its lower end. Two vertical
+downtakes extend down from the boiler hopper to the boiler room floor
+or to the stokers, as the case may be, and they are hinged just below
+the boiler hopper to allow their being drawn up out of the way when
+necessary to inspect the boiler tubes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image079.jpg" width="500" height="406" alt="WEST END POWER HOUSE IN COURSE OF ERECTION" title="WEST END POWER HOUSE IN COURSE OF ERECTION" />
+<span class="caption">WEST END POWER HOUSE IN COURSE OF ERECTION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Wherever the direction of flow of the coal is changed, poke holes are
+provided in the downtakes to enable the firemen to break any arching
+tendency of the coal in the downtakes. All parts of the downtakes are
+of cast iron, except the vertical parts in front of the boilers, which
+are of wrought-iron pipe. These vertical downtakes are 10 inches in
+inside diameter, while all others are 14 inches in inside diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Main Boiler
+Room</i></div>
+
+<p>The main boiler room is designed to receive ultimately seventy-two
+safety water tube three drum boilers, each having 6,008 square feet of
+effective heating surface, by which the aggregate heating surface of
+the boiler room will be 432,576 square feet.</p>
+
+<p>There are fifty-two boilers erected in pairs, or batteries, and
+between each battery is a passageway five feet wide. The boilers are
+designed for a working steam pressure of 225 pounds per square inch
+and for a hydraulic test pressure of 300 pounds per square inch. Each
+boiler is provided with twenty-one vertical water tube sections, and
+each section is fourteen tubes high. The tubes are of lap welded,
+charcoal iron, 4 inches in diameter and 18 feet long. The drums are 42
+inches in diameter and 23 feet and 10 inches long. All parts are of
+open-hearth steel; the shell plates are 9/16 of an inch thick and the
+drum head plates <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>11/16 inch, and in this respect the thickness of
+material employed is slightly in excess of standard practice. Another
+advance on standard practice is in the riveting of the circular seams,
+these being lap-jointed and double riveted. All longitudinal seams are
+butt-strapped, inside and outside, and secured by six rows of rivets.
+Manholes are only provided for the front heads, and each front head is
+provided with a special heavy bronze pad, for making connection to the
+stop and check feed water valve.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image080.jpg" width="400" height="458" alt="OPERATING ROOM SHOWING CONDENSERS&mdash;POWER HOUSE" title="OPERATING ROOM SHOWING CONDENSERS&mdash;POWER HOUSE" />
+<span class="caption">OPERATING ROOM SHOWING CONDENSERS&mdash;POWER HOUSE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The setting of the boiler embodies several special features which are
+new in boiler erection. The boilers are set higher up from the floor
+than in standard practice, the center of the drums being 19 feet above
+the floor line. This feature provides a higher combustion chamber, for
+either hand-fired grates or automatic stokers; and for inclined grate
+stokers the fire is carried well up above the supporting girders under
+the side walls, so that these girders will not be heated by proximity
+to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the masonry setting, practically the entire inside surface
+exposed to the hot gases is lined with a high grade of fire brick. The
+back of the setting, where the rear cleaning is done, is provided with
+a sliding floor plate, which is used when the upper tubes are being
+cleaned. There is also a door at the floor line and another at a
+higher level for light and ventilation when cleaning. Over the tubes
+arrangements have been made for the reception of superheating
+apparatus without changing the brickwork. Where the brick walls are
+constructed, at each side of the building columns at the front,
+cast-iron plates are erected to a height of 8 feet on each side of the
+column. An air space is provided between each cast-iron plate and the
+column, which is accessible for cleaning from the boiler front; the
+object of the plates and air space being to prevent the transmission
+of heat to the steel columns.</p>
+
+<p>An additional feature of the boiler setting consists in the employment
+of a soot hopper, back of each bridge wall, by which the soot can be
+discharged into ash cars in the basement. The main ash hoppers are
+constructed of 1/2-inch steel plate, the design being a double
+inverted pyramid with an ash gate at each <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>inverted apex. The hoppers
+are well provided with stiffening angles and tees, and the capacity of
+each is about 80 cubic feet.</p>
+
+<p>In front of all the boilers is a continuous platform of open-work
+cast-iron plates, laid on steel beams, the level of the platform being
+8 feet above the main floor. The platform connects across the firing
+area, opposite the walk between the batteries, and at these points
+this platform is carried between the boiler settings. At the rear of
+the northerly row of boilers the platform runs along the partition
+wall, between the boiler house and operating room and at intervals
+doorways are provided which open into the pump area. The level of the
+platform is even with that of the main operating room floor, so that
+it may be freely used by the water tenders and by the operating
+engineers without being obstructed by the firemen or their tools. The
+platform in front of the boilers will also be used for cleaning
+purposes, and, in this respect, it will do away with the unsightly and
+objectionable scaffolds usually employed for this work. The water
+tenders will also be brought nearer to the water columns than when
+operating on the main floor. The feed-water valves will be regulated
+from the platform, as well as the speed of the boiler-feed pumps.</p>
+
+<p>Following European practice, each boiler is provided with two water
+columns, one on each outside drum, and each boiler will have one steam
+gauge above the platform for the water tenders and one below the
+platform for the firemen. The stop and check valves on each boiler
+drum have been made specially heavy for the requirements of this power
+house, and this special increase of weight has been applied to all the
+several minor boiler fittings.</p>
+
+<p>Hand-fired grates of the shaking pattern have been furnished for
+thirty-six boilers, and for each of these grates a special lower front
+has been constructed. These fronts are of sheet steel, and the coal
+passes down to the floor through two steel buckstays which have been
+enlarged for the purpose. There are three firing doors and the sill of
+each door is 36 inches above the floor. The gate area of the
+hand-fired grates is 100 square feet, being 8 feet deep by 12 feet 6
+inches wide.</p>
+
+<p>The twelve boilers, which will receive coal from the coal bunker
+located between the fourth and fifth chimneys, have been furnished
+with automatic stokers.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed to employ superheaters to the entire boiler plant.</p>
+
+<p>The boiler-room ceiling has been made especially high, and in this
+respect the room differs from most power houses of similar
+construction. The distance from the floor to the ceiling is 35 feet,
+and from the floor plates over the boilers to the ceiling is 13 feet.
+Over each boiler is an opening to the economizer floor above, covered
+with an iron grating. The height of the room, as well as the feature
+of these openings, and the stairway wells and with the large extent of
+window opening in the south wall, will make the room light and
+especially well ventilated. Under these conditions the intense heat
+usually encountered over boilers will largely be obviated.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to making provisions for the air to escape from the upper
+part of the boiler room, arrangements have been provided for allowing
+the air to enter at the bottom. This inflow of air will take place
+through the southerly row of basement windows, which extend above the
+boiler room floor, and through the wrought-iron open-work floor
+construction extending along in the rear of the northerly row of
+boilers.</p>
+
+<p>A noteworthy feature of the boiler room is the 10-ton hand-power
+crane, which travels along in the central aisle through the entire
+length of the structure. This crane is used for erection and for heavy
+repair, and its use has greatly assisted the speedy assembling of the
+boiler plant.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote"><i>Blowers and
+Air Ducts</i></div>
+
+<p>In order to burn the finer grades of anthracite coal in sufficient
+quantities to obtain boiler rating with the hand-fired grates, and in
+order to secure a large excess over boiler rating with other coals, a
+system of blowers and air ducts has been provided in the basement
+under the boilers. One blower is selected for every three boilers,
+with arrangements for supplying all six boilers from one blower.</p>
+
+<p>The blowers are 11 feet high above the floor and 5 feet 6 inches wide
+at the floor line. Each blower is direct-connected to a two crank
+7-1/2 x 13 x 6-1/2-inch upright, automatic, compound, steam engine of
+the self-enclosed type, and is to provide a sufficient amount of air
+to burn 10,000 pounds of combustible per hour with 2 inches of water
+pressure in the ash pits.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Smoke Flues
+and
+Economizers</i></div>
+
+<p>The smoke flue and economizer construction throughout the building is
+of uniform design, or, in other words, the smoke flue and economizer
+system for one chimney is identical with that for every other chimney.
+In each case, the system is symmetrically arranged about its
+respective chimney, as can be seen by reference to the plans.</p>
+
+<p>The twelve boilers for each chimney are each provided with two round
+smoke uptakes, which carry the products of combustion upward to the
+main smoke flue system on the economizer floor. A main smoke flue is
+provided for each group of three boilers, and each pair of main smoke
+flues join together on the center line of the chimney, where in each
+case one common flue carries the gases into the side of the chimney.
+The two common flues last mentioned enter at opposite sides of the
+chimney. The main flues are arranged and fitted with dampers, so that
+the gases can pass directly to the chimney, or else they can be
+diverted through the economizers and thence reach the chimney.</p>
+
+<p>The uptakes from each boiler are constructed of 3/8-inch plate and
+each is lined with radial hollow brick 4 inches thick. Each is
+provided with a damper which operates on a shaft turning in roller
+bearings. The uptakes rest on iron beams at the bottom, and at the
+top, where they join the main flue, means are provided to take up
+expansion and contraction.</p>
+
+<p>The main flue, which rests on the economizer floor, is what might be
+called a steel box, constructed of 3/8-inch plate, 6 feet 4 inches
+wide and 13 feet high. The bottom is lined with brick laid flat and
+the sides with brick walls 8 inches thick, and the top is formed of
+brick arches sprung between.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Steam Piping</i></div>
+
+<p>The sectional plan adopted for the power house has made a uniform and
+simple arrangement of steam piping possible, with the piping for each
+section, except that of the turbine bay, identical with that for every
+other section. Starting with the six boilers for one main engine, the
+steam piping may be described as follows: A cross-over pipe is erected
+on each boiler, by means of which and a combination of valves and
+fittings the steam may be passed through the superheater. In the
+delivery from each boiler there is a quick-closing 9-inch valve, which
+can be closed from the boiler room floor by hand or from a distant
+point individually or in groups of six. Risers with 9-inch
+wrought-iron goose necks connect each boiler to the steam main, where
+9-inch angle valves are inserted in each boiler connection. These
+valves can be closed from the platform over the boilers, and are
+grouped three over one set of three boilers and three over the
+opposite set.</p>
+
+<p>The main from the six boilers is carried directly across the boiler
+house in a straight line to a point in the pipe area where it rises to
+connect to the two 14-inch steam downtakes to the engine throttles. At
+this point the steam can also be led downward to a manifold to which
+the compensating tie lines are connected. These compensating lines are
+run lengthwise through the power house for the purpose of joining the
+systems together, as desired. The two downtakes to the engine
+throttles drop to the basement, where each, through <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>a goose neck,
+delivers into a receiver and separating tank and from the tank through
+a second goose neck into the corresponding throttle.</p>
+
+<p>A quick-closing valve appears at the point where the 17-inch pipe
+divides into the two 14-inch downtakes and a similar valve is provided
+at the point where the main connects to the manifold. The first valve
+will close the steam to the engine and the second will control the
+flow of steam to and from the manifold. These valves can be operated
+by hand from a platform located on the wall inside the engine room, or
+they can be closed from a distant point by hydraulic apparatus. In the
+event of accident the piping to any engine can be quickly cut out or
+that system of piping can quickly be disconnected from the
+compensating system.</p>
+
+<p>The pipe area containing, as mentioned, the various valves described,
+together with the manifolds and compensating pipes, is divided by
+means of cross-walls into sections corresponding to each pair of main
+engines. Each section is thus separated from those adjoining, so that
+any escape of steam in one section can be localized and, by means of
+the quick-closing valves, the piping for the corresponding pair of
+main engines can be disconnected from the rest of the power house.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image083.jpg" width="350" height="423" alt="VIEW FROM TOP OF CHIMNEY SHOWING WATER FRONTAGE&mdash;POWER
+HOUSE" title="VIEW FROM TOP OF CHIMNEY SHOWING WATER FRONTAGE&mdash;POWER
+HOUSE" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW FROM TOP OF CHIMNEY SHOWING WATER FRONTAGE&mdash;POWER
+HOUSE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>All cast iron used in the fittings is called air-furnace iron, which
+is a semi-steel and tougher than ordinary iron. All line and bent pipe
+is of wrought iron, and the flanges are loose and made of wrought
+steel. The shell of the pipe is bent over the face of the flange. All
+the joints in the main steam line, above 2-1/2 inches in size, are
+ground joints, metal to metal, no gaskets being used.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the flanges ordinarily used in this country, special extra
+strong proportions have been adopted, and it may be said that all
+flanges and bolts used are 50 per cent. heavier than the so-called
+extra heavy proportions used in this country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Water Piping</i></div>
+
+<p>The feed water will enter the building at three points, the largest
+water service being 12 inches in diameter, which enters the structure
+at its southeast corner. The water first passes through fish traps
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>and thence through meters, and from them to the main reservoir tanks,
+arranged along the center of the boiler house basement. The water is
+allowed to flow into each tank by means of an automatic float valve.
+The water will be partly heated in these reservoir tanks by means of
+hot water discharged from high-pressure steam traps. In this way the
+heat contained in the drainage from the high-pressure steam is, for
+the most part, returned to the boilers. From the reservoir tanks the
+water is conducted to the feed-water pumps, by which it is discharged
+through feed-water heaters where it is further heated by the exhaust
+steam from the condensing and feed-water pumps. From the feed-water
+heaters the water will be carried direct to the boilers; or through
+the economizer system to be further heated by the waste gases from the
+boilers.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image084.jpg" width="500" height="394" alt="PORTION OF MAIN STEAM PIPING IN PIPE AREA" title="PORTION OF MAIN STEAM PIPING IN PIPE AREA" />
+<span class="caption">PORTION OF MAIN STEAM PIPING IN PIPE AREA</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Like the steam-pipe system, the feed-water piping is laid out on the
+sectional plan, the piping for the several sections being identical,
+except for the connections from the street service to the reservoir
+tanks. The feed-water piping is constructed wholly of cast iron,
+except the piping above the floor line to the boilers, which is of
+extra heavy semi-annealed brass with extra heavy cast-iron fittings.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Engine and
+Turbine
+Equipment</i></div>
+
+<p>The engine and turbine equipment under contract embraces nine 8,000 to
+11,000 horse power main engines, direct-connected to 5,000 kilowatt
+generators, three steam turbines, direct-connected to 1,875 kilowatt
+lighting generators and two 400 horse power engines, direct-connected
+to 250 kilowatt exciter generators.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote"><i>Main Engines</i></div>
+
+<p>The main engines are similar in type to those installed in the 74th
+Street power house of the Manhattan Division of the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company, i. e., each consists of two component compound
+engines, both connected to a common shaft, with the generator placed
+between the two component engines. The type of engine is now well
+known and will not be described in detail, but as a comparison of
+various dimensions and features of the Manhattan and Rapid Transit
+engines may be of interest, the accompanying tabulation is submitted:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="MRTEngines">
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Manhattan.</b></td><td align='right'><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Rapid Transit.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of high-pressure cylinders, inches,</td><td align='right'>44</td><td align='right'>42</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of low-pressure cylinders, inches,</td><td align='right'>88</td><td align='right'>86</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Stroke, inches,</td><td align='right'>60</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Speed, revolutions per minute,</td><td align='right'>75</td><td align='right'>75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Steam pressure at throttle, pounds,</td><td align='right'>150</td><td align='right'>175</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Indicated horse power at best efficiency,</td><td align='right'>7,500</td><td align='right'>7,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of low-pressure piston rods, inches,</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of high-pressure piston rods, inches,</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of crank pin, inches,</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of crank pin, inches,</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>18</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Type of Low-Pressure Valves.</td><td align='right'>Double Ported<br />Corliss</td><td align='right'>Single Ported<br />Corliss</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Type of High-Pressure Valves.</td><td align='right'>Corliss</td><td align='right'>Poppet Type</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of shaft in journals, inches,</td><td align='right'>34</td><td align='right'>34</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of journals, inches,</td><td align='right'>60</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diameter of shaft in hub of revolving element, inches</td><td align='right'>37-1/16</td><td align='right'>37-1/16</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The guarantees under which the main engines are being furnished, and
+which will govern their acceptance by the purchaser, are in substance
+as follows: First. The engine will be capable of operating
+continuously when indicating 11,000 horse power with 175 lbs. of steam
+pressure, a speed of 75 revolutions and a 26-inch vacuum without
+normal wear, jar, noise, or other objectionable results. Second. It
+will be suitably proportioned to withstand in a serviceable manner all
+sudden fluctuations of load as are usual and incidental to the
+generation of electrical energy for railway purposes. Third. It will
+be capable of operating with an atmospheric exhaust with two pounds
+back pressure at the low pressure cylinders, and when so operating,
+will fulfill all the operating requirements, except as to economy and
+capacity. Fourth. It will be proportioned so that when occasion shall
+require it can be operated with a steam pressure at the throttles of
+200 pounds above atmospheric pressure under the before mentioned
+conditions of the speed and vacuum. Fifth. It will be proportioned so
+that it can be operated with steam pressure at the throttle of 200
+pounds above atmospheric pressure under the before mentioned condition
+as to speed when exhausting in the atmosphere. Sixth. The engine will
+operate successfully with a steam pressure at the throttle of 175
+pounds above atmosphere, should the temperature of the steam be
+maintained at the throttle at from 450 to 500 degrees Fahr. Seventh.
+It will not require more than 12-1/4 pounds of dry steam per indicated
+horse power per hour, when indicating 7,500 horse power at 75
+revolutions per minute, when the vacuum of 26 inches at the low
+pressure cylinders, with a steam pressure at the throttle of 175
+pounds and with saturated steam at the normal temperature due to its
+pressure. The guarantee includes all of the steam used by the engine
+or by the jackets or reheater.</p>
+
+<p>The new features contained within the engine construction are
+principally: First, the novel construction of the high-pressure
+cylinders, by which only a small strain is transmitted through the
+valve chamber <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>between the cylinder and the slide-surface casting.
+This is accomplished by employing heavy bolts, which bolt the shell of
+the cylinder casting to the slide-surface casting, said bolts being
+carried past and outside the valve chamber. Second, the use of poppet
+valves, which are operated in a very simple manner from a wrist plate
+on the side of the cylinder, the connections from the valves to the
+wrist plate and the connections from the wrist plate to the eccentric
+being similar to the parts usually employed for the operation of
+Corliss valves.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the Manhattan engines, the main steam pipes are carried to the
+high-pressure cylinders under the floor and not above it. Another
+modification consists in the use of an adjustable strap for the
+crank-pin boxes instead of the marine style of construction at the
+crank-pin end of the connecting rod.</p>
+
+<p>The weight of the revolving field is about 335,000 pounds, which gives
+a flywheel effect of about 350,000 pounds at a radius of gyration of
+11 feet, and with this flywheel inertia the engine is designed so that
+any point on the revolving element shall not, in operation, lag behind
+nor forge ahead of the position that it would have if the speed were
+absolutely uniform, by an amount greater than one-eighth of a natural
+degree.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Turbo-Generators</i></div>
+
+<p>Arrangements have been made for the erection of four turbo-generators,
+but only three have been ordered. They are of the multiple expansion
+parallel flow type, consisting of two turbines arranged tandem
+compound. When operating at full load each of the two turbines,
+comprising one unit, will develop approximately equal power for direct
+connection to an alternator giving 7,200 alternations per minute at
+11,000 volts and at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. Each unit
+will have a normal output of 1,700 electrical horse power with a steam
+pressure of 175 pounds at the throttle and a vacuum in the exhaust
+pipe of 27 inches, measured by a mercury column and referred to a
+barometric pressure of 30 inches. The turbine is guaranteed to operate
+satisfactorily with steam superheated to 450 degrees Fahrenheit. The
+economy guaranteed under the foregoing conditions as to initial and
+terminal pressure and speed is as follows: Full load of 1,250
+kilowatts, 15.7 pounds of steam per electrical horse-power hour;
+three-quarter load, 937-1/2 kilowatts, 16.6 pounds per electrical
+horse-power hour; one-half load, 625 kilowatts, 18.3 pounds; and one-quarter
+load, 312-1/2 kilowatts, 23.2 pounds. When operating under the
+conditions of speed and steam pressure mentioned, but with a pressure
+in the exhaust pipe of 27 inches vacuum by mercury column (referred to
+30 inches barometer), and with steam at the throttle superheated 75
+degrees Fahrenheit above the temperature of saturated steam at that
+pressure, the guaranteed steam consumption is as follows: Full load,
+1,250 kilowatts, 13.8 pounds per electrical horse-power hour;
+three-quarter load, 937-1/2 kilowatts, 14.6 pounds; one-half load, 625
+kilowatts, 16.2 pounds; and one-quarter load, 312-1/2 kilowatts, 20.8
+pounds.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Exciter
+Engines</i></div>
+
+<p>The two exciter engines are each direct connected to a 250 kilowatt
+direct current generator. Each engine is a vertical quarter-crank
+compound engine with a 17-inch high pressure cylinder and a 27-inch
+low-pressure cylinder with a common 24-inch stroke. The engines will
+be non-condensing, for the reason that extreme reliability is desired
+at the expense of some economy. They will operate at best efficiency
+when indicating 400 horse power at a speed of 150 revolutions per
+minute with a steam pressure of 175 pounds at the throttle. Each
+engine will have a maximum of 600 indicated horse power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Condensing
+Equipment</i></div>
+
+<p>Each engine unit is supplied with its own condenser equipment,
+consisting of two barometric condensing chambers, each attached as
+closely as possible to its respective low-pressure cylinder. For each
+engine also is provided a vertical circulating pump along with a
+vacuum pump and, for the sake of flexibility, the pumps are cross
+connected with those of other engines and can be used interchangeably.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p><p>The circulating pumps are vertical, cross compound pumping engines
+with outside packed plungers. Their foundations are upon the basement
+floor level and the steam cylinders extend above the engine-room
+floor; the starting valves and control of speed is therefore entirely
+under the supervision of the engineer. Each pump has a normal capacity
+of 10,000,000 gallons of water per day, so that the total pumping
+capacity of all the pumps is 120,000,000 gallons per day. While the
+head against which these pumps will be required to work, when assisted
+by the vacuum in the condenser, is much less than the total lift from
+low tide water to the entrance into the condensing chambers, they are
+so designed as to be ready to deliver the full quantity the full
+height, if for any reason the assistance of the vacuum should be lost
+or not available at times of starting up. A temporary overload can but
+reduce the vacuum only for a short time and the fluctuations of the
+tide, or even a complete loss of vacuum cannot interfere with the
+constant supply of water, the governor simply admitting to the
+cylinders the proper amount of steam to do the work. The high-pressure
+steam cylinder is 10 inches in diameter and the low-pressure is 20
+inches; the two double-acting water plungers are each 20 inches in
+diameter, and the stroke is 30 inches for all. The water ends are
+composition fitted for salt water and have valve decks and plungers
+entirely of that material.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image087.jpg" width="500" height="379" alt="COAL UNLOADING TOWER ON WEST 58TH STREET PIER" title="COAL UNLOADING TOWER ON WEST 58TH STREET PIER" />
+<span class="caption">COAL UNLOADING TOWER ON WEST 58TH STREET PIER</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The dry vacuum pumps are of the vertical form, and each is located
+alongside of the corresponding circulating pump. The steam cylinders
+also project above the engine-room floor. The vacuum cylinder is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>immediately below the steam cylinder and has a valve that is
+mechanically operated by an eccentric on the shaft. These pumps are of
+the close-clearance type, and, while controlled by a governor, can be
+changed in speed while running to any determined rate.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Exhaust
+Piping</i></div>
+
+<p>From each atmospheric exhaust valve, which is direct-connected to the
+condensing chamber at each low-pressure cylinder, is run downward a
+30-inch riveted-steel exhaust pipe. At a point just under the
+engine-room floor the exhaust pipe is carried horizontally around the
+engine foundations, the two from each pair of engines uniting in a
+40-inch riser to the roof. This riser is between the pair of engines
+and back of the high-pressure cylinder, thus passing through the
+so-called pipe area, where it also receives exhaust steam from the
+pump auxiliaries. At the roof the 40-inch riser is run into a 48-inch
+stand pipe. This is capped with an exhaust head, the top of which is
+35 feet above the roof.</p>
+
+<p>All the exhaust piping 30 inches in diameter and over is
+longitudinally riveted steel with cast-iron flanges riveted on to it.
+Expansion joints are provided where necessary to relieve the piping
+from the strains due to expansion and contraction, and where the
+joints are located near the engine and generator they are of
+corrugated copper. The expansion joints in the 40-inch risers above
+the pipe area are ordinarily packed slip joints.</p>
+
+<p>The exhaust piping from the auxiliaries is carried directly up into
+the pipe area, where it is connected with a feed-water heater, with
+means for by-passing the latter. Beyond the heater it joins the
+40-inch riser to the roof. The feed-water heaters are three-pass,
+vertical, water-tube heaters, designed for a working water pressure of
+225 pounds per square inch.</p>
+
+<p>The design of the atmospheric relief valve received special
+consideration. A lever is provided to assist the valve to close, while
+a dash pot prevents a too quick action in either direction.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Compressed
+Air</i></div>
+
+<p>The power house will be provided with a system for supplying
+compressed air to various points about the structure for cleaning
+electrical machinery and for such other purposes as may arise. It will
+also be used for operating whistles employed for signaling. The air is
+supplied to reservoir tanks by two vertical, two-stage,
+electric-driven air compressors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Oil System</i></div>
+
+<p>For the lubrication of the engines an extensive oil distributing and
+filtering system is provided. Filtered oil will be supplied under
+pressure from elevated storage tanks, with a piping system leading to
+all the various journals. The piping to the engines is constructed on
+a duplicate, or crib, system, by which the supply of oil cannot be
+interrupted by a break in any one pipe. The oil on leaving the engines
+is conducted to the filtering tanks. A pumping equipment then
+redelivers the oil to the elevated storage tanks.</p>
+
+<p>All piping carrying filtered oil is of brass and fittings are inserted
+at proper pipes to facilitate cleaning. The immediate installation
+includes two oil filtering tanks at the easterly end of the power
+house, but the completed plant contemplates the addition of two extra
+filtering tanks at the westerly end of the structure.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Cranes, Shops,
+Etc.</i></div>
+
+<p>The power house is provided with the following traveling cranes: For
+the operating room: One 60-ton electric traveling crane and one 25-ton
+electric traveling crane. For the area over the oil switches: one
+10-ton hand-operated crane. For the center aisle of the boiler room:
+one 10-ton hand-operated crane. The span of both of the electric
+cranes is 74 feet 4 inches and both cranes operate over the entire
+length of the structure.</p>
+
+<p>The 60-ton crane has two trolleys, each with a lifting capacity, for
+regular load, of 50 tons. Each trolley is also provided with an
+auxiliary hoist of 10 tons capacity. When loaded, the crane can
+operate at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>the following speeds: Bridge, 200 feet per minute;
+trolley, 100 feet per minute; main hoist, 10 feet per minute; and
+auxiliary hoist, 30 feet per minute. The 25-ton crane is provided with
+one trolley, having a lifting capacity, for regular load, of 25 tons,
+together with auxiliary hoist of 5 tons. When loaded, the crane can
+operate at the following speeds: bridge, 250 feet per minute; trolley,
+100 feet per minute; main hoist, 12 feet per minute; and auxiliary
+hoist, 28 feet per minute.</p>
+
+<p>The power house is provided with an extensive tool equipment for a
+repair and machine shop, which is located on the main gallery at the
+northerly side of the operating room.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<img src="images/image090.jpg" width="377" height="516" alt="5,000 K. W. ALTERNATOR&mdash;MAIN POWER HOUSE" title="5,000 K. W. ALTERNATOR&mdash;MAIN POWER HOUSE" />
+<span class="caption">5,000 K. W. ALTERNATOR&mdash;MAIN POWER HOUSE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLY</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Energy from
+Engine Shaft
+to Third Rail</i></div>
+
+<p>The system of electrical supply chosen for the subway comprises
+alternating current generation and distribution, and direct current
+operation of car motors. Four years ago, when the engineering plans
+were under consideration, the single-phase alternating current railway
+motor was not even in an embryonic state, and notwithstanding the
+marked progress recently made in its development, it can scarcely yet
+be considered to have reached a stage that would warrant any
+modifications in the plans adopted, even were such modifications
+easily possible at the present time. The comparatively limited
+headroom available in the subway prohibited the use of an overhead
+system of conductors, and this limitation, in conjunction with the
+obvious desirability of providing a system permitting interchangeable
+operation with the lines of the Manhattan Railway system practically
+excluded tri-phase traction systems and led directly to the adoption
+of the third-rail direct current system.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="SIDE_AND_END_ELEVATIONS_OF_ALTERNATOR" id="SIDE_AND_END_ELEVATIONS_OF_ALTERNATOR"></a>
+<a href="images/image091.png"><img src="images/image091_th.png" width="600" height="417" alt="SIDE AND END ELEVATIONS OF ALTERNATOR." title="SIDE AND END ELEVATIONS OF ALTERNATOR." /></a>
+<span class="caption">SIDE AND END ELEVATIONS OF ALTERNATOR.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image092.png"><img src="images/image092_th.png" width="600" height="379" alt="SIDE ELEVATION AND CROSS SECTION OF ALTERNATOR WITH
+PART CUT AWAY TO SHOW CONSTRUCTION." title="SIDE ELEVATION AND CROSS SECTION OF ALTERNATOR WITH
+PART CUT AWAY TO SHOW CONSTRUCTION." /></a>
+<span class="caption">SIDE ELEVATION AND CROSS SECTION OF ALTERNATOR WITH
+PART CUT AWAY TO SHOW CONSTRUCTION.</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>It being considered impracticable to predict with entire certainty the
+ultimate traffic conditions to be met, the generator plant has been
+designed to take care of all probable traffic demands expected to
+arise within a year or two of the beginning of operation of the
+system, while the plans permit convenient and symmetrical increase to
+meet the requirements of additional demand which may develop. Each
+express train will comprise five motor cars and three trail cars, and
+each local train will comprise three motor cars and two trail cars.
+The weight of each motor car with maximum live load is 88,000 pounds,
+and the weight of each trailer car 66,000 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>The plans adopted provide electric equipment at the outstart capable
+of operating express trains at an average speed approximating
+twenty-five miles per hour, while the control system and motor units
+have been so chosen that higher speeds up to a limit of about thirty
+miles per hour can be attained by increasing the number of motor cars
+providing experience in operation demonstrates that such higher speeds
+can be obtained with safety.</p>
+
+<p>The speed of local trains between City Hall and 96th Street will
+average about 15 miles an hour, while north of 96th Street on both the
+West side and East side branches their speed will average about 18
+miles an hour, owing to the greater average distance between local
+stations.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of careful consideration of various plans, the company's
+engineers recommended that all the power required for the operation of
+the system be generated in a single power house in the form of
+three-phase alternating current at 11,000 volts, this current to be
+generated at a frequency of 25 cycles per second, and to be delivered
+through three-conductor cables to transformers and converters in
+sub-stations suitably <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>located with reference to the track system, the
+current there to be transformed and converted to direct current for
+delivery to the third-rail conductor at a potential of 625 volts.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="OPERATING_GALLERY_IN_SUB-STATION" id="OPERATING_GALLERY_IN_SUB-STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image093.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="OPERATING GALLERY IN SUB-STATION" title="OPERATING GALLERY IN SUB-STATION" />
+<span class="caption">OPERATING GALLERY IN SUB-STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="GENERAL_DIAGRAM_OF_11000_VOLT_CIRCUITS_IN_MAIN_POWER_STATION" id="GENERAL_DIAGRAM_OF_11000_VOLT_CIRCUITS_IN_MAIN_POWER_STATION"></a>
+<a href="images/image093.png"><img src="images/image093_th.png" width="600" height="216" alt="GENERAL DIAGRAM OF 11,000 VOLT CIRCUITS IN MAIN POWER
+STATION" title="GENERAL DIAGRAM OF 11,000 VOLT CIRCUITS IN MAIN POWER
+STATION" /></a>
+<span class="caption">GENERAL DIAGRAM OF 11,000 VOLT CIRCUITS IN MAIN POWER
+STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Calculations based upon contemplated schedules require for traction
+purposes and for heating and lighting cars, a maximum delivery of
+about 45,000 kilowatts at the third rail. Allowing for losses in the
+distributing cables, in transformers and converters, this implies a
+total generating capacity of approximately 50,000 kilowatts, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>and
+having in view the possibility of future extensions of the system it
+was decided to design and construct the power house building for the
+ultimate reception of eleven 5,000-kilowatt units for traction current
+in addition to the lighting sets. Each 5,000-kilowatt unit is capable
+of delivering during rush hours an output of 7,500 kilowatts or
+approximately 10,000 electrical horse power and, setting aside one
+unit as a reserve, the contemplated ultimate maximum output of the
+power plant, therefore, is 75,000 kilowatts, or approximately 100,000
+electrical horse power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Power
+House</i></div>
+
+<p>The power house is fully described elsewhere in this publication, but
+it is not inappropriate to refer briefly in this place to certain
+considerations governing the selection of the generating unit, and the
+use of engines rather than steam turbines.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="OIL_SWITCHESmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION" id="OIL_SWITCHESmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image094.jpg" width="450" height="563" alt="OIL SWITCHES&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" title="OIL SWITCHES&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" />
+<span class="caption">OIL SWITCHES&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The 5,000-kilowatt generating unit was chosen because it is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>practically as large a unit of the direct-connected type as can be
+constructed by the engine builders unless more than two bearings be
+used&mdash;an alternative deemed inadvisable by the engineers of the
+company. The adoption of a smaller unit would be less economical of
+floor space and would tend to produce extreme complication in so large
+an installation, and, in view of the rapid changes in load which in
+urban railway service of this character occur in the morning and again
+late in the afternoon, would be extremely difficult to operate.</p>
+
+<p>The experience of the Manhattan plant has shown, as was anticipated in
+the installation of less output than this, the alternators must be put
+in service at intervals of twenty minutes to meet the load upon the
+station while it is rising to the maximum attained during rush hours.</p>
+
+<p>After careful consideration of the possible use of steam turbines as
+prime-movers to drive the alternators, the company's engineers decided
+in favor of reciprocating engines. This decision was made three years
+ago and, while the steam turbine since that time has made material
+progress, those responsible for the decision are confirmed in their
+opinion that it was wise.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PART_OF_BUS_BAR_COMPARTMENTSmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION" id="PART_OF_BUS_BAR_COMPARTMENTSmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image095.jpg" width="500" height="354" alt="PART OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" title="PART OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" />
+<span class="caption">PART OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Alternators</i></div>
+
+<p>The alternators closely resemble those installed by the Manhattan
+Railway Company (now the Manhattan division of the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company) in its plant on the East River, between 74th Street
+and 75th Street. They differ, however, in having the stationary
+armature divided into seven castings instead of six, and in respect to
+details of the armature winding. They are three-phase machines,
+delivering twenty-five cycle alternating currents at an effective
+potential of 11,000 volts. They are 42 feet in height, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>diameter
+of the revolving part is 32 feet, its weight, 332,000 pounds, and the
+aggregate weight of the machine, 889,000 pounds. The design of the
+engine dynamo unit eliminates the auxiliary fly wheel generally used
+in the construction of large direct-connected units prior to the
+erection of the Manhattan plant, the weight and dimensions of the
+revolving alternator field being such with reference to the turning
+moment of the engine as to secure close uniformity of rotation, while
+at the same time this construction results in narrowing the engine and
+reducing the engine shafts between bearings.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="REAR_VIEW_OF_BUS_BAR_COMPARTMENTSmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION" id="REAR_VIEW_OF_BUS_BAR_COMPARTMENTSmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image096.jpg" width="500" height="354" alt="REAR VIEW OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" title="REAR VIEW OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" />
+<span class="caption">REAR VIEW OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="DUCT_LINE_ACROSS_58TH_STREET_32_DUCTS" id="DUCT_LINE_ACROSS_58TH_STREET_32_DUCTS"></a>
+<img src="images/image096.png" width="600" height="529" alt="DUCT LINE ACROSS 58TH STREET 32 DUCTS" title="DUCT LINE ACROSS 58TH STREET 32 DUCTS" />
+<span class="caption">DUCT LINE ACROSS 58TH STREET 32 DUCTS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Construction of the revolving parts of the alternators is such as to
+secure very great strength and consequent ability to resist the
+tendency to burst and fly apart in case of temporary abnormal speed
+through accident of any kind. The hub of the revolving field is of
+cast steel, and the rim is carried not by the usual spokes but by two
+wedges of rolled steel. The construction of the revolving field is
+illustrated on pages <a href="#SIDE_AND_END_ELEVATIONS_OF_ALTERNATOR">91</a> and <a href="#Page_92">92</a>. The angular velocity of the
+revolving field is remarkably uniform. This result is due primarily to
+the fact that the turning movement of the four-cylinder engine is far
+more uniform than is the case, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>for example, with an ordinary
+two-cylinder engine. The large fly-wheel capacity of the rotating
+element of the machine also contributes materially to secure
+uniformity of rotation.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="MAIN_CONTROLLING_BOARD_IN_POWER_STATION" id="MAIN_CONTROLLING_BOARD_IN_POWER_STATION"></a>
+<a href="images/image097.png"><img src="images/image097_th.png" width="600" height="226" alt="MAIN CONTROLLING BOARD IN POWER STATION" title="MAIN CONTROLLING BOARD IN POWER STATION" /></a>
+<span class="caption">MAIN CONTROLLING BOARD IN POWER STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="CONTROL_AND_INSTRUMENT_BOARDmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION" id="CONTROL_AND_INSTRUMENT_BOARDmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image097.jpg" width="500" height="338" alt="CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT BOARD&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" title="CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT BOARD&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION" />
+<span class="caption">CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT BOARD&mdash;MAIN POWER STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The alternators have forty field poles and operates at seventy-five
+revolutions per minute. The field magnets constitute the periphery of
+the revolving field, the poles and rim of the field being built up by
+steel plates which are dovetailed to the driving spider. The heavy
+steel end plates are bolted together, the laminations breaking joints
+in the middle of the pole. The field coils are secured by copper
+wedges, which are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>subjected to shearing strains only. In the body of
+the poles, at intervals of approximately three inches, ventilating
+spaces are provided, these spaces registering with corresponding air
+ducts in the external armature. The field winding consists of copper
+strap on edge, one layer deep, with fibrous material cemented in place
+between turns, the edges of the strap being exposed.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="DUCTS_UNDER_PASSENGER_STATION_PLATFORM_64_DUCTS" id="DUCTS_UNDER_PASSENGER_STATION_PLATFORM_64_DUCTS"></a>
+<a href="images/image098.png"><img src="images/image098_th.png" width="600" height="397" alt="DUCTS UNDER PASSENGER STATION PLATFORM
+64 DUCTS" title="DUCTS UNDER PASSENGER STATION PLATFORM
+64 DUCTS" /></a>
+<span class="caption">DUCTS UNDER PASSENGER STATION PLATFORM
+64 DUCTS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The armature is stationary and exterior to the field. It consists of a
+laminated ring with slots on its inner surface and supported by a
+massive external cast-iron frame. The armature, as has been noted,
+comprises seven segments, the topmost segment being in the form of a
+small keystone. This may be removed readily, affording access to any
+field coil, which in this way may be easily removed and replaced. The
+armature winding consists of U-shaped copper bars in partially closed
+slots. There are four bars per slot and three slots per phase per
+pole. The bars in any slot may be removed from the armature without
+removing the frame. The alternators, of course, are separately
+excited, the potential of the exciting current used being 250 volts.</p>
+
+<p>As regards regulation, the manufacturer's guarantee is that at 100 per
+cent. power factor if full rated load be thrown off the e. m. f. will
+rise 6 per cent. with constant speed and constant excitation. The
+guarantee as to efficiency is as follows: On non-inductive load, the
+alternators will have an efficiency of not less than 90.5 per cent. at
+one-quarter load; 94.75 per cent. at one-half load; 96.25 per cent. at
+three-quarters load; 97 per cent. at full load, and 97.25 per cent. at
+one and one-quarter load. These figures refer, of course, to
+electrical efficiency, and do not include windage and bearing
+friction. The machines are designed to operate under their rated full
+load with rise of temperature not exceeding 35 degrees C. after
+twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="THREE-CONDUCTOR_NO_000_CABLE_FOR_11000_VOLT_DISTRIBUTION" id="THREE-CONDUCTOR_NO_000_CABLE_FOR_11000_VOLT_DISTRIBUTION"></a>
+<img src="images/image098.jpg" width="300" height="258" alt="THREE-CONDUCTOR NO. 000 CABLE FOR 11,000 VOLT
+DISTRIBUTION" title="THREE-CONDUCTOR NO. 000 CABLE FOR 11,000 VOLT
+DISTRIBUTION" />
+<span class="caption">THREE-CONDUCTOR NO. 000 CABLE FOR 11,000 VOLT
+DISTRIBUTION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote"><i>Exciters</i></div>
+
+<p>To supply exciting current for the fields of the alternators and to
+operate motors driving auxiliary apparatus, five 250-kilowatt direct
+current dynamos are provided. These deliver their current at a
+potential of 250 volts. Two of them are driven by 400 horse-power
+engines of the marine type, to which they are direct-connected, while
+the remaining three units are direct-connected to 365 horse-power
+tri-phase induction motors operating at 400 volts. A storage battery
+capable of furnishing 3,000 amperes for one hour is used in
+co-operation with the dynamos provided to excite the alternators. The
+five direct-current dynamos are connected to the organization of
+switching apparatus in such a way that each unit may be connected at
+will either to the exciting circuits or to the circuits through which
+auxiliary motors are supplied.</p>
+
+<p>The alternators for which the new Interborough Power House are
+designed will deliver to the bus bars 100,000 electrical horse power.
+The current delivered by these alternators reverses its direction
+fifty times per second and in connecting dynamos just coming into
+service with those already in operation the allowable difference in
+phase relation at the instant the circuit is completed is, of course,
+but a fraction of the fiftieth of a second. Where the power to be
+controlled is so great, the potential so high, and the speed
+requirements in respect to synchronous operation so exacting, it is
+obvious that the perfection of control attained in some of our modern
+plants is not their least characteristic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Switching
+Apparatus</i></div>
+
+<p>The switch used for the 11,000-volt circuits is so constructed that
+the circuits are made and broken under oil, the switch being
+electrically operated. Two complete and independent sets of bus bars
+are used, and the connections are such that each alternator and each
+feeder may be connected to either of these sets of bus bars at the
+will of the operator. From alternators to bus bars the current passes,
+first, through the alternator switch, and then alternatively through
+one or the other of two selector switches which are connected,
+respectively, to the two sets of bus bars.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a name="INSIDE_WALL_OF_TUNNEL_SHOWING_64_DUCTS" id="INSIDE_WALL_OF_TUNNEL_SHOWING_64_DUCTS"></a>
+<a href="images/image099.png"><img src="images/image099_th.png" width="281" height="550" alt="INSIDE WALL OF TUNNEL SHOWING 64 DUCTS" title="INSIDE WALL OF TUNNEL SHOWING 64 DUCTS" /></a>
+<span class="caption">INSIDE WALL OF TUNNEL SHOWING 64 DUCTS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Provision is made for an ultimate total of twelve sub-stations, to
+each of which as many as eight feeders may be installed if the
+development of the company's business should require that number. But
+eight sub-stations are required at present, and to some of these not
+more than three feeders each are necessary. The aggregate number of
+feeders installed for the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>initial operation of the subway system is
+thirty-four.</p>
+
+<p>Each feeder circuit is provided with a type H-oil switch arranged to
+be open and closed at will by the operator, and also to open
+automatically in the case of abnormal flow of current through the
+feeder. The feeders are arranged in groups, each group being supplied
+from a set of auxiliary bus bars, which in turn receives its supply
+from one or the other of the two sets of main bus bars; means for
+selection being provided as in the case of the alternator circuits by
+a pair of selector switches, in this case designated as group
+switches. The diagram on <a href="#GENERAL_DIAGRAM_OF_11000_VOLT_CIRCUITS_IN_MAIN_POWER_STATION">page 93</a> illustrates the essential
+features of the organization and connections of the 11,000-volt
+circuits in the power house.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="MANHOLES_IN_SIDE_WALL_OF_SUBWAY" id="MANHOLES_IN_SIDE_WALL_OF_SUBWAY"></a>
+<img src="images/image100.jpg" width="400" height="537" alt="MANHOLES IN SIDE WALL OF SUBWAY" title="MANHOLES IN SIDE WALL OF SUBWAY" />
+<span class="caption">MANHOLES IN SIDE WALL OF SUBWAY</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Any and every switch can be opened or closed at will by the operator
+standing at the control board described. The alternator switches are
+provided also with automatic overload and reversed current relays, and
+the feeder switches, as above mentioned, are provided with automatic
+overload relays. These overload relays have a time attachment which
+can be set to open the switch at the expiration of a predetermined
+time ranging from .3 of a second to 5 seconds.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 207px;">
+<a href="images/image101.png"><img src="images/image101_th.png" width="207" height="550" alt="CONVERTER FLOOR PLAN
+SUB-STATION NO. 14" title="CONVERTER FLOOR PLAN
+SUB-STATION NO. 14" /></a>
+<span class="caption">CONVERTER FLOOR PLAN
+SUB-STATION NO. 14</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p><p>The type H-oil switch is operated by an electric motor through the
+intervention of a mechanism comprising powerful springs which open and
+close the switch with great speed. This switch when opened introduces
+in each of the three sides of the circuit two breaks which are in
+series with each other. Each side of the circuit is separated from the
+others by its location in an enclosed compartment, the walls of which
+are brick and soapstone. The general construction of the switch is
+illustrated by the photograph on <a href="#OIL_SWITCHESmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION">page 94</a>.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;">
+<a name="CROSS_SECTION_SUB-STATION_NO_14" id="CROSS_SECTION_SUB-STATION_NO_14"></a>
+<a href="images/image102.png"><img src="images/image102_th.png" width="516" height="550" alt="CROSS SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14" title="CROSS SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14" /></a>
+<span class="caption">CROSS SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14</span>
+<br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="INTERIOR_OF_SUB-STATION_NO_11" id="INTERIOR_OF_SUB-STATION_NO_11"></a>
+<img src="images/image102.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="INTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11" title="INTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11</span>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image103.png"><img src="images/image103_th.png" width="600" height="395" alt="LONGITUDINAL SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14" title="LONGITUDINAL SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14" /></a>
+<span class="caption">LONGITUDINAL SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p><p>Like all current-carrying parts of the switches, the bus bars are
+enclosed in separate compartments. These are constructed of brick,
+small doors for inspection and maintenance being provided opposite all
+points where the bus bars are supported upon insulators. The
+photographs on pages <a href="#PART_OF_BUS_BAR_COMPARTMENTSmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION">95</a> and <a href="#REAR_VIEW_OF_BUS_BAR_COMPARTMENTSmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION">96</a> are views of a part of the bus bar
+and switch compartments.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image104a.jpg" width="350" height="345" alt="TWO GROUPS OF TRANSFORMERS" title="TWO GROUPS OF TRANSFORMERS" />
+<span class="caption">TWO GROUPS OF TRANSFORMERS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The oil switches and group bus bars are located upon the main floor
+and extend along the 59th Street wall of the engine room a distance of
+about 600 feet. The main bus bars are arranged in two lines of brick
+compartments, which are placed below the engine-room floor. These bus
+bars are arranged vertically and are placed directly beneath the rows
+of oil switches located upon the main floor of the power house. Above
+these rows of oil switches and the group bus bars, galleries are
+constructed which extend the entire length of the power house, and
+upon the first of these galleries at a point opposite the middle of
+the power house are located the control board and instrument board, by
+means of which the operator in charge regulates and directs the entire
+output of the plant, maintaining a supply of power at all times
+adequate to the demands of the transportation service.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image104b.jpg" width="350" height="458" alt="MOTOR-GENERATORS AND BATTERY BOARD FOR CONTROL
+CIRCUITS&mdash;SUB-STATION" title="MOTOR-GENERATORS AND BATTERY BOARD FOR CONTROL
+CIRCUITS&mdash;SUB-STATION" />
+<span class="caption">MOTOR-GENERATORS AND BATTERY BOARD FOR CONTROL
+CIRCUITS&mdash;SUB-STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image105a.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="1,500 K. W. ROTARY CONVERTER" title="1,500 K. W. ROTARY CONVERTER" />
+<span class="caption">1,500 K. W. ROTARY CONVERTER</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>The Control
+Board</i></div>
+
+<p>The control board is shown in the photograph on <a href="#CONTROL_AND_INSTRUMENT_BOARDmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION">page 97</a>. Every
+alternator switch, every selector switch, every group switch, and
+every feeder switch upon the main floor is here represented by a small
+switch. The small switch is connected into a control circuit which
+receives its supply of energy at 110 volts from a small motor
+generator set and storage battery. The motors which actuate the large
+oil switches upon the main floor are driven by this 110 volt control
+current, and thus in the hands of the operator the control switches
+make or break the relatively feeble control currents, which, in turn,
+close or open the switches in the main power circuits. The control
+switches are systematically assembled upon the control bench board in
+conjunction with dummy bus bars and other apparent (but not real)
+metallic connections, the whole constituting at all times a correct
+diagram of the existing connections of the main power circuits. Every
+time the operator changes a connection by opening or closing one of
+the main switches, he necessarily changes his diagram so that it
+represents the new conditions established by opening or closing the
+main switch. In connection with each control switch two small
+bull's-eye lamps are used, one red, to indicate that the corresponding
+main switch is closed, the other green, to indicate that it is open.
+These lamps are lighted when the moving part of the main switch
+reaches approximately the end of its travel. If for any reason,
+therefore, the movement of the control switch should fail to actuate
+the main switch, the indicator lamp will not be lighted.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image105b.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="MOTOR-GENERATOR SET SUPPLYING ALTERNATING CURRENT FOR
+BLOCK SIGNALS AND MOTOR-GENERATOR STARTING SET" title="MOTOR-GENERATOR SET SUPPLYING ALTERNATING CURRENT FOR
+BLOCK SIGNALS AND MOTOR-GENERATOR STARTING SET" />
+<span class="caption">MOTOR-GENERATOR SET SUPPLYING ALTERNATING CURRENT FOR
+BLOCK SIGNALS AND MOTOR-GENERATOR STARTING SET</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The control board is divided into two parts&mdash;one for the connections
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>alternators to the bus bars and the other for the connection
+of feeders to bus bars. The drawing on <a href="#MAIN_CONTROLLING_BOARD_IN_POWER_STATION">page 97</a> shows in plain view
+the essential features of the control boards.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>The
+Instrument
+Board</i></div>
+
+<p>A front view of the Instrument Board is shown on <a href="#CONTROL_AND_INSTRUMENT_BOARDmdashMAIN_POWER_STATION">page 97</a>. This
+board contains all indicating instruments for alternators and feeders.
+It also carries standardizing instruments and a clock. In the
+<a href="#MAIN_CONTROLLING_BOARD_IN_POWER_STATION">illustration</a> the alternator panels are shown at the left and the
+feeder panels at the right. For the alternator panels, instruments of
+the vertical edgewise type are used. Each vertical row comprises the
+measuring instruments for an alternator. Beginning at the top and
+enumerating them in order these instruments are: Three ammeters, one
+for each phase, a volumeter, an indicating wattmeter, a power factor
+indicator and a field ammeter. The round dial instrument shown at the
+bottom of each row of instruments is a three-phase recording
+wattmeter.</p>
+
+<p>A panel located near the center of the board between alternator panels
+and feeder panels carries standard instruments used for convenient
+calibration of the alternator and feeder instruments. Provision is
+made on the back of the board for convenient connection of the
+standard instruments in series with the instruments to be compared.
+The panel which carries the standard instruments also carries ammeters
+used to measure current to auxiliary circuits in the power house.</p>
+
+<p>For the feeder board, instruments of the round dial pattern are used,
+and for each feeder a single instrument is provided, viz., an ammeter.
+Each vertical row comprises the ammeters belonging to the feeders
+which supply a given sub-station, and from left to right these are in
+order sub-stations Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18; blank
+spaces are left for four additional sub-stations. Each horizontal row
+comprises the ammeter belonging to feeders which are supplied through
+a given group switch.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement in vertical and horizontal lines, indicating
+respectively feeders to given sub-stations and feeders connected to
+the several group switches, is intended to facilitate the work of the
+operator. A glance down a vertical row without stopping to reach the
+scales of the instruments will tell him whether the feeders are
+dividing with approximate equality the load to a given sub-station.
+Feeders to different sub-stations usually carry different loads and,
+generally speaking, a glance along a horizontal row will convey no
+information of especial importance. If, however, for any reason the
+operator should desire to know the approximate aggregate load upon a
+group of feeders this systematic arrangement of the instruments is of
+use.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image106.jpg" width="350" height="327" alt="SWITCHBOARD FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT BLOCK SIGNAL
+CIRCUITS&mdash;IN SUB-STATION" title="SWITCHBOARD FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT BLOCK SIGNAL
+CIRCUITS&mdash;IN SUB-STATION" />
+<span class="caption">SWITCHBOARD FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT BLOCK SIGNAL
+CIRCUITS&mdash;IN SUB-STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image107a.jpg" width="350" height="414" alt="EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 18" title="EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 18" />
+<span class="caption">EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 18</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Alternating
+Current
+Distribution
+to Sub-Stations
+Power House
+Ducts and
+Cables</i></div>
+
+<p>From alternators to alternator switches the 11,000 volt alternating
+currents are conveyed through single conductor cables, insulated by
+oil cambric, the thickness of the wall being 12/32 of an inch. These
+conductors are installed in vitrified clay ducts. From dynamo switches
+to bus bars and from bus bars to group and feeder switches, vulcanized
+rubber insulation containing 30 per cent. pure Para rubber is
+employed. The thickness of insulating wall is 9/32 of an inch and the
+conductors are supported upon porcelain insulators.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Conduit
+System for
+Distribution</i></div>
+
+<p>From the power house to the subway at 58th Street and Broadway two
+lines of conduit, each comprising thirty-two ducts, have been
+constructed. These conduits are located on opposite sides of the
+street. The arrangement of ducts is 8 x 4, as shown in the section on
+<a href="#DUCT_LINE_ACROSS_58TH_STREET_32_DUCTS">page 96</a>.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<img src="images/image107b.jpg" width="375" height="414" alt="EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11" title="EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11" />
+<span class="caption">EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The location and arrangement of ducts along the line of the subway are
+illustrated in photographs on pages <a href="#DUCTS_UNDER_PASSENGER_STATION_PLATFORM_64_DUCTS">98</a> and <a href="#INSIDE_WALL_OF_TUNNEL_SHOWING_64_DUCTS">99</a>, which show
+respectively a section of ducts on one side of the subway, between
+passenger stations, and a section of ducts and one side of the subway,
+beneath the platform of a passenger station. From City Hall to 96th
+Street (except through the Park Avenue Tunnel) sixty-four ducts are
+provided on each side of the subway. North of 96th Street sixty-four
+ducts are provided for the West-side lines and an equal number for the
+East-side lines. Between passenger stations these ducts help to form
+the side walls of the subway, and are arranged thirty-two ducts high
+and two ducts wide. Beneath the platform of passenger stations the
+arrangement is somewhat varied because of local <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>obstructions, such as
+pipes, sewers, etc., of which it was necessary to take account in the
+construction of the stations. The plan shown on <a href="#DUCTS_UNDER_PASSENGER_STATION_PLATFORM_64_DUCTS">page 98</a>, however,
+is typical.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity of passing the cables from the 32 x 2 arrangement of
+ducts along the side of the tunnel to 8 x 8 and 16 x 4 arrangements of
+ducts beneath the passenger platforms involves serious difficulties in
+the proper support and protection of cables in manholes at the ends of
+the station platforms. In order to minimize the risk of interruption
+of service due to possible damage to a considerable number of cables
+in one of these manholes, resulting from short circuit in a single
+cable, all cables except at the joints are covered with two layers of
+asbestos aggregating a full 1/4-inch in thickness. This asbestos is
+specially prepared and is applied by wrapping the cable with two
+strips each 3 inches in width, the outer strip covering the line of
+junction between adjacent spirals of the inner strip, the whole when
+in place being impregnated with a solution of silicate of soda. The
+joints themselves are covered with two layers of asbestos held in
+place by steel tape applied spirally. To distribute the strains upon
+the cables in manholes, radical supports of various curvatures, and
+made of malleable cast iron, are used. The photograph on <a href="#MANHOLES_IN_SIDE_WALL_OF_SUBWAY">page 100</a>
+illustrates the arrangement of cables in one of these manholes.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="OPERATING_BOARDmdashSUB-STATION_NO_11" id="OPERATING_BOARDmdashSUB-STATION_NO_11"></a>
+<img src="images/image108.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt="OPERATING BOARD&mdash;SUB-STATION NO. 11" title="OPERATING BOARD&mdash;SUB-STATION NO. 11" />
+<span class="caption">OPERATING BOARD&mdash;SUB-STATION NO. 11</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p><p>In order to further diminish the risk of interruption of the service
+due to failure of power supply, each sub-station south of 96th Street
+receives its alternating current from the power house through cables
+carried on opposite sides of the subway. To protect the lead sheaths
+of the cables against damage by electrolysis, rubber insulating pieces
+1/6 of an inch in thickness are placed between the sheaths and the
+iron bracket supports in the manholes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Cable
+Conveying
+Energy from
+Power House to
+Sub-Stations</i></div>
+
+<p>The cables used for conveying energy from the power house to the
+several sub-stations aggregate approximately 150 miles in length. The
+cable used for this purpose comprises three stranded copper conductors
+each of which contains nineteen wires, and the diameter of the
+stranded conductor thus formed is 2/5 of an inch. Paper insulation is
+employed and the triple cable is enclosed in a lead sheath 9/64 of an
+inch thick. Each conductor is separated from its neighbors and from
+the lead sheath by insulation of treated paper 7/16 of an inch in
+thickness. The outside diameter of the cables is 2-5/8 inches, and the
+weight 8-1/2 pounds per lineal foot. In the factories the cable as
+manufactured was cut into lengths corresponding to the distance
+between manholes, and each length subjected to severe tests including
+application to the insulation of an alternating current potential of
+30,000 volts for a period of thirty minutes. These cables were
+installed under the supervision of the Interborough Company's
+engineers, and after jointing, each complete cable from power house to
+sub-station was tested by applying an alternating potential of 30,000
+volts for thirty minutes between each conductor and its neighbors, and
+between each conductor and the lead sheath. The photographs on
+<a href="#THREE-CONDUCTOR_NO_000_CABLE_FOR_11000_VOLT_DISTRIBUTION">page 98</a> illustrates the construction of this cable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Sub-Station</i></div>
+
+<p>The tri-phase alternating current generated at the power house is
+conveyed through the high potential cable system to eight sub-stations
+containing the necessary transforming and converting machinery. These
+sub-stations are designed and located as follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="DIAGRAMS_OF_DIRECT_CURRENT_FEEDER_AND_RETURN_CIRCUITS" id="DIAGRAMS_OF_DIRECT_CURRENT_FEEDER_AND_RETURN_CIRCUITS"></a>
+<a href="images/image109.png"><img src="images/image109_th.png" width="600" height="373" alt="DIAGRAMS OF DIRECT CURRENT FEEDER AND RETURN CIRCUITS" title="DIAGRAMS OF DIRECT CURRENT FEEDER AND RETURN CIRCUITS" /></a>
+<span class="caption">DIAGRAMS OF DIRECT CURRENT FEEDER AND RETURN CIRCUITS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p><p>Sub-station No. 11&mdash;29-33 City Hall Place.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 12&mdash;108-110 East 19th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 13&mdash;225-227 West 53d Street.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 14&mdash;264-266 West 96th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 15&mdash;606-608 West 143d Street.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 16&mdash;73-77 West 132d Street.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 17&mdash;Hillside Avenue, 301 feet West of Eleventh Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-station No. 18&mdash;South side of Fox Street (Simpson Street), 60 feet
+north of Westchester Avenue.<br /><br /></p>
+</div>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image110a.jpg" width="400" height="492" alt="SWITCH CONNECTING FEEDER TO CONTACT RAIL" title="SWITCH CONNECTING FEEDER TO CONTACT RAIL" />
+<span class="caption">SWITCH CONNECTING FEEDER TO CONTACT RAIL</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image110b.jpg" width="300" height="156" alt="CONTACT RAIL JOINT WITH FISH PLATE" title="CONTACT RAIL JOINT WITH FISH PLATE" />
+<span class="caption">CONTACT RAIL JOINT WITH FISH PLATE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The converter unit selected to receive the alternating current and
+deliver direct current to the track, etc., has an output of 1,500
+kilowatts with ability to carry 50 per cent. overload for three hours.
+The average area of a city lot is 25 x 100 feet, and a sub-station
+site comprising two adjacent lots of this approximate size permits the
+installation of a maximum of eight 1,500 kilowatts converters with
+necessary transformers, switchboard and other auxiliary apparatus. In
+designing the sub-stations, a type of building with a central air-well
+was selected. The typical organization of apparatus is illustrated in
+the ground plan and vertical section on pages <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#CROSS_SECTION_SUB-STATION_NO_14">102</a> and <a href="#Page_103">103</a> and
+provides, as shown, for two lines of converters, the three
+transformers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>which supply each converter being located between it and
+the adjacent side wall. The switchboard is located at the rear of the
+station. The central shaft affords excellent light and ventilation for
+the operating room. The steel work of the sub-stations is designed
+with a view to the addition of two storage battery floors, should it
+be decided at some future time that the addition of such an auxiliary
+is advisable.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image111a.jpg" width="350" height="203" alt="CONTACT RAIL BANDS" title="CONTACT RAIL BANDS" />
+<span class="caption">CONTACT RAIL BANDS</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The necessary equipment of the sub-stations implies sites
+approximately 50 x 100 feet in dimensions; and sub-stations Nos. 14,
+15, 17, and 18 are practically all this size. Sub-stations Nos. 11 and
+16 are 100 feet in length, but the lots acquired in these instances
+being of unusual width, these sub-stations are approximately 60 feet
+wide. Sub-station No. 12, on account of limited ground space, is but
+48 feet wide and 92 feet long. In each of the sub-stations, except No.
+13, foundations are provided for eight converters; sub-station No. 13
+contains foundations for the ultimate installation of ten converters.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image111b.jpg" width="400" height="509" alt="DIRECT CURRENT FEEDERS FROM MANHOLE TO CONTACT RAIL" title="DIRECT CURRENT FEEDERS FROM MANHOLE TO CONTACT RAIL" />
+<span class="caption">DIRECT CURRENT FEEDERS FROM MANHOLE TO CONTACT RAIL</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The function of the electrical apparatus in sub-stations, as has been
+stated, is the conversion of the high potential alternating current
+energy delivered from the power house through the tri-phase cables
+into direct current adapted to operate the motors with which the
+rolling stock is equipped. This apparatus comprises transformers,
+converters, and certain minor auxiliaries. The transformers, which are
+arranged in groups of three, receive the tri-phase alternating current
+at a potential <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>approximating 10,500 volts, and deliver equivalent
+energy (less the loss of about 2 per cent. in the transformation) to
+the converters at a potential of about 390 volts. The converters
+receiving this energy from their respective groups of transformers in
+turn deliver it (less a loss approximating 4 per cent. at full load)
+in the form of direct current at a potential of 625 volts to the bus
+bars of the direct current switchboards, from which it is conveyed by
+insulated cables to the contact rails. The photograph on <a href="#INTERIOR_OF_SUB-STATION_NO_11">page 102</a>
+is a general view of the interior of one of the sub-stations. The
+exterior of sub-stations Nos. 11 and 18 are shown on <a href="#Page_107">page 107</a>.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image112.jpg" width="500" height="253" alt="CONTACT RAILS, SHOWING END INCLINES" title="CONTACT RAILS, SHOWING END INCLINES" />
+<span class="caption">CONTACT RAILS, SHOWING END INCLINES</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The illustration on <a href="#OPERATING_BOARDmdashSUB-STATION_NO_11">page 108</a> is from a photograph taken on one of
+the switchboard galleries. In the sub-stations, as in the power house,
+the high potential alternating current circuits are opened and closed
+by oil switches, which are electrically operated by motors, these in
+turn being controlled by 110 volt direct current circuits. Diagramatic
+bench boards are used, as at the power house, but in the sub-stations
+they are of course relatively small and free from complication.</p>
+
+<p>The instrument board is supported by iron columns and is carried at a
+sufficient height above the bench board to enable the operator, while
+facing the bench board and the instruments, to look out over the floor
+of the sub-station without turning his head. The switches of the
+direct current circuits are hand-operated and are located upon boards
+at the right and left of the control board.</p>
+
+<p>A novel and important feature introduced (it is believed for the first
+time) in these sub-stations, is the location in separate brick
+compartments of the automatic circuit breakers in the direct current
+feeder circuits. These circuit breaker compartments are shown in the
+photograph on <a href="#OPERATING_GALLERY_IN_SUB-STATION">page 93</a>, and are in a line facing the boards which
+carry the direct feeder switches, each circuit breaker being located
+in a compartment directly opposite the panel which carries the switch
+belonging to the corresponding circuit. This plan will effectually
+prevent damage to other parts of the switchboard equipment when
+circuit-breakers open automatically under conditions of short-circuit.
+It also tends to eliminate risk to the operator, and, therefore, to
+increase his confidence and accuracy in manipulating the hand-operated
+switches.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 455px;">
+<a name="Pg_113_ASSEMBLY_OF_CONTACT_RAIL_AND_PROTECTION" id="Pg_113_ASSEMBLY_OF_CONTACT_RAIL_AND_PROTECTION"></a>
+<a href="images/image113.png"><img src="images/image113_th.png" width="455" height="550" alt="ASSEMBLY OF CONTACT RAIL AND PROTECTION" title="ASSEMBLY OF CONTACT RAIL AND PROTECTION" /></a>
+<span class="caption">ASSEMBLY OF CONTACT RAIL AND PROTECTION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The three conductor cables which convey tri-phase currents from the
+power house are carried through tile ducts from the manholes located
+in the street directly in front of each sub-station to the back of the
+station where the end of the cable is connected directly beneath its
+oil switch. The three conductors, now well separated, extend
+vertically to the fixed terminals of the switch. In each sub-station
+but one set of high-potential alternating current bus bars is
+installed and between each incoming cable and these bus bars is
+connected an oil switch. In like manner, between each converter unit
+and the bus bars an oil switch is connected into the high potential
+circuit. The bus bars are so arranged that they may be divided into
+any number of sections not exceeding the number of converter units, by
+means of movable links which, in their normal condition, constitute a
+part of the bus bars.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the oil switches between incoming circuits and bus bars is
+arranged for automatic operation and is equipped with a reversed
+current relay, which, in the case of a short-circuit in its
+alternating current feeder cable opens the switch and so disconnects
+the cable from the sub-station without interference with the operation
+of the other cables or the converting machinery.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="CONTACT_RAIL_INSULATOR" id="CONTACT_RAIL_INSULATOR"></a>
+<img src="images/image113.jpg" width="300" height="383" alt="CONTACT RAIL INSULATOR" title="CONTACT RAIL INSULATOR" />
+<span class="caption">CONTACT RAIL INSULATOR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct Current
+Distribution
+from
+Sub-Stations</i></div>
+
+<p>The organization of electrical conductors provided to convey direct
+current from the sub-stations to the moving trains can be described
+most conveniently by beginning with the contact, or so-called third
+rail. South of 96th Street the average distance between sub-stations
+approximates 12,000 feet, and north of 96th Street <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>the average
+distance is about 15,000 feet. Each track, of course, is provided with
+a contact rail. There are four tracks and consequently four contact
+rails from City Hall to 96th Street, three from 96th Street to 145th
+Street on the West Side, two from 145th Street to Dyckman Street, and
+three from Dyckman Street to the northern terminal of the West Side
+extension of the system. From 96th Street, the East Side has two
+tracks and two contact rails to Mott Avenue, and from that point to
+the terminal at 182d Street three tracks and three contact rails.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="CONTACT_SHOE_AND_FUSE" id="CONTACT_SHOE_AND_FUSE"></a>
+<img src="images/image114.jpg" width="500" height="407" alt="CONTACT SHOE AND FUSE" title="CONTACT SHOE AND FUSE" />
+<span class="caption">CONTACT SHOE AND FUSE</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Contact rails south of Reade Street are supplied from sub-station No.
+11; from Reade Street to 19th Street they are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 11 and 12; from 19th Street they are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 12 and 13; from the point last named to 96th Street
+they are supplied from sub-stations Nos. 13 and 14; from 96th Street
+to 143d Street, on the West Side, they are supplied from sub-stations
+Nos. 14 and 15; from 143d Street to Dyckman Street they are supplied
+from sub-stations Nos. 15 and 17; and from that point to the terminal
+they are supplied from sub-station No. 17. On the East Side branch
+contact rails from 96th Street to 132d Street are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 14 and 16; from 132d to 165th Street they are
+supplied from sub-stations Nos. 16 and 18; and from 165th Street to
+182d Street they are supplied from sub-station No. 18.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p><p>Each contact rail is insulated from all contact rails belonging to
+adjacent tracks. This is done in order that in case of derailment or
+other accident necessitating interruption of service on a given track,
+trains may be operated upon the other tracks having their separate and
+independent channels of electrical supply. To make this clear, we may
+consider that section of the subway which lies between Reade Street
+and 19th Street. This section is equipped with four tracks, and the
+contact rail for each track, together with the direct current feeders
+which supply it from sub-stations Nos. 11 and 12, are electrically
+insulated from all other circuits. Of each pair of track rails one is
+used for the automatic block signaling system, and, therefore, is not
+used as a part of the negative or return side of the direct current
+system. The other four track rails, however, are bonded, and together
+with the negative feeders constitute the track return or negative side
+of the direct current system.</p>
+
+<p>The diagram on <a href="#DIAGRAMS_OF_DIRECT_CURRENT_FEEDER_AND_RETURN_CIRCUITS">page 109</a> illustrates the connections of the contact
+rails, track rails and the positive and negative feeders. All negative
+as well as positive feeders are cables of 2,000,000 c. m. section and
+lead sheathed. In emergency, as, for example, in the case of the
+destruction of a number of the cables in a manhole, they are,
+therefore, interchangeable. The connections are such as to minimize
+"track drop," as will be evident upon examination of the diagram. The
+electrical separation of the several contact rails and the positive
+feeders connected thereto secures a further important advantage in
+permitting the use at sub-stations of direct-current circuit-breakers
+of moderate size and capacity, which can be set to open automatically
+at much lower currents than would be practicable were all contact
+rails electrically connected, thus reducing the limiting current and
+consequently the intensity of the arcs which might occur in the subway
+in case of short-circuit between contact rail and earth.</p>
+
+<p>The contact rail itself is of special soft steel, to secure high
+conductivity. Its composition, as shown by tests, is as follows:
+Carbon, .08 to .15; silicon, .05; phosphorus, .10; manganese, .50 to
+.70; and sulphur, .05. Its resistance is not more than eight times the
+resistance of pure copper of equal cross-section. The section chosen
+weighs 75 pounds per yard. The length used in general is 60 feet, but
+in some cases 40 feet lengths are substituted. The contact rails are
+bounded by four bonds, aggregating 1,200,000 c. m. section. The bonds
+are of flexible copper and their terminals are riveted to the steel by
+hydraulic presses, producing a pressure of 35 tons. The bonds when in
+use are covered by special malleable iron fish-plates which insure
+alignment of rail. Each length of rail is anchored at its middle point
+and a small clearance is allowed between ends of adjacent rails for
+expansion and contraction, which in the subway, owing to the
+relatively small change of temperature, will be reduced to a minimum.
+The photographs on pages <a href="#Page_110">110</a> and <a href="#Page_111">111</a> illustrate the method of
+bonding the rail, and show the bonded joint completed by the addition
+of the fish-plates.</p>
+
+<p>The contact rail is carried upon block insulators supported upon
+malleable iron castings. Castings of the same material are used to
+secure the contact rail in position upon the insulators. A photograph
+of the insulator with its castings is shown on <a href="#CONTACT_RAIL_INSULATOR">page 113</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Track
+Bonding</i></div>
+
+<p>The track rails are 33 feet long, of Standard American Society Civil
+Engineers' section, weighing 100 pounds a yard. As has been stated,
+one rail in each track is used for signal purposes and the other is
+utilized as a part of the negative return of the power system.
+Adjacent rails to be used for the latter purpose are bonded with two
+copper bonds having an aggregate section of 400,000 c. m. These bonds
+are firmly riveted into the web of the rail by screw bonding presses.
+They are covered by splice bars, designed to leave sufficient
+clearance for the bond.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p><p>The return rails are cross-sectioned at frequent intervals for the
+purpose of equalizing currents which traverse them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Contact Rail
+Guard and
+Collector Shoe</i></div>
+
+<p>The Interborough Company has provided a guard in the form of a plank
+8-1/2 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches thick, which is supported in a
+horizontal position directly above the rail, as shown in the
+illustration on <a href="#Pg_113_ASSEMBLY_OF_CONTACT_RAIL_AND_PROTECTION">page 113</a>. This guard is carried by the contact
+rail to which it is secured by supports, the construction of which is
+sufficiently shown in the illustration. This type of guard has been in
+successful use upon the Wilkesbarre and Hazleton Railway for nearly
+two years. It practically eliminates the danger from the third rail,
+even should passengers leave the trains and walk through a section of
+the tunnel while the rails are charged.</p>
+
+<p>Its adoption necessitates the use of a collecting shoe differing
+radically from that used upon the Manhattan division and upon the
+elevated railways employing the third rail system in Chicago, Boston,
+Brooklyn, and elsewhere. The shoe is shown in the photograph on
+<a href="#CONTACT_SHOE_AND_FUSE">page 114</a>. The shoe is held in contact with the third rail by
+gravity reinforced by pressure from two spiral springs. The support
+for the shoe includes provision for vertical adjustment to compensate
+for wear of car wheels, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS</h3>
+
+
+<p>In determining the electrical equipment of the trains, the company has
+aimed to secure an organization of motors and control apparatus easily
+adequate to operate trains in both local and express service at the
+highest speeds compatible with safety to the traveling public. For
+each of the two classes of service the limiting safe speed is fixed by
+the distance between stations at which the trains stop, by curves, and
+by grades. Except in a few places, for example where the East Side
+branch passes under the Harlem River, the tracks are so nearly level
+that the consideration of grade does not materially affect
+determination of the limiting speed. While the majority of the curves
+are of large radius, the safe limiting speed, particularly for the
+express service, is necessarily considerably less than it would be on
+straight tracks.</p>
+
+<p>The average speed of express trains between City Hall and 145th Street
+on the West Side will approximate 25 miles an hour, including stops.
+The maximum speed of trains will be 45 miles per hour. The average
+speed of local and express trains will exceed the speed made by the
+trains on any elevated railroad.</p>
+
+<p>To attain these speeds without exceeding maximum safe limiting speeds
+between stops, the equipment provided will accelerate trains carrying
+maximum load at a rate of 1.25 miles per hour per second in starting
+from stations on level track. To obtain the same acceleration by
+locomotives, a draw-bar pull of 44,000 pounds would be necessary&mdash;a
+pull equivalent to the maximum effect of six steam locomotives such as
+were used recently upon the Manhattan Elevated Railway in New York,
+and equivalent to the pull which can be exerted by two passenger
+locomotives of the latest Pennsylvania Railroad type. Two of these
+latter would weigh about 250 net tons. By the use of the multiple unit
+system of electrical control, equivalent results in respect to rate of
+acceleration and speed are attained, the total addition to train
+weight aggregating but 55 net tons.</p>
+
+<p>If the locomotive principle of train operation were adopted,
+therefore, it is obvious that it would be necessary to employ a lower
+rate of acceleration for express trains. This could be attained
+without very material sacrifice of average speed, since the average
+distance between express stations is nearly two miles. In the case of
+local trains, however, which average nearly three stops per mile, no
+considerable reduction in the acceleration is possible without a
+material reduction in average speed. The weight of a local train
+exceeds the weight of five trail cars, similarly loaded, by 33 net
+tons, and equivalent adhesion and acceleration would require
+locomotives having not less than 80 net tons effective upon drivers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Switching</i></div>
+
+<p>The multiple unit system adopted possesses material advantages over a
+locomotive system in respect to switching at terminals. Some of the
+express trains in rush hours will comprise eight cars, but at certain
+times during the day and night when the number of people requiring
+transportation is less than during the morning and evening, and were
+locomotives used an enormous amount of switching, coupling and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>uncoupling would be involved by the comparative frequent changes of
+train lengths. In an eight-car multiple-unit express train, the first,
+third, fifth, sixth, and eighth cars will be motor cars, while the
+second, fourth, and seventh will be trail cars. An eight-car train can
+be reduced, therefore, to a six-car train by uncoupling two cars from
+either end, to a five-car train by uncoupling three cars from the rear
+end, or to a three-car train by uncoupling five cars from either end.
+In each case a motor car will remain at each end of the reduced train.
+In like manner, a five-car local train may be reduced to three cars,
+still leaving a motor car at each end by uncoupling two cars from
+either end, since in the normal five-car local train the first, third,
+and fifth cars will be motor cars.</p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="a200_H_P_RAILWAY_MOTOR" id="a200_H_P_RAILWAY_MOTOR"></a>
+<img src="images/image118a.jpg" width="350" height="210" alt="200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR" title="200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR" />
+<span class="caption">200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Motors</i></div>
+
+<p>The motors are of the direct current series type and are rated 200
+horse power each. They have been especially designed for the subway
+service in line with specifications prepared by engineers of the
+Interborough Company, and will operate at an average effective
+potential of 570 volts. They are supplied by two manufacturers and
+differ in respect to important features of design and construction,
+but both are believed to be thoroughly adequate for the intended
+service.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image118b.jpg" width="350" height="223" alt="200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR" title="200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR" />
+<span class="caption">200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The photographs on this <a href="#a200_H_P_RAILWAY_MOTOR">page</a> illustrate motors of each make. The
+weight of one make complete, with gear and gear case, is 5,900 pounds.
+The corresponding weight of the other is 5,750 pounds. The ratio of
+gear reduction used with one motor is 19 to 63, and with the other
+motor 20 to 63.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image118c.jpg" width="350" height="193" alt="200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR" title="200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR" />
+<span class="caption">200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Motor
+Control</i></div>
+
+<p>By the system of motor control adopted for the trains, the power
+delivered to the various motors throughout the train is simultaneously
+controlled and regulated by the motorman at the head of the train.
+This is accomplished by means of a system of electric circuits
+comprising essentially a small drum controller and an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>organization of
+actuating circuits conveying small currents which energize electric
+magnets placed beneath the cars, and so open and close the main power
+circuits which supply energy to the motors. A controller is mounted
+upon the platform at each end of each motor car, and the entire train
+may be operated from any one of the points, the motorman normally
+taking his post on the front platform of the first car. The switches
+which open and close the power circuits through motors and rheostats
+are called contactors, each comprising a magnetic blow-out switch and
+the electro magnet which controls the movements of the switch. By
+these contactors the usual series-multiple control of direct-current
+motors is effected. The primary or control circuits regulate the
+movement, not only of the contactors but also of the reverser, by
+means of which the direction of the current supplied to motors may be
+reversed at the will of the motorman.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="APPARATUS_UNDER_COMPOSITE_MOTOR_CAR" id="APPARATUS_UNDER_COMPOSITE_MOTOR_CAR"></a>
+<img src="images/image119.jpg" width="400" height="295" alt="APPARATUS UNDER COMPOSITE MOTOR CAR" title="APPARATUS UNDER COMPOSITE MOTOR CAR" />
+<span class="caption">APPARATUS UNDER COMPOSITE MOTOR CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The photograph on this <a href="#APPARATUS_UNDER_COMPOSITE_MOTOR_CAR">page</a> shows the complete control wiring and
+motor equipment of a motor car as seen beneath the car. In wiring the
+cars unusual precautions have been adopted to guard against risk of
+fire. As elsewhere described in this publication, the floors of all
+motor cars are protected by sheet steel and a material composed of
+asbestos and silicate of soda, which possesses great heat-resisting
+properties. In addition to this, all of the important power wires
+beneath the car are placed in conduits of fireproof material, of which
+asbestos is the principal constituent. Furthermore, the vulcanized
+rubber insulation of the wires themselves is covered with a special
+braid of asbestos, and in order to diminish the amount of combustible
+insulating material, the highest grade of vulcanized rubber has been
+used, and the thickness of the insulation correspondingly reduced. It
+is confidently believed that the woodwork of the car body proper
+cannot be seriously endangered by an accident to the electric
+apparatus beneath the car. Insulation is necessarily combustible, and
+in burning evolves much smoke; occasional accidents to the apparatus,
+notwithstanding every possible precaution, will sometimes happen; and
+in the subway the flash even of an absolutely insignificant fuse may
+be clearly visible and cause alarm. The public traveling in the subway
+should remember that even very severe short-circuits and extremely
+bright flashes beneath the car involve absolutely no danger to
+passengers who remain inside the car.</p>
+
+<p>The photograph on <a href="#APPARATUS_UNDER_STEEL_MOTOR_CAR">page 120</a> illustrates the control wiring of the
+new steel motorcars. The method of assembling the apparatus differs
+materially from that adopted in wiring the outfit of cars first
+ordered, and, as the result of greater compactness which has been
+attained, the aggregate length of the wiring has been reduced
+one-third.</p>
+
+<p>The quality and thickness of the insulation is the same as in the case
+of the earlier cars, but the use of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>asbestos conduits is abandoned
+and iron pipe substituted. In every respect it is believed that the
+design and workmanship employed in mounting and wiring the motors and
+control equipments under these steel cars is unequaled elsewhere in
+similar work up to the present time.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="APPARATUS_UNDER_STEEL_MOTOR_CAR" id="APPARATUS_UNDER_STEEL_MOTOR_CAR"></a>
+<img src="images/image120a.jpg" width="400" height="358" alt="APPARATUS UNDER STEEL MOTOR CAR" title="APPARATUS UNDER STEEL MOTOR CAR" />
+<span class="caption">APPARATUS UNDER STEEL MOTOR CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The motors and car wiring are protected by a carefully planned system
+of fuses, the function of which is to melt and open the circuits, so
+cutting off power in case of failure of insulation.</p>
+
+<p>Express trains and local trains alike are provided with a bus line,
+which interconnects the electrical supply to all cars and prevents
+interruption of the delivery of current to motors in case the
+collector shoes attached to any given car should momentarily fail to
+make contact with the third rail. At certain cross-overs this operates
+to prevent extinguishing the lamps in successive cars as the train
+passes from one track to another. The controller is so constructed
+that when the train is in motion the motorman is compelled to keep his
+hand upon it, otherwise the power is automatically cut off and the
+brakes are applied. This important safety device, which, in case a
+motorman be suddenly incapacitated at his post, will promptly stop the
+train, is a recent invention and is first introduced in practical
+service upon trains of the Interborough Company.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Heating
+and
+Lighting</i></div>
+
+<p>All cars are heated and lighted by electricity. The heaters are placed
+beneath the seats, and special precautions have been taken to insure
+uniform distribution of the heat. The wiring for heaters and lights
+has been practically safe-guarded to avoid, so far as possible, all
+risk of short-circuit or fire, the wire used for the heater circuits
+being carried upon porcelain insulators from all woodwork by large
+clearances, while the wiring for lights is carried in metallic
+conduit. All lamp sockets are specially designed to prevent
+possibility of fire and are separated from the woodwork of the car by
+air spaces and by asbestos.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="FIRE_ALARM" id="FIRE_ALARM"></a>
+<img src="images/image120b.jpg" width="250" height="432" alt="(FIRE ALARM)" title="(FIRE ALARM)" />
+<span class="caption">(FIRE ALARM)</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The interior of each car is lighted by twenty-six 10-candle power
+lamps, in addition to four lamps provided for platforms and markers.
+The lamps for lighting the interior are carefully located, with a view
+to securing uniform and effective illumination.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER STATIONS AND TUNNEL</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the initial preparation of plans, and more than a year before the
+accident which occurred in the subway system of Paris in August, 1903,
+the engineers of the Interborough Company realized the importance of
+maintaining lights in the subway independent of any temporary
+interruption of the power used for lighting the cars, and, in
+preparing their plans, they provided for lighting the subway
+throughout its length from a source independent of the main power
+supply. For this purpose three 1,250-kilowatt alternators
+direct-driven by steam turbines are installed in the power house, from
+which point a system of primary cables, transformers and secondary
+conductors convey current to the incandescent lamps used solely to
+light the subway. The alternators are of the three-phase type, making
+1,200 revolutions per minute and delivering current at a frequency of
+60 cycles per second at a potential of 11,000 volts. In the boiler
+plant and system of steam piping installed in connection with these
+turbine-driven units, provision is made for separation of the steam
+supply from the general supply for the 5,000 kilowatt units and for
+furnishing the steam for the turbine units through either of two
+alternative lines of pipe.</p>
+
+<p>The 11,000 volt primary current is conveyed through paper insulated
+lead-sheathed cables to transformers, located in fireproof
+compartments adjacent to the platforms of the passenger stations.
+These transformers deliver current to two separate systems of
+secondary wiring, one of which is supplied at a potential of 120 volts
+and the other at 600 volts.</p>
+
+<p>The general lighting of the passenger station platforms is effected by
+incandescent lamps supplied from the 120-volt secondary wiring
+circuits, while the lighting of the subway sections between adjacent
+stations is accomplished by incandescent lamps connected in series
+groups of five each and connected to the 600-volt lighting circuits.
+Recognizing the fact that in view of the precautions taken it is
+probable that interruptions of the alternating current lighting
+service will be infrequent, the possibility of such interruption is
+nevertheless provided for by installing upon the stairways leading to
+passenger station platforms, at the ticket booths and over the tracks
+in front of the platforms, a number of lamps which are connected to
+the contact rail circuit. This will provide light sufficient to enable
+passengers to see stairways and the edges of the station platforms in
+case of temporary failure of the general lighting system.</p>
+
+<p>The general illumination of the passenger stations is effected by
+means of 32 c. p. incandescent lamps, placed in recessed domes in the
+ceiling. These are reinforced by 14 c. p. and 32 c. p. lamps, carried
+by brackets of ornate design where the construction of the station
+does not conveniently permit the use of ceiling lights. The lamps are
+enclosed in sand-blasted glass globes, and excellent distribution is
+secured by the use of reflectors.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration on <a href="#TRANSFORMER_COMPARTMENT_IN_PASSENGER_STATION">page 122</a> is produced from a photograph of the
+interior of one of the transformer cupboards and shows the transformer
+in place with the end bell of the high potential cable and the primary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>switchboard containing switches and enclosed fuses. The illustration
+on <a href="#SECONDARY_DISTRIBUTING_SWITCHBOARD_AT_PASSENGER_STATION">page 123</a> shows one of the secondary distributing switchboards
+which are located immediately behind the ticket booths, where they are
+under the control of the ticket seller.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="TRANSFORMER_COMPARTMENT_IN_PASSENGER_STATION" id="TRANSFORMER_COMPARTMENT_IN_PASSENGER_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image122.jpg" width="400" height="536" alt="TRANSFORMER COMPARTMENT IN PASSENGER STATION" title="TRANSFORMER COMPARTMENT IN PASSENGER STATION" />
+<span class="caption">TRANSFORMER COMPARTMENT IN PASSENGER STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>In lighting the subway between passenger stations, it is desirable, on
+the one hand, to provide sufficient light for track inspection and to
+permit employees passing along the subway to see their way clearly and
+avoid obstructions; but, on the other hand, the lighting must not be
+so brilliant as to interfere with easy sight and recognition of the
+red, yellow, and green signal lamps of the block signal system. It is
+necessary also that the lights for general illumination be so placed
+that their rays shall not fall directly upon the eyes of approaching
+motormen at the head of trains nor annoy passengers who may be reading
+their papers inside the cars. The conditions imposed by these
+considerations are met in the four-track sections of the subway by
+placing a row of incandescent lamps between the north-bound local and
+express tracks and a similar row between the southbound local and
+express tracks. The lamps are carried upon brackets supported upon the
+iron columns of the subway structure, successive lamps in each row
+being 60 feet apart. They are located a few inches above the tops of
+the car windows and with reference to the direction of approaching
+trains the lamps in each row are carried upon the far side of the iron
+columns, by which expedient the eyes of the approaching motormen are
+sufficiently protected against their direct rays.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Lighting of
+the Power
+House</i></div>
+
+<p>For the general illumination of the engine room, clusters of Nernst
+lamps are supported from the roof trusses and a row <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>of single lamps
+of the same type is carried on the lower gallery about 25 feet from
+the floor. This is the first power house in America to be illuminated
+by these lamps. The quality of the light is unsurpassed and the
+general effect of the illumination most satisfactory and agreeable to
+the eye. In addition to the Nernst lamps, 16 c. p. incandescent lamps
+are placed upon the engines and along the galleries in places not
+conveniently reached by the general illumination. The basement also is
+lighted by incandescent lamps.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="SECONDARY_DISTRIBUTING_SWITCHBOARD_AT_PASSENGER_STATION" id="SECONDARY_DISTRIBUTING_SWITCHBOARD_AT_PASSENGER_STATION"></a>
+<img src="images/image123.jpg" width="400" height="540" alt="SECONDARY DISTRIBUTING SWITCHBOARD AT PASSENGER
+STATION" title="SECONDARY DISTRIBUTING SWITCHBOARD AT PASSENGER
+STATION" />
+<span class="caption">SECONDARY DISTRIBUTING SWITCHBOARD AT PASSENGER
+STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>For the boiler room, a row of Nernst lamps in front of the batteries
+of boilers is provided, and, in addition to these, incandescent lamps
+are used in the passageways around the boilers, at gauges and at water
+columns. The basement of the boiler room, the pump room, the
+economizer floor, coal bunkers, and coal conveyers are lighted by
+incandescent lamps, while arc lamps are used around the coal tower and
+dock. The lights on the engines and those at gauge glasses and water
+columns and at the pumps are supplied by direct current from the
+250-volt circuits. All other incandescent lamps and the Nernst lamps
+are supplied through transformers from the 60-cycle lighting system.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Emergency
+Signal System
+and Provision
+for Cutting Off
+Power from
+Contact Rail</i></div>
+
+<p>In the booth of each ticket seller and at every manhole along the west
+side of the subway and its branches is placed a glass-covered box of
+the kind generally used in large American cities for fire alarm
+purposes. In case of accident in the subway which may render it
+desirable to cut off power from the contact rails, this result can be
+accomplished by breaking the glass front of the emergency box and
+pulling the hook provided. Special emergency circuits are so arranged
+that pulling the hook will instantly open all the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>circuit-breakers at
+adjacent sub-stations through which the contact rails in the section
+affected receive their supply of power. It will also instantly report
+the location of the trouble, annunciator gongs being located in the
+sub-stations from which power is supplied to the section, in the train
+dispatchers' offices and in the office of the General Superintendent,
+instantly intimating the number of the box which has been pulled.
+Automatic recording devices in train dispatchers' offices and in the
+office of the General Superintendent also note the number of the box
+pulled.</p>
+
+<p>The photograph on <a href="#FIRE_ALARM">page 120</a> shows a typical fire alarm box.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>ROLLING STOCK&mdash;CARS, TRUCKS, ETC.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The determination of the builders of the road to improve upon the best
+devices known in electrical railroading and to provide an equipment
+unequaled on any interurban line is nowhere better illustrated than in
+the careful study given to the types of cars and trucks used on other
+lines before a selection was made of those to be employed on the
+subway.</p>
+
+<p>All of the existing rapid transit railways in this country, and many
+of those abroad, were visited and the different patterns of cars in
+use were considered in this investigation, which included a study of
+the relative advantages of long and short cars, single and multiple
+side entrance cars and end entrance cars, and all of the other
+varieties which have been adopted for rapid transit service abroad and
+at home.</p>
+
+<p>The service requirement of the New York subway introduces a number of
+unprecedented conditions, and required a complete redesign of all the
+existing models. The general considerations to be met included the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>High schedule speeds with frequent stops.</p>
+
+<p>Maximum carrying capacity for the subway, especially at times of rush
+hours, morning and evening.</p>
+
+<p>Maximum strength combined with smallest permissible weight.</p>
+
+<p>Adoption of all precautions calculated to reduce possibility of damage
+from either the electric circuit or from collisions.</p>
+
+<p>The clearance and length of the local station platforms limited the
+length of trains, and tunnel clearances the length and width and
+height of the cars.</p>
+
+<p>The speeds called for by the contract with the city introduced motive
+power requirements which were unprecedented in any existing railway
+service, either steam or electric, and demanded a minimum weight
+consistent with safety. As an example, it may be stated that an
+express train of eight cars in the subway to conform to the schedule
+speed adopted will require a nominal power of motors on the train of
+2,000 horse power, with an average accelerating current at 600 volts
+in starting from a station stop of 325 amperes. This rate of energy
+absorption which corresponds to 2,500 horse power is not far from
+double that taken by the heaviest trains on trunk line railroads when
+starting from stations at the maximum rate of acceleration possible
+with the most powerful modern steam locomotives.</p>
+
+<p>Such exacting schedule conditions as those mentioned necessitated the
+design of cars, trucks, etc., of equivalent strength to that found in
+steam railroad car and locomotive construction, so that while it was
+essential to keep down the weight of the train and individual cars to
+a minimum, owing to the frequent stops, it was equally as essential to
+provide the strongest and most substantial type of car construction
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p><p>Owing to these two essentials which were embodied in their
+construction it can safely be asserted that the cars used in the
+subway represent the acme of car building art as it exists to-day, and
+that all available appliances for securing strength and durability in
+the cars and immunity from accidents have been introduced.</p>
+
+<p>After having ascertained the general type of cars which would be best
+adapted to the subway service, and before placing the order for car
+equipments, it was decided to build sample cars embodying the approved
+principles of design. From these the management believed that the
+details of construction could be more perfectly determined than in any
+other way. Consequently, in the early part of 1902, two sample cars
+were built and equipped with a variety of appliances and furnishings
+so that the final type could be intelligently selected. From the tests
+conducted on these cars the adopted type of car which is described in
+detail below was evolved.</p>
+
+<p>After the design had been worked out a great deal of difficulty was
+encountered in securing satisfactory contracts for proper deliveries,
+on account of the congested condition of the car building works in the
+country. Contracts were finally closed, however, in December, 1902,
+for 500 cars, and orders were distributed between four car-building
+firms. Of these cars, some 200, as fast as delivered, were placed in
+operation on the Second Avenue line of the Elevated Railway, in order
+that they might be thoroughly tested during the winter of 1903-4.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image126.jpg" width="350" height="484" alt="END VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR" title="END VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR" />
+<span class="caption">END VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>In view of the peculiar traffic conditions existing in New York City
+and the restricted siding and yard room available in the subway, it
+was decided that one standard type of car for all classes of service
+would introduce the most flexible operating conditions, and for this
+reason would best suit the public demands at different seasons of the
+year and hours of the day. In order further to provide cars, each of
+which would be as safe as the others, it was essential that there
+should be no difference in constructional strength between the motor
+cars and the trail cars. All cars were therefore made of one type and
+can be used interchangeably for either motor or trail-car service.</p>
+
+<p>The motor cars carry both motors on the same truck; that is, they have
+a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>motor truck at one end carrying two motors, one geared to each
+axle; the truck at the other end of the car is a "trailer" and carries
+no motive power.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image127.jpg" width="500" height="154" alt="SIDE VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR" title="SIDE VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR" />
+<span class="caption">SIDE VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Some leading distinctive features of the cars may be enumerated as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>(1.) The length is 51 feet and provides seating capacity for 52
+passengers. This length is about 4 feet more than those of the
+existing Manhattan Elevated Railroad cars.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The enclosed vestibule platforms with sliding doors instead of
+the usual gates. The enclosed platforms will contribute greatly to the
+comfort and safety of passengers under subway conditions.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) The anti-telescoping car bulkheads and platform posts. This
+construction is similar to that in use on Pullman cars, and has been
+demonstrated in steam railroad service to be an important safety
+appliance.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) The steel underframing of the car, which provides a rigid and
+durable bed structure for transmitting the heavy motive power
+stresses.</p>
+
+<p>(5.) The numerous protective devices against defects in the electrical
+apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>(6.) Window arrangement, permitting circulation without draughts.</p>
+
+<p>(7.) Emergency brake valve on truck operated by track trip.</p>
+
+<p>(8.) Emergency brake valve in connection with master-controller.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The table on <a href="#Wooden">page 133</a> shows the main dimensions of the car, and
+also the corresponding dimensions of the standard car in use on the
+Manhattan Elevated Railway.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of the floor framing is well shown in the
+photograph on <a href="#METAL_UNDERFRAME_OF_PROTECTED_WOODEN_CAR">page 132</a>. The side sills are of 6-inch channels,
+which are reinforced inside and out by white oak timbers. The center
+sills are 5-inch I-beams, faced on both sides with Southern pine. The
+end sills are also of steel shapes, securely attached to the side
+sills by steel castings and forgings. The car body end-sill channel is
+faced with a white-oak filler, mortised to receive the car body
+end-posts and braced at each end by gusset plates. The body bolster is
+made up of two rolled steel plates bolted together at their ends and
+supported by a steel draw casting, the ends of which form a support
+for the center sills. The cross-bridging and needle-beams of 5-inch
+I-beams are unusually substantial. The flooring inside the car is
+double and of maple, with asbestos fire-felt between the layers, and
+is protected below by steel plates and "transite" (asbestos board).</p>
+
+<p>The side framing of the car is of white ash, doubly braced and heavily
+trussed. There are seven composite wrought-iron carlines forged in
+shape for the roof, each sandwiched between two white ash carlines,
+and with white ash intermediate carlines. The platform posts are of
+compound construction with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>anti-telescoping posts of steel bar
+sandwiched between white ash posts at corners and centers of
+vestibuled platforms. These posts are securely bolted to the steel
+longitudinal sills, the steel anti-telescoping plate below the floor,
+and to the hood of the bow which serves to reinforce it. This bow is a
+heavy steel angle in one piece, reaching from plate to plate and
+extending back into the car 6 feet on each side. By this construction
+it is believed that the car framing is practically indestructible. In
+case of accident, if one platform should ride over another, eight
+square inches of metal would have to be sheared off the posts before
+the main body of the car would be reached, which would afford an
+effective means of protection.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="EXTERIOR_VIEWmdashSTEEL_CAR_FRAMING" id="EXTERIOR_VIEWmdashSTEEL_CAR_FRAMING"></a>
+<img src="images/image128.jpg" width="350" height="247" alt="EXTERIOR VIEW&mdash;STEEL CAR FRAMING" title="EXTERIOR VIEW&mdash;STEEL CAR FRAMING" />
+<span class="caption">EXTERIOR VIEW&mdash;STEEL CAR FRAMING</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The floor is completely covered on the underside with 1/4-inch
+asbestos transite board, while all parts of the car framing, flooring,
+and sheathing are covered with fire-proofing compound. In addition,
+all spaces above the motor truck in the floor framing, between sills
+and bridging, are protected by plates of No. 8 steel and 1/4-inch roll
+fire-felt extending from the platform end sill to the bolster.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Car Wiring</i></div>
+
+<p>The precautions to secure safety from fire consists generally in the
+perfected arrangement and installation of the electrical apparatus and
+the wiring. For the lighting circuits a flexible steel conduit is
+used, and a special junction box. On the side and upper roofs, over
+these conduits for the lighting circuits, a strip of sheet iron is
+securely nailed to the roof boards before the canvas is applied. The
+wires under the floor are carried in ducts moulded into suitable forms
+of asbestos compound. Special precautions have been taken with the
+insulation of the wires, the specifications calling for, first, a
+layer of paper, next, a layer of rubber, and then a layer of cotton
+saturated with a weather-proof compound, and outside of this a layer
+of asbestos. The hangers supporting the rheostats under the car body
+are insulated with wooden blocks, treated by a special process, being
+dried out in an oven and then soaked in an insulating compound, and
+covered with 1/4-inch "transite" board. The rheostat boxes themselves
+are also insulated from the angle iron supporting them. Where the
+wires pass through the flooring they are hermetically sealed to
+prevent the admission of dust and dirt.</p>
+
+<p>At the forward end of what is known as the No. 1 end of the car all
+the wires are carried to a slate switchboard in the motorman's cab.
+This board is 44 x 27 inches, and is mounted directly back of the
+motorman. The window space occupied by this board is ceiled up and the
+space back of the panels is boxed in and provided with a door of steel
+plate, forming a box, the cover, top, bottom, and sides of which are
+lined with electrobestos 1/2-inch thick. All of the switches and
+fuses, except the main trolley fuse and bus-line fuse, which are
+encased and placed under the car, are carried on this switchboard.
+Where the wires are carried through the floor or any partition, a
+steel chute, lined with electrobestos, is used to protect the wires
+against mechanical injury. It will be noted from the above that no
+power wiring, switches, or fuses are placed in the car itself, all
+such devices being outside in a special steel insulated compartment.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p><p>A novel feature in the construction of these cars is the motorman's
+compartment and vestibule, which differs essentially from that used
+heretofore, and the patents are owned by the Interborough Company. The
+cab is located on the platform, so that no space within the car is
+required; at the same time the entire platform space is available for
+ingress and egress except that on the front platform of the first car,
+on which the passengers would not be allowed in any case. The side of
+the cab is formed by a door which can be placed in three positions.
+When in its mid-position it encloses a part of the platform, so as to
+furnish a cab for the motorman, but when swung parallel to the end
+sills it encloses the end of the platform, and this would be its
+position on the rear platform of the rear car. The third position is
+when it is swung around to an arc of 180 degrees, when it can be
+locked in position against the corner vestibule post enclosing the
+master controller. This would be its position on all platforms except
+on the front of the front car or the rear of the rear car of the
+train.</p>
+
+<p>The platforms themselves are not equipped with side gates, but with
+doors arranged to slide into pockets in the side framing, thereby
+giving up the entire platform to the passengers. These doors are
+closed by an overhead lever system. The sliding door on the front
+platform of the first car may be partly opened and secured in this
+position by a bar, and thus serve as an arm-rest for the motorman. The
+doors close against an air-cushion stop, making it impossible to
+clutch the clothing or limbs of passengers in closing.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image129.jpg" width="500" height="408" alt="INTERIOR VIEW&mdash;SKELETON FRAMING OF STEEL CAR" title="INTERIOR VIEW&mdash;SKELETON FRAMING OF STEEL CAR" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR VIEW&mdash;SKELETON FRAMING OF STEEL CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p><p>Pantagraph safety gates for coupling between cars are provided. They
+are constructed so as to adjust themselves to suit the various
+positions of adjoining cars while passing in, around, and out of
+curves of 90 feet radius.</p>
+
+<p>On the door leading from the vestibule to the body of the car is a
+curtain that can be automatically raised and lowered as the door is
+opened or closed to shut the light away from the motorman. Another
+attachment is the peculiar handle on the sliding door. This door is
+made to latch so that it cannot slide open with the swaying of the
+car, but the handle is so constructed that when pressure is applied
+upon it to open the door, the same movement will unlatch it.</p>
+
+<p>Entering the car, the observer is at once impressed by the amount of
+room available for passengers. The seating arrangements are similar to
+the elevated cars, but the subway coaches are longer and wider than
+the Manhattan, and there are two additional seats on each end. The
+seats are all finished in rattan. Stationary crosswise seats are
+provided after the Manhattan pattern, at the center of the car. The
+longitudinal seats are 17-3/4 inches deep. The space between the
+longitudinal seats is 4 feet 5 inches.</p>
+
+<p>The windows have two sashes, the lower one being stationary, while the
+upper one is a drop sash. This arrangement reverses the ordinary
+practice, and is desirable in subway operation and to insure safety
+and comfort to the passengers. The side windows in the body of the
+car, also the end windows and end doors, are provided with roll shades
+with pinch-handle fixtures.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image130.jpg" width="500" height="368" alt="INTERIOR VIEW OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR" title="INTERIOR VIEW OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR VIEW OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p><p>The floors are covered with hard maple strips, securely fastened to
+the floor with ovalhead brass screws, thus providing a clean, dry
+floor for all conditions of weather.</p>
+
+<p>Six single incandescent lamps are placed on the upper deck ceiling,
+and a row of ten on each side deck ceiling is provided. There are two
+lamps placed in a white porcelain dome over each platform, and the
+pressure gauge is also provided with a miniature lamp.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image131a.jpg" width="350" height="210" alt="EXTERIOR VIEW&mdash;PROTECTED WOODEN CAR, SHOWING COPPER
+SIDES" title="EXTERIOR VIEW&mdash;PROTECTED WOODEN CAR, SHOWING COPPER
+SIDES" />
+<span class="caption">EXTERIOR VIEW&mdash;PROTECTED WOODEN CAR, SHOWING COPPER
+SIDES</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The head linings are of composite board. The interior finish is of
+mahogany of light color. A mahogany handrail extends the full length
+of the clerestory on each side of the car, supported in brass sockets
+at the ends and by heavy brass brackets on each side. The handrail on
+each side of the car carries thirty-eight leather straps.</p>
+
+<p>Each ventilator sash is secured on the inside to a brass operating
+arm, manipulated by means of rods running along each side of the
+clerestory, and each rod is operated by means of a brass lever, having
+a fulcrum secured to the inside of the clerestory.</p>
+
+<p>All hardware is of bronze, of best quality and heavy pattern,
+including locks, pulls, handles, sash fittings, window guards, railing
+brackets and sockets, bell cord thimbles, chafing strips, hinges, and
+all other trimmings. The upright panels between the windows and the
+corner of the car are of plain mahogany, as are also the single post
+pilasters, all of which are decorated with marquetry inlaid. The end
+finish is of mahogany, forming a casing for the end door.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image131b.jpg" width="500" height="145" alt="FRAMING OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR" title="FRAMING OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR" />
+<span class="caption">FRAMING OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Steel Cars</i></div>
+
+<p>At the time of placing the first contract for the rolling stock of the
+subway, the question of using an all-steel car was carefully
+considered by the management. Such a type of car, in many respects,
+presented desirable features for subway work as representing the
+ultimate of absolute incombustibility. Certain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>practical reasons,
+however, prevented the adoption of an all-steel car in the spring of
+1902 when it became necessary to place the orders mentioned above for
+the first 500 cars. Principal among these reasons was the fact that no
+cars of this kind had ever been constructed, and as the car building
+works of the country were in a very congested condition all of the
+larger companies declined to consider any standard specifications even
+for a short-time delivery, while for cars involving the extensive use
+of metal the question was impossible of immediate solution. Again,
+there were a number of very serious mechanical difficulties to be
+studied and overcome in the construction of such a car, such as
+avoidance of excessive weight, a serious element in a rapid transit
+service, insulation from the extremes of heat and cold, and the
+prevention of undue noise in operation. It was decided, therefore, to
+bend all energies to the production of a wooden car with sufficient
+metal for strength and protection from accident, i. e., a stronger,
+safer, and better constructed car than had heretofore been put in use
+on any electric railway in the world. These properties it is believed
+are embodied in the car which has just been described.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="METAL_UNDERFRAME_OF_PROTECTED_WOODEN_CAR" id="METAL_UNDERFRAME_OF_PROTECTED_WOODEN_CAR"></a>
+<img src="images/image132.jpg" width="400" height="518" alt="METAL UNDERFRAME OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR" title="METAL UNDERFRAME OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR" />
+<span class="caption">METAL UNDERFRAME OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p><p>The plan of an all-metal car, however, was not abandoned, and
+although none was in use in passenger service anywhere, steps were
+immediately taken to design a car of this type and conduct the
+necessary tests to determine whether it would be suitable for railway
+service. None of the car-building companies was willing to undertake
+the work, but the courteous co&ouml;peration of the Pennsylvania Railroad
+Company was secured in placing its manufacturing facilities at Altoona
+at the disposal of the Interborough Rapid Transit Railway Company.
+Plans were prepared for an all-metal car, and after about fourteen
+months of work a sample type was completed in December, 1903, which
+was in every way creditable as a first attempt.</p>
+
+<p>The sample car naturally embodied some faults which only experience
+could correct, the principal one being that the car was not only too
+heavy for use on the elevated lines of the company, but attained an
+undesirable weight for subway operation. From this original design,
+however, a second design involving very original features has been
+worked out, and a contract has been given by the Interborough Company
+for 200 all-steel cars, which are now being constructed. While the
+expense of producing this new type of car has obviously been great,
+this consideration has not influenced the management of the company in
+developing an equipment which promised the maximum of operating
+safety.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image133.jpg" width="400" height="226" alt="END VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK" title="END VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK" />
+<span class="caption">END VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>The General
+Arrangements</i></div>
+
+<p>The general dimensions of the all-steel car differ only slightly from
+those of the wooden car. The following table gives the dimensions of
+the two cars, and also that of the Manhattan Railway cars:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Cars">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><a name="Wooden" id="Wooden"></a><b>Wooden Cars.</b></td><td align='left'><b>All-Steel Cars.</b></td><td align='left'><b>Manhattan Cars.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Length over body corner posts,</td><td align='left'>42 ft. 7 ins.</td><td align='left'>41 ft.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1/2 in.</td><td align='left'>39 ft. 10 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length over buffers,</td><td align='left'>51 ft. 2 ins.</td><td align='left'>51 ft. 2 ins.</td><td align='left'>47 ft.&nbsp;1 in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length over draw-bars,</td><td align='left'>51 ft. 5 ins.</td><td align='left'>51 ft. 5 ins.</td><td align='left'>47 ft.&nbsp;4 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Width over side sills,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 8-3/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 6-3/4 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 6 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Width over sheathing,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 10 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 7 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 7 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Width over window sills,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 11-7/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;9 ft.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1/2 in.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 9 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Width over battens,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 10-3/4 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 7-1/4 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 7-7/8 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Width over eaves,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 9-1/2 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height from under side of sill to top of plate,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;7 ft. 3-1/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;7 ft. 1 in.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;7 ft. 3 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height of body from under side of center sill to top of roof,</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 9-7/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;8 ft. 9-7/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;9 ft. 5-7/8 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height of truck from rail to top of truck center plate (car light),</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;2 ft. 8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;2 ft. 8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;2 ft. 5-3/4 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height from top of rail to underside of side sill at truck center (car light),</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;3 ft. 1-1/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;3 ft. 2-1/8 ins.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;3 ft. 3-1/4 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height from top of rail to top of roof not to exceed (car light),</td><td align='left'>12 ft.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3/4 in.</td><td align='left'>12 ft. 0 in.</td><td align='left'>12 ft. 10-1/2 ins.</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p>The general frame plan of the all-steel car is clearly shown by the
+photograph on <a href="#EXTERIOR_VIEWmdashSTEEL_CAR_FRAMING">page 128</a>. As will be seen, the floor framing is made
+up of two center longitudinal 6-inch I-beams and two longitudinal 5 x
+3-inch steel side angles, extending in one piece from platform-end
+sill to platform-end sill. The end sills are angles and are secured to
+the side and center sills by cast-steel brackets, and in addition by
+steel anti-telescoping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> plates, which are placed on the under side of
+the sills and riveted thereto. The flooring is of galvanized,
+corrugated sheet iron, laid across the longitudinal sills and secured
+to longitudinal angles by rivets. This corrugated sheet holds the
+fireproof cement flooring called "monolith." On top of this latter are
+attached longitudinal floor strips for a wearing surface. The platform
+flooring is of steel plate covered with rubber matting cemented to the
+same. The side and end frame is composed of single and compound posts
+made of steel angles or T's and the roof framing of wrought-iron
+carlines and purlines. The sides of the cars are double and composed
+of steel plates on the outside, riveted to the side posts and belt
+rails, and lined with electrobestos. The outside roof is of fireproof
+composite board, covered with canvas. The headlinings are of fireproof
+composite, faced with aluminum sheets. The mouldings throughout are of
+aluminum. The wainscoting is of "transite" board and aluminum, and the
+end finish and window panels are of aluminum, lined with asbestos
+felt. The seat frames are of steel throughout, as are also the cushion
+frames. The sash is double, the lower part being stationary and the
+upper part movable. The doors are of mahogany, and are of the sliding
+type and are operated by the door operating device already described.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image134.jpg" width="400" height="185" alt="SIDE VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK" title="SIDE VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK" />
+<span class="caption">SIDE VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Trucks</i></div>
+
+<p>Two types of trucks are being built, one for the motor end, the other
+for the trailer end of the car. The following are the principal
+dimensions of the trucks:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Trucks">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Motor Truck.</b></td><td align='right'><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Trailer Truck.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gauge of track,</td><td align='right'>4 ft. 8-1/2 ins.</td><td align='right'>4 ft. 8-1/2 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance between backs of wheel flanges,</td><td align='right'>4 ft. 5-3/8 ins.</td><td align='right'>4 ft. 5-3/8 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height of truck center plate above rail, car body loaded with 15,000 pounds,</td><td align='right'>30 ins.</td><td align='right'>30 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height of truck side bearings above rail, car body loaded,</td><td align='right'>34 ins.</td><td align='right'>34 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheel base of truck,</td><td align='right'>6 ft. 8 ins.</td><td align='right'>5 ft. 6 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Weight on center plate with car body loaded, about</td><td align='right'>27,000 lbs.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Side frames, wrought-iron forged,</td><td align='right'>2-1/2 ins. x 4 ins.</td><td align='right'>1-1/2 ins. x 3 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pedestals, wrought-iron forged,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Center transom, steel channel,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Truck bolster,</td><td align='right'>cast steel.</td><td align='right'>wood and iron.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Equalizing bars, wrought iron,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Center plate, cast steel,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spring plank, wrought iron,</td><td align='right'>1 in. x 3 ins.</td><td align='right'>white oak.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bolster springs, elliptic, length,</td><td align='right'>30 ins.</td><td align='right'>32 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Equalizing springs, double coil, outside dimensions,</td><td align='right'>4-7/8 ins. x 7-1/2 ins.</td><td align='right'>3-5/8 ins. x 6 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheels, cast steel spoke center, steel tired, diameter,</td><td align='right'>33-3/4 ins.</td><td align='right'>30 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tires, tread M. C. B. Standard,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2-5/8 ins. x 5-1/4 ins.</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2-5/8 ins. x 5-1/4 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Axles, diameter at center,</td><td align='right'>6-1/2 ins.</td><td align='right'>4-3/4 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Axles, diameter at gear seat,</td><td align='right'>7-13/16 ins.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Axles, diameter at wheel seat,</td><td align='right'>7-3/4 ins.</td><td align='right'>5-3/4 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Journals,</td><td align='right'>5 ins. x 9 ins.</td><td align='right'>4-1/4 ins. x 8 ins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Journal boxes, malleable iron, M. C. B. Standard,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p>Both the motor and the trailer trucks have been designed with the
+greatest care for severe service, and their details are the outcome of
+years of practical experience.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>SIGNAL SYSTEM</h3>
+
+
+<p>Early in the development of the plans for the subway system in New
+York City, it was foreseen that the efficiency of operation of a road
+with so heavy a traffic as is being provided for would depend largely
+upon the completeness of the block signaling and interlocking systems
+adopted for spacing and directing trains. On account of the importance
+of this consideration, not only for safety of passengers, but also for
+conducting operation under exacting schedules, it was decided to
+install the most complete and effective signaling system procurable.
+The problem involved the prime consideration of:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Safety and reliability.</p>
+
+<p>Greatest capacity of the lines consistent with the above.</p>
+
+<p>Facility of operation under necessarily restricted yard and
+track conditions.</p></div>
+
+<p>In order to obtain the above desiderata it was decided to install a
+complete automatic block signal system for the high-speed routes,
+block protection for all obscure points on the low-speed routes, and
+to operate all switches both for line movements and in yards by power
+from central points. This necessarily involved the interconnection of
+the block and switch movements at many locations and made the adoption
+of the most flexible and compact appliances essential.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various signal systems in use it was found that the one
+promising entirely satisfactory results was the electro-pneumatic
+block and interlocking system, by which power in any quantity could be
+readily conducted in small pipes any distance and utilized in compact
+apparatus in the most restricted spaces. The movements could be made
+with the greatest promptness and certainty and interconnected for the
+most complicated situations for safety. Moreover, all essential
+details of the system had been worked out in years of practical
+operation on important trunk lines of railway, so that its reliability
+and efficiency were beyond question.</p>
+
+<p>The application of such a system to the New York subway involved an
+elaboration of detail not before attempted upon a railway line of
+similar length, and the contract for its installation is believed to
+be the largest single order ever given to a signal manufacturing
+company.</p>
+
+<p>In the application of an automatic block system to an electric railway
+where the rails are used for the return circuit of the propulsion
+current, it is necessary to modify the system as usually applied to a
+steam railway and introduce a track circuit control that will not be
+injuriously influenced by the propulsion current. This had been
+successfully accomplished for moderately heavy electric railway
+traffic in the Boston elevated installation, which was the first
+electric railway to adopt a complete automatic block signal system
+with track circuit control.</p>
+
+<p>The New York subway operation, however, contemplated traffic of
+unprecedented density and consequent magnitude of the electric
+currents employed, and experience with existing track circuit control
+systems <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>led to the conclusion that some modification in apparatus was
+essential to prevent occasional traffic delays.</p>
+
+<p>The proposed operation contemplates a possible maximum of two tracks
+loaded with local trains at one minute intervals, and two tracks with
+eight car express trains at two minute intervals, the latter class of
+trains requiring at times as much as 2,000 horse power for each train
+in motion. It is readily seen, then, that combinations of trains in
+motion may at certain times occur which will throw enormous demands
+for power upon a given section of the road. The electricity conveying
+this power flows back through the track rails to the power station and
+in so doing is subject to a "drop" or loss in the rails which varies
+in amount according to the power demands. This causes disturbances in
+the signal-track circuit in proportion to the amount of "drop," and it
+was believed that under the extreme condition above mentioned the
+ordinary form of track circuit might prove unreliable and cause delay
+to traffic. A solution of the difficulty was suggested, consisting in
+the employment of a current in the signal track circuit which would
+have such characteristic differences from that used to propel the
+trains as would operate selectively upon an apparatus which would in
+turn control the signal. Alternating current supplied this want on
+account of its inductive properties, and was adopted, after a
+demonstration of its practicability under similar conditions
+elsewhere.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image136.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="FRONT VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING LIGHTS,
+INDICATORS AND TRACK STOP" title="FRONT VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING LIGHTS,
+INDICATORS AND TRACK STOP" />
+<span class="caption">FRONT VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING LIGHTS,
+INDICATORS AND TRACK STOP</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>After a decision was reached as to the system to be employed, the
+arrangement of the block sections was considered from the standpoint
+of maximum safety and maximum traffic capacity, as it was realized
+that the rapidly increasing traffic of Greater New York would almost
+at once tax the capacity of the line to its utmost.</p>
+
+<p>The usual method of installing automatic block signals in the United
+States is to provide home and distant signals with the block sections
+extending from home signal to home signal; that is, the block sections
+end at the home signals and do not overlap each other. This is also
+the arrangement of block sections where the telegraph block or
+controlled manual systems are in use. The English block systems,
+however, all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>employ overlaps. Without the overlap, a train in passing
+from one block section to the other will clear the home signals for
+the section in the rear, as soon as the rear of the train has passed
+the home signal of the block in which it is moving. It is thus
+possible for a train to stop within the block and within a few feet of
+this home signal. If, then, a following train should for any reason
+overrun this home signal, a collision would result. With the overlap
+system, however, a train may stop at any point in a block section and
+still have the home signal at a safe stopping distance in the rear of
+the train.</p>
+
+<p>Conservative signaling is all in favor of the overlap, on account of
+the safety factor, in case the signal is accidentally overrun. Another
+consideration was the use of automatic train stops. These stops are
+placed at the home signals, and it is thus essential that a stopping
+distance should be afforded in advance of the home signal to provide
+for stopping the train to which the brake had been applied by the
+automatic stop.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily, the arrangement of overlap sections increases the length
+of block sections by the length of the overlap, and as the length of
+the section fixed the minimum spacing of trains, it was imperative to
+make the blocks as short as consistent with safety, in order not to
+cut down the carrying capacity of the railway. This led to a study of
+the special problem presented by subway signaling and a development of
+a blocking system upon lines which it is believed are distinctly in
+advance of anything heretofore done in this direction.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image137.jpg" width="400" height="508" alt="REAR VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING TRANSFORMER AND
+INSTRUMENT CASES WITH DOORS OPEN" title="REAR VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING TRANSFORMER AND
+INSTRUMENT CASES WITH DOORS OPEN" />
+<span class="caption">REAR VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING TRANSFORMER AND
+INSTRUMENT CASES WITH DOORS OPEN</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Block section lengths are governed by speed and interval between
+trains. Overlap lengths are determined by the distance in which a
+train can be stopped at a maximum speed. Usually the block section
+length is the distance between signals, plus the overlap; but where
+maximum traffic capacity is desired the block section length can be
+reduced to the length of two overlaps, and this was the system adopted
+for the Interborough. The three systems of blocking trains, with and
+without overlaps, is shown diagramatically on <a href="#Page_143">page 143</a>, where two
+successive trains <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>are shown at the minimum distances apart for
+"clear" running for an assumed stopping distance of 800 feet. The
+system adopted for the subway is shown in line "C," giving the least
+headway of the three methods.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image138a.jpg" width="350" height="209" alt="PNEUMATIC TRACK STOP, SHOWING STOP TRIGGER IN UPRIGHT
+POSITION" title="PNEUMATIC TRACK STOP, SHOWING STOP TRIGGER IN UPRIGHT
+POSITIONREAR VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING TRANSFORMER AND
+INSTRUMENT CASES WITH DOORS OPEN" />
+<span class="caption">PNEUMATIC TRACK STOP, SHOWING STOP TRIGGER IN UPRIGHT
+POSITION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The length of the overlap was given very careful consideration by the
+Interborough Rapid Transit Company, who instituted a series of tests
+of braking power of trains; from these and others made by the
+Pennsylvania Railroad Company, curves were computed so as to determine
+the distance in which trains could be stopped at various rates of
+speed on a level track, with corrections for rising and falling to
+grades up to 2 per cent. Speed curves were then plotted for the trains
+on the entire line, showing at each point the maximum possible speed,
+with the gear ratio of the motors adopted. A joint consideration of
+the speeds, braking efforts, and profile of the road were then used to
+determine at each and every point on the line the minimum allowable
+distance between trains, so that the train in the rear could be
+stopped by the automatic application of the brakes before reaching a
+train which might be standing at a signal in advance; in other words,
+the length of the overlap section was determined by the local
+conditions at each point.</p>
+
+<p>In order to provide for adverse conditions the actual braking
+distances was increased by 50 per cent.; for example, the braking
+distance of a train moving 35 miles an hour is 465 feet, this would be
+increased 50 per cent. and the overlap made not less than 697 feet.
+With this length of overlap the home signals could be located 697 feet
+apart, and the block section length would be double this or 1394 feet.
+The average length of overlaps, as laid out, is about 800 feet, and
+the length of block sections double this, or 1,600 feet.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image138b.jpg" width="350" height="329" alt="VIEW UNDER CAR, SHOWING TRIGGER ON TRUCK IN POSITION TO
+ENGAGE WITH TRACK STOP" title="VIEW UNDER CAR, SHOWING TRIGGER ON TRUCK IN POSITION TO
+ENGAGE WITH TRACK STOP" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW UNDER CAR, SHOWING TRIGGER ON TRUCK IN POSITION TO
+ENGAGE WITH TRACK STOP</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The protection provided by this unique arrangement of signals is
+illustrated on <a href="#DIAGRAM_OF_OVERLAPPING_BLOCK_SIGNAL_SYSTEM_ILLUSTRATING_POSSIBLE_POSITIONS_OF_TRAINS_RUNNING_UNDER_SAME">page 143</a>. Three positions of train are shown:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"A." MINIMUM distance between trains: The first train has just passed
+the home signal, the second <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>train is stopped by the home signal in
+the rear; if this train had failed to stop at this point, the
+automatic stop would have applied the air brake and the train would
+have had the overlap distance in which to stop before it could reach
+the rear of the train in advance; therefore, under the worst
+conditions, no train can get closer to the train in advance than the
+length of the overlap, and this is always a safe stopping distance.</p>
+
+<p>"B." CAUTION distance between train: The first train in same position
+as in "A," the second train at the third home signal in the rear; this
+signal can be passed under caution, and this distance between trains
+is the caution distance, and is always equal to the length of the
+block section, or two overlaps.</p>
+
+<p>"C." CLEAR distance between trains: First train in same position as in
+"A," second train at the fourth home signal in the rear; at this point
+both the home and distant signals are clear, and the distance between
+the trains is now the clear running distance; that is, when the trains
+are one block section plus an overlap apart they can move under clear
+signal, and this distance is used in determining the running schedule.
+It will be noted in "C" that the first train has the following
+protection: Home signals 1 and 2 in stop position, together with the
+automatic stop at signal 2 in position to stop a train, distant signal
+1, 2, and 3 all at caution, or, in other words, a train that has
+stopped is always protected by two home signals in its rear, and by
+three caution signals, in addition to this an automatic stop placed at
+a safe stopping distance in the rear of the train.<br /><br /></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image139.jpg" width="500" height="393" alt="ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC INTERLOCKING MACHINE ON STATION
+PLATFORM" title="ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC INTERLOCKING MACHINE ON STATION
+PLATFORM" />
+<span class="caption">ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC INTERLOCKING MACHINE ON STATION
+PLATFORM</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image140.jpg" width="500" height="391" alt="SPECIAL INTERLOCKING SIGNAL CABIN SOUTH OF BROOKLYN
+BRIDGE STATION" title="SPECIAL INTERLOCKING SIGNAL CABIN SOUTH OF BROOKLYN
+BRIDGE STATION" />
+<span class="caption">SPECIAL INTERLOCKING SIGNAL CABIN SOUTH OF BROOKLYN
+BRIDGE STATION</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Description
+of Block
+Signaling
+System</i></div>
+
+<p>The block signaling system as installed consists of automatic
+overlapping system above described applied to the two express tracks
+between City Hall and 96th Street, a distance of six and one-half
+miles, or thirteen miles of track; and to the third track between 96th
+and 145th Streets on the West Side branch, a distance of two and
+one-half miles. This third track is placed between the two local
+tracks, and will be used for express traffic in both directions,
+trains moving toward the City Hall in the morning and in the opposite
+direction at night; also the two tracks from 145th Street to Dyckman
+Street, a distance of two and one-half miles, or five miles of track.
+The total length of track protected by signals is twenty-four and
+one-half miles.</p>
+
+<p>The small amount of available space in the subway made it necessary to
+design a special form of the signal itself. Clearances would not
+permit of a "position" signal indication, and, further, a position
+signal purely was not suitable for the lighting conditions of the
+subway. A color signal was therefore adopted conforming to the adopted
+rules of the American Railway Association. It consists of an iron case
+fitted with two white lenses, the upper being the home signal and the
+lower the distant. Suitable colored glasses are mounted in slides
+which are operated by pneumatic cylinders placed in the base of the
+case. Home and dwarf signals show a red light for the danger or "stop"
+indication. Distant signals show a yellow light for the "caution"
+indication. All signals show a green light for the "proceed" or clear
+position. Signals in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>the subway are constantly lighted by two
+electric lights placed back of each white lens, so that the lighting
+will be at all times reliable.</p>
+
+<p>On the elevated structure, semaphore signals of the usual type are
+used. The signal lighting is supplied by a special alternating current
+circuit independent of the power and general lighting circuits.</p>
+
+<p>A train stop or automatic stop of the Kinsman system is used at all
+block signals, and at many interlocking signals. This is a device for
+automatically applying the air brakes to the train if it should pass a
+signal in the stop position. This is an additional safeguard only to
+be brought into action when the danger indication has for any reason
+been disregarded, and insures the maintenance of the minimum distance
+between trains as provided by the overlaps established.</p>
+
+<p>Great care has been given to the design, construction, and
+installation of the signal apparatus, so as to insure reliability of
+operation under the most adverse conditions, and to provide for
+accessibility to all the parts for convenience in maintenance. The
+system for furnishing power to operate and control the signals
+consists of the following:</p>
+
+<p>Two 500-volt alternating current feed mains run the entire length of
+the signal system. These mains are fed by seven direct-current
+motor-driven generators operated in multiple located in the various
+sub-power stations. Any four of these machines are sufficient to
+supply the necessary current for operating the system. Across these
+alternating mains are connected the primary coils of track
+transformers located at each signal, the secondaries of which supply
+current of about 10 volts to the rails of the track sections. Across
+the rails at the opposite end of the section is connected the track
+relay, the moving element of which operates a contact. This contact
+controls a local direct-current circuit operating, by compressed air,
+the signal and automatic train stop.</p>
+
+<p>Direct current is furnished by two mains extending the length of the
+system, which are fed by eight sets of 16-volt storage batteries in
+duplicate. These batteries are located in the subway at the various
+interlocking towers, and are charged by motor generators, one of which
+is placed at each set of batteries. These motor generators are driven
+by direct current from the third rail and deliver direct current of 25
+volts.</p>
+
+<p>The compressed air is supplied by six air compressors, one located at
+each of the following sub-stations: Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, and 17.
+Three of these are reserve compressors. They are motor-driven by
+direct-current motors, taking current from the direct-current buss
+bars at sub-stations at from 400 to 700 volts. The capacity of each
+compressor is 230 cubic feet.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<img src="images/image141.jpg" width="375" height="327" alt="MAIN LINE, PIPING AND WIRING FOR BLOCK AND INTERLOCKING
+SYSTEM, SHOWING JUNCTION BOX ON COLUMN" title="MAIN LINE, PIPING AND WIRING FOR BLOCK AND INTERLOCKING
+SYSTEM, SHOWING JUNCTION BOX ON COLUMN" />
+<span class="caption">MAIN LINE, PIPING AND WIRING FOR BLOCK AND INTERLOCKING
+SYSTEM, SHOWING JUNCTION BOX ON COLUMN</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The motor-driven air compressors <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>are controlled by a governor which
+responds to a variation of air pressure of five pounds or less. When
+the pressure has reached a predetermined point the machine is stopped
+and the supply of cooling water shut off. When the pressure has fallen
+a given amount, the machine is started light, and when at full speed
+the load is thrown on and the cooling water circulation re&euml;stablished.
+Oiling of cylinders and bearings is automatic, being supplied only
+while the machines are running.</p>
+
+<p>Two novel safety devices having to do especially with the signaling
+may be here described. The first is an emergency train stop. It is
+designed to place in the hands of station attendants, or others, the
+emergency control of signals. The protection afforded is similar in
+principle to the emergency brake handle found in all passenger cars,
+but operates to warn all trains of an extraneous danger condition. It
+has been shown in electric railroading that an accident to apparatus,
+perhaps of slight moment, may cause an unreasoning panic, on account
+of which passengers may wander on adjoining tracks in face of
+approaching trains. To provide as perfectly as practicable for such
+conditions, it has been arranged to loop the control of signals into
+an emergency box set in a conspicuous position in each station
+platform. The pushing of a button on this box, similar to that of the
+fire-alarm signal, will set all signals immediately adjacent to
+stations in the face of trains approaching, so that all traffic may be
+stopped until the danger condition is removed.</p>
+
+<p>The second safety appliance is the "section break" protection. This
+consists of a special emergency signal placed in advance of each
+separate section of the third rail; that is, at points where trains
+move from a section fed by one sub-station to that fed by another.
+Under such conditions the contact shoes of the train temporarily span
+the break in the third rail. In case of a serious overload or ground
+on one section, the train-wiring would momentarily act as a feeder for
+the section, and thus possibly blow the train fuses and cause delay.
+In order, therefore, to prevent trains passing into a dangerously
+overloaded section, an overload relay has been installed at each
+section break to set a "stop" signal in the face of an approaching
+train, which holds the train until the abnormal condition is removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image142.png"><img src="images/image142_th.png" width="600" height="318" alt="THREE METHODS OF BLOCK SIGNALING" title="THREE METHODS OF BLOCK SIGNALING" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THREE METHODS OF BLOCK SIGNALING</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="DIAGRAM_OF_OVERLAPPING_BLOCK_SIGNAL_SYSTEM_ILLUSTRATING_POSSIBLE_POSITIONS_OF_TRAINS_RUNNING_UNDER_SAME" id="DIAGRAM_OF_OVERLAPPING_BLOCK_SIGNAL_SYSTEM_ILLUSTRATING_POSSIBLE_POSITIONS_OF_TRAINS_RUNNING_UNDER_SAME"></a>
+<a href="images/image143.png"><img src="images/image143_th.png" width="600" height="291" alt="DIAGRAM OF OVERLAPPING BLOCK SIGNAL SYSTEM
+ILLUSTRATING POSSIBLE POSITIONS OF TRAINS RUNNING UNDER SAME" title="DIAGRAM OF OVERLAPPING BLOCK SIGNAL SYSTEM
+ILLUSTRATING POSSIBLE POSITIONS OF TRAINS RUNNING UNDER SAME" /></a>
+<span class="caption">DIAGRAM OF OVERLAPPING BLOCK SIGNAL SYSTEM
+ILLUSTRATING POSSIBLE POSITIONS OF TRAINS RUNNING UNDER SAME</span>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Interlocking
+System</i></div>
+
+<p>The to-and-fro movement of a dense traffic on a four-track railway
+requires a large amount of switching, especially when each movement is
+complicated by junctions of two or more lines. Practically every
+problem of trunk line train movement, including two, three, and
+four-track operation, had to be provided for in the switching plants
+of the subway. Further, the problem was complicated by the restricted
+clearances and vision attendant upon tunnel construction. It was
+estimated that the utmost flexibility of operation should be provided
+for, and also that every movement be certain, quick, and safe.</p>
+
+<p>All of the above, which are referred to in the briefest terms only,
+demanded that all switching movements should be made through the
+medium of power-operated interlocking plants. These plants in the
+subway portions of the line are in all cases electro-pneumatic, while
+in the elevated portions of the line mechanical interlocking has been,
+in some cases, provided.</p>
+
+<p>A list of the separate plants installed will be interesting, and is
+given below:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Plants">
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Location.</b></td><td align='right'><b>Interlocking<br /> Machines.</b></td><td align='right'><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Working<br /> Levers.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MAIN LINE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>City Hall,</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='right'>32</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spring Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>18th Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>42d Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>72d Street</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>96th Street</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>WEST SIDE BRANCH.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>100th Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>103d Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>110th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>116th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manhattan Viaduct,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>137th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>17</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>145th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dyckman Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>216th Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>14</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>EAST SIDE BRANCH.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>135th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lenox Junction,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>145th Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lenox Avenue Yard,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Third and Westchester Avenue Junction,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>St. Anna Avenue,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>24</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Freeman Street,</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>176th Street,</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='right'>66</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Total,</span></td><td align='right'>37</td><td align='right'>393</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The total number of signals, both block and interlocking, is as follows:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Home signals,</td><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>354</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dwarf signals,</td><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>150</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Distant signals,</td><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>187</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Total,</span></td><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>691</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Total number of switches,</span></td><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>224</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>It will be noted that in the case of the City Hall Station three
+separate plants are required, all of considerable size, and intended
+for constant use for a multiplicity of movements. It is, perhaps,
+unnecessary to state that all the mechanism of these important
+interlocking plants is of the most substantial character and provided
+with all the necessary safety appliances and means for rapidly setting
+up the various combinations. The interlocking machines are housed in
+steel concrete "towers," so that the operators may be properly
+protected and isolated in the performance of their duties.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>SUBWAY DRAINAGE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The employment of water-proofing to the exterior surfaces of the
+masonry shell of the tunnel, which is applied to the masonry, almost
+without a break along the entire subway construction, has made it
+unnecessary to provide an extensive system of drains, or sump pits, of
+any magnitude, for the collection and removal of water from the
+interior of the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, however, at each depression or point where water
+could collect from any cause, such as by leakage through a cable
+manhole cover or by the breaking of an adjacent water pipe, or the
+like, a sump pit or drain has been provided for carrying the water
+away from the interior of the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>For all locations, where such drains, or sump pits, are located above
+the line of the adjacent sewer, the carrying of the water away has
+been easy to accomplish by employing a drain pipe in connection with
+suitable traps and valves.</p>
+
+<p>In other cases, however, where it is necessary to elevate the water,
+the problem has been of a different character. In such cases, where
+possible, at each depression where water is liable to collect, a well,
+or sump pit, has been constructed just outside the shell of the
+tunnel. The bottom of the well has been placed lower than the floor of
+the tunnel, so that the water can flow into the well through a drain
+connecting to the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>Each well is then provided with a pumping outfit; but in the case of
+these wells and in other locations where it is necessary to maintain
+pumping devices, it has not been possible to employ a uniform design
+of pumping equipment, as the various locations offer different
+conditions, each employing apparatus best suited to the requirements.</p>
+
+<p>In no case, except two, is an electric pump employed, as the
+employment of compressed air was considered more reliable.</p>
+
+<p>The several depressions at which it is necessary to maintain a pumping
+plant are enumerated as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>No. 1&mdash;Sump at the lowest point on City Hall Loop.</p>
+
+<p>No. 2&mdash;Sump at intersection of Elm and White Streets.</p>
+
+<p>No. 3&mdash;Sump at 38th Street in the Murray Hill Tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>No. 4&mdash;Sump at intersection of 46th Street and Broadway.</p>
+
+<p>No. 5&mdash;Sump at intersection of 116th Street and Lenox Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>No. 6&mdash;Sump at intersection of 142d Street and Lenox Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>No. 7&mdash;Sump at intersection of 147th Street and Lenox Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>No. 8&mdash;Sump at about 144th Street in Harlem River approach.</p>
+
+<p>No. 9&mdash;Sump at the center of the Harlem River Tunnel.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+<p>No. 10&mdash;Sump at intersection of Gerard Avenue and 149th Street.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the above mentioned sumps, where pumping plants are
+maintained, it is necessary to maintain pumping plants at the
+following points:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Location No. 1&mdash;At the cable tunnel constructed under the
+Subway at 23d Street and Fourth Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>Location No. 2&mdash;At the sub-subway at 42d Street and Broadway.</p>
+
+<p>Location No. 3&mdash;At the portal of the Lenox Avenue extension
+at 148th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Location No. 4&mdash;At the southerly end of the Harlem River tube.</p>
+
+<p>Location No. 5&mdash;At the northerly end of the Harlem River tube.</p>
+
+<p>Location No. 6&mdash;At the portal at Bergen Avenue and 149th Street.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the case of the No. 1 sump a direct-connected electric
+triple-plunger pump is employed, situated in a pump room about 40 feet
+distant from the sump pit. In the case of Nos. 2, 4, and 7 sumps,
+automatic air lifts are employed. This apparatus is placed in those
+sump wells which are not easily accessible, and the air lift was
+selected for the reason that no moving parts are conveyed in the
+air-lift construction other than the movable ball float and valve
+which control the device. The air lift consists of concentric piping
+extending several feet into the ground below the bottom of the well,
+and the water is elevated by the air producing a rising column of
+water of less specific weight than the descending column of water
+which is in the pipe extending below the bottom of the sump well.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Nos. 3 and 5 sumps, and for Location No. 1, automatic
+air-operated ejectors have been employed, for the reason that the
+conditions did not warrant the employment of air lifts or electric or
+air-operated pumps.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Nos. 6, 8, 9, and 10 sumps and for Locations Nos. 2, 4,
+and 5, air-operated reciprocating pumps will be employed. These pumps
+will be placed in readily accessible locations, where air lifts could
+not be used, and this type of pump was selected as being the most
+reliable device to employ.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Location No. 3, where provision has to be made to
+prevent a large amount of yard drainage, during a storm, from entering
+the tunnel where it descends from the portal, it was considered best
+to employ large submerged centrifugal pumps, operated by reciprocating
+air engines. Also for the portal, at Location No. 6, similar
+centrifugal pumps will be employed, but as compressed air is not
+available at this point, these pumps will be operated by electric
+motors.</p>
+
+<p>The air supply to the air-operating pumping devices will be
+independent from the compressed air line which supplies air to the
+switch and signal system, but break-down connections will be made
+between the two systems, so that either system can help the other out
+in case of emergency.</p>
+
+<p>A special air-compressor plant is located at the 148th Street repair
+shop, and another plant within the subway at 41st Street, for
+supplying air to the pumps, within the immediate locality of each
+compressor plant. For the more remote pumps, air will be supplied by
+smaller air compressors located within passenger stations. In one
+case, for the No. 2 sump, air will be taken from the switch and signal
+air-compressor plant located at the No. 11 sub-station.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>REPAIR AND INSPECTION SHED</h3>
+
+
+<p>While popularly and not inaccurately known as the "Subway System," the
+lines of the Interborough Company comprise also a large amount of
+trackage in the open air, and hence the rolling stock which has
+already been described is devised with the view to satisfying all the
+peculiar and special conditions thus involved. A necessary corollary
+is the requirement of adequate inspection and repair shops, so that
+all the rolling stock may at all times be in the highest state of
+efficiency; and in this respect the provision made by the company has
+been lavish and liberal to a degree.</p>
+
+<p>The repair and inspection shop of the Interborough Rapid Transit
+Company adjoins the car yards of the company and occupies the entire
+block between Seventh Avenue on the west, Lenox Avenue and the Harlem
+River on the east, 148th Street on the south, and 149th Street on the
+north. The electric subway trains will enter the shops and car yard by
+means of the Lenox Avenue extension, which runs directly north from
+the junction at 142d Street and Lenox Avenue of the East Side main
+line. The branch leaves the main line at 142d Street, gradually
+approaches the surface, and emerges at about 147th Street.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>General
+Arrangement</i></div>
+
+<p>The inspection shed is at the southern end of the property and
+occupies an area of approximately 336 feet by 240 feet. It is divided
+into three bays, of which the north bay is equipped with four tracks
+running its entire length, and the middle bay with five tracks. The
+south bay contains the machine-tool equipment, and consists of
+eighteen electrically driven machines, locker and wash rooms, heating
+boilers, etc., and has only one track extending through it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Construction</i></div>
+
+<p>The construction of the inspection shops is that which is ordinarily
+known as "reinforced concrete," and no wood is employed in the walls
+or roof. The building is a steel structure made up of four rows of
+center columns, which consist of twenty-one bays of 16 feet each,
+supporting the roof trusses. The foundations for these center columns
+are concrete piers mounted on piles. After the erection of the steel
+skeleton, the sides of the building and the interior walls are
+constructed by the use of 3/4-inch furring channels, located 16 inches
+apart, on which are fastened a series of expanded metal laths. The
+concrete is then applied to these laths in six coats, three on each
+side, and termed respectively the scratch coat, the rough coat, and
+the fining coat. In the later, the concrete is made with white sand,
+to give a finished appearance to the building.</p>
+
+<p>The roof is composed of concrete slabs, reinforced with expanded metal
+laths and finished with cement and mortar. It is then water-proofed
+with vulcanite water-proofing and gravel.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it might be said that, although this system of
+construction has been employed before, the building under
+consideration is the largest example of this kind of work yet done in
+the neighborhood of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>New York City. It was adopted instead of
+corrugated iron, as it is much more substantial, and it was considered
+preferable to brick, as the later would have required much more
+extensive foundations.</p>
+
+<p>The doors at each of the bays of the building are of rolling steel
+shutter type, and are composed of rolled-steel strips which interloop
+with each other, so that while the entire door is of steel, it can
+easily be raised and lowered.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Capacity and
+Pit Room</i></div>
+
+<p>All of the tracks in the north and middle bays are supplied with pits
+for inspecting purposes, and as each track has a length sufficient to
+hold six cars, the capacity of these two bays is fifty-four cars.</p>
+
+<p>The inspection pits are heated by steam and lighted by electric light,
+for which latter purpose frequent sockets are provided, and are also
+equipped with gas pipes, so that gas torches can be used instead of
+gasoline.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Trolley
+Connection</i></div>
+
+<p>As usual in shops of this kind, the third rail is not carried into the
+shops, but the cars will be moved about by means of a special trolley.
+In the middle bay this trolley consists of a four-wheeled light-frame
+carriage, which will run on a conductor located in the pit. The
+carriage has attached to it a flexible wire which can be connected to
+the shoe-hanger of the truck or to the end plug of the car, so that
+the cars can be moved around in the shops by means of their own
+motors. In the north bay, where the pits are very shallow, the
+conductor is carried overhead and consists of an 8-pound T-rail
+supported from the roof girders.</p>
+
+<p>The middle bay is provided with a 50-ton electric crane, which spans
+all of the tracks in this shop and is so arranged that it can serve
+any one of the thirty cars on the five tracks, and can deliver the
+trucks, wheels, motors, and other repair parts at either end of the
+shops, where they can be transferred to the telpherage hoist.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>The
+Telpherage
+System</i></div>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting features of the shops is the electric
+telpherage system. This system runs the entire length of the north and
+south bays crossing the middle bay or erection shop at each end, so
+that the telpherage hoist can pick up in the main room any wheels,
+trucks, or other apparatus which may be required, and can take them
+either into the north bay for painting, or into the south bay or
+machine shop for machine-tool work. The telpherage system extends
+across the transfer table pit at the west end of the shops and into
+the storehouse and blacksmith shop at the Seventh Avenue end of the
+grounds.</p>
+
+<p>The traveling telpherage hoist has a capacity of 6,000 pounds. The
+girders upon which it runs consist of 12-inch I-beams, which are hung
+from the roof trusses. The car has a weight of one ton and is
+supported by and runs on the I-beam girders by means of four 9-inch
+diameter wheels, one on each side. The hoist is equipped with two
+motors. The driving motor of two horse power is geared by double
+reduction gearing to the driving wheels at one end of the hoist. The
+hoist motor is of eight horse power, and is connected by worm gearing
+and then by triple reduction gearing to the hoist drum. The motors are
+controlled by rheostatic controllers, one for each motor. The hoist
+motor is also fitted with an electric brake by which, when the power
+is cut off, a band brake is applied to the hoisting drum. There is
+also an automatic cut-out, consisting of a lever operated by a nut,
+which travels on the threaded extension of the hoisting drum shaft,
+and by which the current on the motor is cut off and the brake applied
+if the chain hook is wound up too close to the hoist.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Heating and
+Lighting</i></div>
+
+<p>The buildings are heated throughout with steam, with vacuum system of
+return. The steam is supplied by two 100 horse power return tubular
+boilers, located at the southeastern corner of the building and
+provided with a 28-inch stack 60 feet high. The heat is distributed at
+15 pounds pressure throughout the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>three bays by means of coil
+radiators, which are placed vertically against the side walls of the
+shop and storeroom. In addition, heating pipes are carried through the
+pits as already described. The shops are well lighted by large windows
+and skylights, and at night by enclosed arc lights.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image149.jpg" width="500" height="361" alt="INTERIOR VIEW OF 148TH STREET REPAIR SHOPS" title="INTERIOR VIEW OF 148TH STREET REPAIR SHOPS" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR VIEW OF 148TH STREET REPAIR SHOPS</span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Fire
+Protection</i></div>
+
+<p>The shops and yards are equipped throughout with fire hydrants and
+fire plugs, hose and fire extinguishers. The water supply taps the
+city main at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 148th Street, and pipes
+are carried along the side of the north and south shops, with three
+reel connections on each line. A fire line is also carried through the
+yards, where there are four hydrants, also into the general storeroom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>General
+Store Room</i></div>
+
+<p>The general storeroom, oil room, and blacksmith shop occupy a building
+199 feet by 22 feet in the southwestern corner of the property. This
+building is of the same general construction as that of the inspection
+shops. The general storeroom, which is that fronting on 148th Street,
+is below the street grade, so that supplies can be loaded directly
+onto the telpherage hoist at the time of their receipt, and can be
+carried to any part of the works, or transferred to the proper
+compartments in the storeroom. Adjoining the general room is the oil
+and paint storeroom, which is separated from the rest of the building
+by fire walls. This room is fitted with a set of eight tanks, each
+with a capacity of 200 gallons. As the barrels filled with oil and
+other combustible material are brought into this room by the
+telpherage system they are deposited on elevated platforms, from which
+their contents can be tapped directly into the tank.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Blacksmith
+Shop</i></div>
+
+<p>The final division of the west shops is that in the northeastern
+corner, which is devoted to a blacksmith <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>shop. This shop contains six
+down-draught forges and one drop-hammer, and is also served by the
+telpherage system.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Transfer
+Table</i></div>
+
+<p>Connecting the main shops with the storeroom and blacksmith or west
+shops is a rotary transfer table 46 feet 16-13/16 inches long and with
+a run of 219 feet. The transfer table is driven by a large electric
+motor the current being supplied through a conductor rail and sliding
+contact shoe. The transfer table runs on two tracks and is mounted on
+33-inch standard car wheels.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Employees</i></div>
+
+<p>The south side of the shop is fitted with offices for the Master
+Mechanic and his department.</p>
+
+<p>The working force will comprise about 250 in the shops, and their
+lockers, lavatories, etc., are located in the south bay.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>SUB-CONTRACTORS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The scope of this book does not permit an enumeration of all the
+sub-contractors who have done work on the Rapid Transit Railroad. The
+following list, however, includes the sub-contractors for all the more
+important parts of the construction and equipment of the road.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><big><i>General Construction, Sub-section Contracts, Track and Track
+Material, Station Finish, and Miscellaneous Contracts</i></big></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">S. L. F. Deyo</span>, Chief Engineer.</p>
+
+
+<p><big><b><i>Sub-sections</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p>For construction purposes the road was divided into sub-sections, and
+sub-contracts were let which included excavation, construction and
+re-construction of sub-surface structures, support of surface railway
+tracks and abutting buildings, erection of steel (underground and
+viaduct), masonry work and tunnel work under the rivers; also the
+plastering and painting of the inside of tunnel walls and restoration
+of street surface.</p>
+
+<p>Bradley, William, Sub-sections 6A and 6B, 60th Street to 104th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Degnon-McLean Contracting Company (Degnon Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 1, 2 and 5A, Post-office to Great Jones Street and 41st
+Street and Park Avenue to 47th Street and Broadway.</p>
+
+<p>Farrell, E. J., Sub-section, Lenox Avenue Extension, 142d Street to
+148th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Farrell &amp; Hopper (Farrell, Hopper &amp; Company), Sub-sections 7 and 8,
+103d Street and Broadway to 135th Street and Lenox Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>Holbrook, Cabot &amp; Daly (Holbrook, Cabot &amp; Daly Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 3, Great Jones Street to 33d Street.</p>
+
+<p>McCabe &amp; Brother, L. B. (R. C. Hunt, Superintendent), Sub-sections 13
+and 14, 133d Street to Hillside Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>McMullen &amp; McBean, Sub-section 9A, 135th Street and Lenox Avenue to
+Gerard Avenue and 149th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Naughton &amp; Company (Naughton Company), Sub-section 5B, 47th Street to
+60th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Roberts, E. P., Sub-sections 10, 12, and 15, Foundations (Viaducts),
+Brook Avenue to Bronx Park, 125th Street to 133d Street, and Hillside
+Avenue to Bailey Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>Rodgers, John C., Sub-section 9B, Gerard Avenue to Brook Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>Shaler, Ira A. (Estate of Ira A. Shaler), Sub-section 4, 33d Street to
+41st Street.</p>
+
+<p>Shields, John, Sub-section 11, 104th Street to 125th Street.</p>
+
+<p>Terry &amp; Tench Construction Company (Terry &amp; Tench Company),
+Sub-sections 10, 12, and 15, Steel Erection (Viaducts), Brook Avenue
+to Bronx Park, 125th Street to 133d Street, and Hillside Avenue to
+Bailey Avenue.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Brooklyn Extension.</b></span></p>
+
+<p>Cranford &amp; McNamee, Sub-section 3, Clinton Street to Flatbush and
+Atlantic Avenues, Brooklyn.</p>
+
+<p>Degnon-McLean Contracting Company (Degnon Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 1, Park Row to Bridge Street, Manhattan.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p><p>Onderdonk, Andrew (New York Tunnel Company), Sub-sections 2 and 2A,
+Bridge Street, Manhattan, to Clinton and Joralemon Streets, Brooklyn.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Track and Track Material</b></span></p>
+
+<p>American Iron &amp; Steel Manufacturing Company, Track Bolts.</p>
+
+<p>Baxter &amp; Company, G. S., Ties.</p>
+
+<p>Connecticut Trap Rock Quarries, Ballast.</p>
+
+<p>Dilworth, Porter &amp; Company, Spikes.</p>
+
+<p>Holbrook, Cabot &amp; Rollins (Holbrook, Cabot &amp; Rollins Corporation),
+Track Laying, City Hall to Broadway and 42d Street.</p>
+
+<p>Long Clove Trap Rock Company, Ballast.</p>
+
+<p>Malleable Iron Fittings Company, Cup Washers.</p>
+
+<p>Naughton Company, Track Laying, Underground Portion of Road north of
+42d Street and Broadway.</p>
+
+<p>Pennsylvania Steel Company, Running Rails, Angle Bars, Tie Plates and
+Guard Rails.</p>
+
+<p>Ramapo Iron Works, Frogs and Switches, Filler Blocks and Washers.</p>
+
+<p>Sizer &amp; Company, Robert R., Ties.</p>
+
+<p>Terry &amp; Tench Construction Company (Terry &amp; Tench Company), Timber
+Decks for Viaduct Portions, and Laying and Surfacing Track on Viaduct
+Portions.</p>
+
+<p>Weber Railway Joint Manufacturing Company, Weber Rail Joints.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Station Finish</b></span></p>
+
+<p>American Mason Safety Tread Company, Safety Treads.</p>
+
+<p>Atlantic Terra Cotta Company, Terra Cotta.</p>
+
+<p>Boote Company, Alfred, Glazed Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.</p>
+
+<p>Byrne &amp; Murphy, Plumbing, 86th Street Station.</p>
+
+<p>Dowd &amp; Maslen, Brick Work for City Hall and other Stations and
+Superstructures for 72d Street, 103d Street and Columbia University
+Stations.</p>
+
+<p>Empire City Marble Company, Marble.</p>
+
+<p>Grueby Faience Company, Faience.</p>
+
+<p>Guastavino Company, Guastavino Arch, City Hall Station.</p>
+
+<p>Hecla Iron Works, Kiosks and Eight Stations on Elevated Structure.</p>
+
+<p>Herring-Hall-Marvin Safe Company, Safes.</p>
+
+<p>Holbrook, Cabot &amp; Rollins Corporation, Painting Stations.</p>
+
+<p>Howden Tile Company, Glazed Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.</p>
+
+<p>Laheny Company, J. E., Painting Kiosks.</p>
+
+<p>Manhattan Glass Tile Company, Glass Tile, and Art Ceramic Tile.</p>
+
+<p>Parry, John H., Glass Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.</p>
+
+<p>Pulsifer &amp; Larson Company, Illuminated Station Signs.</p>
+
+<p>Rookwood Pottery Company, Faience</p>
+
+<p>Russell &amp; Irwin Manufacturing Company, Hardware</p>
+
+<p>Simmons Company, John, Railings and Gates.</p>
+
+<p>Tracy Plumbing Company, Plumbing.</p>
+
+<p>Tucker &amp; Vinton, Strap Anchors for Kiosks.</p>
+
+<p>Turner Construction Company, Stairways, Platforms, and Platform
+Overhangs.</p>
+
+<p>Vulcanite Paving Company, Granolithic Floors.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Miscellaneous</b></span></p>
+
+<p>American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.</p>
+
+<p>American Vitrified Conduit Company, Ducts.</p>
+
+<p>Blanchite Process Paint Company, Plaster Work and Blanchite Enamel
+Finish on Tunnel Side Walls.</p>
+
+<p>Brown Hoisting Machinery Company, Signal Houses at Four Stations.</p>
+
+<p>Camp Company, H. B., Ducts.</p>
+
+<p>Cunningham &amp; Kearns, Sewer Construction, Mulberry Street, East 10th
+Street, and East 22d Street Sewers.</p>
+
+<p>Fox &amp; Company, John, Cast Iron.</p>
+
+<p>McRoy Clay Works, Ducts.</p>
+
+<p>Norton &amp; Dalton, Sewer Construction, 142d Street Sewer.</p>
+
+<p>Onondaga Vitrified Brick Company, Ducts.</p>
+
+<p>Pilkington, James, Sewer Construction, Canal Street and Bleecker
+Street Sewers.</p>
+
+<p>Simmons Company, John, Iron Railings, Viaduct Sections.</p>
+
+<p>Sicilian Asphalt Paving Company, Waterproofing.</p>
+
+<p>Tucker &amp; Vinton, Vault Lights.</p>
+
+<p>United Building Material Company, Cement.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+<p><big><b><i>Electrical Department</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">L. B. Stillwell</span>, Electrical Director.</p>
+
+
+<p>Electric plant for generation, transmission, conversion, and
+distribution of power, third rail construction, electrical car
+equipment, lighting system, fire and emergency alarm systems:</p>
+
+<p>American Steel &amp; Wire Company, Cable.</p>
+
+<p>Bajohr, Carl, Lightning Rods.</p>
+
+<p>Broderick &amp; Company, Contact Shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Cambria Steel Company, Contact Rail.</p>
+
+<p>Columbia Machine Works &amp; Malleable Iron Company, Contact Shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Consolidated Car Heating Company, Car Heaters.</p>
+
+<p>D. &amp; W. Fuse Company, Fuse Boxes and Fuses.</p>
+
+<p>Electric Storage Battery Company, Storage Battery Plant.</p>
+
+<p>Gamewell Fire Alarm Telegraph Company, Fire and Emergency Alarm
+Systems.</p>
+
+<p>General Electric Company, Motors, Power House and Sub-station
+Switchboards, Control Apparatus, Cable.</p>
+
+<p>General Incandescent Arc Light Company, Passenger Station
+Switchboards.</p>
+
+<p>India Rubber &amp; Gutta Percha Insulating Company, Cables.</p>
+
+<p>Keasby &amp; Mattison Company, Asbestos.</p>
+
+<p>Malleable Iron Fittings Company, Third Rail and other Castings.</p>
+
+<p>Mayer &amp; Englund Company, Rail Bonds.</p>
+
+<p>Mitchell Vance Company, Passenger Station Electric Light Fixtures.</p>
+
+<p>National Conduit &amp; Cable Company, Cables.</p>
+
+<p>National Electric Company, Air Compressors.</p>
+
+<p>Nernst Lamp Company, Power Station Lighting.</p>
+
+<p>Okonite Company, Cables.</p>
+
+<p>Prometheus Electric Company, Passenger Station Heaters.</p>
+
+<p>Roebling's Sons Company, J. A., Cables.</p>
+
+<p>Reconstructed Granite Company, Third Rail Insulators.</p>
+
+<p>Standard Underground Cable Company, Cables.</p>
+
+<p>Tucker Electrical Construction Company, Wiring for Tunnel and
+Passenger Station Lights.</p>
+
+<p>Westinghouse Electric &amp; Manufacturing Company, Alternators, Exciters,
+Transformers, Motors, Converters, Blower Outfits.</p>
+
+<p>Westinghouse Machine Company, Turbo Alternators.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><big><b><i>Mechanical and Architectural Department</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">John Van Vleck</span>, Mechanical and Construction Engineer.</p>
+
+
+<p>Power house and sub-station, steam plant, repair shop, tunnel
+drainage, elevators.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Power House</b></span></p>
+
+<p>Alberger Condenser Company, Condensing Equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Allis-Chalmers Company, Nine 8,000-11,000 H. P. Engines.</p>
+
+<p>Alphons Custodis Chimney Construction Company, Chimneys.</p>
+
+<p>American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.</p>
+
+<p>Babcock &amp; Wilcox Company, Fifty-two 600 H. P. Boilers and Six
+Superheaters.</p>
+
+<p>Burhorn, Edwin, Castings.</p>
+
+<p>Gibson Iron Works, Thirty-six Hand-fired Grates.</p>
+
+<p>Manning, Maxwell &amp; Moore, Electric Traveling Cranes and Machine Tools.</p>
+
+<p>Milliken Brothers, Ornamental Chimney Caps.</p>
+
+<p>Otis Elevator Company, Freight Elevator.</p>
+
+<p>Peirce, John, Power House Superstructure.</p>
+
+<p>Power Specialty Company, Four Superheaters.</p>
+
+<p>Ryan &amp; Parker, Foundation Work and Condensing Water Tunnels, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Robins Conveying Belt Company, Coal and Ash Handling Apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>Reese, Jr., Company, Thomas, Coal Downtake Apparatus, Oil Tanks, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Riter-Conley Manufacturing Company, Smoke Flue System.</p>
+
+<p>Sturtevant Company, B. F., Blower Sets.</p>
+
+<p>Tucker &amp; Vinton, Concrete Hot Wells.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p><p>Treadwell &amp; Company, M. H., Furnace Castings, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Walworth Manufacturing Company, Steam, Water, and Drip Piping.</p>
+
+<p>Westinghouse, Church, Kerr &amp; Company, Three Turbo Generator Sets and
+Two Exciter Engines.</p>
+
+<p>Westinghouse Machine Company, Stokers.</p>
+
+<p>Wheeler Condenser Company, Feed Water Heaters.</p>
+
+<p>Worthington, Henry R., Boiler Feed Pumps.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Sub-stations</b></span></p>
+
+<p>American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.</p>
+
+<p>Carlin &amp; Company, P. J., Foundation and Superstructure, Sub-station
+No. 15 (143d Street).</p>
+
+<p>Cleveland Crane &amp; Car Company, Hand Power Traveling Cranes.</p>
+
+<p>Crow, W. L., Foundation and Superstructure Sub-stations Nos. 17 and 18
+(Fox Street, Hillside Avenue).</p>
+
+<p>Parker Company, John H., Foundation and Superstructure Sub-stations
+Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16 (City Hall Place, E. 19th Street, W. 53d
+Street, W. 96th Street, W. 132d Street).</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Inspection Shed</b></span></p>
+
+<p>American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.</p>
+
+<p>Beggs &amp; Company, James, Heating Boilers.</p>
+
+<p>Elektron Manufacturing Company, Freight Elevator.</p>
+
+<p>Farrell, E. J., Drainage System.</p>
+
+<p>Hiscox &amp; Company, W. T., Steam Heating System.</p>
+
+<p>Leary &amp; Curtis, Transformer House.</p>
+
+<p>Milliken Brothers, Structural Steel and Iron for Storehouse.</p>
+
+<p>Northern Engineering Works, Electric Telpherage System.</p>
+
+<p>O'Rourke, John F., Foundation Work.</p>
+
+<p>Tucker &amp; Vinton, Superstructure of Reinforced Concrete.</p>
+
+<p>Tracy Plumbing Company, Plumbing.</p>
+
+<p>Weber, Hugh L., Superstructure of Storehouse, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Signal Towers</span></p>
+
+<p>Tucker &amp; Vinton, Reinforced Concrete Walls for Eight Signal Towers.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><b>Passenger Elevators</b></span></p>
+
+<p>Otis Elevator Company, Electric Passenger Elevators for 167th Street,
+181st Street, and Mott Avenue Stations, and Escalator for Manhattan
+Street Station.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><big><b><i>Rolling Stock and Signal Department</i></b></big></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">George Gibbs</span>, Consulting Engineer.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Cars, Automatic Signal System.</b></p>
+
+<p>American Car &amp; Foundry Company, Steel Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.</p>
+
+<p>Buffalo Forge Company, Blacksmith Shop Equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Burnham, Williams &amp; Company (Baldwin Locomotive Works), Motor Trucks.</p>
+
+<p>Cambria Steel Company, Trailer Truck Axles.</p>
+
+<p>Christensen Engineering Company, Compressors, Governors, and Pump
+Cages on Cars.</p>
+
+<p>Curtain Supply Company, Car Window and Door Curtains.</p>
+
+<p>Dressel Railway Lamp Works, Signal Lamps.</p>
+
+<p>Hale &amp; Kilburn Manufacturing Company, Car Seats and Backs.</p>
+
+<p>Jewett Car Company, Wooden Car Bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Manning, Maxwell &amp; Moore, Machinery and Machine Tools for Inspection
+Shed.</p>
+
+<p>Metal Plated Car &amp; Lumber Company, Copper Sheathing for Cars.</p>
+
+<p>Pitt Car Gate Company, Vestibule Door Operating Device for Cars.</p>
+
+<p>Pneumatic Signal Company, Three Mechanical Interlocking Plants.</p>
+
+<p>Standard Steel Works, Axles and Driving Wheels for Motor and Trailer
+Trucks.</p>
+
+<p>St. Louis Car Company, Wooden Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.</p>
+
+<p>Stephenson Company, John, Wooden Car Bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Taylor Iron &amp; Steel Company, Trailer Truck Wheels.</p>
+
+<p>Union Switch &amp; Signal Company, Block Signal System and Interlocking
+Switch and Signal Plants.</p>
+
+<p>Van Dorn Company, W. T., Car Couplings.</p>
+
+<p>Wason Manufacturing Company, Wooden Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.</p>
+
+<p>Westinghouse Air Brake Company, Air Brakes.</p>
+
+<p>Westinghouse Traction Brake Company, Air Brakes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW YORK SUBWAY***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 17569-h.txt or 17569-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
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+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The New York Subway, by Anonymous
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The New York Subway
+       Its Construction and Equipment
+
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2006  [eBook #17569]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW YORK SUBWAY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Ronald Holder, Diane Monico, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the numerous original illustrations.
+      See 17569-h.htm or 17569-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/7/5/6/17569/17569-h/17569-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/7/5/6/17569/17569-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+Interborough Rapid Transit
+
+THE NEW YORK SUBWAY
+
+Its Construction and Equipment
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING ROOM OF POWER HOUSE]
+
+
+[Illustration: (I.R.T. symbol)]
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Interborough Rapid Transit Company
+ANNO. DOMI. MCMIV
+Copyright, 1904, by
+Interborough Rapid Transit Co.
+New York
+Planned and Executed by The
+McGraw Publishing Co.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: (McGraw Publishing Company New York logo)]
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                            Page No.
+
+INTRODUCTION,                                                  13
+
+CHAPTER    I. THE ROUTE OF THE ROAD--PASSENGER STATIONS
+              AND TRACKS,                                      23
+
+CHAPTER   II. TYPES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION,               37
+
+CHAPTER  III. POWER HOUSE BUILDING,                            67
+
+CHAPTER   IV. POWER PLANT FROM COAL PILE TO SHAFTS OF
+              ENGINES AND TURBINES,                            77
+
+CHAPTER    V. SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLY,                     91
+
+CHAPTER   VI. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS,                   117
+
+CHAPTER  VII. LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER STATIONS
+              AND TUNNEL,                                     121
+
+CHAPTER VIII. ROLLING STOCK--CARS, TRUCKS, ETC.,              125
+
+CHAPTER   IX. SIGNAL SYSTEM,                                  135
+
+CHAPTER    X. SUBWAY DRAINAGE,                                145
+
+CHAPTER   XI. REPAIR AND INSPECTION SHED,                     147
+
+CHAPTER  XII. SUB-CONTRACTORS,                                151
+
+
+
+
+INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY
+
+
+_Directors_
+
+August Belmont
+E. P. Bryan
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Gardiner M. Lane
+John B. McDonald
+Walter G. Oakman
+John Peirce
+Morton F. Plant
+William A. Read
+Alfred Skitt
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+George W. Young
+
+_Executive Committee_
+
+August Belmont
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Walter G. Oakman
+William A. Read
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+
+_Officers_
+
+August Belmont, President
+E. P. Bryan, Vice-president
+H. M. Fisher, Secretary
+D. W. McWilliams, Treasurer
+E. F. J. Gaynor, Auditor
+Frank Hedley, General Superintendent
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer
+George W. Wickersham, General Counsel
+Chas. A. Gardiner, General Attorney
+DeLancey Nicoll, Associate Counsel
+Alfred A. Gardner, Associate Counsel
+
+
+_Engineering Staff_
+
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.
+
+
+_Electrical Equipment_
+
+L. B. Stillwell, Electrical Director.
+H. N. Latey, Principal Assistant.
+Frederick R. Slater, Assistant Engineer in charge of Third Rail
+ Construction.
+Albert F. Parks, Assistant Engineer in charge of Lighting.
+George G. Raymond, Assistant Engineer in charge of Conduits and Cables.
+William B. Flynn, Assistant Engineer in charge of Draughting Room.
+
+
+_Mechanical and Architectural_
+
+J. Van Vleck, Mechanical and Construction Engineer.
+William C. Phelps, Assistant Construction Engineer.
+William N. Stevens, Ass't Mechanical Engineer.
+Paul C. Hunter, Architectural Assistant.
+Geo. E. Thomas, Supervising Engineer in Field.
+
+
+_Cars and Signal System_
+
+George Gibbs, Consulting Engineer.
+Watson T. Thompson, Master Mechanic.
+J. N. Waldron, Signal Engineer.
+
+
+
+
+RAPID TRANSIT SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY
+
+
+_Directors_
+
+August Belmont
+E. P. Bryan
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Gardiner M. Lane
+Walther Luttgen
+John B. McDonald
+Walter G. Oakman
+John Peirce
+Morton F. Plant
+William A. Read
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+George W. Young
+
+
+_Executive Committee_
+
+August Belmont
+Andrew Freedman
+James Jourdan
+Walter G. Oakman
+William A. Read
+Cornelius Vanderbilt
+
+
+_Officers_
+
+August Belmont, president
+Walter G. Oakman, vice-president
+John B. McDonald, contractor
+H. M. Fisher, secretary
+John F. Buck, treasurer
+E. F. J. Gaynor, auditor
+S. L. F. Deyo, chief engineer
+George W. Wickersham, general counsel
+Alfred A. Gardner, attorney
+
+
+_Engineering Staff_
+
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.
+H. T. Douglas, Principal Assistant Engineer.
+
+A. Edward Olmsted, Division Engineer, Manhattan-Bronx Lines.
+
+Henry B. Reed, Division Engineer, Brooklyn Extension.
+
+Theodore Paschke, Resident Engineer, First Division, City Hall to 33d
+Street, also Brooklyn Extension, City Hall to Bowling Green; and
+Robert S. Fowler, Assistant.
+
+Ernest C. Moore, Resident Engineer, Second Division, 33d Street to
+104th Street; and Stanley Raymond, Assistant.
+
+William C. Merryman, Resident Engineer, Third Division, Underground
+Work, 104th Street to Fort George West Side and Westchester Avenue
+East Side; and William B. Leonard, W. A. Morton, and William E.
+Morris, Jr., Assistants.
+
+Allan A. Robbins and Justin Burns, Resident Engineers, Fourth
+Division, Viaducts; and George I. Oakley, Assistant.
+
+Frank D. Leffingwell, Resident Engineer, East River Tunnel Division,
+Brooklyn Extension; and C. D. Drew, Assistant.
+
+Percy Litchfield, Resident Engineer, Fifth Division, Brooklyn
+Extension, Borough Hall to Prospect Park; and Edward R. Eichner,
+Assistant.
+
+M. C. Hamilton, Engineer, Maintenance of Way; and Robert E. Brandeis,
+Assistant.
+
+D. L. Turner, Assistant Engineer in charge of Stations.
+
+A. Samuel Berquist, Assistant Engineer in charge of Steel Erection.
+
+William J. Boucher, Assistant Engineer in charge of Draughting Rooms.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: (INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT)]
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The completion of the rapid transit railroad in the boroughs of
+Manhattan and The Bronx, which is popularly known as the "Subway," has
+demonstrated that underground railroads can be built beneath the
+congested streets of the city, and has made possible in the near
+future a comprehensive system of subsurface transportation extending
+throughout the wide territory of Greater New York.
+
+In March, 1900, when the Mayor with appropriate ceremonies broke
+ground at the Borough Hall, in Manhattan, for the new road, there were
+many well-informed people, including prominent financiers and
+experienced engineers, who freely prophesied failure for the
+enterprise, although the contract had been taken by a most capable
+contractor, and one of the best known banking houses in America had
+committed itself to finance the undertaking.
+
+In looking at the finished road as a completed work, one is apt to
+wonder why it ever seemed impossible and to forget the difficulties
+which confronted the builders at the start.
+
+The railway was to be owned by the city, and built and operated under
+legislation unique in the history of municipal governments,
+complicated, and minute in provisions for the occupation of the city
+streets, payment of moneys by the city, and city supervision over
+construction and operation. Questions as to the interpretation of
+these provisions might have to be passed upon by the courts, with
+delays, how serious none could foretell, especially in New York where
+the crowded calendars retard speedy decisions. The experience of the
+elevated railroad corporations in building their lines had shown the
+uncertainty of depending upon legal precedents. It was not, at that
+time, supposed that the abutting property owners would have any legal
+ground for complaint against the elevated structures, but the courts
+found new laws for new conditions and spelled out new property rights
+of light, air, and access, which were made the basis for a volume of
+litigation unprecedented in the courts of any country.
+
+An underground railroad was a new condition. None could say that the
+abutting property owners might not find rights substantial enough, at
+least, to entitle them to their day in court, a day which, in this
+State, might stretch into many months, or even several years. Owing to
+the magnitude of the work, delay might easily result in failure. An
+eminent judge of the New York Supreme Court had emphasized the
+uncertainties of the situation in the following language: "Just what
+are the rights of the owners of property abutting upon a street or
+avenue, the fee in and to the soil underneath the surface of which has
+been acquired by the city of New York, so far as the same is not
+required for the ordinary city uses of gas or water pipes, or others
+of a like character, has never been finally determined. We have now
+the example of the elevated railroad, constructed and operated in the
+city of New York under legislative and municipal authority for nearly
+twenty years, which has been compelled to pay many millions of dollars
+to abutting property owners for the easement in the public streets
+appropriated by the construction and maintenance of the road, and
+still the amount that the road will have to pay is not ascertained.
+What liabilities will be imposed upon the city under this contract;
+what injury the construction and operation of this road will cause to
+abutting property, and what easements and rights will have to be
+acquired before the road can be legally constructed and operated, it
+is impossible now to ascertain."
+
+It is true, that the city undertook "to secure to the contractor the
+right to construct and operate, free from all rights, claims, or other
+interference, whether by injunction, suit for damages, or otherwise on
+the part of any abutting owner or other person." But another eminent
+judge of the same court had characterized this as "a condition
+absolutely impossible of fulfillment," and had said: "How is the city
+to prevent interference with the work by injunction? That question
+lies with the courts; and not with the courts of this State alone, for
+there are cases without doubt in which the courts of the United States
+would have jurisdiction to act, and when such jurisdiction exists they
+have not hitherto shown much reluctance in acting.... That legal
+proceedings will be undertaken which will, to some extent at least,
+interfere with the progress of this work seems to be inevitable...."
+
+Another difficulty was that the Constitution of the State of New York
+limited the debt-incurring power of the city. The capacity of the city
+to undertake the work had been much discussed in the courts, and the
+Supreme Court of the State had disposed of that phase of the situation
+by suggesting that it did not make much difference to the municipality
+whether or not the debt limit permitted a contract for the work,
+because if the limit should be exceeded, "no liability could possibly
+be imposed upon the city," a view which might comfort the timid
+taxpayers but could hardly be expected to give confidence to the
+capitalists who might undertake the execution of the contract.
+
+Various corporations, organized during the thirty odd years of
+unsuccessful attempts by the city to secure underground rapid transit,
+claimed that their franchises gave them vested rights in the streets
+to the exclusion of the new enterprise, and they were prepared to
+assert their rights in the courts. (The Underground Railroad Company
+of the City of New York sought to enjoin the building of the road and
+carried their contest to the Supreme Court of the United States which
+did not finally decide the questions raised until March, 1904, when
+the subway was practically complete.)
+
+Rival transportation companies stood ready to obstruct the work and
+encourage whomever might find objection to the building of the road.
+
+New York has biennial elections. The road could not be completed in
+two years, and the attitude of one administration might not be the
+attitude of its successors.
+
+The engineering difficulties were well-nigh appalling. Towering
+buildings along the streets had to be considered, and the streets
+themselves were already occupied with a complicated network of
+subsurface structures, such as sewers, water and gas mains, electric
+cable conduits, electric surface railway conduits, telegraph and
+power conduits, and many vaults extending out under the streets,
+occupied by the abutting property owners. On the surface were street
+railway lines carrying a very heavy traffic night and day, and all the
+thoroughfares in the lower part of the city were congested with
+vehicular traffic.
+
+Finally, the city was unwilling to take any risk, and demanded
+millions of dollars of security to insure the completion of the road
+according to the contract, the terms of which were most exacting down
+to the smallest detail.
+
+The builders of the road did not underestimate the magnitude of the
+task before them. They retained the most experienced experts for every
+part of the work and, perfecting an organization in an incredibly
+short time, proceeded to surmount and sweep aside difficulties. The
+result is one of which every citizen of New York may feel proud. Upon
+the completion of the road the city will own the best constructed and
+best equipped intraurban rapid transit railroad in the world. The
+efforts of the builders have not been limited by the strict terms of
+the contract. They have striven, not to equal the best devices, but to
+improve upon the best devices used in modern electrical railroading,
+to secure for the traveling public safety, comfort, and speedy
+transportation.
+
+The road is off the surface and escapes the delays incident to
+congested city streets, but near the surface and accessible, light,
+dry, clean, and well ventilated. The stations and approaches are
+commodious, and the stations themselves furnish conveniences to
+passengers heretofore not heard of on intraurban lines. There is a
+separate express service, with its own tracks, and the stations are so
+arranged that passengers may pass from local trains to express trains,
+and vice versa, without delay and without payment of additional fare.
+Special precautions have been taken and devices adopted to prevent a
+failure of the electric power and the consequent delays of traffic. An
+electro pneumatic block signal system has been devised, which excels
+any system heretofore used and is unique in its mechanism. The third
+rail for conveying the electric current is covered, so as to prevent
+injury to passengers and employees from contact. Special emergency and
+fire alarm signal systems are installed throughout the length of the
+road. At a few stations, where the road is not near the surface,
+improved escalators and elevators are provided. The cars have been
+designed to prevent danger from fire, and improved types of motors
+have been adopted, capable of supplying great speed combined with
+complete control. Strength, utility, and convenience have not alone
+been considered, but all parts of the railroad structures and
+equipment, stations, power house, and electrical sub-stations have
+been designed and constructed with a view to the beauty of their
+appearance, as well as to their efficiency.
+
+The completion of the subway marks the solution of a problem which for
+over thirty years baffled the people of New York City, in spite of the
+best efforts of many of its foremost citizens. An extended account of
+Rapid Transit Legislation would be out of place here, but a brief
+glance at the history of the Act under the authority of which the
+subway has been built is necessary to a clear understanding of the
+work which has been accomplished. From 1850 to 1865 the street surface
+horse railways were sufficient for the requirements of the traveling
+public. As the city grew rapidly, the congestion spreading northward,
+to and beyond the Harlem River, the service of surface roads became
+entirely inadequate. As early as 1868, forty-two well known business
+men of the city became, by special legislative Act, incorporators of
+the New York City Central Underground Railway Company, to build a line
+from the City Hall to the Harlem River. The names of the incorporators
+evidenced the seriousness of the attempt, but nothing came of it. In
+1872, also by special Act, Cornelius Vanderbilt and others were
+incorporated as The New York City Rapid Transit Company, to build an
+underground road from the City Hall to connect with the New York &
+Harlem Road at 59th Street, with a branch to the tracks of the New
+York Central Road. The enterprise was soon abandoned. Numerous
+companies were incorporated in the succeeding years under the general
+railroad laws, to build underground roads, but without results; among
+them the Central Tunnel Railway Company in 1881, The New York & New
+Jersey Tunnel Railway Company in 1883, The Terminal Underground
+Railway Company in 1886, The Underground Railroad Company of the City
+of New York (a consolidation of the last two companies) in 1896, and
+The Rapid Transit Underground Railroad Company in 1897.
+
+All attempts to build a road under the early special charter and later
+under the general laws having failed, the city secured in 1891 the
+passage of the Rapid Transit Act under which, as amended, the subway
+has been built. As originally passed it did not provide for municipal
+ownership. It provided that a board of five rapid transit railroad
+commissioners might adopt routes and general plans for a railroad,
+obtain the consents of the local authorities and abutting property
+owners, or in lieu of the consents of the property owners the approval
+of the Supreme Court; and then, having adopted detail plans for the
+construction and operation, might sell at public sale the right to
+build and operate the road to a corporation, whose powers and duties
+were defined in the Act, for such period of time and on such terms as
+they could. The Commissioners prepared plans and obtained the consents
+of the local authorities. The property owners refused their consent;
+the Supreme Court gave its approval in lieu thereof, but upon inviting
+bids the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners found no
+responsible bidder.
+
+The late Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, as early as 1884, when legislation for
+underground roads was under discussion, had urged municipal ownership.
+Speaking in 1901, he said of his efforts in 1884:
+
+     "It was evident to me that underground rapid transit could
+     not be secured by the investment of private capital, but in
+     some way or other its construction was dependent upon the
+     use of the credit of the City of New York. It was also
+     apparent to me that if such credit were used, the property
+     must belong to the city. Inasmuch as it would not be safe
+     for the city to undertake the construction itself, the
+     intervention of a contracting company appeared
+     indispensable. To secure the city against loss, this company
+     must necessarily be required to give a sufficient bond for
+     the completion of the work and be willing to enter into a
+     contract for its continued operation under a rental which
+     would pay the interest upon the bonds issued by the city for
+     the construction, and provide a sinking fund sufficient for
+     the payment of the bonds at or before maturity. It also
+     seemed to be indispensable that the leasing company should
+     invest in the rolling stock and in the real estate required
+     for its power houses and other buildings an amount of money
+     sufficiently large to indemnify the city against loss in
+     case the lessees should fail in their undertaking to build
+     and operate the railroad."
+
+Mr. Hewitt became Mayor of the city in 1887, and his views were
+presented in the form of a Bill to the Legislature in the following
+year. The measure found practically no support. Six years later, after
+the Rapid Transit Commissioners had failed under the Act of 1891, as
+originally drawn, to obtain bidders for the franchise, the New York
+Chamber of Commerce undertook to solve the problem by reverting to Mr.
+Hewitt's idea of municipal ownership. Whether or not municipal
+ownership would meet the approval of the citizens of New York could
+not be determined; therefore, as a preliminary step, it was decided to
+submit the question to a popular vote. An amendment to the Act of 1891
+was drawn (Chapter 752 of the Laws of 1894) which provided that the
+qualified electors of the city were to decide at an annual election,
+by ballot, whether the rapid transit railway or railways should be
+constructed by the city and at the public's expense, and be operated
+under lease from the city, or should be constructed by a private
+corporation under a franchise to be sold in the manner attempted
+unsuccessfully, under the Act of 1891, as originally passed. At the
+fall election of 1894, the electors of the city, by a very large vote,
+declared against the sale of a franchise to a private corporation and
+in favor of ownership by the city. Several other amendments, the
+necessity for which developed as plans for the railway were worked
+out, were made up to and including the session of the Legislature of
+1900, but the general scheme for rapid transit may be said to have
+become fixed when the electors declared in favor of municipal
+ownership. The main provisions of the legislation which stood upon the
+statute books as the Rapid Transit Act, when the contract was finally
+executed, February 21, 1900, may be briefly summarized as follows:
+
+(_a_) The Act was general in terms, applying to all cities in the
+State having a population of over one million; it was special in
+effect because New York was the only city having such a population. It
+did not limit the Rapid Transit Commissioners to the building of a
+single road, but authorized the laying out of successive roads or
+extensions.
+
+(_b_) A Board was created consisting of the Mayor, Comptroller, or
+other chief financial officer of the city; the president of the
+Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, by virtue of his office,
+and five members named in the Act: William Steinway, Seth Low, John
+Claflin, Alexander E. Orr, and John H. Starin, men distinguished for
+their business experience, high integrity, and civic pride. Vacancies
+in the Board were to be filled by the Board itself, a guaranty of a
+continued uniform policy.
+
+(_c_) The Board was to prepare general routes and plans and submit the
+question of municipal ownership to the electors of the city.
+
+(_d_) The city was authorized, in the event that the electors decided
+for city ownership, to issue bonds not to exceed $50,000,000 for the
+construction of the road or roads and $5,000,000 additional, if
+necessary, for acquiring property rights for the route. The interest
+on the bonds was not to exceed 3-1/2 per cent.
+
+(_e_) The Commissioners were given the broad power to enter into a
+contract (in the case of more than one road, successive contracts) on
+behalf of the city for the construction of the road with the person,
+firm, or corporation which in the opinion of the Board should be best
+qualified to carry out the contract, and to determine the amount of
+the bond to be given by the contractor to secure its performance. The
+essential features of the contract were, however, prescribed by the
+Act. The contractor in and by the contract for building the road was
+to agree to fully equip it at his own expense, and the equipment was
+to include all power houses. He was also to operate the road, as
+lessee of the city, for a term not to exceed fifty years, upon terms
+to be included in the contract for construction, which might include
+provision for renewals of the lease upon such terms as the Board
+should from time to time determine. The rental was to be at least
+equal to the amount of interest on the bonds which the city might
+issue for construction and one per cent. additional. The one per cent.
+additional might, in the discretion of the Board, be made contingent
+in part for the first ten years of the lease upon the earnings of the
+road. The rental was to be applied by the city to the interest on the
+bonds and the balance was to be paid into the city's general sinking
+fund for payment of the city's debt or into a sinking fund for the
+redemption at maturity of the bonds issued for the construction of the
+rapid transit road, or roads. In addition to the security which might
+be required by the Board of the contractor for construction and
+operation, the Act provided that the city should have a first lien
+upon the equipment of the road to be furnished by the contractor, and
+at the termination of the lease the city had the privilege of
+purchasing such equipment from the contractor.
+
+(_f_) The city was to furnish the right of way to the contractor free
+from all claims of abutting property owners. The road was to be the
+absolute property of the city and to be deemed a part of the public
+streets and highways. The equipment of the road was to be exempt from
+taxation.
+
+(_g_) The Board was authorized to include in the contract for
+construction provisions in detail for the supervision of the city,
+through the Board, over the operation of the road under the lease.
+
+One of the most attractive--and, in fact, indispensable features of
+the scheme--was that the work of construction, instead of being
+subject to the conflicting control of various departments of the City
+Government, with their frequent changes in personnel, was under the
+exclusive supervision and control of the Rapid Transit Board, a
+conservative and continuous body composed of the two principal
+officers of the City Government, and five merchants of the very
+highest standing in the community.
+
+Provided capitalists could be found to undertake such an extensive
+work under the exacting provisions, the scheme was an admirable one
+from the taxpayers' point of view. The road would cost the city
+practically nothing and the obligation of the contractor to equip and
+operate being combined with the agreement to construct furnished a
+safeguard against waste of the public funds and insured the prompt
+completion of the road. The interest of the contractor in the
+successful operation, after construction, furnished a strong incentive
+to see that as the construction progressed the details were consistent
+with successful operation and to suggest and consent to such
+modifications of the contract plans as might appear necessary from an
+operating point of view, from time to time. The rental being based
+upon the cost encouraged low bids, and the lien of the city upon the
+equipment secured the city against all risk, once the road was in
+operation.
+
+Immediately after the vote of the electors upon the question of
+municipal ownership, the Rapid Transit Commissioners adopted routes
+and plans which they had been studying and perfecting since the
+failure to find bidders for the franchise under the original Act of
+1891. The local authorities approved them, and again the property
+owners refused their consent, making an application to the Supreme
+Court necessary. The Court refused its approval upon the ground that
+the city, owing to a provision of the constitution of the State
+limiting the city's power to incur debt, would be unable to raise the
+necessary money. This decision appeared to nullify all the efforts of
+the public spirited citizens composing the Board of Rapid Transit
+Commissioners and to practically prohibit further attempts on their
+part. They persevered, however, and in January, 1897, adopted new
+general routes and plans. The consolidation of a large territory into
+the Greater New York, and increased land values, warranted the hope
+that the city's debt limit would no longer be an objection, especially
+as the new route changed the line so as to reduce the estimated cost.
+The demands for rapid transit had become more and more imperative as
+the years went by, and it was fair to assume that neither the courts
+nor the municipal authorities would be overzealous to find a narrow
+construction of the laws. Incidentally, the constitutionality of the
+rapid transit legislation, in its fundamental features, had been
+upheld in the Supreme Court in a decision which was affirmed by the
+highest court of the State a few weeks after the Board had adopted its
+new plans. The local authorities gave their consent to the new route;
+the property owners, as on the two previous occasions, refused their
+consent; the Supreme Court gave its approval in lieu thereof; and the
+Board was prepared to undertake the preliminaries for letting a
+contract. These successive steps and the preparation of the terms of
+the contract all took time; but, finally, on November 15, 1899, a form
+of contract was adopted and an invitation issued by the Board to
+contractors to bid for the construction and operation of the railroad.
+There were two bidders, one of whom was John B. McDonald, whose terms
+submitted under the invitation were accepted on January 15, 1900; and,
+for the first time, it seemed as if a beginning might be made in the
+actual construction of the rapid transit road. The letter of
+invitation to contractors required that every proposal should be
+accompanied by a certified check upon a National or State Bank,
+payable to the order of the Comptroller, for $150,000, and that within
+ten days after acceptance, or within such further period as might be
+prescribed by the Board, the contract should be duly executed and
+delivered. The amount to be paid by the city for the construction was
+$35,000,000 and an additional sum not to exceed $2,750,000 for
+terminals, station sites, and other purposes. The construction was to
+be completed in four years and a half, and the term of the lease from
+the city to the contractor was fixed at fifty years, with a renewal,
+at the option of the contractor, for twenty-five years at a rental to
+be agreed upon by the city, not less than the average rental for the
+then preceding ten years. The rental for the fifty-year term was fixed
+at an amount equal to the annual interest upon the bonds issued by the
+city for construction and 1 per cent. additional, such 1 per cent.
+during the first ten years to be contingent in part upon the earnings
+of the road. To secure the performance of the contract by Mr. McDonald
+the city required him to deposit $1,000,000 in cash as security for
+construction, to furnish a bond with surety for $5,000,000 as security
+for construction and equipment, and to furnish another bond of
+$1,000,000 as continuing security for the performance of the contract.
+The city in addition to this security had, under the provisions of the
+Rapid Transit Act, a first lien on the equipment, and it should be
+mentioned that at the expiration of the lease and renewals (if any)
+the equipment is to be turned over to the city, pending an agreement
+or arbitration upon the question of the price to be paid for it by the
+city. The contract (which covered about 200 printed pages) was minute
+in detail as to the work to be done, and sweeping powers of
+supervision were given the city through the Chief Engineer of the
+Board, who by the contract was made arbiter of all questions that
+might arise as to the interpretation of the plans and specifications.
+The city had been fortunate in securing for the preparation of plans
+the services of Mr. William Barclay Parsons, one of the foremost
+engineers of the country. For years as Chief Engineer of the Board he
+had studied and developed the various plans and it was he who was to
+superintend on behalf of the city the completion of the work.
+
+During the thirty-two years of rapid transit discussion between 1868,
+when the New York City Central Underground Company was incorporated,
+up to 1900, when the invitations for bids were issued by the city,
+every scheme for rapid transit had failed because responsible
+capitalists could not be found willing to undertake the task of
+building a road. Each year had increased the difficulties attending
+such an enterprise and the scheme finally evolved had put all of the
+risk upon the capitalists who might attempt to finance the work, and
+left none upon the city. Without detracting from the credit due the
+public-spirited citizens who had evolved the plan of municipal
+ownership, it may be safely asserted that the success of the
+undertaking depended almost entirely upon the financial backing of the
+contractor. When the bid was accepted by the city no arrangements had
+been made for the capital necessary to carry out the contract. After
+its acceptance, Mr. McDonald not only found little encouragement in
+his efforts to secure the capital, but discovered that the surety
+companies were unwilling to furnish the security required of him,
+except on terms impossible for him to fulfill.
+
+The crucial point in the whole problem of rapid transit with which the
+citizens of New York had struggled for so many years had been reached,
+and failure seemed inevitable. The requirements of the Rapid Transit
+Act were rigid and forbade any solution of the problem which committed
+the city to share in the risks of the undertaking. Engineers might
+make routes and plans, lawyers might draw legislative acts, the city
+might prepare contracts, the question was and always had been, Can
+anybody build the road who will agree to do it and hold the city safe
+from loss?
+
+It was obvious when the surety companies declined the issue that the
+whole rapid transit problem was thrown open, or rather that it always
+had been open. The final analysis had not been made. After all, the
+attitude of the surety companies was only a reflection of the general
+feeling of practical business and railroad men towards the whole
+venture. To the companies the proposition had come as a concrete
+business proffer and they had rejected it.
+
+At this critical point, Mr. McDonald sought the assistance of Mr.
+August Belmont. It was left to Mr. Belmont to make the final analysis,
+and avert the failure which impended. There was no time for indecision
+or delay. Whatever was to be done must be done immediately. The
+necessary capital must be procured, the required security must be
+given, and an organization for building and operating the road must be
+anticipated. Mr. Belmont looking through and beyond the intricacies of
+the Rapid Transit Act, and the complications of the contract, saw that
+he who undertook to surmount the difficulties presented by the
+attitude of the surety companies must solve the whole problem. It was
+not the ordinary question of financing a railroad contract. He saw
+that the responsibility for the entire rapid transit undertaking must
+be centered, and that a compact and effective organization must be
+planned which could deal with every phase of the situation.
+
+Mr. Belmont without delay took the matter up directly with the Board
+of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners, and presented a plan for the
+incorporation of a company to procure the security required for the
+performance of the contract, to furnish the capital necessary to carry
+on the work, and to assume supervision over the whole undertaking.
+Application was to be made to the Supreme Court to modify the
+requirements with respect to the sureties by striking out a provision
+requiring the justification of the sureties in double the amount of
+liabilities assumed by each and reducing the minimum amount permitted
+to be taken by each surety from $500,000 to $250,000. The new
+corporation was to execute as surety a bond for $4,000,000, the
+additional amount of $1,000,000 to be furnished by other sureties. A
+beneficial interest in the bonds required from the sub-contractors was
+to be assigned to the city and, finally, the additional amount of
+$1,000,000, in cash or securities, was to be deposited with the city
+as further security for the performance of the contract. The plan was
+approved by the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners, and
+pursuant to the plan, the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
+was organized. The Supreme Court granted the application to modify the
+requirements as to the justification of sureties and the contract was
+executed February 21, 1900.
+
+As president and active executive head of the Rapid Transit Subway
+Construction Company, Mr. Belmont perfected its organization,
+collected the staff of engineers under whose direction the work of
+building the road was to be done, supervised the letting of
+sub-contracts, and completed the financial arrangements for carrying
+on the work.
+
+The equipment of the road included, under the terms of the contract,
+the rolling stock, all machinery and mechanisms for generating
+electricity for motive power, lighting, and signaling, and also the
+power house, sub-stations, and the real estate upon which they were to
+be erected. The magnitude of the task of providing the equipment was
+not generally appreciated until Mr. Belmont took the rapid transit
+problem in hand. He foresaw from the beginning the importance of that
+branch of the work, and early in 1900, immediately after the signing
+of the contract, turned his attention to selecting the best engineers
+and operating experts, and planned the organization of an operating
+company. As early as May, 1900, he secured the services of Mr. E. P.
+Bryan, who came to New York from St. Louis, resigning as
+vice-president and general manager of the Terminal Railroad
+Association, and began a study of the construction work and plans for
+equipment, to the end that the problems of operation might be
+anticipated as the building and equipment of the road progressed. Upon
+the incorporation of the operating company, Mr. Bryan became
+vice-president.
+
+In the spring of 1902, the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the
+operating railroad corporation was formed by the interests represented
+by Mr. Belmont, he becoming president and active executive head of
+this company also, and soon thereafter Mr. McDonald assigned to it the
+lease or operating part of his contract with the city, that company
+thereby becoming directly responsible to the city for the equipment
+and operation of the road, Mr. McDonald remaining as contractor for
+its construction. In the summer of the same year, the Board of Rapid
+Transit Railroad Commissioners having adopted a route and plans for an
+extension of the subway under the East River to the Borough of
+Brooklyn, the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company entered into a
+contract with the city, similar in form to Mr. McDonald's contract, to
+build, equip, and operate the extension. Mr. McDonald, as contractor
+of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company, assumed the general
+supervision of the work of constructing the Brooklyn extension; and
+the construction work of both the original subway and the extension
+has been carried on under his direction. The work of construction has
+been greatly facilitated by the broad minded and liberal policy of the
+Rapid Transit Board and its Chief Engineer and Counsel, and by the
+cooeperation of all the other departments of the City Government, and
+also by the generous attitude of the Metropolitan Street Railway
+Company and its lessee, the New York City Railroad Company, in
+extending privileges which have been of great assistance in the
+prosecution of the work. In January, 1903, the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company acquired the elevated railway system by lease for 999
+years from the Manhattan Railway Company, thus assuring harmonious
+operation of the elevated roads and the subway system, including the
+Brooklyn extension.
+
+The incorporators of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company were
+William H. Baldwin, Jr., Charles T. Barney, August Belmont, E. P.
+Bryan, Andrew Freedman, James Jourdan, Gardiner M. Lane, John B.
+McDonald, DeLancey Nicoll, Walter G. Oakman, John Peirce, Wm. A. Read,
+Cornelius Vanderbilt, George W. Wickersham, and George W. Young.
+
+The incorporators of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
+were Charles T. Barney, August Belmont, John B. McDonald, Walter G.
+Oakman, and William A. Read.
+
+[Illustration: (wings)]
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR VIEW OF POWER HOUSE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE ROUTE OF THE ROAD--PASSENGER STATIONS AND TRACKS
+
+
+The selection of route for the Subway was governed largely by the
+amount which the city was authorized by the Rapid Transit Act to
+spend. The main object of the road was to carry to and from their
+homes in the upper portions of Manhattan Island the great army of
+workers who spend the business day in the offices, shops, and
+warehouses of the lower portions, and it was therefore obvious that
+the general direction of the routes must be north and south, and that
+the line must extend as nearly as possible from one end of the island
+to the other.
+
+The routes proposed by the Rapid Transit Board in 1895, after
+municipal ownership had been approved by the voters at the fall
+election of 1894, contemplated the occupation of Broadway below 34th
+Street to the Battery, and extended only to 185th Street on the west
+side and 146th Street on the east side of the city. As has been told
+in the introductory chapter, this plan was rejected by the Supreme
+Court because of the probable cost of going under Broadway. It was
+also intimated by the Court, in rejecting the routes, that the road
+should extend further north.
+
+It had been clear from the beginning that no routes could be laid out
+to which abutting property owners would consent, and that the consent
+of the Court as an alternative would be necessary to any routes
+chosen. To conform as nearly as possible to the views of the Court,
+the Commission proposed, in 1897, the so called "Elm Street route,"
+the plan finally adopted, which reached from the territory near the
+General Post-office, the City Hall, and Brooklyn Bridge Terminal to
+Kingsbridge and the station of the New York & Putnam Railroad on the
+upper west side, and to Bronx Park on the upper east side of the city,
+touching the Grand Central Depot at 42d Street.
+
+Subsequently, by the adoption of the Brooklyn Extension, the line was
+extended down Broadway to the southern extremity of Manhattan Island,
+thence under the East River to Brooklyn.
+
+The routes in detail are as follows:
+
+[Sidenote:
+_Manhattan-Bronx
+Route_]
+
+Beginning near the intersection of Broadway and Park Row, one of the
+routes of the railroad extends under Park Row, Center Street, New Elm
+Street, Elm Street, Lafayette Place, Fourth Avenue (beginning at Astor
+Place), Park Avenue, 42d Street, and Broadway to 125th Street, where
+it passes over Broadway by viaduct to 133d Street, thence under
+Broadway again to and under Eleventh Avenue to Fort George, where it
+comes to the surface again at Dyckman Street and continues by viaduct
+over Naegle Avenue, Amsterdam Avenue, and Broadway to Bailey Avenue,
+at the Kingsbridge station of the New York & Putnam Railroad, crossing
+the Harlem Ship Canal on a double-deck drawbridge. The length of this
+route is 13.50 miles, of which about 2 miles are on viaduct.
+
+Another route begins at Broadway near 103d Street and extends under
+104th Street and the upper part of Central Park to and under Lenox
+Avenue to 142d Street, thence curving to the east to and under the
+Harlem River at about 145th Street, thence from the river to and
+under East 149th Street to a point near Third Avenue, thence by
+viaduct beginning at Brook Avenue over Westchester Avenue, the
+Southern Boulevard and the Boston Road to Bronx Park. The length of
+this route is about 6.97 miles, of which about 3 miles are on viaduct.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE LINES OF THE INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT
+CO. 1904]
+
+At the City Hall there is a loop under the Park. From 142d Street
+there is a spur north under Lenox Avenue to 148th Street. There is a
+spur at Westchester and Third Avenues connecting by viaduct the
+Manhattan Elevated Railway Division of Interborough Rapid Transit
+Company with the viaduct of the subway at or near St. Ann's Avenue.
+
+[Sidenote: _Brooklyn Route_]
+
+The route of the Brooklyn Extension connects near Broadway and Park
+Row with the Manhattan Bronx Route and extends under Broadway, Bowling
+Green, State Street, Battery Park, Whitehall Street, and South Street
+to and under the East River to Brooklyn at the foot of Joralemon
+Street, thence under Joralemon Street, Fulton Street, and Flatbush
+Avenue to Atlantic Avenue, connecting with the Brooklyn tunnel of the
+Long Island Railroad at that point. There is a loop under Battery Park
+beginning at Bridge Street. The length of this route is about 3 miles.
+
+The routes in Manhattan and The Bronx may therefore be said to roughly
+resemble the letter Y with the base at the southern extremity of
+Manhattan Island, the fork at 103d Street and Broadway, the terminus
+of the westerly or Fort George branch of the fork just beyond Spuyten
+Duyvil Creek, the terminus of the easterly or Bronx Park branch at
+Bronx Park.
+
+[Sidenote: _Location
+of Stations_]
+
+The stations beginning at the base of the Y and following the route up
+to the fork are located at the following points:
+
+South Ferry, Bowling Green and Battery Place, Rector Street and
+Broadway, Fulton Street and Broadway, City Hall, Manhattan; Brooklyn
+Bridge Entrance, Manhattan; Worth and Elm Streets, Canal and Elm
+Streets, Spring and Elm Streets, Bleecker and Elm Streets, Astor Place
+and Fourth Avenue, 14th Street and Fourth Avenue, 18th Street and
+Fourth Avenue, 23d Street and Fourth Avenue, 28th Street and Fourth
+Avenue, 33d Street and Fourth Avenue, 42d Street and Madison Avenue
+(Grand Central Station), 42d Street and Broadway, 50th Street and
+Broadway, 60th Street and Broadway (Columbus Circle), 66th Street and
+Broadway, 72d Street and Broadway, 79th Street and Broadway, 86th
+Street and Broadway, 91st Street and Broadway, 96th Street and
+Broadway.
+
+[Illustration: 34TH STREET AND PARK AVENUE, LOOKING SOUTH]
+
+The stations of the Fort George or westerly branch are located at the
+following points:
+
+One Hundred and Third Street and Broadway, 110th Street and Broadway
+(Cathedral Parkway), 116th Street and Broadway (Columbia University),
+Manhattan Street (near 128th Street) and Broadway, 137th Street and
+Broadway, 145th Street and Broadway, 157th Street and Broadway, the
+intersection of 168th Street, St. Nicholas Avenue and Broadway, 181st
+Street and Eleventh Avenue, Dyckman Street and Naegle Avenue (beyond
+Fort George), 207th Street and Amsterdam Avenue, 215th Street and
+Amsterdam Avenue, Muscoota Street and Broadway, Bailey Avenue, at
+Kingsbridge near the New York & Putnam Railroad station.
+
+The stations on the Bronx Park or easterly branch are located at the
+following points:
+
+One Hundred and Tenth Street and Lenox Avenue, 116th Street and Lenox
+Avenue, 125th Street and Lenox Avenue, 135th Street and Lenox Avenue,
+145th Street and Lenox Avenue (spur), Mott Avenue and 149th Street,
+the intersection of 149th Street, Melrose and Third Avenues, Jackson
+and Westchester Avenues, Prospect and Westchester Avenues, Westchester
+Avenue near Southern Boulevard (Fox Street), Freeman Street and the
+Southern Boulevard, intersection of 174th Street, Southern Boulevard
+and Boston Road, 177th Street and Boston Road (near Bronx Park).
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF RAPID TRANSIT RAILROAD MANHATTAN AND
+BRONX LINES.]
+
+The stations in the Borough of Brooklyn on the Brooklyn Extension are
+located as follows:
+
+Joralemon Street near Court (Brooklyn Borough Hall), intersection of
+Fulton, Bridge, and Hoyt Streets; Flatbush Avenue near Nevins Street,
+Atlantic Avenue and Flatbush Avenue (Brooklyn terminal of the Long
+Island Railroad).
+
+From the Borough Hall, Manhattan, to the 96th Street station, the line
+is four-track. On the Fort George branch (including 103d Street
+station) there are three tracks to 145th Street and then two tracks to
+Dyckman Street, then three tracks again to the terminus at Bailey
+Avenue. On the Bronx Park branch there are two tracks to Brook Avenue
+and from that point to Bronx Park there are three tracks. On the Lenox
+Avenue spur to 148th Street there are two tracks, on the City Hall
+loop one track, on the Battery Park loop two tracks. The Brooklyn
+Extension is a two-track line.
+
+There is a storage yard under Broadway between 137th Street and 145th
+Street on the Fort George branch, another on the surface at the end of
+the Lenox Avenue spur, Lenox Avenue and 148th Street, and a third on
+an elevated structure at the Boston Road and 178th Street. There is a
+repair shop and inspection shed on the surface adjoining the Lenox
+Avenue spur at the Harlem River and 148-150th Streets, and an
+inspection shed at the storage yard at Boston Road and 178th Street.
+
+[Sidenote: _Length of
+Line._]
+
+The total length of the line from the City Hall to the Kingsbridge
+terminal is 13.50 miles, with 47.11 miles of single track and sidings.
+The eastern or Bronx Park branch is 6.97 miles long, with 17.50 miles
+of single track.
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF BROOKLYN EXTENSION.]
+
+[Sidenote: _Grades and
+Curves._]
+
+The total length of the Brooklyn Extension is 3.1 miles, with about 8
+miles of single track.
+
+The grades and curvature along the main line may be summarized as
+follows:
+
+The total curvature is equal in length to 23 per cent. of the straight
+line, and the least radius of curvature is 147 feet. The greatest
+grade is 3 per cent., and occurs on either side of the tunnel under
+the Harlem River. At each station there is a down grade of 2.1 per
+cent., to assist in the acceleration of the cars when they start. In
+order to make time on roads running trains at frequent intervals, it
+is necessary to bring the trains to their full speed very soon after
+starting. The electrical equipment of the Rapid Transit Railroad will
+enable this to be done in a better manner than is possible with steam
+locomotives, while these short acceleration grades at each station, on
+both up and down tracks, will be of material assistance in making the
+starts smooth.
+
+Photograph on page 26 shows an interesting feature at a local
+station, where, in order to obtain the quick acceleration in grade for
+local trains, and at the same time maintain a level grade for the
+express service, the tracks are constructed at a different level. This
+occurs at many local stations.
+
+On the Brooklyn Extension the maximum grade is 3.1 per cent.
+descending from the ends to the center of the East River tunnel. The
+minimum radius of curve is 1,200 feet.
+
+[Illustration: STANDARD STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN TUNNEL--THIRD RAIL
+PROTECTION NOT SHOWN]
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION AND CITY HALL LOOP]
+
+[Sidenote: _Track_]
+
+The track is of the usual standard construction with broken stone
+ballast, timber cross ties, and 100-pound rails of the American
+Society of Civil Engineers' section. The cross ties are selected hard
+pine. All ties are fitted with tie plates. All curves are supplied
+with steel inside guard rails. The frogs and switches are of the best
+design and quality to be had, and a special design has been used on
+all curves. At the Battery loop, at Westchester Avenue, at 96th
+Street, and at City Hall loop, where it has been necessary for the
+regular passenger tracks to cross, grade crossings have been avoided;
+one track or set of tracks passing under the other at the intersecting
+points. (See plan on this page.)
+
+The contract for the building of the road contains the following
+somewhat unusual provision: "The railway and its equipment as
+contemplated by the contract constitute a great public work. All parts
+of the structure where exposed to public sight shall therefore be
+designed, constructed, and maintained with a view to the beauty of
+their appearance, as well as to their efficiency."
+
+It may be said with exact truthfulness that the builders have spared
+no effort or expense to live up to the spirit of this provision, and
+that all parts of the road and equipment display dignified and
+consistent artistic effects of the highest order. These are noticeable
+in the power house and the electrical sub-stations and particularly in
+the passenger stations. It might readily have been supposed that the
+limited space and comparative uniformity of the underground stations
+would afford but little opportunity for architectural and decorative
+effects. The result has shown the fallacy of such a supposition.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF 28TH ST. & 4TH AVENUE STATION.]
+
+Of the forty-eight stations, thirty-three are underground, eleven are
+on the viaduct portions of the road, and three are partly on the
+surface and partly underground, and one is partly on the surface and
+partly on the viaduct.
+
+[Sidenote: _Space Occupied_]
+
+The underground stations are at the street intersections, and, except
+in a few instances, occupy space under the cross streets. The station
+plans are necessarily varied to suit the conditions of the different
+locations, the most important factor in planning them having been the
+amount of available space. The platforms are from 200 to 350 feet in
+length, and about 16 feet in width, narrowing at the ends, while the
+center space is larger or smaller, according to local conditions. As a
+rule the body of the station extends back about 50 feet from the edge
+of the platform.
+
+At all local stations (except at 110th Street and Lenox Avenue) the
+platforms are outside of the tracks. (Plan and photograph on pages
+30 and 31.) At Lenox Avenue and 110th Street there is a single island
+platform for uptown and downtown passengers.
+
+[Illustration: 28TH STREET STATION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Island
+Platforms_]
+
+At express stations there are two island platforms between the express
+and local tracks, one for uptown and one for downtown traffic. In
+addition, there are the usual local platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, 14th
+Street (photograph on page 34) and 96th Street. At the remaining
+express stations, 42d Street and Madison Avenue and 72d Street, there
+are no local platforms outside of the tracks, local and through
+traffic using the island platforms.
+
+The island platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, 14th Street, and 42d Street
+and Madison Avenue are reached by mezzanine footways from the local
+platforms, it having been impossible to place entrances in the streets
+immediately over the platforms. At 96th Street there is an underground
+passage connecting the local and island platforms, and at 72d Street
+there are entrances to the island platforms directly from the street
+because there is a park area in the middle of the street. Local
+passengers can transfer from express trains and express passengers
+from local trains without payment of additional fare by stepping
+across the island platforms.
+
+At 72d Street, at 103d Street, and at 116th Street and Broadway the
+station platforms are below the surface, but the ticket booths and
+toilet rooms are on the surface; this arrangement being possible also
+because of the park area available in the streets. At Manhattan Street
+the platforms are on the viaduct, but the ticket booths and toilet
+rooms are on the surface. The viaduct at this point is about 68 feet
+above the surface, and escalators are provided. At many of the
+stations entrances have been arranged from the adjacent buildings, in
+addition to the entrances originally planned from the street.
+
+[Sidenote: Kiosks]
+
+The entrances to the underground stations are enclosed at the street
+by kiosks of cast iron and wire glass (photograph on page 33), and
+vary in number from two to eight at a station. The stairways are of
+concrete, reinforced by twisted steel rods. At 168th Street, at 181st
+Street, and at Mott Avenue, where the platforms are from 90 to 100
+feet below the surface, elevators are provided.
+
+[Illustration: WEST SIDE OF 23D STREET STATION]
+
+At twenty of the underground stations it has been possible to use
+vault lights to such an extent that very little artificial light is
+needed. (Photograph on page 35.) Such artificial light as is
+required is supplied by incandescent lamps sunk in the ceilings.
+Provision has been made for using the track circuit for lighting in
+emergency if the regular lighting circuit should temporarily fail.
+
+[Illustration: KIOSKS AT COLUMBUS CIRCLE]
+
+The station floors are of concrete, marked off in squares. At the
+junction of the floors and side walls a cement sanitary cove is
+placed. The floors drain to catch-basins, and hose bibs are provided
+for washing the floors.
+
+[Illustration: BROOKLYN BRIDGE STATION]
+
+Two types of ceiling are used, one flat, which covers the steel and
+concrete of the roof, and the other arched between the roof beams and
+girders, the lower flanges of which are exposed. Both types have an
+air space between ceiling and roof, which, together with the air
+space behind the inner side walls, permits air to circulate and
+minimizes condensation on the surface of the ceiling and walls.
+
+[Illustration: PLAQUE SHOWING BEAVER AT ASTOR PLACE STATION]
+
+The ceilings are separated into panels by wide ornamental mouldings,
+and the panels are decorated with narrower mouldings and rosettes. The
+bases of the walls are buff Norman brick. Above this is glass tile or
+glazed tile, and above the tile is a faience or terra-cotta cornice.
+Ceramic mosaic is used for decorative panels, friezes, pilasters, and
+name-tablets. A different decorative treatment is used at each
+station, including a distinctive color scheme. At some stations the
+number of the intersecting street or initial letter of the street name
+is shown on conspicuous plaques, at other stations the number or
+letter is in the panel. At some stations artistic emblems have been
+used in the scheme of decoration, as at Astor Place, the beaver (see
+photograph on this page); at Columbus Circle, the great
+navigator's Caravel; at 116th Street, the seal of Columbia University.
+The walls above the cornice and the ceilings are finished in white
+Keene cement.
+
+[Illustration: EXPRESS STATION AT 14TH STREET, SHOWING ISLAND AND
+MEZZANINE PLATFORMS AND STAIRS CONNECTING THEM]
+
+[Illustration: WEST SIDE OF COLUMBUS CIRCLE STATION (60TH
+STREET)--ILLUMINATED BY DAYLIGHT COMING THROUGH VAULT LIGHTS]
+
+[Illustration: CARAVEL AND WALL DECORATION]
+
+The ticket booths are of oak with bronze window grills and fittings.
+There are toilet rooms in every station, except at the City Hall loop.
+Each toilet room has a free closet or closets, and a pay closet which
+is furnished with a basin, mirror, soap dish, and towel rack. The
+fixtures are porcelain, finished in dull nickel. The soil, vent and
+water pipes are run in wall spaces, so as to be accessible. The rooms
+are ventilated through the hollow columns of the kiosks, and each is
+provided with an electric fan. They are heated by electric heaters.
+The woodwork of the rooms is oak; the walls are red slate wainscot and
+Keene cement.
+
+Passengers may enter the body of the station without paying fare. The
+train platforms are separated from the body of the station by
+railings. At the more important stations, separate sets of entrances
+are provided for incoming and outgoing passengers, the stairs at the
+back of the station being used for entrances and those nearer the
+track being used for exits.
+
+[Illustration: CITY HALL STATION]
+
+An example of the care used to obtain artistic effects can be seen at
+the City Hall station. The road at this point is through an arched
+tunnel. In order to secure consistency in treatment the roof of the
+station is continued by a larger arch of special design. (See
+photograph on this page.) At 168th Street, and at 181st Street,
+and at Mott Avenue stations, where the road is far beneath the
+surface, it has been possible to build massive arches over the
+stations and tracks, with spans of 50 feet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TYPES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+
+Five types of construction have been employed in building the road:
+(1) the typical subway near the surface with flat roof and "I" beams
+for the roof and sides, supported between tracks with steel bulb-angle
+columns used on about 10.6 miles or 52.2 per cent. of the road; (2)
+flat roof typical subway of reenforced concrete construction supported
+between the tracks by steel bulb-angle columns, used for a short
+distance on Lenox Avenue and on the Brooklyn portion of the Brooklyn
+Extension, also on the Battery Park loop; (3) concrete lined tunnel
+used on about 4.6 miles or 23 per cent. of the road, of which 4.2 per
+cent. was concrete lined open cut work, and the remainder was rock
+tunnel work; (4) elevated road on steel viaduct used on about 5 miles
+or 24.6 per cent. of the road; (5) cast-iron tubes used under the
+Harlem and East Rivers.
+
+[Sidenote: _Typical
+Subway_]
+
+The general character of the flat roof "I" beam construction is shown
+in photograph on page 28 and drawing on this page. The bottom
+is of concrete. The side walls have "I" beam columns five feet apart,
+between which are vertical concrete arches, the steel acting as a
+support for the masonry and allowing the thickness of the walls to be
+materially reduced from that necessary were nothing but concrete used.
+The tops of the wall columns are connected by roof beams which are
+supported by rows of steel columns between the tracks, built on
+concrete and cut stone bases forming part of the floor system.
+Concrete arches between the roof beams complete the top of the subway.
+Such a structure is not impervious, and hence, there has been laid
+behind the side walls, under the floor and over the roof a course of
+two to eight thicknesses of felt, each washed with hot asphalt as
+laid. In addition to this precaution against dampness, in three
+sections of the subway (viz.: on Elm Street between Pearl and Grand
+Streets, and on the approaches to the Harlem River tunnel, and on the
+Battery Park Loop) the felt waterproofing has been made more effective
+by one or two courses of hard-burned brick laid in hot asphalt, after
+the manner sometimes employed in constructing the linings of
+reservoirs of waterworks.
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL SECTION OF FOUR TRACK SUBWAY]
+
+[Illustration: FOUR-TRACK SUBWAY--SHOWING CROSS-OVER SOUTH OF 18TH
+STREET STATION]
+
+In front of the waterproofing, immediately behind the steel columns,
+are the systems of terra-cotta ducts in which the electric cables are
+placed. The cables can be reached by means of manholes every 200 to
+450 feet, which open into the subway and also into the street. The
+number of these ducts ranges from 128 down to 32, and they are
+connected with the main power station at 58th and 59th Streets and the
+Hudson River by a 128-duct subway under the former street.
+
+[Sidenote: _Reinforced
+Concrete
+Construction_]
+
+The reinforced concrete construction substitutes for the steel roof
+beams, steel rods, approximating 1-1/4 inches square, laid in varying
+distances according to the different roof loads, from six to ten
+inches apart. Rods 1-1/8 inches in diameter tie the side walls,
+passing through angle columns in the walls and the bulb-angle columns
+in the center. Layers of concrete are laid over the roof rods to a
+thickness of from eighteen to thirty inches, and carried two inches
+below the rods, imbedding them. For the sides similar square rods and
+concrete are used and angle columns five feet apart. The concrete of
+the side walls is from fifteen to eighteen inches thick. This type is
+shown by photographs on page 41. The rods used are of both square
+and twisted form.
+
+[Illustration: LAYING SHEET WATERPROOFING IN BOTTOM]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL BRICK AND ASPHALT WATERPROOFING]
+
+[Sidenote: _Methods of
+Construction
+Typical
+Subway_]
+
+The construction of the typical subway has been carried on by a great
+variety of methods, partly adopted on account of the conditions under
+which the work had to be prosecuted and partly due to the personal
+views of the different sub-contractors. The work was all done by open
+excavation, the so-called "cut and cover" system, but the conditions
+varied widely along different parts of the line, and different means
+were adopted to overcome local difficulties. The distance of the rock
+surface below the street level had a marked influence on the manner in
+which the excavation of the open trenches could be made. In some
+places this rock rose nearly to the pavement, as between 14th and 18th
+Streets. At other places the subway is located in water-bearing loam
+and sand, as in the stretch between Pearl and Grand Streets, where it
+was necessary to employ a special design for the bottom, which is
+illustrated by drawing on page 42.
+
+This part of the route includes the former site of the ancient Collect
+Pond, familiar in the early history of New York, and the excavation
+was through made ground, the pond having been filled in for building
+purposes after it was abandoned for supplying water to the city. The
+excavations through Canal Street, adjacent, were also through made
+ground, that street having been at one time, as its name implies, a
+canal.
+
+From the City Hall to 9th Street was sand, presenting no particular
+difficulties except through the territory just described.
+
+At Union Square rock was encountered on the west side of Fourth Avenue
+from the surface down. On the east side of the street, however, at the
+surface was sand, which extended 15 feet down to a sloping rock
+surface. The tendency of the sand to a slide off into the rock
+excavation required great care. The work was done, however, without
+interference with the street traffic, which is particularly heavy at
+that point.
+
+[Illustration: DUCTS IN SIDE WALLS--EIGHT ONLY OF THE SIXTEEN LAYERS
+ARE SHOWN]
+
+[Illustration: REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: ROOF SHOWING CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION--LENOX AVENUE
+AND 140TH-141ST STREETS]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF SUBWAY AT PEARL STREET
+This construction was made necessary by encountering a layer of Peat
+resting on Clay]
+
+[Illustration: SURFACE RAILWAY TRACKS SUPPORTED OVER EXCAVATION ON
+UPPER BROADWAY]
+
+[Illustration: SUBDIVISION OF 36" AND 30" GAS MAINS OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY--66TH STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+The natural difficulties of the route were increased by the network of
+sewers, water and gas mains, steam pipes, pneumatic tubes, electric
+conduits and their accessories, which filled the streets; and by the
+surface railways and their conduits. In some places the columns of the
+elevated railway had to be shored up temporarily, and in other places
+the subway passes close to the foundations of lofty buildings, where
+the construction needed to insure the safety of both subway and
+buildings was quite intricate. As the subway is close to the surface
+along a considerable part of its route, its construction involved the
+reconstruction of all the underground pipes and ducts in many places,
+as well as the removal of projecting vaults and buildings, and, in
+some cases, the underpinning of their walls. A description in detail
+of the methods of construction followed all along the line would make
+an interesting book of itself. Space will only permit, however, an
+account of how some of the more serious difficulties were overcome.
+
+On Fourth Avenue, north of Union Square to 33d Street, there were two
+electric conduit railway tracks in the center of the roadway and a
+horse car track near each curb part of the distance. The two electric
+car tracks were used for traffic which could not be interrupted,
+although the horse car tracks could be removed without inconvenience.
+These conditions rendered it impracticable to disturb the center of
+the roadway, while permitting excavation near the curb. Well-timbered
+shafts about 8 x 10 feet, in plan, were sunk along one curb line and
+tunnels driven from them toward the other side of the street, stopping
+about 3-1/2 feet beyond its center line. A bed of concrete was laid on
+the bottom of each tunnel, and, when it had set, a heavy vertical
+trestle was built on it. In this way trestles were built half across
+the street, strong enough to carry all the street cars and traffic on
+that half of the roadway. Cableways to handle the dirt were erected
+near the curb line, spanning a number of these trestles, and then the
+earth between them was excavated from the curb to within a few feet of
+the nearest electric car track. The horse car tracks were removed.
+Between the electric tracks a trench was dug until its bottom was
+level with the tops of the trestles, about three feet below the
+surface as a rule. A pair of heavy steel beams was then laid in this
+trench on the trestles. Between these beams and the curb line a second
+pair of beams were placed. In this way the equivalent of a bridge was
+put up, the trestles acting as piers and the beams as girders. The
+central portion of the roadway was then undermined and supported by
+timbering suspended from the steel beams. The various gas and water
+pipes were hung from timbers at the surface of the ground. About four
+sections, or 150 feet, of the subway were built at a time in this
+manner. When the work was completed along one side of the street it
+was repeated in the same manner on the other side. This method of
+construction was subsequently modified so as to permit work on both
+sides of the street simultaneously. The manner in which the central
+part of the roadway was supported remained the same and all of the
+traffic was diverted to this strip.
+
+[Illustration: SUPPORT OF ELEVATED RAILWAY STATION AT 42D STREET AND
+SIXTH AVENUE]
+
+Between 14th and 17th Streets, because of the proximity of the rock to
+the surface, it was necessary to move the tracks of the electric
+surface railway from the center of the street some twenty feet to the
+east curb, without interrupting traffic, which was very heavy at all
+times, the line being one of the main arteries of the Metropolitan
+system. Four 12 x 12-inch timbers were laid upon the surface. Standard
+cast-iron yokes were placed upon the timbers at the usual distance
+apart. Upon this structure the regular track and slot rails were
+placed. The space between the rails was floored over. Wooden boxes
+were temporarily laid for the electric cables. The usual hand holes
+and other accessories were built and the road operated on this timber
+roadbed. The removal of the tracks was made necessary because the rock
+beneath them and the concrete around the yokes was so closely united
+as to be practically monolithic, precluding the use of explosives.
+Attempts to remove the rock from under the track demonstrated that it
+could not be done without destroying the yokes of the surface railway.
+
+[Illustration: SUPPORTING ELEVATED RAILROAD BY EXTENSION GIRDER--64TH
+STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+The method of undermining the tracks on Broadway from 60th to 104th
+Streets was entirely different, for the conditions were not the same.
+The street is a wide one with a 22-foot parkway in the center, an
+electric conduit railway on either side, and outside each track a wide
+roadway. The subway excavation extended about 10 feet outside each
+track, leaving between it and the curb ample room for vehicles. The
+construction problem, therefore, was to care for the car tracks with a
+minimum interference with the excavation. This was accomplished by
+temporary bridges for each track, each bridge consisting of a pair of
+timber trusses about 55 feet long, braced together overhead high
+enough to let a car pass below the bracing. These trusses were set up
+on crib-work supports at each end, and the track hung from the lower
+chords. (See photograph on page 42.) The excavation then proceeded
+until the trench was finished and posts could be put into place
+between its bottom and the track. When the track was securely
+supported in this way, the trusses were lifted on flat cars and moved
+ahead 50 feet.
+
+At 66th Street station the subway roof was about 2 feet from the
+electric railway yokes and structures of the street surface line. In
+order to build at this point it was necessary to remove two large gas
+mains, one 30 inches and the other 36 inches in diameter, and
+substitute for them, in troughs built between the roof beams of the
+subway, five smaller gas mains, each 24 inches in diameter. This was
+done without interrupting the use of the mains.
+
+[Illustration: MOVING BRICK AND CONCRETE RETAINING WALL TO MAKE ROOM
+FOR THIRD TRACK--BROADWAY AND 134TH STREET]
+
+At the station on 42d Street, between Park and Madison Avenues, where
+there are five subway tracks, and along 42d Street to Broadway, a
+special method of construction was employed which was not followed
+elsewhere. The excavation here was about 35 feet deep and extended 10
+to 15 feet into rock. A trench 30 feet wide was first sunk on the
+south side of the street and the subway built in it for a width of two
+tracks. Then, at intervals of 50 feet, tunnels were driven toward the
+north side of the street. Their tops were about 4 feet above the roof
+of the subway and their bottoms were on the roof. When they had been
+driven just beyond the line of the fourth track, their ends were
+connected by a tunnel parallel with the axis of the subway. The rock
+in the bottom of all these tunnels was then excavated to its final
+depth. In the small tunnel parallel with the subway axis, a bed of
+concrete was placed and the third row of steel columns was erected
+ready to carry the steel and concrete roof. When this work was
+completed, the earth between the traverse tunnels was excavated, the
+material above being supported on poling boards and struts. The roof
+of the subway was then extended sidewise over the rock below from the
+second to the third row of columns, and it was not until the roof was
+finished that the rock beneath was excavated. In this way the subway
+was finished for a width of four tracks. For the fifth track the earth
+was removed by tunneling to the limits of the subway, and then the
+rock below was blasted out.
+
+[Illustration: MOVING WEST SIDE WALL TO WIDEN SUBWAY FOR THIRD
+TRACK--135TH STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+[Illustration: SUBWAY THROUGH NEW "TIMES" BUILDING, SHOWING
+INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION--THE WORKMEN STAND ON FLOOR GIRDERS OF
+SUBWAY]
+
+[Illustration: COLUMNS OF HOTEL BELMONT, PASSING THROUGH SUBWAY AT 42D
+STREET AND PARK AVENUE]
+
+In a number of places it was necessary to underpin the columns of the
+elevated railways, and a variety of methods were adopted for the work.
+A typical example of the difficulties involved was afforded at the
+Manhattan Railway Elevated Station at Sixth Avenue and 42d Street. The
+stairways of this station were directly over the open excavation for
+the subway in the latter thoroughfare and were used by a large number
+of people. The work was done in the same manner at each of the four
+corners. Two narrow pits about 40 feet apart, were first sunk and
+their bottoms covered with concrete at the elevation of the floor of
+the subway. A trestle was built in each pit, and on these were placed
+a pair of 3-foot plate girders, one on each side of the elevated
+column, which was midway between the trestles. The column was then
+riveted to the girders and was thus held independent of its original
+foundations. Other pits were then sunk under the stairway and trestles
+built in them to support it. When this work was completed it was
+possible to carry out the remaining excavation without interfering
+with the elevated railway traffic.
+
+At 64th Street and Broadway, also, the whole elevated railway had to
+be supported during construction. A temporary wooden bent was used to
+carry the elevated structure. The elevated columns were removed until
+the subway structure was completed at that point. (See photograph on
+page 45.)
+
+[Illustration: SMALL WATER MAINS BETWEEN STREET SURFACE AND SUBWAY
+ROOF, SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE LARGE MAIN--125TH STREET AND LENOX AVE.]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION OF 6-1/2-FOOT SEWER, UNDER CHATHAM
+SQUARE]
+
+A feature of the construction which attracted considerable public
+attention while it was in progress, was the underpinning of a part of
+the Columbus Monument near the southwest entrance to Central Park.
+This handsome memorial column has a stone shaft rising about 75 feet
+above the street level and weighs about 700 tons. The rubble masonry
+foundation is 45 feet square and rests on a 2-foot course of concrete.
+The subway passes under its east side within 3 feet of its center,
+thus cutting out about three-tenths of the original support. At this
+place the footing was on dry sand of considerable depth, but on the
+other side of the monument rock rose within 3 feet of the surface. The
+steep slope of the rock surface toward the subway necessitated
+particular care in underpinning the footings. The work was done by
+first driving a tunnel 6 feet wide and 7 feet high under the monument
+just outside the wall line of the subway. The tunnel was given a
+2-foot bottom of concrete as a support for a row of wood posts a foot
+square, which were put in every 5 feet to carry the footing above.
+When these posts were securely wedged in place the tunnel was filled
+with rubble masonry. This wall was strong enough to carry the weight
+of the portion of the monument over the subway, but the monument had
+to be supported to prevent its breaking off when undermined. To
+support it thus a small tunnel was driven through the rubble masonry
+foundation just below the street level and a pair of plate girders run
+through it. A trestle bent was then built under each end of the
+girders in the finished excavation for the subway. The girders were
+wedged up against the top of the tunnel in the masonry and the
+excavation was carried out under the monument without any injury to
+that structure.
+
+[Illustration: THREE PIPES SUBSTITUTED FOR LARGE BRICK SEWER AT 110TH
+STREET AND LENOX AVENUE]
+
+[Illustration: SEWER SIPHON AT 149TH STREET AND RAILROAD AVENUE]
+
+[Illustration: CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF ELECTRIC DUCT MANHOLE--BROADWAY
+AND 58TH STREET]
+
+At 134th Street and Broadway a two-track structure of the steel beam
+type about 200 feet long was completed. Approaching it from the south,
+leading from Manhattan Valley Viaduct, was an open cut with retaining
+walls 300 feet long and from 3 to 13 feet in height. After all this
+work was finished (and it happened to be the first finished on the
+subway), it was decided to widen the road to three tracks, and a
+unique piece of work was successfully accomplished. The retaining
+walls were moved bodily on slides, by means of jacks, to a line 6-1/4
+feet on each side, widening the roadbed 12-1/2 feet, without a break
+in either wall. The method of widening the steel-beam typical subway
+portion was equally novel. The west wall was moved bodily by jacks
+the necessary distance to bring it in line with the new position of
+the west retaining wall. The remainder of the structure was then moved
+bodily, also by jacks, 6-1/4 feet to the east. The new roof of the
+usual type was then added over 12-1/2 feet of additional opening. (See
+photographs on pages 46 and 47.)
+
+[Illustration: CONCRETE SEWER BACK OF SIDE WALL, BROADWAY AND 56TH
+STREET]
+
+[Illustration: LARGE GAS AND WATER PIPES, RELAID BEHIND EACH SIDE WALL
+ON ELM STREET]
+
+Provision had to be made, not only for buildings along the route that
+towered far above the street surface, but also for some which
+burrowed far below the subway. Photograph on page 47 shows an
+interesting example at 42d Street and Broadway, where the pressroom of
+the new building of the "New York Times" is beneath the subway, the
+first floor is above it, and the first basement is alongside of it.
+Incidentally it should be noted that the steel structure of the
+building and the subway are independent, the columns of the building
+passing through the subway station.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFICULT PIPE WORK--BROADWAY AND 70TH STREET]
+
+At 42d Street and Park Avenue the road passes under the Hotel Belmont,
+which necessitated the use of extra heavy steel girders and
+foundations for the support of the hotel and reinforced subway
+station. (See photograph on page 48.)
+
+Along the east side of Park Row the ascending line of the "loop" was
+built through the pressroom of the "New York Times" (the older
+downtown building), and as the excavation was considerably below the
+bottom of the foundation of the building, great care was necessary to
+avoid any settlement. Instead of wood sheathing, steel channels were
+driven and thoroughly braced, and construction proceeded without
+disturbance of the building, which is very tall.
+
+At 125th Street and Lenox Avenue one of the most complicated network
+of subsurface structures was encountered. Street surface electric
+lines with their conduits intersect. On the south side of 125th Street
+were a 48-inch water main and a 6-inch water main, a 12-inch and two
+10-inch gas pipes and a bank of electric light and power ducts. On the
+north side were a 20-inch water main, one 6-inch, one 10-inch, and one
+12-inch gas pipe and two banks of electric ducts. The headroom between
+the subway roof and the surface of the street was 4.75 feet. It was
+necessary to relocate the yokes of the street railway tracks on Lenox
+Avenue so as to bring them directly over the tunnel roof-beams.
+Between the lower flanges of the roof-beams, for four bents, were laid
+heavy steel plates well stiffened, and in these troughs were laid four
+20-inch pipes, which carried the water of the 48-inch main. (See
+photograph on page 49.) Special castings were necessary to make
+the connections at each end. The smaller pipes and ducts were
+rearranged and carried over the roof or laid in troughs composed of
+3-inch I-beams laid on the lower flanges of the roof-beams. In
+addition to all the transverse pipes, there were numerous pipes and
+duct lines to be relaid and rebuilt parallel to the subway and around
+the station. The change was accomplished without stopping or delaying
+the street cars. The water mains were shut off for only a few hours.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL RIVETED RECTANGULAR WATER PIPE, OVER ROOF OF
+SUBWAY AT 126TH STREET AND LENOX AVENUE]
+
+As has been said, the typical subway near the surface was used for
+about one-half of the road. Since the sewers were at such a depth as
+to interfere with the construction of the subway, it meant that the
+sewers along that half had to be reconstructed. This indicates but
+very partially the magnitude of the sewer work, however, because
+nearly as many main sewers had to be reconstructed off the route of
+the subway as on the route; 7.21 miles of main sewers along the route
+were reconstructed and 5.13 miles of main sewers off the route. The
+reason why so many main sewers on streets away from the subway had to
+be rebuilt, was that, from 42d Street, south, there is a natural
+ridge, and before the construction of the subway sewers drained to the
+East River and to the North River from the ridge. The route of the
+subway was so near to the dividing line that the only way to care for
+the sewers was, in many instances, to build entirely new outfall
+sewers.
+
+[Illustration: THREE-TRACK CONCRETE ARCH--117TH STREET AND BROADWAY]
+
+A notable example of sewer diversion was at Canal Street, where the
+flow of the sewer was carried into the East River instead of into the
+Hudson River, permitting the sewer to be bulkheaded on the west side
+and continued in use. On the east side a new main sewer was
+constructed to empty into the East River. The new east-side sewer was
+built off the route of the subway for over a mile. An interesting
+feature in the construction was the work at Chatham Square, where a
+6-1/2-foot circular brick conduit was built. The conjunction at this
+point of numerous electric surface car lines, elevated railroad
+pillars, and enormous vehicular street traffic, made it imperative
+that the surface of the street should not be disturbed, and the sewer
+was built by tunneling. This tunneling was through very fine running
+sand and the section to be excavated was small. To meet these
+conditions a novel method of construction was used. Interlocked
+poling boards were employed to support the roof and were driven by
+lever jacks, somewhat as a shield is driven in the shield system of
+tunneling. The forward ends of the poling boards were supported by a
+cantilever beam. The sides and front of the excavation were supported
+by lagging boards laid flat against and over strips of canvas, which
+were rolled down as the excavation progressed. The sewer was completed
+and lined in lengths of from 1 foot to 4-1/2 feet, and at the maximum
+rate of work about 12 feet of sewer were finished per week.
+
+[Illustration: CONSTRUCTION OF FORT GEORGE TUNNEL]
+
+At 110th Street and Lenox Avenue a 6-1/2-foot circular brick sewer
+intersected the line of the subway at a level which necessitated its
+removal or subdivision. The latter expedient was adopted, and three
+42-inch cast-iron pipes were passed under the subway. (See photograph
+on page 50.) At 149th Street and Railroad Avenue a sewer had to be
+lowered below tide level in order to cross under the subway. To do
+this two permanent inverted siphons were built of 48-inch cast-iron
+pipe. Two were built in order that one might be used, while the other
+could be shut off for cleaning, and they have proved very
+satisfactory. This was the only instance where siphons were used. In
+this connection it is worthy of note that the general changes referred
+to gave to the city much better sewers as substitutes for the old
+ones.
+
+A number of interesting methods of providing for subsurface structures
+are shown in photographs pages 51 to 54. From the General
+Post-office at Park Row to 28th Street, just below the surface, there
+is a system of pneumatic mail tubes for postal delivery. Of course,
+absolutely no change in alignment could be permitted while these tubes
+were in use carrying mail. It was necessary, therefore, to support
+them very carefully. The slightest deviation in alignment would have
+stopped the service.
+
+[Illustration: TWO COLUMN BENT VIADUCT]
+
+[Illustration: TRAVELER FOR ERECTING FORMS, CENTRAL PARK TUNNEL--(IN
+THIS TUNNEL DUCTS ARE BUILT IN THE SIDEWALLS)]
+
+[Sidenote: _Concrete-lined
+Tunnel_]
+
+Between 33d Street and 42d Street under Park Avenue, between 116th
+Street and 120th Street under Broadway, between 157th Street and Fort
+George under Broadway and Eleventh Avenue (the second longest
+double-track rock tunnel in the United States, the Hoosac tunnel being
+the only one of greater length), and between 104th Street and Broadway
+under Central Park to Lenox Avenue, the road is in rock tunnel lined
+with concrete. From 116th Street to 120th Street the tunnel is 37-1/2
+feet wide, one of the widest concrete arches in the world. On the
+section from Broadway and 103d Street to Lenox Avenue and 110th Street
+under Central Park, a two-track subway was driven through micaceous
+rock by taking out top headings and then two full-width benches. The
+work was done from two shafts and one portal. All drilling for the
+headings was done by an eight-hour night shift, using percussion
+drills. The blasting was done early in the morning and the day gang
+removed the spoil, which was hauled to the shafts and the portal in
+cars drawn by mules. A large part of the rock was crushed for
+concrete. The concrete floor was the first part of the lining to be
+put in place. Rails were laid on it for a traveler having moulds
+attached to its sides, against which the walls were built. A similar
+traveler followed with the centering for the arch roof, a length of
+about 50 feet being completed at one operation.
+
+[Illustration: FOUR COLUMN (TOWER) VIADUCT CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT, LOOKING NORTH]
+
+[Illustration: ERECTION OF ARCH, MANHATTAN VALLEY VIADUCT]
+
+On the Park Avenue section from 34th Street to 41st Street two
+separate double-track tunnels were driven below a double-track
+electric railway tunnel, one on each side. The work was done from four
+shafts, one at each end of each tunnel. At first, top headings were
+employed at the north ends of both tunnels and at the south end of the
+west tunnel; at the south end of the east tunnel a bottom heading was
+used. Later, a bottom heading was also used at the south end of the
+west tunnel. The rock was very irregular and treacherous in character,
+and the strata inclined so as to make the danger of slips a serious
+one. The two headings of the west tunnel met in February and those of
+the east tunnel in March, 1902, and the widening of the tunnels to the
+full section was immediately begun. Despite the adoption of every
+precaution suggested by experience in such work, some disturbance of
+the surface above the east tunnel resulted, and several house fronts
+were damaged. The portion of the tunnel affected was bulkheaded at
+each end, packed with rubble and grouted with Portland cement mortar
+injected under pressure through pipes sunk from the street surface
+above. When the interior was firm, the tunnel was redriven, using much
+the same methods that are employed for tunnels through earth when the
+arch lining is built before the central core, or dumpling of earth, is
+removed. The work had to be done very slowly to prevent any further
+settlement of the ground, and the completion of the widening of the
+other parts of the tunnels also proceeded very slowly, because as soon
+as the slip occurred a large amount of timbering was introduced, which
+interfered seriously with the operations. After the lining was
+completed, Portland cement grout was again injected under pressure,
+through holes left in the roof, until further movement of the fill
+overhead was absolutely prevented.
+
+[Illustration: COMPLETED ARCH AT MANHATTAN STREET]
+
+As has been said, the tunnel between 157th Street and Fort George is
+the second longest two-track tunnel in the United States. It was built
+in a remarkably short time, considering the fact that the work was
+prosecuted from two portal headings and from two shafts. One shaft was
+at 168th Street and the other at 181st Street, the work proceeding
+both north and south from each shaft. The method employed for the work
+(Photograph on page 56) was similar to that used under Central
+Park. The shafts at 168th Street and at 181st Street were located at
+those points so that they might be used for the permanent elevator
+equipment for the stations at these streets. These stations each have
+an arch span of about 50 feet, lined with brick.
+
+[Sidenote: _Steel Viaduct_]
+
+The elevated viaduct construction extends from 125th Street to 133d
+Street and from Dyckman Street to Bailey Avenue on the western branch,
+and from Brook and Westchester Avenues to Bronx Park on the eastern, a
+total distance of about 5 miles. The three-track viaducts are carried
+on two column bents where the rail is not more than 29 feet above the
+ground level, and on four-column towers for higher structures. In the
+latter case, the posts of a tower are 29 feet apart transversely and
+20 or 25 feet longitudinally, as a rule, and the towers are from 70 to
+90 feet apart on centers. The tops of the towers have X-bracing and
+the connecting spans have two panels of intermediate vertical sway
+bracing between the three pairs of longitudinal girders. In the low
+viaducts, where there are no towers, every fourth panel has zigzag
+lateral bracing in the two panels between the pairs of longitudinal
+girders.
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL AND APPROACHES]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL DURING CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: ASSEMBLING IRON WORK ON PONTOON--HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL]
+
+The towers have columns consisting as a rule of a 16 x 7/16-inch web
+plate and four 6 x 4 x 5/8-inch bulb angles. The horizontal struts in
+their cross-bracing are made of four 4 x 3-inch angles, latticed to
+form an I-shaped cross-section. The X-bracing consists of single 5 x
+3-1/2-inch angles. The tops of the columns have horizontal cap angles
+on which are riveted the lower flanges of the transverse girders; the
+end angles of the girder and the top of the column are also connected
+by a riveted splice plate. The six longitudinal girders are
+web-riveted to the transverse girders. The outside longitudinal girder
+on each side of the viaduct has the same depth across the tower as in
+the connecting span, but the four intermediate lines are not so deep
+across the towers. In the single trestle bents the columns are the
+same as those just described, but the diagonal bracing is replaced by
+plate knee-braces.
+
+The Manhattan Valley Viaduct on the West Side line, has a total length
+of 2,174 feet. Its most important feature is a two-hinged arch of
+168-1/2 feet span, which carries platforms shaded by canopies, but no
+station buildings. The station is on the ground between the surface
+railway tracks. Access to the platforms is obtained by means of
+escalators. It has three lattice-girder two-hinge ribs 24-1/2 feet
+apart on centers, the center line of each rib being a parabola. Each
+half rib supports six spandrel posts carrying the roadway, the posts
+being seated directly over vertical web members of the rib. The chords
+of the ribs are 6 feet apart and of an H-section, having four 6 x
+6-inch angles and six 15-inch flange and web plates for the center rib
+and lighter sections for the outside ribs. The arch was erected
+without false work.
+
+[Illustration: SHOWING CONCRETE OVER IRON WORK--HARLEM RIVER TUNNEL]
+
+The viaduct spans of either approach to the arch are 46 to 72 feet
+long. All transverse girders are 31 feet 4 inches long, and have a 70
+x 3/8-inch web plate and four 6 x 4-inch angles. The two outside
+longitudinal girders of deck spans are 72 inches deep and the other 36
+inches. All are 3/8-inch thick and their four flange angles vary in
+size from 5 x 3-1/2 to 6 x 6 inches, and on the longest spans there
+are flange plates. At each end of the viaduct there is a through span
+with 90-inch web longitudinal girders.
+
+Each track was proportioned for a dead load of 330 pounds per lineal
+foot and a live load of 25,000 pounds per axle. The axle spacing in
+the truck was 5 feet and the pairs of axles were alternately 27 and 9
+feet apart. The traction load was taken at 20 per cent. of the live
+load, and a wind pressure of 500 pounds per lineal foot was assumed
+over the whole structure.
+
+[Sidenote: _Tubes under
+Harlem River_]
+
+One of the most interesting sections of the work is that which
+approaches and passes under the Harlem River, carrying the two tracks
+of the East Side line. The War Department required a minimum depth of
+20 feet in the river at low tide, which fixed the elevation of the
+roof of the submerged part of the tunnel. This part of the line, 641
+feet long, consists of twin single-track cast-iron cylinders 16 feet
+in diameter enveloped in a large mass of concrete and lined with the
+same material. The approach on either side is a double-track concrete
+arched structure. The total length of the section is 1,500 feet.
+
+The methods of construction employed were novel in subaqueous
+tunneling and are partly shown on photographs on pages 62 and 63.
+The bed of the Harlem River at the point of tunneling consists of mud,
+silt, and sand, much of which was so nearly in a fluid condition that
+it was removed by means of a jet. The maximum depth of excavation was
+about 50 feet. Instead of employing the usual method of a shield and
+compressed air at high pressure, a much speedier device was contrived.
+
+The river crossing has been built in two sections. The west section
+was first built, the War Department having forbidden the closing of
+more than half the river at one time. A trench was dredged over the
+line of the tunnel about 50 feet wide and 39 feet below low water.
+This depth was about 10 feet above the sub-grade of the tunnel. Three
+rows of piles were next driven on each side of the trench from the
+west bank to the middle of the river and on them working platforms
+were built, forming two wharves 38 feet apart in the clear. Piles were
+then driven over the area to be covered by the subway, 6 feet 4 inches
+apart laterally and 8 feet longitudinally. They were cut off about 11
+feet above the center line of each tube and capped with timbers 12
+inches square. A thoroughly-trussed framework was then floated over
+the piles and sunk on them. The trusses were spaced so as to come
+between each transverse row of piles and were connected by eight
+longitudinal sticks or stringers, two at the top and two at the bottom
+on each side. The four at each side were just far enough apart to
+allow a special tongue and grooved 12-inch sheet piling to be driven
+between them. This sheathing was driven to a depth of 10 to 15 feet
+below the bottom of the finished tunnel.
+
+A well-calked roof of three courses of 12-inch timbers, separated by
+2-inch plank, was then floated over the piles and sunk. It had three
+timber shafts 7 x 17 feet in plan, and when it was in place and
+covered with earth it formed the top of a caisson with the sheet
+piling on the sides and ends, the latter being driven after the roof
+was in place. The excavation below this caisson was made under air
+pressure, part of the material being blown out by water jets and the
+remainder removed through the airlocks in the shafts. When the
+excavation was completed, the piles were temporarily braced and the
+concrete and cast-iron lining put in place, the piles being cut off as
+the concrete bed was laid up to them.
+
+The second or eastern section of this crossing was carried on by a
+modification of the plan just mentioned. Instead of using a temporary
+timber roof on the side walls, the permanent iron and concrete upper
+half of the tunnels was employed as a roof for the caisson. The trench
+was dredged nearly to sub-grade and its sides provided with wharves as
+before, running out to the completed half of the work. The permanent
+foundation piles were then driven and a timber frame sunk over them to
+serve as a guide for the 12-inch sheet piling around the site. Steel
+pilot piles with water jets were driven in advance of the wood-sheet
+piles, and if they struck any boulders the latter were drilled and
+blasted. The steel piles were withdrawn by a six-part tackle and
+hoisting engine, and then the wooden piles driven in their place.
+
+When the piling was finished, a pontoon 35 feet wide, 106 feet long,
+and 12 feet deep was built between the wharves, and upon a separate
+platform or deck on it the upper half of the cast-iron shells were
+assembled, their ends closed by steel-plate diaphragms and the whole
+covered with concrete. The pontoon was then submerged several feet,
+parted at its center, and each half drawn out endwise from beneath the
+floating top of the tunnel. The latter was then loaded and carefully
+sunk into place, the connection with the shore section being made by
+a diver, who entered the roof through a special opening. When it was
+finally in place, men entered through the shore section and cut away
+the wood bottom, thus completing the caisson so that work could
+proceed below it as before. Three of these caissons were required to
+complete the east end of the crossing.
+
+[Illustration: LOOKING UP BROADWAY FROM TRINITY CHURCH--SHOWING
+WORKING PLATFORM AND GAS MAINS TEMPORARILY SUPPORTED OVERHEAD]
+
+The construction of the approaches to the tunnel was carried out
+between heavy sheet piling. The excavation was over 40 feet deep in
+places and very wet, and the success of the work was largely due to
+the care taken in driving the 12-inch sheet piling.
+
+[Sidenote: _Methods of
+Construction
+Brooklyn
+Extension_]
+
+A number of interesting features should be noted in the methods of
+construction adopted on the Brooklyn Extension.
+
+The types of construction on the Brooklyn Extension have already been
+spoken of. They are (1) typical flat-roof steel beam subway from the
+Post-office, Manhattan, to Bowling Green; (2) reinforced concrete
+typical subway in Battery Park, Manhattan, and from Clinton Street to
+the terminus, in Brooklyn; (3) two single track cast-iron-lined
+tubular tunnels from Battery Park, under the East River, and under
+Joralemon Street to Clinton Street, Brooklyn.
+
+Under Broadway, Manhattan, the work is through sand, the vehicular
+and electric street car traffic, the network of subsurface structures,
+and the high buildings making this one of the most difficult portions
+of the road to build. The street traffic is so great that it was
+decided that during the daytime the surface of the street should be
+maintained in a condition suitable for ordinary traffic. This was
+accomplished by making openings in the sidewalk near the curb, at two
+points, and erecting temporary working platforms over the street 16
+feet from the surface. The excavations are made by the ordinary drift
+and tunnel method. The excavated material is hoisted from the openings
+to the platforms and passed through chutes to wagons. On the street
+surface, over and in advance of the excavations, temporary plank decks
+are placed and maintained during the drifting and tunneling
+operations, and after the permanent subway structure has been erected
+up to the time when the street surface is permanently restored. The
+roof of the subway is about 5 feet from the surface of the street,
+which has made it necessary to care for the gas and water mains. This
+has been done by carrying the mains on temporary trestle structures
+over the sidewalks. The mains will be restored to their former
+position when the subway structure is complete.
+
+From Bowling Green, south along Broadway, State Street and in Battery
+Park, where the subway is of reinforced concrete construction, the
+"open cut and cover" method is employed, the elevated and surface
+railroad structures being temporarily supported by wooden and steel
+trusses and finally supported by permanent foundations resting on the
+subway roof. From Battery Place, south along the loop work, the
+greater portion of the excavation is made below mean high-water level,
+and necessitates the use of heavy tongue and grooved sheeting and the
+operation of two centrifugal pumps, day and night.
+
+The tubes under the East River, including the approaches, are each
+6,544 feet in length. The tunnel consists of two cast-iron tubes
+15-1/2 feet diameter inside, the lining being constructed of cast-iron
+plates, circular in shape, bolted together and reinforced by grouting
+outside of the plates and beton filling on the inside to the depth of
+the flanges. The tubes are being constructed under air pressure
+through solid rock from the Manhattan side to the middle of the East
+River by the ordinary rock tunnel drift method, and on the Brooklyn
+side through sand and silt by the use of hydraulic shields. Four
+shields have been installed, weighing 51 tons each. They are driven by
+hydraulic pressure of about 2,000 tons. The two shields drifting to
+the center of the river from Garden Place are in water-bearing sand
+and are operated under air pressure. The river tubes are on a 3.1 per
+cent. grade and in the center of the river will reach the deepest
+point, about 94 feet below mean high-water level.
+
+The typical subway of reinforced concrete from Clinton Street to the
+Flatbush Avenue terminus is being constructed by the method commonly
+used on the Manhattan-Bronx route. From Borough Hall to the terminus
+the route of the subway is directly below an elevated railway
+structure, which is temporarily supported by timber bracing, having
+its bearing on the street surface and the tunnel timbers. The
+permanent support will be masonry piers built upon the roof of the
+subway structure. Along this portion of the route are street surface
+electric roads, but they are operated by overhead trolley and the
+tracks are laid on ordinary ties. It has, therefore, been much less
+difficult to care for them during the construction of the subway. Work
+is being prosecuted on the Brooklyn Extension day and night, and in
+Brooklyn the excavation is made much more rapidly by employing the
+street surface trolley roads to remove the excavated material. Spur
+tracks have been built and flat cars are used, much of the removal
+being done at night.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+POWER HOUSE BUILDING
+
+
+The power house is situated adjacent to the North River on the block
+bounded by West 58th Street, West 59th Street, Eleventh Avenue, and
+Twelfth Avenue. The plans were adopted after a thorough study by the
+engineers of Interborough Rapid Transit Company of all the large power
+houses already completed and of the designs of the large power houses
+in process of construction in America and abroad. The building is
+large, and when fully equipped it will be capable of producing more
+power than any electrical plant ever built, and the study of the
+designs of other power houses throughout the world was pursued with
+the principal object of reducing to a minimum the possibility of
+interruption of service in a plant producing the great power required.
+
+The type of power house adopted provides for a single row of large
+engines and electric generators, contained within an operating room
+placed beside a boiler house, with a capacity of producing,
+approximately, not less than 100,000 horse power when the machinery is
+being operated at normal rating.
+
+[Sidenote: _Location
+and General
+Plan of
+Power House_]
+
+The work of preparing the detailed plans of the power house structure
+was, in the main, completed early in 1902, and resulted in the present
+plan, which may briefly be described as follows: The structure is
+divided into two main parts--an operating room and a boiler house,
+with a partition wall between the two sections. The face of the
+structure on Eleventh Avenue is 200 feet wide, of which width the
+boiler house takes 83 feet and the operating section 117 feet. The
+operating room occupies the northerly side of the structure and the
+boiler house the southerly side. The designers were enabled to employ
+a contour of roof and wall section for the northerly side that was
+identical with the roof and wall contour of the southerly side, so
+that the building, when viewed from either end, presents a symmetrical
+appearance with both sides of the building alike in form and design.
+The operating room section is practically symmetrical in its
+structure, with respect to its center; it consists of a central area,
+with a truss roof over same along with galleries at both sides. The
+galleries along the northerly side are primarily for the electrical
+apparatus, while those along the southerly side are given up chiefly
+to the steam-pipe equipment. The boiler room section is also
+practically symmetrical with respect to its center.
+
+A sectional scheme of the power house arrangement was determined on,
+by which the structure was to consist of five generating sections,
+each similar to the others in all its mechanical details; but, at a
+later date, a sixth section was added, with space on the lot for a
+seventh section. Each section embraces one chimney along with the
+following generating equipment:--twelve boilers, two engines, each
+direct connected to a 5,000 kilowatt alternator; two condensing
+equipments, two boiler-feed pumps, two smoke-flue systems, and detail
+apparatus necessary to make each section complete in itself. The only
+variation is the turbine plant hereafter referred to. In addition to
+the space occupied by the sections, an area was set aside, at the
+Eleventh Avenue end of the structure, for the passage of the railway
+spur from the New York Central tracks. The total length of the
+original five-section power house was 585 feet 9-1/2 inches, but the
+additional section afterwards added makes the over all length of the
+structure 693 feet 9-3/4 inches. In the fourth section it was decided
+to omit a regular engine with its 5,000 kilowatt generator, and in its
+place substitute a 5,000 kilowatt lighting and exciter outfit.
+Arrangements were made, however, so that this outfit can afterward be
+replaced by a regular 5,000 kilowatt traction generator.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF POWER HOUSE IN PERSPECTIVE]
+
+The plan of the power station included a method of supporting the
+chimneys on steel columns, instead of erecting them through the
+building, which modification allowed for the disposal of boilers in
+spaces which would otherwise be occupied by the chimney bases. By this
+arrangement it was possible to place all the boilers on one floor
+level. The economizers were placed above the boilers, instead of
+behind them, which made a material saving in the width of the boiler
+room. This saving permitted the setting aside of the aforementioned
+gallery at the side of the operating room, closed off from both boiler
+and engine rooms, for the reception of the main-pipe systems and for a
+pumping equipment below it.
+
+The advantages of the plan can be enumerated briefly as follows: The
+main engines, combined with their alternators, lie in a single row
+along the center line of the operating room with the steam or
+operating end of each engine facing the boiler house and the opposite
+end toward the electrical switching and controlling apparatus arranged
+along the outside wall. Within the area between the boiler house and
+operating room there is placed, for each engine, its respective
+complement of pumping apparatus, all controlled by and under the
+operating jurisdiction of the engineer for that engine. Each engineer
+has thus full control of the pumping machinery required for his unit.
+Symmetrically arranged with respect to the center line of each engine
+are the six boilers in the boiler room, and the piping from these six
+boilers forms a short connection between the nozzles on the boilers
+and the throttles on the engine. The arrangement of piping is alike
+for each engine, which results in a piping system of maximum
+simplicity that can be controlled, in the event of difficulty, with a
+degree of certainty not possible with a more complicated system. The
+main parts of the steam-pipe system can be controlled from outside
+this area.
+
+The single tier of boilers makes it possible to secure a high and well
+ventilated boiler room with ventilation into a story constructed above
+it, aside from that afforded by the windows themselves. The boiler
+room will therefore be cool in warm weather and light, and all
+difficulties from escaping steam will be minimized. In this respect
+the boiler room will be superior to corresponding rooms in plants of
+older construction, where they are low, dark, and often very hot
+during the summer season. The placing of the economizers, with their
+auxiliary smoke flue connections, in the economizer room, all
+symmetrically arranged with respect to each chimney, removes from the
+boiler room an element of disturbance and makes it possible to pass
+directly from the boiler house to the operating room at convenient
+points along the length of the power house structure. The location of
+each chimney in the center of the boiler house between sets of six
+boilers divides the coal bunker construction into separate pockets by
+which trouble from spontaneous combustion can be localized, and, as
+described later, the divided coal bunkers can provide for the storage
+of different grades of coal. The unit basis on which the economizer
+and flue system is constructed will allow making repairs to any one
+section without shutting off the portions not connected directly to
+the section needing repair.
+
+The floor of the power house between the column bases is a continuous
+mass of concrete nowhere less than two feet thick. The massive
+concrete foundations for the reciprocating engines contain each 1,400
+yards of concrete above mean high water level, and in some cases have
+twice as much below that point. The total amount of concrete in the
+foundations of the finished power house is about 80,000 yards.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF POWER HOUSE]
+
+Water for condensing purposes is drawn from the river and discharged
+into it through two monolithic concrete tunnels parallel to the axis
+of the building. The intake conduit has an oval interior, 10 x 8-1/2
+feet in size, and a rectangular exterior cross-section; the outflow
+tunnel has a horseshoe-shape cross-section and is built on top of the
+intake tunnel. These tunnels were built throughout in open trench,
+which, at the shore end, was excavated in solid rock. At the river end
+the excavation was, at some places, almost entirely through the fill
+and mud and was made in a cofferdam composed chiefly of sheet piles.
+As it was impossible to drive these piles across the old timber crib
+which formed the old dock front, the latter was cut through by a
+pneumatic caisson of wooden-stave construction, which formed part of
+one side of the cofferdam. At the river end of the cofferdam the rock
+was so deep that the concrete could not be carried down to its
+surface, and the tunnel section was built on a foundation of piles
+driven to the rock and cut off by a steam saw 19-1/2 feet below mean
+hightide. This section of the tunnel was built in a 65 x 48-foot
+floating caisson 24 feet deep. The concrete was rammed in it around
+the moulds and the sides were braced as it sunk. After the tunnel
+sections were completed, the caisson was sunk, by water ballast, to a
+bearing on the pile foundation.
+
+Adjacent to the condensing water conduits is the 10 x 15-foot
+rectangular concrete tunnel, through which the underground coal
+conveyor is installed between the shore end of the pier and the power
+house.
+
+[Sidenote: _Steel Work_]
+
+The steel structure of the power house is independent of the walls,
+the latter being self-supporting and used as bearing walls only for a
+few of the beams in the first floor. Although structurally a single
+building, in arrangement it is essentially two, lying side by side and
+separated by a brick division wall.
+
+There are 58 transverse and 9 longitudinal rows of main columns, the
+longitudinal spacing being 18 feet and 36 feet for different rows,
+with special bracing in the boiler house to accommodate the
+arrangement of boilers. The columns are mainly of box section, made up
+of rolled or built channels and cover plates. They are supported by
+cast-iron bases, resting on the granite capstones of the concrete
+foundation piers.
+
+Both the boiler house and the engine house have five tiers of floor
+framing below the flat portion of the roof, the three upper tiers of
+the engine house forming galleries on each side of the operating room,
+which is clear for the full height of the building.
+
+The boiler house floors are, in general, framed with transverse plate
+girders and longitudinal rolled beams, arranged to suit the particular
+requirements of the imposed loads of the boilers, economizers, coal,
+etc., while the engine-room floors and pipe and switchboard galleries
+are in general framed with longitudinal plate girders and transverse
+beams.
+
+There are seven coal bunkers in the boiler house, of which five are 77
+feet and two 41 feet in length by 60 feet in width at the top, the
+combined maximum capacity being 18,000 tons. The bunkers are separated
+from each other by the six chimneys spaced along the center line of
+the boiler house. The bottom of the bunkers are at the fifth floor, at
+an elevation of about 66 feet above the basement. The bunkers are
+constructed with double, transverse, plate girder frames at each line
+of columns, combined with struts and ties, which balance the outward
+thrust of the coal against the sides. The frames form the outline of
+the bunkers with slides sloping at 45 degrees, and carry longitudinal
+I-beams, between which are built concrete arches, reinforced with
+expanded metal, the whole surface being filled with concrete over the
+tops of the beams and given a two-inch granolithic finish.
+
+[Illustration: 58TH ST. POWER HOUSE--GENERAL PLAN OF COAL BUNKERS AND
+ECONOMIZERS.]
+
+[Illustration: 58TH ST. POWER HOUSE--GENERAL PLAN OF MAIN OPERATING
+FLOOR.]
+
+The six chimneys, spaced 108 feet apart, and occupying the space
+between the ends of the adjacent coal bunkers, are supported on
+plate-girder platforms in the fifth floor, leaving the space below
+clear for a symmetrical arrangement of the boilers and economizers
+from end to end of the building. The platforms are framed of
+single-web girders 8 feet deep, thoroughly braced and carrying on
+their top flanges a grillage of 20-inch I-beam. A system of bracing
+for both the chimney platforms and coal bunkers is carried down to the
+foundations in traverse planes about 30 feet apart.
+
+The sixth tier of beams constitute a flat roof over a portion of the
+building at the center and sides. In the engine room, at this level,
+which is 64 feet above the engine-room floor, are provided the two
+longitudinal lines of crane runway girders upon which are operated the
+engine-room cranes. Runways for 10-ton hand cranes are also provided
+for the full length of the boiler room, and for nearly the full length
+of the north panel in the engine room.
+
+Some of the loads carried by the steel structure are as follows: In
+the engine house, operating on the longitudinal runways as mentioned,
+are one 60-ton and one 25-ton electric traveling crane of 75 feet
+span. The imposed loads of the steam-pipe galleries on the south side
+and the switchboard galleries on the north side are somewhat
+irregularly distributed, but are equivalent to uniform loads of 250 to
+400 pounds per square foot. In the boiler house the weight of coal
+carried is about 45 tons per longitudinal foot of the building; the
+weight of the brick chimneys is 1,200 tons each; economizers, with
+brick setting, about 4-1/2 tons per longitudinal foot; suspended
+weight of the boilers 96 tons each, and the weight of the boiler
+setting, carried on the first floor framing, 160 tons each. The weight
+of structural steel used in the completed building is about 11,000
+tons.
+
+[Sidenote: _Power House
+Superstructure_]
+
+The design of the facework of the power house received the personal
+attention of the directors of the company, and its character and the
+class of materials to be employed were carefully considered. The
+influence of the design on the future value of the property and the
+condition of the environment in general were studied, together with
+the factors relating to the future ownership of the plant by the city.
+Several plans were taken up looking to the construction of a power
+house of massive and simple design, but it was finally decided to
+adopt an ornate style of treatment by which the structure would be
+rendered architecturally attractive and in harmony with the recent
+tendencies of municipal and city improvements from an architectural
+standpoint. At the initial stage of the power house design Mr.
+Stanford White, of the firm of McKim, Mead & White, of New York,
+volunteered his services to the company as an adviser on the matter of
+the design of the facework, and, as his offer was accepted, his
+connection with the work has resulted in the development of the
+present exterior design and the selection of the materials used.
+
+The Eleventh Avenue facade is the most elaborately treated, but the
+scheme of the main facade is carried along both the 58th and 59th
+Street fronts. The westerly end of the structure, facing the river,
+may ultimately be removed in case the power house is extended to the
+Twelfth Avenue building line for the reception of fourteen generating
+equipments; and for this reason this wall is designed plainly of less
+costly material.
+
+The general style of the facework is what may be called French
+Renaissance, and the color scheme has, therefore, been made rather
+light in character. The base of the exterior walls has been finished
+with cut granite up to the water table, above which they have been
+laid up with a light colored buff pressed brick. This brick has been
+enriched by the use of similarly colored terra-cotta, which appears in
+the pilasters, about the windows, in the several entablatures, and in
+the cornice and parapet work. The Eleventh Avenue facade is further
+enriched by marble medallions, framed with terra-cotta, and by a title
+panel directly over the front of the structure.
+
+The main entrance to the structure is situated at its northeast
+corner, and, as the railroad track passes along just inside the
+building, the entrance proper is the doorway immediately beyond the
+track, and opens into the entrance lobby. The doorway is trimmed with
+cut granite and the lobby is finished with a marble wainscoting.
+
+The interior of the operating room is faced with a light,
+cream-colored pressed brick with an enameled brick wainscoting, eight
+feet high, extending around the entire operating area; the wainscoting
+is white except for a brown border and base. The offices, the toilets
+and locker rooms are finished and fitted with materials in harmony
+with the high-class character of the building. The masonry-floor
+construction consists of concrete reinforced with expanded metal, and
+except where iron or other floor plates are used, or where tile or
+special flooring is laid, the floor is covered with a hard cement
+granolithic finish.
+
+In the design of the interior arrangements, the value of a generous
+supply of stairways was appreciated, in order that all parts of the
+structure might be made readily accessible, especially in the boiler
+house section. In the boiler house and machinery portion of the plant
+the stairways, railings, and accessories are plainly but strongly
+constructed. The main stairways are, however, of somewhat ornate
+design, with marble and other trim work, and the railings of the main
+gallery construction are likewise of ornate treatment. All exterior
+doors and trim are of metal and all interior carpenter work is done
+with Kalomein iron protection, so that the building, in its strictest
+sense, will contain no combustible material.
+
+[Sidenote: _Chimneys_]
+
+The complete 12-unit power house will have six chimneys, spaced 108
+feet apart on the longitudinal center line of the boiler room, each
+chimney being 15 feet in inside diameter at the top, which is 225 feet
+above the grate bars. Each will serve the twelve boilers included in
+the section of which it is the center, these boilers having an
+aggregate of 72,000 square feet of heating surface. By these
+dimensions each chimney has a fair surplus capacity, and it is
+calculated that, with economizers in the path of the furnace gases,
+there will be sufficient draft to meet a demand slightly above the
+normal rating of the boilers. To provide for overload capacity, as may
+be demanded by future conditions, a forced draft system will be
+supplied, as described later.
+
+As previously stated, the chimneys are all supported upon the steel
+structure of the building at an elevation of 76 feet above the
+basement floor and 63 feet above the grates. The supporting platforms
+are, in each case, carried on six of the building columns (the three
+front columns of two groups of boilers on opposite sides of the center
+aisle of the boiler room), and each platform is composed of single-web
+plate girders, well braced and surmounted by a grillage of 20-inch
+I-beams. The grillage is filled solidly with concrete and flushed
+smooth on top to receive the brickwork of the chimney.
+
+Each chimney is 162 feet in total height of brickwork above the top of
+the supporting platform, and each chimney is 23 feet square in the
+outside dimension at the base, changing to an octagonal form at a
+point 14 feet 3 inches above the base. This octagonal form is carried
+to a height of 32 feet 6 inches above the base, at which point the
+circular section of radial brick begins.
+
+The octagonal base of the chimney is of hard-burned red brick three
+feet in thickness between the side of the octagon and the interior
+circular section. The brick work is started from the top of the
+grillage platform with a steel channel curb, three feet in depth,
+through which two lines of steel rods are run in each direction, thus
+binding together the first three feet of brickwork, and designed to
+prevent any flaking at the outside. At a level of three feet above the
+bottom of the brickwork, a layer of water-proofing is placed over the
+interior area and covered with two courses of brick, upon which are
+built diagonal brick walls, 4 inches thick, 12 inches apart, and about
+18 inches in height. These walls are themselves perforated at
+intervals, and the whole is covered with hand-burned terra-cotta
+blocks, thus forming a cellular air space, which communicates with the
+exterior air and serves as an insulation against heat for the
+steelwork beneath. A single layer of firebrick completes the flooring
+of the interior area, which is also flush with the bottom of the flue
+openings.
+
+There are two flue openings, diametrically opposite, and 6 feet wide
+by 17 feet high to the crown of the arched top. They are lined with
+fire brick, which joins the fire-brick lining of the interior of the
+shaft, this latter being bonded to the red-brick walls to a point 6
+feet below the top of the octagon, and extended above for a height of
+14 feet within the circular shaft, as an inner shell. The usual baffle
+wall is provided of fire brick, 13 inches thick, extending diagonally
+across the chimney, and 4 feet above the tops of the flue openings.
+
+Where the chimney passes through the roof of the boiler house, a steel
+plate and angle curb, which clears the chimney by 6 inches at all
+points, is provided in connection with the roof framing. This is
+covered by a hood flashed into the brickwork, so that the roof has no
+connection with or bearing upon the chimney.
+
+At a point 4 feet 6 inches below the cap of the chimney the brickwork
+is corbeled out for several courses, forming a ledge, around the
+outside of which is placed a wrought-iron railing, thus forming a
+walkway around the circumference of the chimney top. The cap is of
+cast iron, surmounted by eight 3 x 1-inch wrought-iron ribs, bent over
+the outlet and with pointed ends gathered together at the center. The
+lightning conductors are carried down the outside of the shaft to the
+roof and thence to the ground outside of the building. Galvanized iron
+ladder rungs were built in the brickwork, for ladders both inside and
+outside the shaft.
+
+The chimneys, except for the octagonal red-brick base, are constructed
+of the radial perforated bricks. The lightning rods are tipped with
+pointed platinum points about 18 inches long.
+
+[Sidenote: _North River
+Pier_]
+
+Exceptional facilities have been provided for the unloading of coal
+from vessels, or barges, which can be brought to the northerly side of
+the recently constructed pier at the foot of West 58th Street. The
+pier was specially built by the Department of Docks and Ferries and is
+700 feet long and 60 feet wide.
+
+The pier construction includes a special river wall across 58th Street
+at the bulkhead line through which the condensing water will be taken
+from and returned to the river. Immediately outside the river wall and
+beneath the deck of the pier, there is a system of screens through
+which the intake water is passed. On each side where the water enters
+the screen chamber, is a heavy steel grillage; inside this is a system
+of fine screens arranged so that the several screens can be raised, by
+a special machine, for the purpose of cleaning. The advantages of a
+well-designed screening outfit has been appreciated, and considerable
+care has been exercised to make it as reliable and effective as
+possible.
+
+At each side of the center of the pier, just below the deck, there are
+two discharge water conduits constructed of heavy timber, to conduct
+the warm water from the condensers away from the cold water intakes at
+the screens. Two water conduits are employed, in order that one may be
+repaired or renewed while using the other; in fact, the entire pier is
+constructed with the view of renewal without interference in the
+operation for which it was provided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+POWER PLANT FROM COAL PILE TO SHAFTS OF ENGINES AND TURBINES
+
+
+From the minute and specific description in Chapter III, a clear idea
+will have been obtained of the power house building and its adjuncts,
+as well as of the features which not only go to make it an
+architectural landmark, but which adapt it specifically for the vital
+function that it is called upon to perform. We now come to a review
+and detailed description of the power plant equipment in its general
+relation to the building, and "follow the power through" from the coal
+pile to the shafts of the engines or steam turbines attached to the
+dynamos which generate current for power and for light.
+
+[Sidenote: _Coal and Ash
+Handling
+Equipment_]
+
+The elements of the coal handling equipment comprise a movable
+electric hoisting tower with crushing and weighing apparatus--a system
+of horizontal belt conveyors, with 30-inch belts, to carry the crushed
+and weighed coal along the dock and thence by tunnel underground to
+the southwest corner of the power house; a system of 30-inch belt
+conveyors to elevate the coal a distance of 110 feet to the top of the
+boiler house, at the rate of 250 tons per hour or more, if so desired,
+and a system of 20-inch belt conveyors to distribute it horizontally
+over the coal bunkers. These conveyors have automatic self reversing
+trippers, which distribute the coal evenly in the bunkers. For
+handling different grades of coal, distributing conveyors are arranged
+underneath the bunkers for delivering the coal from a particular
+bunker through gates to the downtake hoppers in front of the boilers,
+as hereafter described.
+
+The equipment for removing ashes from the boiler room basement and for
+storing and delivering the ashes to barges, comprises the following
+elements: A system of tracks, 24 inches gauge, extending under the
+ash-hopper gates in the boiler-house cellar and extending to an
+elevated storage bunker at the water front. The rolling stock consists
+of 24 steel cars of 2 tons capacity, having gable bottoms and side
+dumping doors. Each car has two four-wheel pivoted trucks with
+springs. Motive power is supplied by an electric storage battery
+locomotive. The cars deliver the ashes to an elevating belt conveyor,
+which fills the ash bunker. This will contain 1,000 tons, and is built
+of steel with a suspension bottom lined with concrete. For delivering
+stored ashes to barges, a collecting belt extends longitudinally under
+the pocket, being fed by eight gates. It delivers ashes to a loading
+belt conveyor, the outboard end of which is hinged so as to vary the
+height of delivery and to fold up inside the wharf line when not in
+use.
+
+The coal handling system in question was adopted because any serious
+interruption of service would be of short duration, as any belt, or
+part of the belt mechanism, could quickly be repaired or replaced. The
+system also possessed advantages with respect to the automatic even
+distribution of coal in the bunkers, by means of the self reversing
+trippers. These derive their power from the conveying belts. Each
+conveyor has a rotary cleaning brush to cleanse the belt before it
+reaches the driving pulley and they are all driven by induction
+motors.
+
+The tower frame and boom are steel. The tower rolls on two rails along
+the dock and is self-propelling. The lift is unusually short; for the
+reason that the weighing apparatus is removed horizontally to one side
+in a separate house, instead of lying vertically below the crusher.
+This arrangement reduces by 40 per cent. the lift of the bucket, which
+is of the clam-shell type of forty-four cubic feet capacity. The
+motive power for operating the bucket is perhaps the most massive and
+powerful ever installed for such service. The main hoist is directly
+connected to a 200 horse-power motor with a special system of control.
+The trolley engine for hauling the bucket along the boom is also
+direct coupled to a multipolar motor.
+
+The receiving hopper has a large throat, and a steel grizzly in it
+which sorts out coal small enough for the stokers and bypasses it
+around the crusher. The crusher is of the two-roll type, with
+relieving springs, and is operated by a motor, which is also used for
+propelling the tower. The coal is weighed in duplex two-ton hoppers.
+
+Special attention has been given to providing for the comfort and
+safety of the operators. The cabs have baywindow fronts, to enable the
+men to have an unobstructed view of the bucket at all times without
+peering through slots in the floor. Walks and hand lines are provided
+on both sides of the boom for safe inspection. The running ropes pass
+through hardwood slides, which cover the slots in the engine house
+roof to exclude rain and snow.
+
+This type of motive power was selected in preference to trolley
+locomotives for moving the ash cars, owing to the rapid destruction of
+overhead lines and rail bonds by the action of ashes and water. The
+locomotive consists of two units, each of which has four driving
+wheels, and carries its own motor and battery. The use of two units
+allows the locomotive to round curves with very small overhangs, as
+compared with a single-body locomotive. Curves of 12 feet radius can
+be turned with ease. The gross weight of the locomotive is about five
+tons, all of which is available for traction.
+
+[Sidenote: _Coal
+Downtakes_]
+
+The coal from the coal bunkers is allowed to flow down into the boiler
+room through two rows of downtakes, one on each side of the central
+gangway or firing place. Each bunker has eight cast-iron outlets, four
+on each side, and to these outlets are bolted gate valves for shutting
+off the coal from the corresponding downtakes. From these gates the
+downtakes lead to hoppers which are on the economizer floor, and from
+these hoppers the lower sets of downtakes extend down to the boilers.
+
+Just above the hoppers on the economizer floor the coal downtakes are
+provided with valves and chutes to feed the coal, either into the
+hopper or into the distributing flight conveyor alongside of it. These
+distributing conveyors, one corresponding with each row of downtakes,
+permits the feeding of coal from any bunker or bunkers to all the
+boilers when desired. They are the ordinary type of flight conveyor,
+capable of running in either direction and provided with gates in the
+bottom of the trough for feeding into the several above mentioned
+hoppers. In order to eliminate the stresses that would develop in a
+conveyor of the full length of the building, the conveyors are of half
+the entire length, with electric driving engines in the center of each
+continuous line. The installation of this conveyor system, in
+connection with the coal downtakes, makes it possible to carry a
+high-grade coal in some of the bunkers for use during periods of heavy
+load and a cheaper grade in other bunkers for the periods of light
+load.
+
+To provide means for shutting off the coal supply to each boiler, a
+small hopper is placed just over each boiler, and the downtake feeding
+into it is provided with a gate at its lower end. Two vertical
+downtakes extend down from the boiler hopper to the boiler room floor
+or to the stokers, as the case may be, and they are hinged just below
+the boiler hopper to allow their being drawn up out of the way when
+necessary to inspect the boiler tubes.
+
+[Illustration: WEST END POWER HOUSE IN COURSE OF ERECTION]
+
+Wherever the direction of flow of the coal is changed, poke holes are
+provided in the downtakes to enable the firemen to break any arching
+tendency of the coal in the downtakes. All parts of the downtakes are
+of cast iron, except the vertical parts in front of the boilers, which
+are of wrought-iron pipe. These vertical downtakes are 10 inches in
+inside diameter, while all others are 14 inches in inside diameter.
+
+[Sidenote: _Main Boiler
+Room_]
+
+The main boiler room is designed to receive ultimately seventy-two
+safety water tube three drum boilers, each having 6,008 square feet of
+effective heating surface, by which the aggregate heating surface of
+the boiler room will be 432,576 square feet.
+
+There are fifty-two boilers erected in pairs, or batteries, and
+between each battery is a passageway five feet wide. The boilers are
+designed for a working steam pressure of 225 pounds per square inch
+and for a hydraulic test pressure of 300 pounds per square inch. Each
+boiler is provided with twenty-one vertical water tube sections, and
+each section is fourteen tubes high. The tubes are of lap welded,
+charcoal iron, 4 inches in diameter and 18 feet long. The drums are 42
+inches in diameter and 23 feet and 10 inches long. All parts are of
+open-hearth steel; the shell plates are 9/16 of an inch thick and the
+drum head plates 11/16 inch, and in this respect the thickness of
+material employed is slightly in excess of standard practice. Another
+advance on standard practice is in the riveting of the circular seams,
+these being lap-jointed and double riveted. All longitudinal seams are
+butt-strapped, inside and outside, and secured by six rows of rivets.
+Manholes are only provided for the front heads, and each front head is
+provided with a special heavy bronze pad, for making connection to the
+stop and check feed water valve.
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING ROOM SHOWING CONDENSERS--POWER HOUSE]
+
+The setting of the boiler embodies several special features which are
+new in boiler erection. The boilers are set higher up from the floor
+than in standard practice, the center of the drums being 19 feet above
+the floor line. This feature provides a higher combustion chamber, for
+either hand-fired grates or automatic stokers; and for inclined grate
+stokers the fire is carried well up above the supporting girders under
+the side walls, so that these girders will not be heated by proximity
+to the fire.
+
+As regards the masonry setting, practically the entire inside surface
+exposed to the hot gases is lined with a high grade of fire brick. The
+back of the setting, where the rear cleaning is done, is provided with
+a sliding floor plate, which is used when the upper tubes are being
+cleaned. There is also a door at the floor line and another at a
+higher level for light and ventilation when cleaning. Over the tubes
+arrangements have been made for the reception of superheating
+apparatus without changing the brickwork. Where the brick walls are
+constructed, at each side of the building columns at the front,
+cast-iron plates are erected to a height of 8 feet on each side of the
+column. An air space is provided between each cast-iron plate and the
+column, which is accessible for cleaning from the boiler front; the
+object of the plates and air space being to prevent the transmission
+of heat to the steel columns.
+
+An additional feature of the boiler setting consists in the employment
+of a soot hopper, back of each bridge wall, by which the soot can be
+discharged into ash cars in the basement. The main ash hoppers are
+constructed of 1/2-inch steel plate, the design being a double
+inverted pyramid with an ash gate at each inverted apex. The hoppers
+are well provided with stiffening angles and tees, and the capacity of
+each is about 80 cubic feet.
+
+In front of all the boilers is a continuous platform of open-work
+cast-iron plates, laid on steel beams, the level of the platform being
+8 feet above the main floor. The platform connects across the firing
+area, opposite the walk between the batteries, and at these points
+this platform is carried between the boiler settings. At the rear of
+the northerly row of boilers the platform runs along the partition
+wall, between the boiler house and operating room and at intervals
+doorways are provided which open into the pump area. The level of the
+platform is even with that of the main operating room floor, so that
+it may be freely used by the water tenders and by the operating
+engineers without being obstructed by the firemen or their tools. The
+platform in front of the boilers will also be used for cleaning
+purposes, and, in this respect, it will do away with the unsightly and
+objectionable scaffolds usually employed for this work. The water
+tenders will also be brought nearer to the water columns than when
+operating on the main floor. The feed-water valves will be regulated
+from the platform, as well as the speed of the boiler-feed pumps.
+
+Following European practice, each boiler is provided with two water
+columns, one on each outside drum, and each boiler will have one steam
+gauge above the platform for the water tenders and one below the
+platform for the firemen. The stop and check valves on each boiler
+drum have been made specially heavy for the requirements of this power
+house, and this special increase of weight has been applied to all the
+several minor boiler fittings.
+
+Hand-fired grates of the shaking pattern have been furnished for
+thirty-six boilers, and for each of these grates a special lower front
+has been constructed. These fronts are of sheet steel, and the coal
+passes down to the floor through two steel buckstays which have been
+enlarged for the purpose. There are three firing doors and the sill of
+each door is 36 inches above the floor. The gate area of the
+hand-fired grates is 100 square feet, being 8 feet deep by 12 feet 6
+inches wide.
+
+The twelve boilers, which will receive coal from the coal bunker
+located between the fourth and fifth chimneys, have been furnished
+with automatic stokers.
+
+It is proposed to employ superheaters to the entire boiler plant.
+
+The boiler-room ceiling has been made especially high, and in this
+respect the room differs from most power houses of similar
+construction. The distance from the floor to the ceiling is 35 feet,
+and from the floor plates over the boilers to the ceiling is 13 feet.
+Over each boiler is an opening to the economizer floor above, covered
+with an iron grating. The height of the room, as well as the feature
+of these openings, and the stairway wells and with the large extent of
+window opening in the south wall, will make the room light and
+especially well ventilated. Under these conditions the intense heat
+usually encountered over boilers will largely be obviated.
+
+In addition to making provisions for the air to escape from the upper
+part of the boiler room, arrangements have been provided for allowing
+the air to enter at the bottom. This inflow of air will take place
+through the southerly row of basement windows, which extend above the
+boiler room floor, and through the wrought-iron open-work floor
+construction extending along in the rear of the northerly row of
+boilers.
+
+A noteworthy feature of the boiler room is the 10-ton hand-power
+crane, which travels along in the central aisle through the entire
+length of the structure. This crane is used for erection and for heavy
+repair, and its use has greatly assisted the speedy assembling of the
+boiler plant.
+
+[Sidenote: _Blowers and
+Air Ducts_]
+
+In order to burn the finer grades of anthracite coal in sufficient
+quantities to obtain boiler rating with the hand-fired grates, and in
+order to secure a large excess over boiler rating with other coals, a
+system of blowers and air ducts has been provided in the basement
+under the boilers. One blower is selected for every three boilers,
+with arrangements for supplying all six boilers from one blower.
+
+The blowers are 11 feet high above the floor and 5 feet 6 inches wide
+at the floor line. Each blower is direct-connected to a two crank
+7-1/2 x 13 x 6-1/2-inch upright, automatic, compound, steam engine of
+the self-enclosed type, and is to provide a sufficient amount of air
+to burn 10,000 pounds of combustible per hour with 2 inches of water
+pressure in the ash pits.
+
+[Sidenote: _Smoke Flues
+and
+Economizers_]
+
+The smoke flue and economizer construction throughout the building is
+of uniform design, or, in other words, the smoke flue and economizer
+system for one chimney is identical with that for every other chimney.
+In each case, the system is symmetrically arranged about its
+respective chimney, as can be seen by reference to the plans.
+
+The twelve boilers for each chimney are each provided with two round
+smoke uptakes, which carry the products of combustion upward to the
+main smoke flue system on the economizer floor. A main smoke flue is
+provided for each group of three boilers, and each pair of main smoke
+flues join together on the center line of the chimney, where in each
+case one common flue carries the gases into the side of the chimney.
+The two common flues last mentioned enter at opposite sides of the
+chimney. The main flues are arranged and fitted with dampers, so that
+the gases can pass directly to the chimney, or else they can be
+diverted through the economizers and thence reach the chimney.
+
+The uptakes from each boiler are constructed of 3/8-inch plate and
+each is lined with radial hollow brick 4 inches thick. Each is
+provided with a damper which operates on a shaft turning in roller
+bearings. The uptakes rest on iron beams at the bottom, and at the
+top, where they join the main flue, means are provided to take up
+expansion and contraction.
+
+The main flue, which rests on the economizer floor, is what might be
+called a steel box, constructed of 3/8-inch plate, 6 feet 4 inches
+wide and 13 feet high. The bottom is lined with brick laid flat and
+the sides with brick walls 8 inches thick, and the top is formed of
+brick arches sprung between.
+
+[Sidenote: _Steam Piping_]
+
+The sectional plan adopted for the power house has made a uniform and
+simple arrangement of steam piping possible, with the piping for each
+section, except that of the turbine bay, identical with that for every
+other section. Starting with the six boilers for one main engine, the
+steam piping may be described as follows: A cross-over pipe is erected
+on each boiler, by means of which and a combination of valves and
+fittings the steam may be passed through the superheater. In the
+delivery from each boiler there is a quick-closing 9-inch valve, which
+can be closed from the boiler room floor by hand or from a distant
+point individually or in groups of six. Risers with 9-inch
+wrought-iron goose necks connect each boiler to the steam main, where
+9-inch angle valves are inserted in each boiler connection. These
+valves can be closed from the platform over the boilers, and are
+grouped three over one set of three boilers and three over the
+opposite set.
+
+The main from the six boilers is carried directly across the boiler
+house in a straight line to a point in the pipe area where it rises to
+connect to the two 14-inch steam downtakes to the engine throttles. At
+this point the steam can also be led downward to a manifold to which
+the compensating tie lines are connected. These compensating lines are
+run lengthwise through the power house for the purpose of joining the
+systems together, as desired. The two downtakes to the engine
+throttles drop to the basement, where each, through a goose neck,
+delivers into a receiver and separating tank and from the tank through
+a second goose neck into the corresponding throttle.
+
+A quick-closing valve appears at the point where the 17-inch pipe
+divides into the two 14-inch downtakes and a similar valve is provided
+at the point where the main connects to the manifold. The first valve
+will close the steam to the engine and the second will control the
+flow of steam to and from the manifold. These valves can be operated
+by hand from a platform located on the wall inside the engine room, or
+they can be closed from a distant point by hydraulic apparatus. In the
+event of accident the piping to any engine can be quickly cut out or
+that system of piping can quickly be disconnected from the
+compensating system.
+
+The pipe area containing, as mentioned, the various valves described,
+together with the manifolds and compensating pipes, is divided by
+means of cross-walls into sections corresponding to each pair of main
+engines. Each section is thus separated from those adjoining, so that
+any escape of steam in one section can be localized and, by means of
+the quick-closing valves, the piping for the corresponding pair of
+main engines can be disconnected from the rest of the power house.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW FROM TOP OF CHIMNEY SHOWING WATER FRONTAGE--POWER
+HOUSE]
+
+All cast iron used in the fittings is called air-furnace iron, which
+is a semi-steel and tougher than ordinary iron. All line and bent pipe
+is of wrought iron, and the flanges are loose and made of wrought
+steel. The shell of the pipe is bent over the face of the flange. All
+the joints in the main steam line, above 2-1/2 inches in size, are
+ground joints, metal to metal, no gaskets being used.
+
+Unlike the flanges ordinarily used in this country, special extra
+strong proportions have been adopted, and it may be said that all
+flanges and bolts used are 50 per cent. heavier than the so-called
+extra heavy proportions used in this country.
+
+[Sidenote: _Water Piping_]
+
+The feed water will enter the building at three points, the largest
+water service being 12 inches in diameter, which enters the structure
+at its southeast corner. The water first passes through fish traps
+and thence through meters, and from them to the main reservoir tanks,
+arranged along the center of the boiler house basement. The water is
+allowed to flow into each tank by means of an automatic float valve.
+The water will be partly heated in these reservoir tanks by means of
+hot water discharged from high-pressure steam traps. In this way the
+heat contained in the drainage from the high-pressure steam is, for
+the most part, returned to the boilers. From the reservoir tanks the
+water is conducted to the feed-water pumps, by which it is discharged
+through feed-water heaters where it is further heated by the exhaust
+steam from the condensing and feed-water pumps. From the feed-water
+heaters the water will be carried direct to the boilers; or through
+the economizer system to be further heated by the waste gases from the
+boilers.
+
+[Illustration: PORTION OF MAIN STEAM PIPING IN PIPE AREA]
+
+Like the steam-pipe system, the feed-water piping is laid out on the
+sectional plan, the piping for the several sections being identical,
+except for the connections from the street service to the reservoir
+tanks. The feed-water piping is constructed wholly of cast iron,
+except the piping above the floor line to the boilers, which is of
+extra heavy semi-annealed brass with extra heavy cast-iron fittings.
+
+[Sidenote: _Engine and
+Turbine
+Equipment_]
+
+The engine and turbine equipment under contract embraces nine 8,000 to
+11,000 horse power main engines, direct-connected to 5,000 kilowatt
+generators, three steam turbines, direct-connected to 1,875 kilowatt
+lighting generators and two 400 horse power engines, direct-connected
+to 250 kilowatt exciter generators.
+
+[Sidenote: _Main Engines_]
+
+The main engines are similar in type to those installed in the 74th
+Street power house of the Manhattan Division of the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company, i. e., each consists of two component compound
+engines, both connected to a common shaft, with the generator placed
+between the two component engines. The type of engine is now well
+known and will not be described in detail, but as a comparison of
+various dimensions and features of the Manhattan and Rapid Transit
+engines may be of interest, the accompanying tabulation is submitted:
+
+                                               Manhattan.   Rapid Transit.
+
+Diameter of high-pressure cylinders, inches,       44            42
+Diameter of low-pressure cylinders, inches,        88            86
+Stroke, inches,                                    60            60
+Speed, revolutions per minute,                     75            75
+Steam pressure at throttle, pounds,               150           175
+Indicated horse power at best efficiency,       7,500         7,500
+Diameter of low-pressure piston rods, inches,       8            10
+Diameter of high-pressure piston rods, inches,      8            10
+Diameter of crank pin, inches,                     18            20
+Length of crank pin, inches,                       18            18
+
+                                            Double Ported   Single Ported
+Type of Low-Pressure Valves.                   Corliss         Corliss
+Type of High-Pressure Valves.                  Corliss       Poppet Type
+
+Diameter of shaft in journals, inches,             34            34
+Length of journals, inches,                        60            60
+Diameter of shaft in hub of revolving
+  element, inches                                  37-1/16       37-1/16
+
+The guarantees under which the main engines are being furnished, and
+which will govern their acceptance by the purchaser, are in substance
+as follows: First. The engine will be capable of operating
+continuously when indicating 11,000 horse power with 175 lbs. of steam
+pressure, a speed of 75 revolutions and a 26-inch vacuum without
+normal wear, jar, noise, or other objectionable results. Second. It
+will be suitably proportioned to withstand in a serviceable manner all
+sudden fluctuations of load as are usual and incidental to the
+generation of electrical energy for railway purposes. Third. It will
+be capable of operating with an atmospheric exhaust with two pounds
+back pressure at the low pressure cylinders, and when so operating,
+will fulfill all the operating requirements, except as to economy and
+capacity. Fourth. It will be proportioned so that when occasion shall
+require it can be operated with a steam pressure at the throttles of
+200 pounds above atmospheric pressure under the before mentioned
+conditions of the speed and vacuum. Fifth. It will be proportioned so
+that it can be operated with steam pressure at the throttle of 200
+pounds above atmospheric pressure under the before mentioned condition
+as to speed when exhausting in the atmosphere. Sixth. The engine will
+operate successfully with a steam pressure at the throttle of 175
+pounds above atmosphere, should the temperature of the steam be
+maintained at the throttle at from 450 to 500 degrees Fahr. Seventh.
+It will not require more than 12-1/4 pounds of dry steam per indicated
+horse power per hour, when indicating 7,500 horse power at 75
+revolutions per minute, when the vacuum of 26 inches at the low
+pressure cylinders, with a steam pressure at the throttle of 175
+pounds and with saturated steam at the normal temperature due to its
+pressure. The guarantee includes all of the steam used by the engine
+or by the jackets or reheater.
+
+The new features contained within the engine construction are
+principally: First, the novel construction of the high-pressure
+cylinders, by which only a small strain is transmitted through the
+valve chamber between the cylinder and the slide-surface casting.
+This is accomplished by employing heavy bolts, which bolt the shell of
+the cylinder casting to the slide-surface casting, said bolts being
+carried past and outside the valve chamber. Second, the use of poppet
+valves, which are operated in a very simple manner from a wrist plate
+on the side of the cylinder, the connections from the valves to the
+wrist plate and the connections from the wrist plate to the eccentric
+being similar to the parts usually employed for the operation of
+Corliss valves.
+
+Unlike the Manhattan engines, the main steam pipes are carried to the
+high-pressure cylinders under the floor and not above it. Another
+modification consists in the use of an adjustable strap for the
+crank-pin boxes instead of the marine style of construction at the
+crank-pin end of the connecting rod.
+
+The weight of the revolving field is about 335,000 pounds, which gives
+a flywheel effect of about 350,000 pounds at a radius of gyration of
+11 feet, and with this flywheel inertia the engine is designed so that
+any point on the revolving element shall not, in operation, lag behind
+nor forge ahead of the position that it would have if the speed were
+absolutely uniform, by an amount greater than one-eighth of a natural
+degree.
+
+[Sidenote: _Turbo-Generators_]
+
+Arrangements have been made for the erection of four turbo generators,
+but only three have been ordered. They are of the multiple expansion
+parallel flow type, consisting of two turbines arranged tandem
+compound. When operating at full load each of the two turbines,
+comprising one unit, will develop approximately equal power for direct
+connection to an alternator giving 7,200 alternations per minute at
+11,000 volts and at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. Each unit
+will have a normal output of 1,700 electrical horse power with a steam
+pressure of 175 pounds at the throttle and a vacuum in the exhaust
+pipe of 27 inches, measured by a mercury column and referred to a
+barometric pressure of 30 inches. The turbine is guaranteed to operate
+satisfactorily with steam superheated to 450 degrees Fahrenheit. The
+economy guaranteed under the foregoing conditions as to initial and
+terminal pressure and speed is as follows: Full load of 1,250
+kilowatts, 15.7 pounds of steam per electrical horse-power hour;
+three-quarter load, 937-1/2 kilowatts, 16.6 pounds per electrical
+horse-power hour; one-half load, 625 kilowatts, 18.3 pounds; and
+one-quarter load, 312-1/2 kilowatts, 23.2 pounds. When operating under
+the conditions of speed and steam pressure mentioned, but with a
+pressure in the exhaust pipe of 27 inches vacuum by mercury column
+(referred to 30 inches barometer), and with steam at the throttle
+superheated 75 degrees Fahrenheit above the temperature of saturated
+steam at that pressure, the guaranteed steam consumption is as
+follows: Full load, 1,250 kilowatts, 13.8 pounds per electrical
+horse-power hour; three-quarter load, 937-1/2 kilowatts, 14.6 pounds;
+one-half load, 625 kilowatts, 16.2 pounds; and one-quarter load,
+312-1/2 kilowatts, 20.8 pounds.
+
+[Sidenote: _Exciter
+Engines_]
+
+The two exciter engines are each direct connected to a 250 kilowatt
+direct current generator. Each engine is a vertical quarter-crank
+compound engine with a 17-inch high pressure cylinder and a 27-inch
+low-pressure cylinder with a common 24-inch stroke. The engines will
+be non-condensing, for the reason that extreme reliability is desired
+at the expense of some economy. They will operate at best efficiency
+when indicating 400 horse power at a speed of 150 revolutions per
+minute with a steam pressure of 175 pounds at the throttle. Each
+engine will have a maximum of 600 indicated horse power.
+
+[Sidenote: _Condensing
+Equipment_]
+
+Each engine unit is supplied with its own condenser equipment,
+consisting of two barometric condensing chambers, each attached as
+closely as possible to its respective low-pressure cylinder. For each
+engine also is provided a vertical circulating pump along with a
+vacuum pump and, for the sake of flexibility, the pumps are cross
+connected with those of other engines and can be used interchangeably.
+
+The circulating pumps are vertical, cross compound pumping engines
+with outside packed plungers. Their foundations are upon the basement
+floor level and the steam cylinders extend above the engine-room
+floor; the starting valves and control of speed is therefore entirely
+under the supervision of the engineer. Each pump has a normal capacity
+of 10,000,000 gallons of water per day, so that the total pumping
+capacity of all the pumps is 120,000,000 gallons per day. While the
+head against which these pumps will be required to work, when assisted
+by the vacuum in the condenser, is much less than the total lift from
+low tide water to the entrance into the condensing chambers, they are
+so designed as to be ready to deliver the full quantity the full
+height, if for any reason the assistance of the vacuum should be lost
+or not available at times of starting up. A temporary overload can but
+reduce the vacuum only for a short time and the fluctuations of the
+tide, or even a complete loss of vacuum cannot interfere with the
+constant supply of water, the governor simply admitting to the
+cylinders the proper amount of steam to do the work. The high-pressure
+steam cylinder is 10 inches in diameter and the low-pressure is 20
+inches; the two double-acting water plungers are each 20 inches in
+diameter, and the stroke is 30 inches for all. The water ends are
+composition fitted for salt water and have valve decks and plungers
+entirely of that material.
+
+[Illustration: COAL UNLOADING TOWER ON WEST 58TH STREET PIER]
+
+The dry vacuum pumps are of the vertical form, and each is located
+alongside of the corresponding circulating pump. The steam cylinders
+also project above the engine-room floor. The vacuum cylinder is
+immediately below the steam cylinder and has a valve that is
+mechanically operated by an eccentric on the shaft. These pumps are of
+the close-clearance type, and, while controlled by a governor, can be
+changed in speed while running to any determined rate.
+
+[Sidenote: _Exhaust
+Piping_]
+
+From each atmospheric exhaust valve, which is direct-connected to the
+condensing chamber at each low-pressure cylinder, is run downward a
+30-inch riveted-steel exhaust pipe. At a point just under the
+engine-room floor the exhaust pipe is carried horizontally around the
+engine foundations, the two from each pair of engines uniting in a
+40-inch riser to the roof. This riser is between the pair of engines
+and back of the high-pressure cylinder, thus passing through the
+so-called pipe area, where it also receives exhaust steam from the
+pump auxiliaries. At the roof the 40-inch riser is run into a 48-inch
+stand pipe. This is capped with an exhaust head, the top of which is
+35 feet above the roof.
+
+All the exhaust piping 30 inches in diameter and over is
+longitudinally riveted steel with cast-iron flanges riveted on to it.
+Expansion joints are provided where necessary to relieve the piping
+from the strains due to expansion and contraction, and where the
+joints are located near the engine and generator they are of
+corrugated copper. The expansion joints in the 40-inch risers above
+the pipe area are ordinarily packed slip joints.
+
+The exhaust piping from the auxiliaries is carried directly up into
+the pipe area, where it is connected with a feed-water heater, with
+means for by-passing the latter. Beyond the heater it joins the
+40-inch riser to the roof. The feed-water heaters are three-pass,
+vertical, water-tube heaters, designed for a working water pressure of
+225 pounds per square inch.
+
+The design of the atmospheric relief valve received special
+consideration. A lever is provided to assist the valve to close, while
+a dash pot prevents a too quick action in either direction.
+
+[Sidenote: _Compressed
+Air_]
+
+The power house will be provided with a system for supplying
+compressed air to various points about the structure for cleaning
+electrical machinery and for such other purposes as may arise. It will
+also be used for operating whistles employed for signaling. The air is
+supplied to reservoir tanks by two vertical, two-stage,
+electric-driven air compressors.
+
+[Sidenote: _Oil System_]
+
+For the lubrication of the engines an extensive oil distributing and
+filtering system is provided. Filtered oil will be supplied under
+pressure from elevated storage tanks, with a piping system leading to
+all the various journals. The piping to the engines is constructed on
+a duplicate, or crib, system, by which the supply of oil cannot be
+interrupted by a break in any one pipe. The oil on leaving the engines
+is conducted to the filtering tanks. A pumping equipment then
+redelivers the oil to the elevated storage tanks.
+
+All piping carrying filtered oil is of brass and fittings are inserted
+at proper pipes to facilitate cleaning. The immediate installation
+includes two oil filtering tanks at the easterly end of the power
+house, but the completed plant contemplates the addition of two extra
+filtering tanks at the westerly end of the structure.
+
+[Sidenote: _Cranes, Shops,
+Etc._]
+
+The power house is provided with the following traveling cranes: For
+the operating room: One 60-ton electric traveling crane and one 25-ton
+electric traveling crane. For the area over the oil switches: one
+10-ton hand-operated crane. For the center aisle of the boiler room:
+one 10-ton hand-operated crane. The span of both of the electric
+cranes is 74 feet 4 inches and both cranes operate over the entire
+length of the structure.
+
+The 60-ton crane has two trolleys, each with a lifting capacity, for
+regular load, of 50 tons. Each trolley is also provided with an
+auxiliary hoist of 10 tons capacity. When loaded, the crane can
+operate at the following speeds: Bridge, 200 feet per minute;
+trolley, 100 feet per minute; main hoist, 10 feet per minute; and
+auxiliary hoist, 30 feet per minute. The 25-ton crane is provided with
+one trolley, having a lifting capacity, for regular load, of 25 tons,
+together with auxiliary hoist of 5 tons. When loaded, the crane can
+operate at the following speeds: bridge, 250 feet per minute; trolley,
+100 feet per minute; main hoist, 12 feet per minute; and auxiliary
+hoist, 28 feet per minute.
+
+The power house is provided with an extensive tool equipment for a
+repair and machine shop, which is located on the main gallery at the
+northerly side of the operating room.
+
+[Illustration: 5,000 K. W. ALTERNATOR--MAIN POWER HOUSE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLY
+
+
+[Sidenote: _Energy from
+Engine Shaft
+to Third Rail_]
+
+The system of electrical supply chosen for the subway comprises
+alternating current generation and distribution, and direct current
+operation of car motors. Four years ago, when the engineering plans
+were under consideration, the single-phase alternating current railway
+motor was not even in an embryonic state, and notwithstanding the
+marked progress recently made in its development, it can scarcely yet
+be considered to have reached a stage that would warrant any
+modifications in the plans adopted, even were such modifications
+easily possible at the present time. The comparatively limited
+headroom available in the subway prohibited the use of an overhead
+system of conductors, and this limitation, in conjunction with the
+obvious desirability of providing a system permitting interchangeable
+operation with the lines of the Manhattan Railway system practically
+excluded tri-phase traction systems and led directly to the adoption
+of the third-rail direct current system.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE AND END ELEVATIONS OF ALTERNATOR.]
+
+[Illustration: SIDE ELEVATION AND CROSS SECTION OF ALTERNATOR WITH
+PART CUT AWAY TO SHOW CONSTRUCTION.]
+
+It being considered impracticable to predict with entire certainty the
+ultimate traffic conditions to be met, the generator plant has been
+designed to take care of all probable traffic demands expected to
+arise within a year or two of the beginning of operation of the
+system, while the plans permit convenient and symmetrical increase to
+meet the requirements of additional demand which may develop. Each
+express train will comprise five motor cars and three trail cars, and
+each local train will comprise three motor cars and two trail cars.
+The weight of each motor car with maximum live load is 88,000 pounds,
+and the weight of each trailer car 66,000 pounds.
+
+The plans adopted provide electric equipment at the outstart capable
+of operating express trains at an average speed approximating
+twenty-five miles per hour, while the control system and motor units
+have been so chosen that higher speeds up to a limit of about thirty
+miles per hour can be attained by increasing the number of motor cars
+providing experience in operation demonstrates that such higher speeds
+can be obtained with safety.
+
+The speed of local trains between City Hall and 96th Street will
+average about 15 miles an hour, while north of 96th Street on both the
+West side and East side branches their speed will average about 18
+miles an hour, owing to the greater average distance between local
+stations.
+
+As the result of careful consideration of various plans, the company's
+engineers recommended that all the power required for the operation of
+the system be generated in a single power house in the form of
+three-phase alternating current at 11,000 volts, this current to be
+generated at a frequency of 25 cycles per second, and to be delivered
+through three-conductor cables to transformers and converters in
+sub-stations suitably located with reference to the track system, the
+current there to be transformed and converted to direct current for
+delivery to the third-rail conductor at a potential of 625 volts.
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING GALLERY IN SUB-STATION]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DIAGRAM OF 11,000 VOLT CIRCUITS IN MAIN POWER
+STATION]
+
+Calculations based upon contemplated schedules require for traction
+purposes and for heating and lighting cars, a maximum delivery of
+about 45,000 kilowatts at the third rail. Allowing for losses in the
+distributing cables, in transformers and converters, this implies a
+total generating capacity of approximately 50,000 kilowatts, and
+having in view the possibility of future extensions of the system it
+was decided to design and construct the power house building for the
+ultimate reception of eleven 5,000-kilowatt units for traction current
+in addition to the lighting sets. Each 5,000-kilowatt unit is capable
+of delivering during rush hours an output of 7,500 kilowatts or
+approximately 10,000 electrical horse power and, setting aside one
+unit as a reserve, the contemplated ultimate maximum output of the
+power plant, therefore, is 75,000 kilowatts, or approximately 100,000
+electrical horse power.
+
+[Sidenote: _Power
+House_]
+
+The power house is fully described elsewhere in this publication, but
+it is not inappropriate to refer briefly in this place to certain
+considerations governing the selection of the generating unit, and the
+use of engines rather than steam turbines.
+
+[Illustration: OIL SWITCHES--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+The 5,000-kilowatt generating unit was chosen because it is
+practically as large a unit of the direct-connected type as can be
+constructed by the engine builders unless more than two bearings be
+used--an alternative deemed inadvisable by the engineers of the
+company. The adoption of a smaller unit would be less economical of
+floor space and would tend to produce extreme complication in so large
+an installation, and, in view of the rapid changes in load which in
+urban railway service of this character occur in the morning and again
+late in the afternoon, would be extremely difficult to operate.
+
+The experience of the Manhattan plant has shown, as was anticipated in
+the installation of less output than this, the alternators must be put
+in service at intervals of twenty minutes to meet the load upon the
+station while it is rising to the maximum attained during rush hours.
+
+After careful consideration of the possible use of steam turbines as
+prime-movers to drive the alternators, the company's engineers decided
+in favor of reciprocating engines. This decision was made three years
+ago and, while the steam turbine since that time has made material
+progress, those responsible for the decision are confirmed in their
+opinion that it was wise.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Alternators_]
+
+The alternators closely resemble those installed by the Manhattan
+Railway Company (now the Manhattan division of the Interborough Rapid
+Transit Company) in its plant on the East River, between 74th Street
+and 75th Street. They differ, however, in having the stationary
+armature divided into seven castings instead of six, and in respect to
+details of the armature winding. They are three-phase machines,
+delivering twenty-five cycle alternating currents at an effective
+potential of 11,000 volts. They are 42 feet in height, the diameter
+of the revolving part is 32 feet, its weight, 332,000 pounds, and the
+aggregate weight of the machine, 889,000 pounds. The design of the
+engine dynamo unit eliminates the auxiliary fly wheel generally used
+in the construction of large direct-connected units prior to the
+erection of the Manhattan plant, the weight and dimensions of the
+revolving alternator field being such with reference to the turning
+moment of the engine as to secure close uniformity of rotation, while
+at the same time this construction results in narrowing the engine and
+reducing the engine shafts between bearings.
+
+[Illustration: REAR VIEW OF BUS BAR COMPARTMENTS--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+[Illustration: DUCT LINE ACROSS 58TH STREET 32 DUCTS]
+
+Construction of the revolving parts of the alternators is such as to
+secure very great strength and consequent ability to resist the
+tendency to burst and fly apart in case of temporary abnormal speed
+through accident of any kind. The hub of the revolving field is of
+cast steel, and the rim is carried not by the usual spokes but by two
+wedges of rolled steel. The construction of the revolving field is
+illustrated on pages 91 and 92. The angular velocity of the
+revolving field is remarkably uniform. This result is due primarily to
+the fact that the turning movement of the four-cylinder engine is far
+more uniform than is the case, for example, with an ordinary
+two-cylinder engine. The large fly-wheel capacity of the rotating
+element of the machine also contributes materially to secure
+uniformity of rotation.
+
+[Illustration: MAIN CONTROLLING BOARD IN POWER STATION]
+
+[Illustration: CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT BOARD--MAIN POWER STATION]
+
+The alternators have forty field poles and operates at seventy-five
+revolutions per minute. The field magnets constitute the periphery of
+the revolving field, the poles and rim of the field being built up by
+steel plates which are dovetailed to the driving spider. The heavy
+steel end plates are bolted together, the laminations breaking joints
+in the middle of the pole. The field coils are secured by copper
+wedges, which are subjected to shearing strains only. In the body of
+the poles, at intervals of approximately three inches, ventilating
+spaces are provided, these spaces registering with corresponding air
+ducts in the external armature. The field winding consists of copper
+strap on edge, one layer deep, with fibrous material cemented in place
+between turns, the edges of the strap being exposed.
+
+[Illustration: DUCTS UNDER PASSENGER STATION PLATFORM
+64 DUCTS]
+
+The armature is stationary and exterior to the field. It consists of a
+laminated ring with slots on its inner surface and supported by a
+massive external cast-iron frame. The armature, as has been noted,
+comprises seven segments, the topmost segment being in the form of a
+small keystone. This may be removed readily, affording access to any
+field coil, which in this way may be easily removed and replaced. The
+armature winding consists of U-shaped copper bars in partially closed
+slots. There are four bars per slot and three slots per phase per
+pole. The bars in any slot may be removed from the armature without
+removing the frame. The alternators, of course, are separately
+excited, the potential of the exciting current used being 250 volts.
+
+As regards regulation, the manufacturer's guarantee is that at 100 per
+cent. power factor if full rated load be thrown off the e. m. f. will
+rise 6 per cent. with constant speed and constant excitation. The
+guarantee as to efficiency is as follows: On non-inductive load, the
+alternators will have an efficiency of not less than 90.5 per cent. at
+one-quarter load; 94.75 per cent. at one-half load; 96.25 per cent. at
+three-quarters load; 97 per cent. at full load, and 97.25 per cent. at
+one and one-quarter load. These figures refer, of course, to
+electrical efficiency, and do not include windage and bearing
+friction. The machines are designed to operate under their rated full
+load with rise of temperature not exceeding 35 degrees C. after
+twenty-four hours.
+
+[Illustration: THREE-CONDUCTOR NO. 000 CABLE FOR 11,000 VOLT
+DISTRIBUTION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Exciters_]
+
+To supply exciting current for the fields of the alternators and to
+operate motors driving auxiliary apparatus, five 250-kilowatt direct
+current dynamos are provided. These deliver their current at a
+potential of 250 volts. Two of them are driven by 400 horse-power
+engines of the marine type, to which they are direct-connected, while
+the remaining three units are direct-connected to 365 horse-power
+tri-phase induction motors operating at 400 volts. A storage battery
+capable of furnishing 3,000 amperes for one hour is used in
+co-operation with the dynamos provided to excite the alternators. The
+five direct-current dynamos are connected to the organization of
+switching apparatus in such a way that each unit may be connected at
+will either to the exciting circuits or to the circuits through which
+auxiliary motors are supplied.
+
+The alternators for which the new Interborough Power House are
+designed will deliver to the bus bars 100,000 electrical horse power.
+The current delivered by these alternators reverses its direction
+fifty times per second and in connecting dynamos just coming into
+service with those already in operation the allowable difference in
+phase relation at the instant the circuit is completed is, of course,
+but a fraction of the fiftieth of a second. Where the power to be
+controlled is so great, the potential so high, and the speed
+requirements in respect to synchronous operation so exacting, it is
+obvious that the perfection of control attained in some of our modern
+plants is not their least characteristic.
+
+[Sidenote: _Switching
+Apparatus_]
+
+The switch used for the 11,000 volt circuits is so constructed that
+the circuits are made and broken under oil, the switch being
+electrically operated. Two complete and independent sets of bus bars
+are used, and the connections are such that each alternator and each
+feeder may be connected to either of these sets of bus bars at the
+will of the operator. From alternators to bus bars the current passes,
+first, through the alternator switch, and then alternatively through
+one or the other of two selector switches which are connected,
+respectively, to the two sets of bus bars.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE WALL OF TUNNEL SHOWING 64 DUCTS]
+
+Provision is made for an ultimate total of twelve sub-stations, to
+each of which as many as eight feeders may be installed if the
+development of the company's business should require that number. But
+eight sub-stations are required at present, and to some of these not
+more than three feeders each are necessary. The aggregate number of
+feeders installed for the initial operation of the subway system is
+thirty-four.
+
+Each feeder circuit is provided with a type H-oil switch arranged to
+be open and closed at will by the operator, and also to open
+automatically in the case of abnormal flow of current through the
+feeder. The feeders are arranged in groups, each group being supplied
+from a set of auxiliary bus bars, which in turn receives its supply
+from one or the other of the two sets of main bus bars; means for
+selection being provided as in the case of the alternator circuits by
+a pair of selector switches, in this case designated as group
+switches. The diagram on page 93 illustrates the essential
+features of the organization and connections of the 11,000 volt
+circuits in the power house.
+
+[Illustration: MANHOLES IN SIDE WALL OF SUBWAY]
+
+Any and every switch can be opened or closed at will by the operator
+standing at the control board described. The alternator switches are
+provided also with automatic overload and reversed current relays, and
+the feeder switches, as above mentioned, are provided with automatic
+overload relays. These overload relays have a time attachment which
+can be set to open the switch at the expiration of a predetermined
+time ranging from .3 of a second to 5 seconds.
+
+[Illustration: CONVERTER FLOOR PLAN
+SUB-STATION NO. 14]
+
+The type H-oil switch is operated by an electric motor through the
+intervention of a mechanism comprising powerful springs which open and
+close the switch with great speed. This switch when opened introduces
+in each of the three sides of the circuit two breaks which are in
+series with each other. Each side of the circuit is separated from the
+others by its location in an enclosed compartment, the walls of which
+are brick and soapstone. The general construction of the switch is
+illustrated by the photograph on page 94.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11]
+
+[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION SUB-STATION NO. 14]
+
+Like all current-carrying parts of the switches, the bus bars are
+enclosed in separate compartments. These are constructed of brick,
+small doors for inspection and maintenance being provided opposite all
+points where the bus bars are supported upon insulators. The
+photographs on pages 95 and 96 are views of a part of the bus bar
+and switch compartments.
+
+[Illustration: TWO GROUPS OF TRANSFORMERS]
+
+The oil switches and group bus bars are located upon the main floor
+and extend along the 59th Street wall of the engine room a distance of
+about 600 feet. The main bus bars are arranged in two lines of brick
+compartments, which are placed below the engine-room floor. These bus
+bars are arranged vertically and are placed directly beneath the rows
+of oil switches located upon the main floor of the power house. Above
+these rows of oil switches and the group bus bars, galleries are
+constructed which extend the entire length of the power house, and
+upon the first of these galleries at a point opposite the middle of
+the power house are located the control board and instrument board, by
+means of which the operator in charge regulates and directs the entire
+output of the plant, maintaining a supply of power at all times
+adequate to the demands of the transportation service.
+
+[Illustration: MOTOR-GENERATORS AND BATTERY BOARD FOR CONTROL
+CIRCUITS--SUB-STATION]
+
+[Illustration: 1,500 K. W. ROTARY CONVERTER]
+
+[Sidenote: _The Control
+Board_]
+
+The control board is shown in the photograph on page 97. Every
+alternator switch, every selector switch, every group switch, and
+every feeder switch upon the main floor is here represented by a small
+switch. The small switch is connected into a control circuit which
+receives its supply of energy at 110 volts from a small motor
+generator set and storage battery. The motors which actuate the large
+oil switches upon the main floor are driven by this 110 volt control
+current, and thus in the hands of the operator the control switches
+make or break the relatively feeble control currents, which, in turn,
+close or open the switches in the main power circuits. The control
+switches are systematically assembled upon the control bench board in
+conjunction with dummy bus bars and other apparent (but not real)
+metallic connections, the whole constituting at all times a correct
+diagram of the existing connections of the main power circuits. Every
+time the operator changes a connection by opening or closing one of
+the main switches, he necessarily changes his diagram so that it
+represents the new conditions established by opening or closing the
+main switch. In connection with each control switch two small
+bull's-eye lamps are used, one red, to indicate that the corresponding
+main switch is closed, the other green, to indicate that it is open.
+These lamps are lighted when the moving part of the main switch
+reaches approximately the end of its travel. If for any reason,
+therefore, the movement of the control switch should fail to actuate
+the main switch, the indicator lamp will not be lighted.
+
+[Illustration: MOTOR-GENERATOR SET SUPPLYING ALTERNATING CURRENT FOR
+BLOCK SIGNALS AND MOTOR-GENERATOR STARTING SET]
+
+The control board is divided into two parts--one for the connections
+of the alternators to the bus bars and the other for the connection
+of feeders to bus bars. The drawing on page 97 shows in plain view
+the essential features of the control boards.
+
+[Sidenote: _The
+Instrument
+Board_]
+
+A front view of the Instrument Board is shown on page 97. This
+board contains all indicating instruments for alternators and feeders.
+It also carries standardizing instruments and a clock. In the
+illustration the alternator panels are shown at the left and the
+feeder panels at the right. For the alternator panels, instruments of
+the vertical edgewise type are used. Each vertical row comprises the
+measuring instruments for an alternator. Beginning at the top and
+enumerating them in order these instruments are: Three ammeters, one
+for each phase, a volumeter, an indicating wattmeter, a power factor
+indicator and a field ammeter. The round dial instrument shown at the
+bottom of each row of instruments is a three-phase recording
+wattmeter.
+
+A panel located near the center of the board between alternator panels
+and feeder panels carries standard instruments used for convenient
+calibration of the alternator and feeder instruments. Provision is
+made on the back of the board for convenient connection of the
+standard instruments in series with the instruments to be compared.
+The panel which carries the standard instruments also carries ammeters
+used to measure current to auxiliary circuits in the power house.
+
+For the feeder board, instruments of the round dial pattern are used,
+and for each feeder a single instrument is provided, viz., an ammeter.
+Each vertical row comprises the ammeters belonging to the feeders
+which supply a given sub-station, and from left to right these are in
+order sub-stations Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18; blank
+spaces are left for four additional sub-stations. Each horizontal row
+comprises the ammeter belonging to feeders which are supplied through
+a given group switch.
+
+This arrangement in vertical and horizontal lines, indicating
+respectively feeders to given sub-stations and feeders connected to
+the several group switches, is intended to facilitate the work of the
+operator. A glance down a vertical row without stopping to reach the
+scales of the instruments will tell him whether the feeders are
+dividing with approximate equality the load to a given sub-station.
+Feeders to different sub-stations usually carry different loads and,
+generally speaking, a glance along a horizontal row will convey no
+information of especial importance. If, however, for any reason the
+operator should desire to know the approximate aggregate load upon a
+group of feeders this systematic arrangement of the instruments is of
+use.
+
+[Illustration: SWITCHBOARD FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT BLOCK SIGNAL
+CIRCUITS--IN SUB-STATION]
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 18]
+
+[Sidenote: _Alternating
+Current
+Distribution
+to Sub-Stations
+Power House
+Ducts and
+Cables_]
+
+From alternators to alternator switches the 11,000 volt alternating
+currents are conveyed through single conductor cables, insulated by
+oil cambric, the thickness of the wall being 12/32 of an inch. These
+conductors are installed in vitrified clay ducts. From dynamo switches
+to bus bars and from bus bars to group and feeder switches, vulcanized
+rubber insulation containing 30 per cent. pure Para rubber is
+employed. The thickness of insulating wall is 9/32 of an inch and the
+conductors are supported upon porcelain insulators.
+
+[Sidenote: _Conduit
+System for
+Distribution_]
+
+From the power house to the subway at 58th Street and Broadway two
+lines of conduit, each comprising thirty-two ducts, have been
+constructed. These conduits are located on opposite sides of the
+street. The arrangement of ducts is 8 x 4, as shown in the section on
+page 96.
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF SUB-STATION NO. 11]
+
+The location and arrangement of ducts along the line of the subway are
+illustrated in photographs on pages 98 and 99, which show
+respectively a section of ducts on one side of the subway, between
+passenger stations, and a section of ducts and one side of the subway,
+beneath the platform of a passenger station. From City Hall to 96th
+Street (except through the Park Avenue Tunnel) sixty-four ducts are
+provided on each side of the subway. North of 96th Street sixty-four
+ducts are provided for the West-side lines and an equal number for the
+East-side lines. Between passenger stations these ducts help to form
+the side walls of the subway, and are arranged thirty-two ducts high
+and two ducts wide. Beneath the platform of passenger stations the
+arrangement is somewhat varied because of local obstructions, such as
+pipes, sewers, etc., of which it was necessary to take account in the
+construction of the stations. The plan shown on page 98, however,
+is typical.
+
+The necessity of passing the cables from the 32 x 2 arrangement of
+ducts along the side of the tunnel to 8 x 8 and 16 x 4 arrangements of
+ducts beneath the passenger platforms involves serious difficulties in
+the proper support and protection of cables in manholes at the ends of
+the station platforms. In order to minimize the risk of interruption
+of service due to possible damage to a considerable number of cables
+in one of these manholes, resulting from short circuit in a single
+cable, all cables except at the joints are covered with two layers of
+asbestos aggregating a full 1/4-inch in thickness. This asbestos is
+specially prepared and is applied by wrapping the cable with two
+strips each 3 inches in width, the outer strip covering the line of
+junction between adjacent spirals of the inner strip, the whole when
+in place being impregnated with a solution of silicate of soda. The
+joints themselves are covered with two layers of asbestos held in
+place by steel tape applied spirally. To distribute the strains upon
+the cables in manholes, radical supports of various curvatures, and
+made of malleable cast iron, are used. The photograph on page 100
+illustrates the arrangement of cables in one of these manholes.
+
+[Illustration: OPERATING BOARD--SUB-STATION NO. 11]
+
+In order to further diminish the risk of interruption of the service
+due to failure of power supply, each sub-station south of 96th Street
+receives its alternating current from the power house through cables
+carried on opposite sides of the subway. To protect the lead sheaths
+of the cables against damage by electrolysis, rubber insulating pieces
+1/6 of an inch in thickness are placed between the sheaths and the
+iron bracket supports in the manholes.
+
+[Sidenote: _Cable
+Conveying
+Energy from
+Power House to
+Sub-Stations_]
+
+The cables used for conveying energy from the power house to the
+several sub-stations aggregate approximately 150 miles in length. The
+cable used for this purpose comprises three stranded copper conductors
+each of which contains nineteen wires, and the diameter of the
+stranded conductor thus formed is 2/5 of an inch. Paper insulation is
+employed and the triple cable is enclosed in a lead sheath 9/64 of an
+inch thick. Each conductor is separated from its neighbors and from
+the lead sheath by insulation of treated paper 7/16 of an inch in
+thickness. The outside diameter of the cables is 2-5/8 inches, and the
+weight 8-1/2 pounds per lineal foot. In the factories the cable as
+manufactured was cut into lengths corresponding to the distance
+between manholes, and each length subjected to severe tests including
+application to the insulation of an alternating current potential of
+30,000 volts for a period of thirty minutes. These cables were
+installed under the supervision of the Interborough Company's
+engineers, and after jointing, each complete cable from power house to
+sub-station was tested by applying an alternating potential of 30,000
+volts for thirty minutes between each conductor and its neighbors, and
+between each conductor and the lead sheath. The photographs on
+page 98 illustrates the construction of this cable.
+
+[Sidenote: _Sub-Station_]
+
+The tri-phase alternating current generated at the power house is
+conveyed through the high potential cable system to eight sub-stations
+containing the necessary transforming and converting machinery. These
+sub-stations are designed and located as follows:
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAMS OF DIRECT CURRENT FEEDER AND RETURN CIRCUITS]
+
+    Sub-station No. 11--29-33 City Hall Place.
+
+    Sub-station No. 12--108-110 East 19th Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 13--225-227 West 53d Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 14--264-266 West 96th Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 15--606-608 West 143d Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 16--73-77 West 132d Street.
+
+    Sub-station No. 17--Hillside Avenue, 301 feet West of
+    Eleventh Avenue.
+
+    Sub-station No. 18--South side of Fox Street (Simpson
+    Street), 60 feet north of Westchester Avenue.
+
+[Illustration: SWITCH CONNECTING FEEDER TO CONTACT RAIL]
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAIL JOINT WITH FISH PLATE]
+
+The converter unit selected to receive the alternating current and
+deliver direct current to the track, etc., has an output of 1,500
+kilowatts with ability to carry 50 per cent. overload for three hours.
+The average area of a city lot is 25 x 100 feet, and a sub-station
+site comprising two adjacent lots of this approximate size permits the
+installation of a maximum of eight 1,500 kilowatts converters with
+necessary transformers, switchboard and other auxiliary apparatus. In
+designing the sub-stations, a type of building with a central air-well
+was selected. The typical organization of apparatus is illustrated in
+the ground plan and vertical section on pages 101, 102 and 103 and
+provides, as shown, for two lines of converters, the three
+transformers which supply each converter being located between it and
+the adjacent side wall. The switchboard is located at the rear of the
+station. The central shaft affords excellent light and ventilation for
+the operating room. The steel work of the sub-stations is designed
+with a view to the addition of two storage battery floors, should it
+be decided at some future time that the addition of such an auxiliary
+is advisable.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAIL BANDS]
+
+The necessary equipment of the sub-stations implies sites
+approximately 50 x 100 feet in dimensions; and sub-stations Nos. 14,
+15, 17, and 18 are practically all this size. Sub-stations Nos. 11 and
+16 are 100 feet in length, but the lots acquired in these instances
+being of unusual width, these sub-stations are approximately 60 feet
+wide. Sub-station No. 12, on account of limited ground space, is but
+48 feet wide and 92 feet long. In each of the sub-stations, except No.
+13, foundations are provided for eight converters; sub-station No. 13
+contains foundations for the ultimate installation of ten converters.
+
+[Illustration: DIRECT CURRENT FEEDERS FROM MANHOLE TO CONTACT RAIL]
+
+The function of the electrical apparatus in sub-stations, as has been
+stated, is the conversion of the high potential alternating current
+energy delivered from the power house through the tri-phase cables
+into direct current adapted to operate the motors with which the
+rolling stock is equipped. This apparatus comprises transformers,
+converters, and certain minor auxiliaries. The transformers, which are
+arranged in groups of three, receive the tri-phase alternating current
+at a potential approximating 10,500 volts, and deliver equivalent
+energy (less the loss of about 2 per cent. in the transformation) to
+the converters at a potential of about 390 volts. The converters
+receiving this energy from their respective groups of transformers in
+turn deliver it (less a loss approximating 4 per cent. at full load)
+in the form of direct current at a potential of 625 volts to the bus
+bars of the direct current switchboards, from which it is conveyed by
+insulated cables to the contact rails. The photograph on page 102
+is a general view of the interior of one of the sub-stations. The
+exterior of sub-stations Nos. 11 and 18 are shown on page 107.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAILS, SHOWING END INCLINES]
+
+The illustration on page 108 is from a photograph taken on one of
+the switchboard galleries. In the sub-stations, as in the power house,
+the high potential alternating current circuits are opened and closed
+by oil switches, which are electrically operated by motors, these in
+turn being controlled by 110 volt direct current circuits. Diagramatic
+bench boards are used, as at the power house, but in the sub-stations
+they are of course relatively small and free from complication.
+
+The instrument board is supported by iron columns and is carried at a
+sufficient height above the bench board to enable the operator, while
+facing the bench board and the instruments, to look out over the floor
+of the sub-station without turning his head. The switches of the
+direct current circuits are hand-operated and are located upon boards
+at the right and left of the control board.
+
+A novel and important feature introduced (it is believed for the first
+time) in these sub-stations, is the location in separate brick
+compartments of the automatic circuit breakers in the direct current
+feeder circuits. These circuit breaker compartments are shown in the
+photograph on page 93, and are in a line facing the boards which
+carry the direct feeder switches, each circuit breaker being located
+in a compartment directly opposite the panel which carries the switch
+belonging to the corresponding circuit. This plan will effectually
+prevent damage to other parts of the switchboard equipment when
+circuit-breakers open automatically under conditions of short-circuit.
+It also tends to eliminate risk to the operator, and, therefore, to
+increase his confidence and accuracy in manipulating the hand-operated
+switches.
+
+[Illustration: ASSEMBLY OF CONTACT RAIL AND PROTECTION]
+
+The three conductor cables which convey tri-phase currents from the
+power house are carried through tile ducts from the manholes located
+in the street directly in front of each sub-station to the back of the
+station where the end of the cable is connected directly beneath its
+oil switch. The three conductors, now well separated, extend
+vertically to the fixed terminals of the switch. In each sub-station
+but one set of high-potential alternating current bus bars is
+installed and between each incoming cable and these bus bars is
+connected an oil switch. In like manner, between each converter unit
+and the bus bars an oil switch is connected into the high potential
+circuit. The bus bars are so arranged that they may be divided into
+any number of sections not exceeding the number of converter units, by
+means of movable links which, in their normal condition, constitute a
+part of the bus bars.
+
+Each of the oil switches between incoming circuits and bus bars is
+arranged for automatic operation and is equipped with a reversed
+current relay, which, in the case of a short-circuit in its
+alternating current feeder cable opens the switch and so disconnects
+the cable from the sub-station without interference with the operation
+of the other cables or the converting machinery.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT RAIL INSULATOR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Direct Current
+Distribution
+from
+Sub-Stations_]
+
+The organization of electrical conductors provided to convey direct
+current from the sub-stations to the moving trains can be described
+most conveniently by beginning with the contact, or so-called third
+rail. South of 96th Street the average distance between sub-stations
+approximates 12,000 feet, and north of 96th Street the average
+distance is about 15,000 feet. Each track, of course, is provided with
+a contact rail. There are four tracks and consequently four contact
+rails from City Hall to 96th Street, three from 96th Street to 145th
+Street on the West Side, two from 145th Street to Dyckman Street, and
+three from Dyckman Street to the northern terminal of the West Side
+extension of the system. From 96th Street, the East Side has two
+tracks and two contact rails to Mott Avenue, and from that point to
+the terminal at 182d Street three tracks and three contact rails.
+
+[Illustration: CONTACT SHOE AND FUSE]
+
+Contact rails south of Reade Street are supplied from sub-station No.
+11; from Reade Street to 19th Street they are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 11 and 12; from 19th Street they are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 12 and 13; from the point last named to 96th Street
+they are supplied from sub-stations Nos. 13 and 14; from 96th Street
+to 143d Street, on the West Side, they are supplied from sub-stations
+Nos. 14 and 15; from 143d Street to Dyckman Street they are supplied
+from sub-stations Nos. 15 and 17; and from that point to the terminal
+they are supplied from sub-station No. 17. On the East Side branch
+contact rails from 96th Street to 132d Street are supplied from
+sub-stations Nos. 14 and 16; from 132d to 165th Street they are
+supplied from sub-stations Nos. 16 and 18; and from 165th Street to
+182d Street they are supplied from sub-station No. 18.
+
+Each contact rail is insulated from all contact rails belonging to
+adjacent tracks. This is done in order that in case of derailment or
+other accident necessitating interruption of service on a given track,
+trains may be operated upon the other tracks having their separate and
+independent channels of electrical supply. To make this clear, we may
+consider that section of the subway which lies between Reade Street
+and 19th Street. This section is equipped with four tracks, and the
+contact rail for each track, together with the direct current feeders
+which supply it from sub-stations Nos. 11 and 12, are electrically
+insulated from all other circuits. Of each pair of track rails one is
+used for the automatic block signaling system, and, therefore, is not
+used as a part of the negative or return side of the direct current
+system. The other four track rails, however, are bonded, and together
+with the negative feeders constitute the track return or negative side
+of the direct current system.
+
+The diagram on page 109 illustrates the connections of the contact
+rails, track rails and the positive and negative feeders. All negative
+as well as positive feeders are cables of 2,000,000 c. m. section and
+lead sheathed. In emergency, as, for example, in the case of the
+destruction of a number of the cables in a manhole, they are,
+therefore, interchangeable. The connections are such as to minimize
+"track drop," as will be evident upon examination of the diagram. The
+electrical separation of the several contact rails and the positive
+feeders connected thereto secures a further important advantage in
+permitting the use at sub-stations of direct-current circuit-breakers
+of moderate size and capacity, which can be set to open automatically
+at much lower currents than would be practicable were all contact
+rails electrically connected, thus reducing the limiting current and
+consequently the intensity of the arcs which might occur in the subway
+in case of short-circuit between contact rail and earth.
+
+The contact rail itself is of special soft steel, to secure high
+conductivity. Its composition, as shown by tests, is as follows:
+Carbon, .08 to .15; silicon, .05; phosphorus, .10; manganese, .50 to
+.70; and sulphur, .05. Its resistance is not more than eight times the
+resistance of pure copper of equal cross-section. The section chosen
+weighs 75 pounds per yard. The length used in general is 60 feet, but
+in some cases 40 feet lengths are substituted. The contact rails are
+bounded by four bonds, aggregating 1,200,000 c. m. section. The bonds
+are of flexible copper and their terminals are riveted to the steel by
+hydraulic presses, producing a pressure of 35 tons. The bonds when in
+use are covered by special malleable iron fish-plates which insure
+alignment of rail. Each length of rail is anchored at its middle point
+and a small clearance is allowed between ends of adjacent rails for
+expansion and contraction, which in the subway, owing to the
+relatively small change of temperature, will be reduced to a minimum.
+The photographs on pages 110 and 111 illustrate the method of
+bonding the rail, and show the bonded joint completed by the addition
+of the fish-plates.
+
+The contact rail is carried upon block insulators supported upon
+malleable iron castings. Castings of the same material are used to
+secure the contact rail in position upon the insulators. A photograph
+of the insulator with its castings is shown on page 113.
+
+[Sidenote: _Track
+Bonding_]
+
+The track rails are 33 feet long, of Standard American Society Civil
+Engineers' section, weighing 100 pounds a yard. As has been stated,
+one rail in each track is used for signal purposes and the other is
+utilized as a part of the negative return of the power system.
+Adjacent rails to be used for the latter purpose are bonded with two
+copper bonds having an aggregate section of 400,000 c. m. These bonds
+are firmly riveted into the web of the rail by screw bonding presses.
+They are covered by splice bars, designed to leave sufficient
+clearance for the bond.
+
+The return rails are cross-sectioned at frequent intervals for the
+purpose of equalizing currents which traverse them.
+
+[Sidenote: _Contact Rail
+Guard and
+Collector Shoe_]
+
+The Interborough Company has provided a guard in the form of a plank
+8-1/2 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches thick, which is supported in a
+horizontal position directly above the rail, as shown in the
+illustration on page 113. This guard is carried by the contact
+rail to which it is secured by supports, the construction of which is
+sufficiently shown in the illustration. This type of guard has been in
+successful use upon the Wilkesbarre and Hazleton Railway for nearly
+two years. It practically eliminates the danger from the third rail,
+even should passengers leave the trains and walk through a section of
+the tunnel while the rails are charged.
+
+Its adoption necessitates the use of a collecting shoe differing
+radically from that used upon the Manhattan division and upon the
+elevated railways employing the third rail system in Chicago, Boston,
+Brooklyn, and elsewhere. The shoe is shown in the photograph on
+page 114. The shoe is held in contact with the third rail by
+gravity reinforced by pressure from two spiral springs. The support
+for the shoe includes provision for vertical adjustment to compensate
+for wear of car wheels, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS
+
+
+In determining the electrical equipment of the trains, the company has
+aimed to secure an organization of motors and control apparatus easily
+adequate to operate trains in both local and express service at the
+highest speeds compatible with safety to the traveling public. For
+each of the two classes of service the limiting safe speed is fixed by
+the distance between stations at which the trains stop, by curves, and
+by grades. Except in a few places, for example where the East Side
+branch passes under the Harlem River, the tracks are so nearly level
+that the consideration of grade does not materially affect
+determination of the limiting speed. While the majority of the curves
+are of large radius, the safe limiting speed, particularly for the
+express service, is necessarily considerably less than it would be on
+straight tracks.
+
+The average speed of express trains between City Hall and 145th Street
+on the West Side will approximate 25 miles an hour, including stops.
+The maximum speed of trains will be 45 miles per hour. The average
+speed of local and express trains will exceed the speed made by the
+trains on any elevated railroad.
+
+To attain these speeds without exceeding maximum safe limiting speeds
+between stops, the equipment provided will accelerate trains carrying
+maximum load at a rate of 1.25 miles per hour per second in starting
+from stations on level track. To obtain the same acceleration by
+locomotives, a draw-bar pull of 44,000 pounds would be necessary--a
+pull equivalent to the maximum effect of six steam locomotives such as
+were used recently upon the Manhattan Elevated Railway in New York,
+and equivalent to the pull which can be exerted by two passenger
+locomotives of the latest Pennsylvania Railroad type. Two of these
+latter would weigh about 250 net tons. By the use of the multiple unit
+system of electrical control, equivalent results in respect to rate of
+acceleration and speed are attained, the total addition to train
+weight aggregating but 55 net tons.
+
+If the locomotive principle of train operation were adopted,
+therefore, it is obvious that it would be necessary to employ a lower
+rate of acceleration for express trains. This could be attained
+without very material sacrifice of average speed, since the average
+distance between express stations is nearly two miles. In the case of
+local trains, however, which average nearly three stops per mile, no
+considerable reduction in the acceleration is possible without a
+material reduction in average speed. The weight of a local train
+exceeds the weight of five trail cars, similarly loaded, by 33 net
+tons, and equivalent adhesion and acceleration would require
+locomotives having not less than 80 net tons effective upon drivers.
+
+[Sidenote: _Switching_]
+
+The multiple unit system adopted possesses material advantages over a
+locomotive system in respect to switching at terminals. Some of the
+express trains in rush hours will comprise eight cars, but at certain
+times during the day and night when the number of people requiring
+transportation is less than during the morning and evening, and were
+locomotives used an enormous amount of switching, coupling and
+uncoupling would be involved by the comparative frequent changes of
+train lengths. In an eight-car multiple-unit express train, the first,
+third, fifth, sixth, and eighth cars will be motor cars, while the
+second, fourth, and seventh will be trail cars. An eight-car train can
+be reduced, therefore, to a six-car train by uncoupling two cars from
+either end, to a five-car train by uncoupling three cars from the rear
+end, or to a three-car train by uncoupling five cars from either end.
+In each case a motor car will remain at each end of the reduced train.
+In like manner, a five-car local train may be reduced to three cars,
+still leaving a motor car at each end by uncoupling two cars from
+either end, since in the normal five-car local train the first, third,
+and fifth cars will be motor cars.
+
+[Illustration: 200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Motors_]
+
+The motors are of the direct current series type and are rated 200
+horse power each. They have been especially designed for the subway
+service in line with specifications prepared by engineers of the
+Interborough Company, and will operate at an average effective
+potential of 570 volts. They are supplied by two manufacturers and
+differ in respect to important features of design and construction,
+but both are believed to be thoroughly adequate for the intended
+service.
+
+[Illustration: 200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR]
+
+The photographs on this page illustrate motors of each make. The
+weight of one make complete, with gear and gear case, is 5,900 pounds.
+The corresponding weight of the other is 5,750 pounds. The ratio of
+gear reduction used with one motor is 19 to 63, and with the other
+motor 20 to 63.
+
+[Illustration: 200 H. P. RAILWAY MOTOR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Motor
+Control_]
+
+By the system of motor control adopted for the trains, the power
+delivered to the various motors throughout the train is simultaneously
+controlled and regulated by the motorman at the head of the train.
+This is accomplished by means of a system of electric circuits
+comprising essentially a small drum controller and an organization of
+actuating circuits conveying small currents which energize electric
+magnets placed beneath the cars, and so open and close the main power
+circuits which supply energy to the motors. A controller is mounted
+upon the platform at each end of each motor car, and the entire train
+may be operated from any one of the points, the motorman normally
+taking his post on the front platform of the first car. The switches
+which open and close the power circuits through motors and rheostats
+are called contactors, each comprising a magnetic blow-out switch and
+the electro magnet which controls the movements of the switch. By
+these contactors the usual series-multiple control of direct-current
+motors is effected. The primary or control circuits regulate the
+movement, not only of the contactors but also of the reverser, by
+means of which the direction of the current supplied to motors may be
+reversed at the will of the motorman.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS UNDER COMPOSITE MOTOR CAR]
+
+The photograph on this page shows the complete control wiring and
+motor equipment of a motor car as seen beneath the car. In wiring the
+cars unusual precautions have been adopted to guard against risk of
+fire. As elsewhere described in this publication, the floors of all
+motor cars are protected by sheet steel and a material composed of
+asbestos and silicate of soda, which possesses great heat-resisting
+properties. In addition to this, all of the important power wires
+beneath the car are placed in conduits of fireproof material, of which
+asbestos is the principal constituent. Furthermore, the vulcanized
+rubber insulation of the wires themselves is covered with a special
+braid of asbestos, and in order to diminish the amount of combustible
+insulating material, the highest grade of vulcanized rubber has been
+used, and the thickness of the insulation correspondingly reduced. It
+is confidently believed that the woodwork of the car body proper
+cannot be seriously endangered by an accident to the electric
+apparatus beneath the car. Insulation is necessarily combustible, and
+in burning evolves much smoke; occasional accidents to the apparatus,
+notwithstanding every possible precaution, will sometimes happen; and
+in the subway the flash even of an absolutely insignificant fuse may
+be clearly visible and cause alarm. The public traveling in the subway
+should remember that even very severe short-circuits and extremely
+bright flashes beneath the car involve absolutely no danger to
+passengers who remain inside the car.
+
+The photograph on page 120 illustrates the control wiring of the
+new steel motorcars. The method of assembling the apparatus differs
+materially from that adopted in wiring the outfit of cars first
+ordered, and, as the result of greater compactness which has been
+attained, the aggregate length of the wiring has been reduced
+one-third.
+
+The quality and thickness of the insulation is the same as in the case
+of the earlier cars, but the use of asbestos conduits is abandoned
+and iron pipe substituted. In every respect it is believed that the
+design and workmanship employed in mounting and wiring the motors and
+control equipments under these steel cars is unequaled elsewhere in
+similar work up to the present time.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS UNDER STEEL MOTOR CAR]
+
+The motors and car wiring are protected by a carefully planned system
+of fuses, the function of which is to melt and open the circuits, so
+cutting off power in case of failure of insulation.
+
+Express trains and local trains alike are provided with a bus line,
+which interconnects the electrical supply to all cars and prevents
+interruption of the delivery of current to motors in case the
+collector shoes attached to any given car should momentarily fail to
+make contact with the third rail. At certain cross-overs this operates
+to prevent extinguishing the lamps in successive cars as the train
+passes from one track to another. The controller is so constructed
+that when the train is in motion the motorman is compelled to keep his
+hand upon it, otherwise the power is automatically cut off and the
+brakes are applied. This important safety device, which, in case a
+motorman be suddenly incapacitated at his post, will promptly stop the
+train, is a recent invention and is first introduced in practical
+service upon trains of the Interborough Company.
+
+[Sidenote: _Heating
+and
+Lighting_]
+
+All cars are heated and lighted by electricity. The heaters are placed
+beneath the seats, and special precautions have been taken to insure
+uniform distribution of the heat. The wiring for heaters and lights
+has been practically safe-guarded to avoid, so far as possible, all
+risk of short-circuit or fire, the wire used for the heater circuits
+being carried upon porcelain insulators from all woodwork by large
+clearances, while the wiring for lights is carried in metallic
+conduit. All lamp sockets are specially designed to prevent
+possibility of fire and are separated from the woodwork of the car by
+air spaces and by asbestos.
+
+[Illustration: (FIRE ALARM)]
+
+The interior of each car is lighted by twenty-six 10-candle power
+lamps, in addition to four lamps provided for platforms and markers.
+The lamps for lighting the interior are carefully located, with a view
+to securing uniform and effective illumination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER STATIONS AND TUNNEL
+
+
+In the initial preparation of plans, and more than a year before the
+accident which occurred in the subway system of Paris in August, 1903,
+the engineers of the Interborough Company realized the importance of
+maintaining lights in the subway independent of any temporary
+interruption of the power used for lighting the cars, and, in
+preparing their plans, they provided for lighting the subway
+throughout its length from a source independent of the main power
+supply. For this purpose three 1,250-kilowatt alternators
+direct-driven by steam turbines are installed in the power house, from
+which point a system of primary cables, transformers and secondary
+conductors convey current to the incandescent lamps used solely to
+light the subway. The alternators are of the three-phase type, making
+1,200 revolutions per minute and delivering current at a frequency of
+60 cycles per second at a potential of 11,000 volts. In the boiler
+plant and system of steam piping installed in connection with these
+turbine-driven units, provision is made for separation of the steam
+supply from the general supply for the 5,000 kilowatt units and for
+furnishing the steam for the turbine units through either of two
+alternative lines of pipe.
+
+The 11,000-volt primary current is conveyed through paper insulated
+lead-sheathed cables to transformers, located in fireproof
+compartments adjacent to the platforms of the passenger stations.
+These transformers deliver current to two separate systems of
+secondary wiring, one of which is supplied at a potential of 120 volts
+and the other at 600 volts.
+
+The general lighting of the passenger station platforms is effected by
+incandescent lamps supplied from the 120-volt secondary wiring
+circuits, while the lighting of the subway sections between adjacent
+stations is accomplished by incandescent lamps connected in series
+groups of five each and connected to the 600-volt lighting circuits.
+Recognizing the fact that in view of the precautions taken it is
+probable that interruptions of the alternating current lighting
+service will be infrequent, the possibility of such interruption is
+nevertheless provided for by installing upon the stairways leading to
+passenger station platforms, at the ticket booths and over the tracks
+in front of the platforms, a number of lamps which are connected to
+the contact rail circuit. This will provide light sufficient to enable
+passengers to see stairways and the edges of the station platforms in
+case of temporary failure of the general lighting system.
+
+The general illumination of the passenger stations is effected by
+means of 32 c. p. incandescent lamps, placed in recessed domes in the
+ceiling. These are reinforced by 14 c. p. and 32 c. p. lamps, carried
+by brackets of ornate design where the construction of the station
+does not conveniently permit the use of ceiling lights. The lamps are
+enclosed in sand-blasted glass globes, and excellent distribution is
+secured by the use of reflectors.
+
+The illustration on page 122 is produced from a photograph of the
+interior of one of the transformer cupboards and shows the transformer
+in place with the end bell of the high potential cable and the primary
+switchboard containing switches and enclosed fuses. The illustration
+on page 123 shows one of the secondary distributing switchboards
+which are located immediately behind the ticket booths, where they are
+under the control of the ticket seller.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSFORMER COMPARTMENT IN PASSENGER STATION]
+
+In lighting the subway between passenger stations, it is desirable, on
+the one hand, to provide sufficient light for track inspection and to
+permit employees passing along the subway to see their way clearly and
+avoid obstructions; but, on the other hand, the lighting must not be
+so brilliant as to interfere with easy sight and recognition of the
+red, yellow, and green signal lamps of the block signal system. It is
+necessary also that the lights for general illumination be so placed
+that their rays shall not fall directly upon the eyes of approaching
+motormen at the head of trains nor annoy passengers who may be reading
+their papers inside the cars. The conditions imposed by these
+considerations are met in the four-track sections of the subway by
+placing a row of incandescent lamps between the north-bound local and
+express tracks and a similar row between the southbound local and
+express tracks. The lamps are carried upon brackets supported upon the
+iron columns of the subway structure, successive lamps in each row
+being 60 feet apart. They are located a few inches above the tops of
+the car windows and with reference to the direction of approaching
+trains the lamps in each row are carried upon the far side of the iron
+columns, by which expedient the eyes of the approaching motormen are
+sufficiently protected against their direct rays.
+
+[Sidenote: _Lighting of
+the Power
+House_]
+
+For the general illumination of the engine room, clusters of Nernst
+lamps are supported from the roof trusses and a row of single lamps
+of the same type is carried on the lower gallery about 25 feet from
+the floor. This is the first power house in America to be illuminated
+by these lamps. The quality of the light is unsurpassed and the
+general effect of the illumination most satisfactory and agreeable to
+the eye. In addition to the Nernst lamps, 16 c. p. incandescent lamps
+are placed upon the engines and along the galleries in places not
+conveniently reached by the general illumination. The basement also is
+lighted by incandescent lamps.
+
+[Illustration: SECONDARY DISTRIBUTING SWITCHBOARD AT PASSENGER
+STATION]
+
+For the boiler room, a row of Nernst lamps in front of the batteries
+of boilers is provided, and, in addition to these, incandescent lamps
+are used in the passageways around the boilers, at gauges and at water
+columns. The basement of the boiler room, the pump room, the
+economizer floor, coal bunkers, and coal conveyers are lighted by
+incandescent lamps, while arc lamps are used around the coal tower and
+dock. The lights on the engines and those at gauge glasses and water
+columns and at the pumps are supplied by direct current from the
+250-volt circuits. All other incandescent lamps and the Nernst lamps
+are supplied through transformers from the 60-cycle lighting system.
+
+[Sidenote: _Emergency
+Signal System
+and Provision
+for Cutting Off
+Power from
+Contact Rail_]
+
+In the booth of each ticket seller and at every manhole along the west
+side of the subway and its branches is placed a glass-covered box of
+the kind generally used in large American cities for fire alarm
+purposes. In case of accident in the subway which may render it
+desirable to cut off power from the contact rails, this result can be
+accomplished by breaking the glass front of the emergency box and
+pulling the hook provided. Special emergency circuits are so arranged
+that pulling the hook will instantly open all the circuit-breakers at
+adjacent sub-stations through which the contact rails in the section
+affected receive their supply of power. It will also instantly report
+the location of the trouble, annunciator gongs being located in the
+sub-stations from which power is supplied to the section, in the train
+dispatchers' offices and in the office of the General Superintendent,
+instantly intimating the number of the box which has been pulled.
+Automatic recording devices in train dispatchers' offices and in the
+office of the General Superintendent also note the number of the box
+pulled.
+
+The photograph on page 120 shows a typical fire alarm box.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+ROLLING STOCK--CARS, TRUCKS, ETC.
+
+
+The determination of the builders of the road to improve upon the best
+devices known in electrical railroading and to provide an equipment
+unequaled on any interurban line is nowhere better illustrated than in
+the careful study given to the types of cars and trucks used on other
+lines before a selection was made of those to be employed on the
+subway.
+
+All of the existing rapid transit railways in this country, and many
+of those abroad, were visited and the different patterns of cars in
+use were considered in this investigation, which included a study of
+the relative advantages of long and short cars, single and multiple
+side entrance cars and end entrance cars, and all of the other
+varieties which have been adopted for rapid transit service abroad and
+at home.
+
+The service requirement of the New York subway introduces a number of
+unprecedented conditions, and required a complete redesign of all the
+existing models. The general considerations to be met included the
+following:
+
+High schedule speeds with frequent stops.
+
+Maximum carrying capacity for the subway, especially at times of rush
+hours, morning and evening.
+
+Maximum strength combined with smallest permissible weight.
+
+Adoption of all precautions calculated to reduce possibility of damage
+from either the electric circuit or from collisions.
+
+The clearance and length of the local station platforms limited the
+length of trains, and tunnel clearances the length and width and
+height of the cars.
+
+The speeds called for by the contract with the city introduced motive
+power requirements which were unprecedented in any existing railway
+service, either steam or electric, and demanded a minimum weight
+consistent with safety. As an example, it may be stated that an
+express train of eight cars in the subway to conform to the schedule
+speed adopted will require a nominal power of motors on the train of
+2,000 horse power, with an average accelerating current at 600 volts
+in starting from a station stop of 325 amperes. This rate of energy
+absorption which corresponds to 2,500 horse power is not far from
+double that taken by the heaviest trains on trunk line railroads when
+starting from stations at the maximum rate of acceleration possible
+with the most powerful modern steam locomotives.
+
+Such exacting schedule conditions as those mentioned necessitated the
+design of cars, trucks, etc., of equivalent strength to that found in
+steam railroad car and locomotive construction, so that while it was
+essential to keep down the weight of the train and individual cars to
+a minimum, owing to the frequent stops, it was equally as essential to
+provide the strongest and most substantial type of car construction
+throughout.
+
+Owing to these two essentials which were embodied in their
+construction it can safely be asserted that the cars used in the
+subway represent the acme of car building art as it exists to-day, and
+that all available appliances for securing strength and durability in
+the cars and immunity from accidents have been introduced.
+
+After having ascertained the general type of cars which would be best
+adapted to the subway service, and before placing the order for car
+equipments, it was decided to build sample cars embodying the approved
+principles of design. From these the management believed that the
+details of construction could be more perfectly determined than in any
+other way. Consequently, in the early part of 1902, two sample cars
+were built and equipped with a variety of appliances and furnishings
+so that the final type could be intelligently selected. From the tests
+conducted on these cars the adopted type of car which is described in
+detail below was evolved.
+
+After the design had been worked out a great deal of difficulty was
+encountered in securing satisfactory contracts for proper deliveries,
+on account of the congested condition of the car building works in the
+country. Contracts were finally closed, however, in December, 1902,
+for 500 cars, and orders were distributed between four car-building
+firms. Of these cars, some 200, as fast as delivered, were placed in
+operation on the Second Avenue line of the Elevated Railway, in order
+that they might be thoroughly tested during the winter of 1903-4.
+
+[Illustration: END VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR]
+
+In view of the peculiar traffic conditions existing in New York City
+and the restricted siding and yard room available in the subway, it
+was decided that one standard type of car for all classes of service
+would introduce the most flexible operating conditions, and for this
+reason would best suit the public demands at different seasons of the
+year and hours of the day. In order further to provide cars, each of
+which would be as safe as the others, it was essential that there
+should be no difference in constructional strength between the motor
+cars and the trail cars. All cars were therefore made of one type and
+can be used interchangeably for either motor or trail-car service.
+
+The motor cars carry both motors on the same truck; that is, they have
+a motor truck at one end carrying two motors, one geared to each
+axle; the truck at the other end of the car is a "trailer" and carries
+no motive power.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF STEEL PASSENGER CAR]
+
+Some leading distinctive features of the cars may be enumerated as
+follows:
+
+    (1.) The length is 51 feet and provides seating capacity for
+    52 passengers. This length is about 4 feet more than those of
+    the existing Manhattan Elevated Railroad cars.
+
+    (2.) The enclosed vestibule platforms with sliding doors
+    instead of the usual gates. The enclosed platforms will
+    contribute greatly to the comfort and safety of passengers
+    under subway conditions.
+
+    (3.) The anti-telescoping car bulkheads and platform posts.
+    This construction is similar to that in use on Pullman cars,
+    and has been demonstrated in steam railroad service to be an
+    important safety appliance.
+
+    (4.) The steel underframing of the car, which provides a
+    rigid and durable bed structure for transmitting the heavy
+    motive power stresses.
+
+    (5.) The numerous protective devices against defects in the
+    electrical apparatus.
+
+    (6.) Window arrangement, permitting circulation without
+    draughts.
+
+    (7.) Emergency brake valve on truck operated by track trip.
+
+    (8.) Emergency brake valve in connection with
+    master-controller.
+
+The table on page 133 shows the main dimensions of the car, and
+also the corresponding dimensions of the standard car in use on the
+Manhattan Elevated Railway.
+
+The general arrangement of the floor framing is well shown in the
+photograph on page 132. The side sills are of 6-inch channels,
+which are reinforced inside and out by white oak timbers. The center
+sills are 5-inch I-beams, faced on both sides with Southern pine. The
+end sills are also of steel shapes, securely attached to the side
+sills by steel castings and forgings. The car body end-sill channel is
+faced with a white-oak filler, mortised to receive the car body
+end-posts and braced at each end by gusset plates. The body bolster is
+made up of two rolled steel plates bolted together at their ends and
+supported by a steel draw casting, the ends of which form a support
+for the center sills. The cross-bridging and needle-beams of 5-inch
+I-beams are unusually substantial. The flooring inside the car is
+double and of maple, with asbestos fire-felt between the layers, and
+is protected below by steel plates and "transite" (asbestos board).
+
+The side framing of the car is of white ash, doubly braced and heavily
+trussed. There are seven composite wrought-iron carlines forged in
+shape for the roof, each sandwiched between two white ash carlines,
+and with white ash intermediate carlines. The platform posts are of
+compound construction with anti-telescoping posts of steel bar
+sandwiched between white ash posts at corners and centers of
+vestibuled platforms. These posts are securely bolted to the steel
+longitudinal sills, the steel anti-telescoping plate below the floor,
+and to the hood of the bow which serves to reinforce it. This bow is a
+heavy steel angle in one piece, reaching from plate to plate and
+extending back into the car 6 feet on each side. By this construction
+it is believed that the car framing is practically indestructible. In
+case of accident, if one platform should ride over another, eight
+square inches of metal would have to be sheared off the posts before
+the main body of the car would be reached, which would afford an
+effective means of protection.
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR VIEW--STEEL CAR FRAMING]
+
+The floor is completely covered on the underside with 1/4-inch
+asbestos transite board, while all parts of the car framing, flooring,
+and sheathing are covered with fire-proofing compound. In addition,
+all spaces above the motor truck in the floor framing, between sills
+and bridging, are protected by plates of No. 8 steel and 1/4-inch roll
+fire-felt extending from the platform end sill to the bolster.
+
+[Sidenote: _Car Wiring_]
+
+The precautions to secure safety from fire consists generally in the
+perfected arrangement and installation of the electrical apparatus and
+the wiring. For the lighting circuits a flexible steel conduit is
+used, and a special junction box. On the side and upper roofs, over
+these conduits for the lighting circuits, a strip of sheet iron is
+securely nailed to the roof boards before the canvas is applied. The
+wires under the floor are carried in ducts moulded into suitable forms
+of asbestos compound. Special precautions have been taken with the
+insulation of the wires, the specifications calling for, first, a
+layer of paper, next, a layer of rubber, and then a layer of cotton
+saturated with a weather-proof compound, and outside of this a layer
+of asbestos. The hangers supporting the rheostats under the car body
+are insulated with wooden blocks, treated by a special process, being
+dried out in an oven and then soaked in an insulating compound, and
+covered with 1/4-inch "transite" board. The rheostat boxes themselves
+are also insulated from the angle iron supporting them. Where the
+wires pass through the flooring they are hermetically sealed to
+prevent the admission of dust and dirt.
+
+At the forward end of what is known as the No. 1 end of the car all
+the wires are carried to a slate switchboard in the motorman's cab.
+This board is 44 x 27 inches, and is mounted directly back of the
+motorman. The window space occupied by this board is ceiled up and the
+space back of the panels is boxed in and provided with a door of steel
+plate, forming a box, the cover, top, bottom, and sides of which are
+lined with electrobestos 1/2-inch thick. All of the switches and
+fuses, except the main trolley fuse and bus-line fuse, which are
+encased and placed under the car, are carried on this switchboard.
+Where the wires are carried through the floor or any partition, a
+steel chute, lined with electrobestos, is used to protect the wires
+against mechanical injury. It will be noted from the above that no
+power wiring, switches, or fuses are placed in the car itself, all
+such devices being outside in a special steel insulated compartment.
+
+A novel feature in the construction of these cars is the motorman's
+compartment and vestibule, which differs essentially from that used
+heretofore, and the patents are owned by the Interborough Company. The
+cab is located on the platform, so that no space within the car is
+required; at the same time the entire platform space is available for
+ingress and egress except that on the front platform of the first car,
+on which the passengers would not be allowed in any case. The side of
+the cab is formed by a door which can be placed in three positions.
+When in its mid-position it encloses a part of the platform, so as to
+furnish a cab for the motorman, but when swung parallel to the end
+sills it encloses the end of the platform, and this would be its
+position on the rear platform of the rear car. The third position is
+when it is swung around to an arc of 180 degrees, when it can be
+locked in position against the corner vestibule post enclosing the
+master controller. This would be its position on all platforms except
+on the front of the front car or the rear of the rear car of the
+train.
+
+The platforms themselves are not equipped with side gates, but with
+doors arranged to slide into pockets in the side framing, thereby
+giving up the entire platform to the passengers. These doors are
+closed by an overhead lever system. The sliding door on the front
+platform of the first car may be partly opened and secured in this
+position by a bar, and thus serve as an arm-rest for the motorman. The
+doors close against an air-cushion stop, making it impossible to
+clutch the clothing or limbs of passengers in closing.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW--SKELETON FRAMING OF STEEL CAR]
+
+Pantagraph safety gates for coupling between cars are provided. They
+are constructed so as to adjust themselves to suit the various
+positions of adjoining cars while passing in, around, and out of
+curves of 90 feet radius.
+
+On the door leading from the vestibule to the body of the car is a
+curtain that can be automatically raised and lowered as the door is
+opened or closed to shut the light away from the motorman. Another
+attachment is the peculiar handle on the sliding door. This door is
+made to latch so that it cannot slide open with the swaying of the
+car, but the handle is so constructed that when pressure is applied
+upon it to open the door, the same movement will unlatch it.
+
+Entering the car, the observer is at once impressed by the amount of
+room available for passengers. The seating arrangements are similar to
+the elevated cars, but the subway coaches are longer and wider than
+the Manhattan, and there are two additional seats on each end. The
+seats are all finished in rattan. Stationary crosswise seats are
+provided after the Manhattan pattern, at the center of the car. The
+longitudinal seats are 17-3/4 inches deep. The space between the
+longitudinal seats is 4 feet 5 inches.
+
+The windows have two sashes, the lower one being stationary, while the
+upper one is a drop sash. This arrangement reverses the ordinary
+practice, and is desirable in subway operation and to insure safety
+and comfort to the passengers. The side windows in the body of the
+car, also the end windows and end doors, are provided with roll shades
+with pinch-handle fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR]
+
+The floors are covered with hard maple strips, securely fastened to
+the floor with ovalhead brass screws, thus providing a clean, dry
+floor for all conditions of weather.
+
+Six single incandescent lamps are placed on the upper deck ceiling,
+and a row of ten on each side deck ceiling is provided. There are two
+lamps placed in a white porcelain dome over each platform, and the
+pressure gauge is also provided with a miniature lamp.
+
+[Illustration: EXTERIOR VIEW--PROTECTED WOODEN CAR, SHOWING COPPER
+SIDES]
+
+The head linings are of composite board. The interior finish is of
+mahogany of light color. A mahogany handrail extends the full length
+of the clerestory on each side of the car, supported in brass sockets
+at the ends and by heavy brass brackets on each side. The handrail on
+each side of the car carries thirty-eight leather straps.
+
+Each ventilator sash is secured on the inside to a brass operating
+arm, manipulated by means of rods running along each side of the
+clerestory, and each rod is operated by means of a brass lever, having
+a fulcrum secured to the inside of the clerestory.
+
+All hardware is of bronze, of best quality and heavy pattern,
+including locks, pulls, handles, sash fittings, window guards, railing
+brackets and sockets, bell cord thimbles, chafing strips, hinges, and
+all other trimmings. The upright panels between the windows and the
+corner of the car are of plain mahogany, as are also the single post
+pilasters, all of which are decorated with marquetry inlaid. The end
+finish is of mahogany, forming a casing for the end door.
+
+[Illustration: FRAMING OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR]
+
+[Sidenote: _Steel Cars_]
+
+At the time of placing the first contract for the rolling stock of the
+subway, the question of using an all-steel car was carefully
+considered by the management. Such a type of car, in many respects,
+presented desirable features for subway work as representing the
+ultimate of absolute incombustibility. Certain practical reasons,
+however, prevented the adoption of an all-steel car in the spring of
+1902 when it became necessary to place the orders mentioned above for
+the first 500 cars. Principal among these reasons was the fact that no
+cars of this kind had ever been constructed, and as the car building
+works of the country were in a very congested condition all of the
+larger companies declined to consider any standard specifications even
+for a short-time delivery, while for cars involving the extensive use
+of metal the question was impossible of immediate solution. Again,
+there were a number of very serious mechanical difficulties to be
+studied and overcome in the construction of such a car, such as
+avoidance of excessive weight, a serious element in a rapid transit
+service, insulation from the extremes of heat and cold, and the
+prevention of undue noise in operation. It was decided, therefore, to
+bend all energies to the production of a wooden car with sufficient
+metal for strength and protection from accident, i. e., a stronger,
+safer, and better constructed car than had heretofore been put in use
+on any electric railway in the world. These properties it is believed
+are embodied in the car which has just been described.
+
+[Illustration: METAL UNDERFRAME OF PROTECTED WOODEN CAR]
+
+The plan of an all-metal car, however, was not abandoned, and
+although none was in use in passenger service anywhere, steps were
+immediately taken to design a car of this type and conduct the
+necessary tests to determine whether it would be suitable for railway
+service. None of the car-building companies was willing to undertake
+the work, but the courteous cooeperation of the Pennsylvania Railroad
+Company was secured in placing its manufacturing facilities at Altoona
+at the disposal of the Interborough Rapid Transit Railway Company.
+Plans were prepared for an all-metal car, and after about fourteen
+months of work a sample type was completed in December, 1903, which
+was in every way creditable as a first attempt.
+
+The sample car naturally embodied some faults which only experience
+could correct, the principal one being that the car was not only too
+heavy for use on the elevated lines of the company, but attained an
+undesirable weight for subway operation. From this original design,
+however, a second design involving very original features has been
+worked out, and a contract has been given by the Interborough Company
+for 200 all-steel cars, which are now being constructed. While the
+expense of producing this new type of car has obviously been great,
+this consideration has not influenced the management of the company in
+developing an equipment which promised the maximum of operating
+safety.
+
+[Illustration: END VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK]
+
+[Sidenote: _The General
+Arrangements_]
+
+The general dimensions of the all-steel car differ only slightly from
+those of the wooden car. The following table gives the dimensions of
+the two cars, and also that of the Manhattan Railway cars:
+
+                                   Wooden       All-Steel     Manhattan
+                                    Cars.         Cars.         Cars.
+
+Length over body corner posts,   42'  7"        41'   1/2"    39' 10"
+
+Length over buffers,             51'  2"        51' 2"        47'  1"
+
+Length over draw-bars,           51'  5"        51' 5"        47'  4"
+
+Width over side sills,            8'  8-3/8"     8' 6-3/4"     8'  6"
+
+Width over sheathing,             8' 10"         8' 7"         8'  7"
+
+Width over window sills,          8' 11-7/8"     9'   1/2"     8'  9"
+
+Width over battens,               8' 10-3/4"     8' 7-1/4"     8'  7-7/8"
+
+Width over eaves,                 8'  8"         8' 8"         8'  9-1/2"
+
+Height from under side of sill
+ to top of plate,                 7'  3-1/8"     7' 1"         7'  3"
+
+Height of body from under side
+ of center sill to top of roof,   8'  9-7/8"     8' 9-7/8"     9'  5-7/8"
+
+Height of truck from rail to
+ top of truck center plate
+ (car light),                     2'  8"         2' 8"         2'  5-3/4"
+
+Height from top of rail to
+ underside of side sill at
+ truck center (car light),        3'  1-1/8"     3' 2-1/8"     3'  3-1/4"
+
+Height from top of rail to
+ top of roof not to exceed
+ (car light),                    12'    3/4"    12' 0"        12' 10-1/2"
+
+The general frame plan of the all-steel car is clearly shown by the
+photograph on page 128. As will be seen, the floor framing is made
+up of two center longitudinal 6-inch I-beams and two longitudinal 5 x
+3-inch steel side angles, extending in one piece from platform-end
+sill to platform-end sill. The end sills are angles and are secured to
+the side and center sills by cast-steel brackets, and in addition by
+steel anti-telescoping plates, which are placed on the under side of
+the sills and riveted thereto. The flooring is of galvanized,
+corrugated sheet iron, laid across the longitudinal sills and secured
+to longitudinal angles by rivets. This corrugated sheet holds the
+fireproof cement flooring called "monolith." On top of this latter are
+attached longitudinal floor strips for a wearing surface. The platform
+flooring is of steel plate covered with rubber matting cemented to the
+same. The side and end frame is composed of single and compound posts
+made of steel angles or T's and the roof framing of wrought-iron
+carlines and purlines. The sides of the cars are double and composed
+of steel plates on the outside, riveted to the side posts and belt
+rails, and lined with electrobestos. The outside roof is of fireproof
+composite board, covered with canvas. The headlinings are of fireproof
+composite, faced with aluminum sheets. The mouldings throughout are of
+aluminum. The wainscoting is of "transite" board and aluminum, and the
+end finish and window panels are of aluminum, lined with asbestos
+felt. The seat frames are of steel throughout, as are also the cushion
+frames. The sash is double, the lower part being stationary and the
+upper part movable. The doors are of mahogany, and are of the sliding
+type and are operated by the door operating device already described.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF MOTOR TRUCK]
+
+[Sidenote: _Trucks_]
+
+Two types of trucks are being built, one for the motor end, the other
+for the trailer end of the car. The following are the principal
+dimensions of the trucks:
+
+                                            Motor Truck.    Trailer Truck.
+
+Gauge of track,.............................   4' 8-1/2"         4' 8-1/2"
+Distance between backs of wheel flanges,....   4' 5-3/8"         4' 5-3/8"
+Height of truck center plate above rail,
+  car body loaded with 15,000 pounds,.......         30"               30"
+Height of truck side bearings above rail,
+  car body loaded,..........................         34"               34"
+Wheel base of truck,........................       6' 8"             5' 6"
+Weight on center plate with car body
+  loaded, about............................. 27,000 lbs.
+Side frames, wrought-iron forged,........... 2-1/2" x 4"       1-1/2" x 3"
+Pedestals, wrought-iron forged,.........................
+Center transom, steel channel,..........................
+Truck bolster,.............................. cast steel.    wood and iron.
+Equalizing bars, wrought iron,..........................
+Center plate, cast steel,...............................
+Spring plank, wrought iron,.................     1" x 3"        white oak.
+Bolster springs, elliptic, length, .........         30"               32"
+Equalizing springs, double coil,
+  outside dimensions,................... 4-7/8" x 7-1/2"       3-5/8" x 6"
+Wheels, cast steel spoke center,
+  steel tired, diameter,....................     33-3/4"               30"
+Tires, tread M. C. B. Standard,......... 2-5/8" x 5-1/4"   2-5/8" x 5-1/4"
+Axles, diameter at center,..................      6-1/2"            4-3/4"
+Axles, diameter at gear seat,...............    7-13/16"
+Axles, diameter at wheel seat,..............      7-3/4"            5-3/4"
+Journals,...................................     5" x 9"       4-1/4" x 8"
+Journal boxes, malleable iron,
+  M. C. B. Standard,....................................
+
+Both the motor and the trailer trucks have been designed with the
+greatest care for severe service, and their details are the outcome of
+years of practical experience.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SIGNAL SYSTEM
+
+
+Early in the development of the plans for the subway system in New
+York City, it was foreseen that the efficiency of operation of a road
+with so heavy a traffic as is being provided for would depend largely
+upon the completeness of the block signaling and interlocking systems
+adopted for spacing and directing trains. On account of the importance
+of this consideration, not only for safety of passengers, but also for
+conducting operation under exacting schedules, it was decided to
+install the most complete and effective signaling system procurable.
+The problem involved the prime consideration of:
+
+     Safety and reliability.
+
+     Greatest capacity of the lines consistent with the above.
+
+     Facility of operation under necessarily restricted yard and
+     track conditions.
+
+In order to obtain the above desiderata it was decided to install a
+complete automatic block signal system for the high-speed routes,
+block protection for all obscure points on the low-speed routes, and
+to operate all switches both for line movements and in yards by power
+from central points. This necessarily involved the interconnection of
+the block and switch movements at many locations and made the adoption
+of the most flexible and compact appliances essential.
+
+Of the various signal systems in use it was found that the one
+promising entirely satisfactory results was the electro-pneumatic
+block and interlocking system, by which power in any quantity could be
+readily conducted in small pipes any distance and utilized in compact
+apparatus in the most restricted spaces. The movements could be made
+with the greatest promptness and certainty and interconnected for the
+most complicated situations for safety. Moreover, all essential
+details of the system had been worked out in years of practical
+operation on important trunk lines of railway, so that its reliability
+and efficiency were beyond question.
+
+The application of such a system to the New York subway involved an
+elaboration of detail not before attempted upon a railway line of
+similar length, and the contract for its installation is believed to
+be the largest single order ever given to a signal manufacturing
+company.
+
+In the application of an automatic block system to an electric railway
+where the rails are used for the return circuit of the propulsion
+current, it is necessary to modify the system as usually applied to a
+steam railway and introduce a track circuit control that will not be
+injuriously influenced by the propulsion current. This had been
+successfully accomplished for moderately heavy electric railway
+traffic in the Boston elevated installation, which was the first
+electric railway to adopt a complete automatic block signal system
+with track circuit control.
+
+The New York subway operation, however, contemplated traffic of
+unprecedented density and consequent magnitude of the electric
+currents employed, and experience with existing track circuit control
+systems led to the conclusion that some modification in apparatus was
+essential to prevent occasional traffic delays.
+
+The proposed operation contemplates a possible maximum of two tracks
+loaded with local trains at one minute intervals, and two tracks with
+eight car express trains at two minute intervals, the latter class of
+trains requiring at times as much as 2,000 horse power for each train
+in motion. It is readily seen, then, that combinations of trains in
+motion may at certain times occur which will throw enormous demands
+for power upon a given section of the road. The electricity conveying
+this power flows back through the track rails to the power station and
+in so doing is subject to a "drop" or loss in the rails which varies
+in amount according to the power demands. This causes disturbances in
+the signal-track circuit in proportion to the amount of "drop," and it
+was believed that under the extreme condition above mentioned the
+ordinary form of track circuit might prove unreliable and cause delay
+to traffic. A solution of the difficulty was suggested, consisting in
+the employment of a current in the signal track circuit which would
+have such characteristic differences from that used to propel the
+trains as would operate selectively upon an apparatus which would in
+turn control the signal. Alternating current supplied this want on
+account of its inductive properties, and was adopted, after a
+demonstration of its practicability under similar conditions
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING LIGHTS,
+INDICATORS AND TRACK STOP]
+
+After a decision was reached as to the system to be employed, the
+arrangement of the block sections was considered from the standpoint
+of maximum safety and maximum traffic capacity, as it was realized
+that the rapidly increasing traffic of Greater New York would almost
+at once tax the capacity of the line to its utmost.
+
+The usual method of installing automatic block signals in the United
+States is to provide home and distant signals with the block sections
+extending from home signal to home signal; that is, the block sections
+end at the home signals and do not overlap each other. This is also
+the arrangement of block sections where the telegraph block or
+controlled manual systems are in use. The English block systems,
+however, all employ overlaps. Without the overlap, a train in passing
+from one block section to the other will clear the home signals for
+the section in the rear, as soon as the rear of the train has passed
+the home signal of the block in which it is moving. It is thus
+possible for a train to stop within the block and within a few feet of
+this home signal. If, then, a following train should for any reason
+overrun this home signal, a collision would result. With the overlap
+system, however, a train may stop at any point in a block section and
+still have the home signal at a safe stopping distance in the rear of
+the train.
+
+Conservative signaling is all in favor of the overlap, on account of
+the safety factor, in case the signal is accidentally overrun. Another
+consideration was the use of automatic train stops. These stops are
+placed at the home signals, and it is thus essential that a stopping
+distance should be afforded in advance of the home signal to provide
+for stopping the train to which the brake had been applied by the
+automatic stop.
+
+Ordinarily, the arrangement of overlap sections increases the length
+of block sections by the length of the overlap, and as the length of
+the section fixed the minimum spacing of trains, it was imperative to
+make the blocks as short as consistent with safety, in order not to
+cut down the carrying capacity of the railway. This led to a study of
+the special problem presented by subway signaling and a development of
+a blocking system upon lines which it is believed are distinctly in
+advance of anything heretofore done in this direction.
+
+[Illustration: REAR VIEW OF BLOCK SIGNAL POST, SHOWING TRANSFORMER AND
+INSTRUMENT CASES WITH DOORS OPEN]
+
+Block section lengths are governed by speed and interval between
+trains. Overlap lengths are determined by the distance in which a
+train can be stopped at a maximum speed. Usually the block section
+length is the distance between signals, plus the overlap; but where
+maximum traffic capacity is desired the block section length can be
+reduced to the length of two overlaps, and this was the system adopted
+for the Interborough. The three systems of blocking trains, with and
+without overlaps, is shown diagramatically on page 143, where two
+successive trains are shown at the minimum distances apart for
+"clear" running for an assumed stopping distance of 800 feet. The
+system adopted for the subway is shown in line "C," giving the least
+headway of the three methods.
+
+[Illustration: PNEUMATIC TRACK STOP, SHOWING STOP TRIGGER IN UPRIGHT
+POSITION]
+
+The length of the overlap was given very careful consideration by the
+Interborough Rapid Transit Company, who instituted a series of tests
+of braking power of trains; from these and others made by the
+Pennsylvania Railroad Company, curves were computed so as to determine
+the distance in which trains could be stopped at various rates of
+speed on a level track, with corrections for rising and falling to
+grades up to 2 per cent. Speed curves were then plotted for the trains
+on the entire line, showing at each point the maximum possible speed,
+with the gear ratio of the motors adopted. A joint consideration of
+the speeds, braking efforts, and profile of the road were then used to
+determine at each and every point on the line the minimum allowable
+distance between trains, so that the train in the rear could be
+stopped by the automatic application of the brakes before reaching a
+train which might be standing at a signal in advance; in other words,
+the length of the overlap section was determined by the local
+conditions at each point.
+
+In order to provide for adverse conditions the actual braking
+distances was increased by 50 per cent.; for example, the braking
+distance of a train moving 35 miles an hour is 465 feet, this would be
+increased 50 per cent. and the overlap made not less than 697 feet.
+With this length of overlap the home signals could be located 697 feet
+apart, and the block section length would be double this or 1394 feet.
+The average length of overlaps, as laid out, is about 800 feet, and
+the length of block sections double this, or 1,600 feet.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW UNDER CAR, SHOWING TRIGGER ON TRUCK IN POSITION TO
+ENGAGE WITH TRACK STOP]
+
+The protection provided by this unique arrangement of signals is
+illustrated on page 143. Three positions of train are shown:
+
+    "A." MINIMUM distance between trains: The first train has
+    just passed the home signal, the second train is stopped by
+    the home signal in the rear; if this train had failed to stop
+    at this point, the automatic stop would have applied the air
+    brake and the train would have had the overlap distance in
+    which to stop before it could reach the rear of the train in
+    advance; therefore, under the worst conditions, no train can
+    get closer to the train in advance than the length of the
+    overlap, and this is always a safe stopping distance.
+
+    "B." CAUTION distance between train: The first train in same
+    position as in "A," the second train at the third home signal
+    in the rear; this signal can be passed under caution, and
+    this distance between trains is the caution distance, and is
+    always equal to the length of the block section, or two
+    overlaps.
+
+    "C." CLEAR distance between trains: First train in same
+    position as in "A," second train at the fourth home signal in
+    the rear; at this point both the home and distant signals are
+    clear, and the distance between the trains is now the clear
+    running distance; that is, when the trains are one block
+    section plus an overlap apart they can move under clear
+    signal, and this distance is used in determining the running
+    schedule. It will be noted in "C" that the first train has
+    the following protection: Home signals 1 and 2 in stop
+    position, together with the automatic stop at signal 2 in
+    position to stop a train, distant signal 1, 2, and 3 all at
+    caution, or, in other words, a train that has stopped is
+    always protected by two home signals in its rear, and by
+    three caution signals, in addition to this an automatic stop
+    placed at a safe stopping distance in the rear of the train.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC INTERLOCKING MACHINE ON STATION
+PLATFORM]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIAL INTERLOCKING SIGNAL CABIN SOUTH OF BROOKLYN
+BRIDGE STATION]
+
+[Sidenote: _Description
+of Block
+Signaling
+System_]
+
+The block signaling system as installed consists of automatic
+overlapping system above described applied to the two express tracks
+between City Hall and 96th Street, a distance of six and one-half
+miles, or thirteen miles of track; and to the third track between 96th
+and 145th Streets on the West Side branch, a distance of two and
+one-half miles. This third track is placed between the two local
+tracks, and will be used for express traffic in both directions,
+trains moving toward the City Hall in the morning and in the opposite
+direction at night; also the two tracks from 145th Street to Dyckman
+Street, a distance of two and one-half miles, or five miles of track.
+The total length of track protected by signals is twenty-four and
+one-half miles.
+
+The small amount of available space in the subway made it necessary to
+design a special form of the signal itself. Clearances would not
+permit of a "position" signal indication, and, further, a position
+signal purely was not suitable for the lighting conditions of the
+subway. A color signal was therefore adopted conforming to the adopted
+rules of the American Railway Association. It consists of an iron case
+fitted with two white lenses, the upper being the home signal and the
+lower the distant. Suitable colored glasses are mounted in slides
+which are operated by pneumatic cylinders placed in the base of the
+case. Home and dwarf signals show a red light for the danger or "stop"
+indication. Distant signals show a yellow light for the "caution"
+indication. All signals show a green light for the "proceed" or clear
+position. Signals in the subway are constantly lighted by two
+electric lights placed back of each white lens, so that the lighting
+will be at all times reliable.
+
+On the elevated structure, semaphore signals of the usual type are
+used. The signal lighting is supplied by a special alternating current
+circuit independent of the power and general lighting circuits.
+
+A train stop or automatic stop of the Kinsman system is used at all
+block signals, and at many interlocking signals. This is a device for
+automatically applying the air brakes to the train if it should pass a
+signal in the stop position. This is an additional safeguard only to
+be brought into action when the danger indication has for any reason
+been disregarded, and insures the maintenance of the minimum distance
+between trains as provided by the overlaps established.
+
+Great care has been given to the design, construction, and
+installation of the signal apparatus, so as to insure reliability of
+operation under the most adverse conditions, and to provide for
+accessibility to all the parts for convenience in maintenance. The
+system for furnishing power to operate and control the signals
+consists of the following:
+
+Two 500-volt alternating current feed mains run the entire length of
+the signal system. These mains are fed by seven direct-current
+motor-driven generators operated in multiple located in the various
+sub-power stations. Any four of these machines are sufficient to
+supply the necessary current for operating the system. Across these
+alternating mains are connected the primary coils of track
+transformers located at each signal, the secondaries of which supply
+current of about 10 volts to the rails of the track sections. Across
+the rails at the opposite end of the section is connected the track
+relay, the moving element of which operates a contact. This contact
+controls a local direct-current circuit operating, by compressed air,
+the signal and automatic train stop.
+
+Direct current is furnished by two mains extending the length of the
+system, which are fed by eight sets of 16-volt storage batteries in
+duplicate. These batteries are located in the subway at the various
+interlocking towers, and are charged by motor generators, one of which
+is placed at each set of batteries. These motor generators are driven
+by direct current from the third rail and deliver direct current of 25
+volts.
+
+The compressed air is supplied by six air compressors, one located at
+each of the following sub-stations: Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, and 17.
+Three of these are reserve compressors. They are motor-driven by
+direct-current motors, taking current from the direct-current buss
+bars at sub-stations at from 400 to 700 volts. The capacity of each
+compressor is 230 cubic feet.
+
+[Illustration: MAIN LINE, PIPING AND WIRING FOR BLOCK AND INTERLOCKING
+SYSTEM, SHOWING JUNCTION BOX ON COLUMN]
+
+The motor-driven air compressors are controlled by a governor which
+responds to a variation of air pressure of five pounds or less. When
+the pressure has reached a predetermined point the machine is stopped
+and the supply of cooling water shut off. When the pressure has fallen
+a given amount, the machine is started light, and when at full speed
+the load is thrown on and the cooling water circulation reestablished.
+Oiling of cylinders and bearings is automatic, being supplied only
+while the machines are running.
+
+Two novel safety devices having to do especially with the signaling
+may be here described. The first is an emergency train stop. It is
+designed to place in the hands of station attendants, or others, the
+emergency control of signals. The protection afforded is similar in
+principle to the emergency brake handle found in all passenger cars,
+but operates to warn all trains of an extraneous danger condition. It
+has been shown in electric railroading that an accident to apparatus,
+perhaps of slight moment, may cause an unreasoning panic, on account
+of which passengers may wander on adjoining tracks in face of
+approaching trains. To provide as perfectly as practicable for such
+conditions, it has been arranged to loop the control of signals into
+an emergency box set in a conspicuous position in each station
+platform. The pushing of a button on this box, similar to that of the
+fire-alarm signal, will set all signals immediately adjacent to
+stations in the face of trains approaching, so that all traffic may be
+stopped until the danger condition is removed.
+
+The second safety appliance is the "section break" protection. This
+consists of a special emergency signal placed in advance of each
+separate section of the third rail; that is, at points where trains
+move from a section fed by one sub-station to that fed by another.
+Under such conditions the contact shoes of the train temporarily span
+the break in the third rail. In case of a serious overload or ground
+on one section, the train-wiring would momentarily act as a feeder for
+the section, and thus possibly blow the train fuses and cause delay.
+In order, therefore, to prevent trains passing into a dangerously
+overloaded section, an overload relay has been installed at each
+section break to set a "stop" signal in the face of an approaching
+train, which holds the train until the abnormal condition is removed.
+
+[Illustration: THREE METHODS OF BLOCK SIGNALING]
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF OVERLAPPING BLOCK SIGNAL SYSTEM
+ILLUSTRATING POSSIBLE POSITIONS OF TRAINS RUNNING UNDER SAME]
+
+[Sidenote: _Interlocking
+System_]
+
+The to-and-fro movement of a dense traffic on a four-track railway
+requires a large amount of switching, especially when each movement is
+complicated by junctions of two or more lines. Practically every
+problem of trunk line train movement, including two, three, and
+four-track operation, had to be provided for in the switching plants
+of the subway. Further, the problem was complicated by the restricted
+clearances and vision attendant upon tunnel construction. It was
+estimated that the utmost flexibility of operation should be provided
+for, and also that every movement be certain, quick, and safe.
+
+All of the above, which are referred to in the briefest terms only,
+demanded that all switching movements should be made through the
+medium of power-operated interlocking plants. These plants in the
+subway portions of the line are in all cases electro-pneumatic, while
+in the elevated portions of the line mechanical interlocking has been,
+in some cases, provided.
+
+A list of the separate plants installed will be interesting, and is
+given below:
+
+Location.                            Interlocking       Working
+                                       Machines.        Levers.
+MAIN LINE.
+
+City Hall,                                 3               32
+Spring Street,                             2               10
+14th Street,                               2               16
+18th Street,                               1                4
+42d Street,                                2               15
+72d Street                                 2               15
+96th Street                                2               19
+
+WEST SIDE BRANCH.
+
+100th Street,                              1                6
+103d Street,                               1                6
+110th Street,                              2               12
+116th Street,                              2               12
+Manhattan Viaduct,                         1               12
+137th Street,                              2               17
+145th Street,                              2               19
+Dyckman Street,                            1               12
+216th Street,                              1               14
+
+EAST SIDE BRANCH.
+
+135th Street,                              2                6
+Lenox Junction,                            1                7
+145th Street,                              1                9
+Lenox Avenue Yard,                         1               35
+Third and Westchester Avenue Junction,     1               13
+St. Anna Avenue,                           1               24
+Freeman Street,                            1               12
+176th Street,                              2               66
+                                        ----             ----
+     Total,                               37              393
+
+The total number of signals, both block and interlocking, is as follows:
+
+Home signals,                                                354
+Dwarf signals,                                               150
+Distant signals,                                             187
+                                                            ----
+     Total,                                                  691
+     Total number of switches,                               224
+
+It will be noted that in the case of the City Hall Station three
+separate plants are required, all of considerable size, and intended
+for constant use for a multiplicity of movements. It is, perhaps,
+unnecessary to state that all the mechanism of these important
+interlocking plants is of the most substantial character and provided
+with all the necessary safety appliances and means for rapidly setting
+up the various combinations. The interlocking machines are housed in
+steel concrete "towers," so that the operators may be properly
+protected and isolated in the performance of their duties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SUBWAY DRAINAGE
+
+
+The employment of water-proofing to the exterior surfaces of the
+masonry shell of the tunnel, which is applied to the masonry, almost
+without a break along the entire subway construction, has made it
+unnecessary to provide an extensive system of drains, or sump pits, of
+any magnitude, for the collection and removal of water from the
+interior of the tunnel.
+
+On the other hand, however, at each depression or point where water
+could collect from any cause, such as by leakage through a cable
+manhole cover or by the breaking of an adjacent water pipe, or the
+like, a sump pit or drain has been provided for carrying the water
+away from the interior of the tunnel.
+
+For all locations, where such drains, or sump pits, are located above
+the line of the adjacent sewer, the carrying of the water away has
+been easy to accomplish by employing a drain pipe in connection with
+suitable traps and valves.
+
+In other cases, however, where it is necessary to elevate the water,
+the problem has been of a different character. In such cases, where
+possible, at each depression where water is liable to collect, a well,
+or sump pit, has been constructed just outside the shell of the
+tunnel. The bottom of the well has been placed lower than the floor of
+the tunnel, so that the water can flow into the well through a drain
+connecting to the tunnel.
+
+Each well is then provided with a pumping outfit; but in the case of
+these wells and in other locations where it is necessary to maintain
+pumping devices, it has not been possible to employ a uniform design
+of pumping equipment, as the various locations offer different
+conditions, each employing apparatus best suited to the requirements.
+
+In no case, except two, is an electric pump employed, as the
+employment of compressed air was considered more reliable.
+
+The several depressions at which it is necessary to maintain a pumping
+plant are enumerated as follows:
+
+     No. 1--Sump at the lowest point on City Hall Loop.
+
+     No. 2--Sump at intersection of Elm and White Streets.
+
+     No. 3--Sump at 38th Street in the Murray Hill Tunnel.
+
+     No. 4--Sump at intersection of 46th Street and Broadway.
+
+     No. 5--Sump at intersection of 116th Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+     No. 6--Sump at intersection of 142d Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+     No. 7--Sump at intersection of 147th Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+     No. 8--Sump at about 144th Street in Harlem River approach.
+
+     No. 9--Sump at the center of the Harlem River Tunnel.
+
+     No. 10--Sump at intersection of Gerard Avenue and 149th Street.
+
+In addition to the above mentioned sumps, where pumping plants are
+maintained, it is necessary to maintain pumping plants at the
+following points:
+
+     Location No. 1--At the cable tunnel constructed under the
+     Subway at 23d Street and Fourth Avenue.
+
+     Location No. 2--At the sub-subway at 42d Street and Broadway.
+
+     Location No. 3--At the portal of the Lenox Avenue extension
+     at 148th Street.
+
+     Location No. 4--At the southerly end of the Harlem River tube.
+
+     Location No. 5--At the northerly end of the Harlem River tube.
+
+     Location No. 6--At the portal at Bergen Avenue and 149th Street.
+
+In the case of the No. 1 sump a direct-connected electric
+triple-plunger pump is employed, situated in a pump room about 40 feet
+distant from the sump pit. In the case of Nos. 2, 4, and 7 sumps,
+automatic air lifts are employed. This apparatus is placed in those
+sump wells which are not easily accessible, and the air lift was
+selected for the reason that no moving parts are conveyed in the
+air-lift construction other than the movable ball float and valve
+which control the device. The air lift consists of concentric piping
+extending several feet into the ground below the bottom of the well,
+and the water is elevated by the air producing a rising column of
+water of less specific weight than the descending column of water
+which is in the pipe extending below the bottom of the sump well.
+
+In the case of Nos. 3 and 5 sumps, and for Location No. 1, automatic
+air-operated ejectors have been employed, for the reason that the
+conditions did not warrant the employment of air lifts or electric or
+air-operated pumps.
+
+In the case of Nos. 6, 8, 9, and 10 sumps and for Locations Nos. 2, 4,
+and 5, air-operated reciprocating pumps will be employed. These pumps
+will be placed in readily accessible locations, where air lifts could
+not be used, and this type of pump was selected as being the most
+reliable device to employ.
+
+In the case of Location No. 3, where provision has to be made to
+prevent a large amount of yard drainage, during a storm, from entering
+the tunnel where it descends from the portal, it was considered best
+to employ large submerged centrifugal pumps, operated by reciprocating
+air engines. Also for the portal, at Location No. 6, similar
+centrifugal pumps will be employed, but as compressed air is not
+available at this point, these pumps will be operated by electric
+motors.
+
+The air supply to the air-operating pumping devices will be
+independent from the compressed air line which supplies air to the
+switch and signal system, but break-down connections will be made
+between the two systems, so that either system can help the other out
+in case of emergency.
+
+A special air-compressor plant is located at the 148th Street repair
+shop, and another plant within the subway at 41st Street, for
+supplying air to the pumps, within the immediate locality of each
+compressor plant. For the more remote pumps, air will be supplied by
+smaller air compressors located within passenger stations. In one
+case, for the No. 2 sump, air will be taken from the switch and signal
+air-compressor plant located at the No. 11 sub-station.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+REPAIR AND INSPECTION SHED
+
+
+While popularly and not inaccurately known as the "Subway System," the
+lines of the Interborough Company comprise also a large amount of
+trackage in the open air, and hence the rolling stock which has
+already been described is devised with the view to satisfying all the
+peculiar and special conditions thus involved. A necessary corollary
+is the requirement of adequate inspection and repair shops, so that
+all the rolling stock may at all times be in the highest state of
+efficiency; and in this respect the provision made by the company has
+been lavish and liberal to a degree.
+
+The repair and inspection shop of the Interborough Rapid Transit
+Company adjoins the car yards of the company and occupies the entire
+block between Seventh Avenue on the west, Lenox Avenue and the Harlem
+River on the east, 148th Street on the south, and 149th Street on the
+north. The electric subway trains will enter the shops and car yard by
+means of the Lenox Avenue extension, which runs directly north from
+the junction at 142d Street and Lenox Avenue of the East Side main
+line. The branch leaves the main line at 142d Street, gradually
+approaches the surface, and emerges at about 147th Street.
+
+[Sidenote: _General
+Arrangement_]
+
+The inspection shed is at the southern end of the property and
+occupies an area of approximately 336 feet by 240 feet. It is divided
+into three bays, of which the north bay is equipped with four tracks
+running its entire length, and the middle bay with five tracks. The
+south bay contains the machine-tool equipment, and consists of
+eighteen electrically driven machines, locker and wash rooms, heating
+boilers, etc., and has only one track extending through it.
+
+[Sidenote: _Construction_]
+
+The construction of the inspection shops is that which is ordinarily
+known as "reinforced concrete," and no wood is employed in the walls
+or roof. The building is a steel structure made up of four rows of
+center columns, which consist of twenty-one bays of 16 feet each,
+supporting the roof trusses. The foundations for these center columns
+are concrete piers mounted on piles. After the erection of the steel
+skeleton, the sides of the building and the interior walls are
+constructed by the use of 3/4-inch furring channels, located 16 inches
+apart, on which are fastened a series of expanded metal laths. The
+concrete is then applied to these laths in six coats, three on each
+side, and termed respectively the scratch coat, the rough coat, and
+the fining coat. In the later, the concrete is made with white sand,
+to give a finished appearance to the building.
+
+The roof is composed of concrete slabs, reinforced with expanded metal
+laths and finished with cement and mortar. It is then water-proofed
+with vulcanite water-proofing and gravel.
+
+In this connection it might be said that, although this system of
+construction has been employed before, the building under
+consideration is the largest example of this kind of work yet done in
+the neighborhood of New York City. It was adopted instead of
+corrugated iron, as it is much more substantial, and it was considered
+preferable to brick, as the later would have required much more
+extensive foundations.
+
+The doors at each of the bays of the building are of rolling steel
+shutter type, and are composed of rolled-steel strips which interloop
+with each other, so that while the entire door is of steel, it can
+easily be raised and lowered.
+
+[Sidenote: _Capacity and
+Pit Room_]
+
+All of the tracks in the north and middle bays are supplied with pits
+for inspecting purposes, and as each track has a length sufficient to
+hold six cars, the capacity of these two bays is fifty-four cars.
+
+The inspection pits are heated by steam and lighted by electric light,
+for which latter purpose frequent sockets are provided, and are also
+equipped with gas pipes, so that gas torches can be used instead of
+gasoline.
+
+[Sidenote: _Trolley
+Connection_]
+
+As usual in shops of this kind, the third rail is not carried into the
+shops, but the cars will be moved about by means of a special trolley.
+In the middle bay this trolley consists of a four-wheeled light-frame
+carriage, which will run on a conductor located in the pit. The
+carriage has attached to it a flexible wire which can be connected to
+the shoe-hanger of the truck or to the end plug of the car, so that
+the cars can be moved around in the shops by means of their own
+motors. In the north bay, where the pits are very shallow, the
+conductor is carried overhead and consists of an 8-pound T-rail
+supported from the roof girders.
+
+The middle bay is provided with a 50-ton electric crane, which spans
+all of the tracks in this shop and is so arranged that it can serve
+any one of the thirty cars on the five tracks, and can deliver the
+trucks, wheels, motors, and other repair parts at either end of the
+shops, where they can be transferred to the telpherage hoist.
+
+[Sidenote: _The
+Telpherage
+System_]
+
+One of the most interesting features of the shops is the electric
+telpherage system. This system runs the entire length of the north and
+south bays crossing the middle bay or erection shop at each end, so
+that the telpherage hoist can pick up in the main room any wheels,
+trucks, or other apparatus which may be required, and can take them
+either into the north bay for painting, or into the south bay or
+machine shop for machine-tool work. The telpherage system extends
+across the transfer table pit at the west end of the shops and into
+the storehouse and blacksmith shop at the Seventh Avenue end of the
+grounds.
+
+The traveling telpherage hoist has a capacity of 6,000 pounds. The
+girders upon which it runs consist of 12-inch I-beams, which are hung
+from the roof trusses. The car has a weight of one ton and is
+supported by and runs on the I-beam girders by means of four 9-inch
+diameter wheels, one on each side. The hoist is equipped with two
+motors. The driving motor of two horse power is geared by double
+reduction gearing to the driving wheels at one end of the hoist. The
+hoist motor is of eight horse power, and is connected by worm gearing
+and then by triple reduction gearing to the hoist drum. The motors are
+controlled by rheostatic controllers, one for each motor. The hoist
+motor is also fitted with an electric brake by which, when the power
+is cut off, a band brake is applied to the hoisting drum. There is
+also an automatic cut-out, consisting of a lever operated by a nut,
+which travels on the threaded extension of the hoisting drum shaft,
+and by which the current on the motor is cut off and the brake applied
+if the chain hook is wound up too close to the hoist.
+
+[Sidenote: _Heating and
+Lighting_]
+
+The buildings are heated throughout with steam, with vacuum system of
+return. The steam is supplied by two 100 horse power return tubular
+boilers, located at the southeastern corner of the building and
+provided with a 28-inch stack 60 feet high. The heat is distributed at
+15 pounds pressure throughout the three bays by means of coil
+radiators, which are placed vertically against the side walls of the
+shop and storeroom. In addition, heating pipes are carried through the
+pits as already described. The shops are well lighted by large windows
+and skylights, and at night by enclosed arc lights.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF 148TH STREET REPAIR SHOPS]
+
+[Sidenote: _Fire
+Protection_]
+
+The shops and yards are equipped throughout with fire hydrants and
+fire plugs, hose and fire extinguishers. The water supply taps the
+city main at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 148th Street, and pipes
+are carried along the side of the north and south shops, with three
+reel connections on each line. A fire line is also carried through the
+yards, where there are four hydrants, also into the general storeroom.
+
+[Sidenote: _General
+Store Room_]
+
+The general storeroom, oil room, and blacksmith shop occupy a building
+199 feet by 22 feet in the southwestern corner of the property. This
+building is of the same general construction as that of the inspection
+shops. The general storeroom, which is that fronting on 148th Street,
+is below the street grade, so that supplies can be loaded directly
+onto the telpherage hoist at the time of their receipt, and can be
+carried to any part of the works, or transferred to the proper
+compartments in the storeroom. Adjoining the general room is the oil
+and paint storeroom, which is separated from the rest of the building
+by fire walls. This room is fitted with a set of eight tanks, each
+with a capacity of 200 gallons. As the barrels filled with oil and
+other combustible material are brought into this room by the
+telpherage system they are deposited on elevated platforms, from which
+their contents can be tapped directly into the tank.
+
+[Sidenote: _Blacksmith
+Shop_]
+
+The final division of the west shops is that in the northeastern
+corner, which is devoted to a blacksmith shop. This shop contains six
+down-draught forges and one drop-hammer, and is also served by the
+telpherage system.
+
+[Sidenote: _Transfer
+Table_]
+
+Connecting the main shops with the storeroom and blacksmith or west
+shops is a rotary transfer table 46 feet 16-13/16 inches long and with
+a run of 219 feet. The transfer table is driven by a large electric
+motor the current being supplied through a conductor rail and sliding
+contact shoe. The transfer table runs on two tracks and is mounted on
+33-inch standard car wheels.
+
+[Sidenote: _Employees_]
+
+The south side of the shop is fitted with offices for the Master
+Mechanic and his department.
+
+The working force will comprise about 250 in the shops, and their
+lockers, lavatories, etc., are located in the south bay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SUB-CONTRACTORS
+
+
+The scope of this book does not permit an enumeration of all the
+sub-contractors who have done work on the Rapid Transit Railroad. The
+following list, however, includes the sub-contractors for all the more
+important parts of the construction and equipment of the road.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_General Construction, Sub-section Contracts, Track and Track
+Material, Station Finish, and Miscellaneous Contracts_
+
+S. L. F. Deyo, Chief Engineer.
+
+
+_Sub-sections_
+
+For construction purposes the road was divided into sub-sections, and
+sub-contracts were let which included excavation, construction and
+re-construction of sub-surface structures, support of surface railway
+tracks and abutting buildings, erection of steel (underground and
+viaduct), masonry work and tunnel work under the rivers; also the
+plastering and painting of the inside of tunnel walls and restoration
+of street surface.
+
+Bradley, William, Sub-sections 6A and 6B, 60th Street to 104th Street.
+
+Degnon-McLean Contracting Company (Degnon Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 1, 2 and 5A, Post-office to Great Jones Street and 41st
+Street and Park Avenue to 47th Street and Broadway.
+
+Farrell, E. J., Sub-section, Lenox Avenue Extension, 142d Street to
+148th Street.
+
+Farrell & Hopper (Farrell, Hopper & Company), Sub-sections 7 and 8,
+103d Street and Broadway to 135th Street and Lenox Avenue.
+
+Holbrook, Cabot & Daly (Holbrook, Cabot & Daly Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 3, Great Jones Street to 33d Street.
+
+McCabe & Brother, L. B. (R. C. Hunt, Superintendent), Sub-sections 13
+and 14, 133d Street to Hillside Avenue.
+
+McMullen & McBean, Sub-section 9A, 135th Street and Lenox Avenue to
+Gerard Avenue and 149th Street.
+
+Naughton & Company (Naughton Company), Sub-section 5B, 47th Street to
+60th Street.
+
+Roberts, E. P., Sub-sections 10, 12, and 15, Foundations (Viaducts),
+Brook Avenue to Bronx Park, 125th Street to 133d Street, and Hillside
+Avenue to Bailey Avenue.
+
+Rodgers, John C., Sub-section 9B, Gerard Avenue to Brook Avenue.
+
+Shaler, Ira A. (Estate of Ira A. Shaler), Sub-section 4, 33d Street to
+41st Street.
+
+Shields, John, Sub-section 11, 104th Street to 125th Street.
+
+Terry & Tench Construction Company (Terry & Tench Company),
+Sub-sections 10, 12, and 15, Steel Erection (Viaducts), Brook Avenue
+to Bronx Park, 125th Street to 133d Street, and Hillside Avenue to
+Bailey Avenue.
+
+
+BROOKLYN EXTENSION.
+
+Cranford & McNamee, Sub-section 3, Clinton Street to Flatbush and
+Atlantic Avenues, Brooklyn.
+
+Degnon-McLean Contracting Company (Degnon Contracting Company),
+Sub-section 1, Park Row to Bridge Street, Manhattan.
+
+Onderdonk, Andrew (New York Tunnel Company), Sub-sections 2 and 2A,
+Bridge Street, Manhattan, to Clinton and Joralemon Streets, Brooklyn.
+
+
+TRACK AND TRACK MATERIAL
+
+American Iron & Steel Manufacturing Company, Track Bolts.
+
+Baxter & Company, G. S., Ties.
+
+Connecticut Trap Rock Quarries, Ballast.
+
+Dilworth, Porter & Company, Spikes.
+
+Holbrook, Cabot & Rollins (Holbrook, Cabot & Rollins Corporation),
+Track Laying, City Hall to Broadway and 42d Street.
+
+Long Clove Trap Rock Company, Ballast.
+
+Malleable Iron Fittings Company, Cup Washers.
+
+Naughton Company, Track Laying, Underground Portion of Road north of
+42d Street and Broadway.
+
+Pennsylvania Steel Company, Running Rails, Angle Bars, Tie Plates and
+Guard Rails.
+
+Ramapo Iron Works, Frogs and Switches, Filler Blocks and Washers.
+
+Sizer & Company, Robert R., Ties.
+
+Terry & Tench Construction Company (Terry & Tench Company), Timber
+Decks for Viaduct Portions, and Laying and Surfacing Track on Viaduct
+Portions.
+
+Weber Railway Joint Manufacturing Company, Weber Rail Joints.
+
+
+STATION FINISH
+
+American Mason Safety Tread Company, Safety Treads.
+
+Atlantic Terra Cotta Company, Terra Cotta.
+
+Boote Company, Alfred, Glazed Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Byrne & Murphy, Plumbing, 86th Street Station.
+
+Dowd & Maslen, Brick Work for City Hall and other Stations and
+Superstructures for 72d Street, 103d Street and Columbia University
+Stations.
+
+Empire City Marble Company, Marble.
+
+Grueby Faience Company, Faience.
+
+Guastavino Company, Guastavino Arch, City Hall Station.
+
+Hecla Iron Works, Kiosks and Eight Stations on Elevated Structure.
+
+Herring-Hall-Marvin Safe Company, Safes.
+
+Holbrook, Cabot & Rollins Corporation, Painting Stations.
+
+Howden Tile Company, Glazed Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Laheny Company, J. E., Painting Kiosks.
+
+Manhattan Glass Tile Company, Glass Tile, and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Parry, John H., Glass Tile and Art Ceramic Tile.
+
+Pulsifer & Larson Company, Illuminated Station Signs.
+
+Rookwood Pottery Company, Faience
+
+Russell & Irwin Manufacturing Company, Hardware
+
+Simmons Company, John, Railings and Gates.
+
+Tracy Plumbing Company, Plumbing.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Strap Anchors for Kiosks.
+
+Turner Construction Company, Stairways, Platforms, and Platform
+Overhangs.
+
+Vulcanite Paving Company, Granolithic Floors.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+American Vitrified Conduit Company, Ducts.
+
+Blanchite Process Paint Company, Plaster Work and Blanchite Enamel
+Finish on Tunnel Side Walls.
+
+Brown Hoisting Machinery Company, Signal Houses at Four Stations.
+
+Camp Company, H. B., Ducts.
+
+Cunningham & Kearns, Sewer Construction, Mulberry Street, East 10th
+Street, and East 22d Street Sewers.
+
+Fox & Company, John, Cast Iron.
+
+McRoy Clay Works, Ducts.
+
+Norton & Dalton, Sewer Construction, 142d Street Sewer.
+
+Onondaga Vitrified Brick Company, Ducts.
+
+Pilkington, James, Sewer Construction, Canal Street and Bleecker
+Street Sewers.
+
+Simmons Company, John, Iron Railings, Viaduct Sections.
+
+Sicilian Asphalt Paving Company, Waterproofing.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Vault Lights.
+
+United Building Material Company, Cement.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Electrical Department_
+
+L. B. Stillwell, Electrical Director.
+
+
+Electric plant for generation, transmission, conversion, and
+distribution of power, third rail construction, electrical car
+equipment, lighting system, fire and emergency alarm systems:
+
+American Steel & Wire Company, Cable.
+
+Bajohr, Carl, Lightning Rods.
+
+Broderick & Company, Contact Shoes.
+
+Cambria Steel Company, Contact Rail.
+
+Columbia Machine Works & Malleable Iron Company, Contact Shoes.
+
+Consolidated Car Heating Company, Car Heaters.
+
+D. & W. Fuse Company, Fuse Boxes and Fuses.
+
+Electric Storage Battery Company, Storage Battery Plant.
+
+Gamewell Fire Alarm Telegraph Company, Fire and Emergency Alarm
+Systems.
+
+General Electric Company, Motors, Power House and Sub-station
+Switchboards, Control Apparatus, Cable.
+
+General Incandescent Arc Light Company, Passenger Station
+Switchboards.
+
+India Rubber & Gutta Percha Insulating Company, Cables.
+
+Keasby & Mattison Company, Asbestos.
+
+Malleable Iron Fittings Company, Third Rail and other Castings.
+
+Mayer & Englund Company, Rail Bonds.
+
+Mitchell Vance Company, Passenger Station Electric Light Fixtures.
+
+National Conduit & Cable Company, Cables.
+
+National Electric Company, Air Compressors.
+
+Nernst Lamp Company, Power Station Lighting.
+
+Okonite Company, Cables.
+
+Prometheus Electric Company, Passenger Station Heaters.
+
+Roebling's Sons Company, J. A., Cables.
+
+Reconstructed Granite Company, Third Rail Insulators.
+
+Standard Underground Cable Company, Cables.
+
+Tucker Electrical Construction Company, Wiring for Tunnel and
+Passenger Station Lights.
+
+Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, Alternators, Exciters,
+Transformers, Motors, Converters, Blower Outfits.
+
+Westinghouse Machine Company, Turbo Alternators.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Mechanical and Architectural Department_
+
+John Van Vleck, Mechanical and Construction Engineer.
+
+
+Power house and sub-station, steam plant, repair shop, tunnel
+drainage, elevators.
+
+
+POWER HOUSE
+
+Alberger Condenser Company, Condensing Equipment.
+
+Allis-Chalmers Company, Nine 8,000-11,000 H. P. Engines.
+
+Alphons Custodis Chimney Construction Company, Chimneys.
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+Babcock & Wilcox Company, Fifty-two 600 H. P. Boilers and Six
+Superheaters.
+
+Burhorn, Edwin, Castings.
+
+Gibson Iron Works, Thirty-six Hand-fired Grates.
+
+Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Electric Traveling Cranes and Machine Tools.
+
+Milliken Brothers, Ornamental Chimney Caps.
+
+Otis Elevator Company, Freight Elevator.
+
+Peirce, John, Power House Superstructure.
+
+Power Specialty Company, Four Superheaters.
+
+Ryan & Parker, Foundation Work and Condensing Water Tunnels, etc.
+
+Robins Conveying Belt Company, Coal and Ash Handling Apparatus.
+
+Reese, Jr., Company, Thomas, Coal Downtake Apparatus, Oil Tanks, etc.
+
+Riter-Conley Manufacturing Company, Smoke Flue System.
+
+Sturtevant Company, B. F., Blower Sets.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Concrete Hot Wells.
+
+Treadwell & Company, M. H., Furnace Castings, etc.
+
+Walworth Manufacturing Company, Steam, Water, and Drip Piping.
+
+Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Company, Three Turbo Generator Sets and
+Two Exciter Engines.
+
+Westinghouse Machine Company, Stokers.
+
+Wheeler Condenser Company, Feed Water Heaters.
+
+Worthington, Henry R., Boiler Feed Pumps.
+
+
+SUB-STATIONS
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+Carlin & Company, P. J., Foundation and Superstructure, Sub-station
+No. 15 (143d Street).
+
+Cleveland Crane & Car Company, Hand Power Traveling Cranes.
+
+Crow, W. L., Foundation and Superstructure Sub-stations Nos. 17 and 18
+(Fox Street, Hillside Avenue).
+
+Parker Company, John H., Foundation and Superstructure Sub-stations
+Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16 (City Hall Place, E. 19th Street, W. 53d
+Street, W. 96th Street, W. 132d Street).
+
+
+INSPECTION SHED
+
+American Bridge Company, Structural Steel.
+
+Beggs & Company, James, Heating Boilers.
+
+Elektron Manufacturing Company, Freight Elevator.
+
+Farrell, E. J., Drainage System.
+
+Hiscox & Company, W. T., Steam Heating System.
+
+Leary & Curtis, Transformer House.
+
+Milliken Brothers, Structural Steel and Iron for Storehouse.
+
+Northern Engineering Works, Electric Telpherage System.
+
+O'Rourke, John F., Foundation Work.
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Superstructure of Reinforced Concrete.
+
+Tracy Plumbing Company, Plumbing.
+
+Weber, Hugh L., Superstructure of Storehouse, etc.
+
+
+SIGNAL TOWERS
+
+Tucker & Vinton, Reinforced Concrete Walls for Eight Signal Towers.
+
+
+PASSENGER ELEVATORS
+
+Otis Elevator Company, Electric Passenger Elevators for 167th Street,
+181st Street, and Mott Avenue Stations, and Escalator for Manhattan
+Street Station.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Rolling Stock and Signal Department_
+
+George Gibbs, Consulting Engineer.
+
+
+Cars, Automatic Signal System.
+
+American Car & Foundry Company, Steel Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.
+
+Buffalo Forge Company, Blacksmith Shop Equipment.
+
+Burnham, Williams & Company (Baldwin Locomotive Works), Motor Trucks.
+
+Cambria Steel Company, Trailer Truck Axles.
+
+Christensen Engineering Company, Compressors, Governors, and Pump
+Cages on Cars.
+
+Curtain Supply Company, Car Window and Door Curtains.
+
+Dressel Railway Lamp Works, Signal Lamps.
+
+Hale & Kilburn Manufacturing Company, Car Seats and Backs.
+
+Jewett Car Company, Wooden Car Bodies.
+
+Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Machinery and Machine Tools for Inspection
+Shed.
+
+Metal Plated Car & Lumber Company, Copper Sheathing for Cars.
+
+Pitt Car Gate Company, Vestibule Door Operating Device for Cars.
+
+Pneumatic Signal Company, Three Mechanical Interlocking Plants.
+
+Standard Steel Works, Axles and Driving Wheels for Motor and Trailer
+Trucks.
+
+St. Louis Car Company, Wooden Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.
+
+Stephenson Company, John, Wooden Car Bodies.
+
+Taylor Iron & Steel Company, Trailer Truck Wheels.
+
+Union Switch & Signal Company, Block Signal System and Interlocking
+Switch and Signal Plants.
+
+Van Dorn Company, W. T., Car Couplings.
+
+Wason Manufacturing Company, Wooden Car Bodies and Trailer Trucks.
+
+Westinghouse Air Brake Company, Air Brakes.
+
+Westinghouse Traction Brake Company, Air Brakes.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW YORK SUBWAY***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 17569.txt or 17569.zip *******
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